Chapter 18: Atoms and Bonding

18-1: Inside an Atom

Structure of an Atom
There have been many changes to theories of what atoms consist. For one thing, scientists
know atoms are made of small particles. They consist of a nucleus surrounded by one or
more electrons. An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus is the
tiny core of the atom. It consists of an electron -, which moves rapidly in all directions, a
proton+, and a neutron. Charges of an atom can cancel each other out. In addition, a
proton is almost 2000 times as massive as an electron. Neutrons have about the same
mass as protons.
Electrons in Atoms
Electrons move around the nucleus so quickly that it is hard to know where any electron is
at any time.
Little Particles, Big Spaces
Most of the mass of an atom comes from its protons and neutrons. The volume is the
space in which the electrons move.
Valence Electrons
The electrons farthest from the nucleus are valence electrons. Only they are involved in
binding. One way to show this is with an electron dot diagram.
Why Atoms Form Bonds
A neutral atom does not have more than eight valence electrons. The atom will have either
eight valence electrons or none so they become more chemically stable. They are less
reactive. A chemical bond forms between two atoms when valence electrons move
between them. Electrons may be transferred from one atom to another, or they could be
shared. A reaction occurs when bonds form or break. Each time, electrons are moved
around. The result is the formation of new substances.
14-2: Atoms in the Periodic Table
Organizing the Elements
All the atoms of one element have the same number of protons. They are grouped on how
they react. Atomic number is the number of protons. From left to right, and from top to
bottom, they are in order of increasing atomic number. There are as many protons as
electrons. Moreover, elements in the same column, up and down, are groups, or families. A
row across the table is called a period.
Comparing Families of Elements
Each family in the periodic table has its own characteristic properties based on its number
of valence electrons.
Noble Gases
Group 18, the noble gases each has eight valence electrons, except for helium. They
are inert gases, inactive, since it has eight valence electrons, except for helium, which
have two.
Reactive Nonmetals
In-group 17, the halogen family is reactive. They have seven valence electrons, so they
are unstable. A gain of one electron will make it stable.
Reactive Nonmetals
In-group 1, there is only one valence electron. They are very unstable. They will do
anything to lose the electron. They will react violently when they lose it. Hydrogen is
extremely reactive.
14-3: Ionic Bonds
Electron Transfer

Chapter 18: Atoms and Bonding

When atoms have fewer than four valence electrons, they can transfer to other atoms to
become more stable. If atoms have more than four, they try to get electrons to become
more stable also. An ion is an atom or group that has become electrically charged. When
an atom loses an electron, it loses the negative charge and becomes a positive ion when an
atom gains an electron, it gains a negative charge and becomes and becomes a negative
ion.
Forming an Ionic Bond
The transfer of one valence electron becomes a positive ion. The one receiving is a
negative. An ionic bond is the attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Every
sodium ion is balanced by a chloride ion, as a 1:1 ratio. Compounds are neutral. It
balances out the charge.
Polyatomic Ions
Ions made of more than one atom are polyatomic ions. They all act as one. Each has an
overall positive or negative charge. When one ion combines with another ion, an ionic
compound forms. CO32- has one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms that have a charge of
2-.
Naming Ionic Compounds
For an ionic compound, the name of the positive ion comes first, followed by the negative
(this name is changed to a suffix of ide, only if the negative the ion is an element.
However, if the negative ion is polyatomic, its name is unchanged. Sodium carbonate, not
sodium carbonide is washing soda (Na2CO3).

Properties of Ionic Compounds

The characteristic properties of ionic compounds include crystal shapes, high melting
points, and electrical conductivity.
Crystal Shape
Halite is a crystal, also known as a sodium chloride (NaCl). This orderly 3d
arrangement is a crystal. In an ionic compound, every ion is attracted to ions near it
that have an opposite charge.
High Melting Points
Ionic bonds are strong enough to cause all ionic compounds to be solids at room
temperature.
Electrical Conductivity
When ionic compounds dissolve in water, they conduct electricity. Melting those
work also.

14-4: Covalent Bonds

Electron Sharing
Atoms can be stable by sharing, not by stealing, but by sharing electrons. A chemical bond
when two atoms share electrons is called a covalent bond. Unlike ionic bonds that form
between metals and nonmetals, covalent bonds form between two or more nonmetals. In a
covalent bond, both atoms attract the two-shared electrons at the same time.
How Many Bonds
When two pairs of electrons are shared between the oxygen atoms, forming a double bond.
Each shared pairs count for both atoms, forming a double bond. The exception is hydrogen,
which can form one bond.

Chapter 18: Atoms and Bonding

Properties of Molecular Compounds

Molecular compounds consist of molecules having covalently bonded atoms. These are
different from ionic compounds. Some do form crystals, but they melt and boil at much
lower temperatures. They are poor conductors of electricity.
Unequal Sharing of Electrons
Some atoms pull more strongly on the shared electrons than other atoms. As a result, the
electrons move closer to one atom, causing the atoms to have slight electrical charges.
These are not as strong as ions though. A covalent bond in which electrons are shared
unequally is polar. When they are pulled equally, it is nonpolar.
Nonpolar Molecules
A carbon dioxide molecule is nonpolar even though it has polar bonds. A molecule
is nonpolar even though it has polar bonds. As you might guess, molecules that
contain only nonpolar bonds are also nonpolar.
Polar Molecules
Water molecules are polar. Oxygen atoms pull electrons closer to it from both
hydrogen atoms. The molecule is therefore polar. There is a slightly negative
charge at the oxygen end and a slightly positive charge near the hydrogen atoms.
Attractions Between Molecules
The negatively charged oxygen ends and positively charged hydrogen ends behave like bar
magnets. There is no strong attraction between carbon dioxide though. This molecule is
nonpolar. Differences in the attractions between molecules lead to different properties in
polar and nonpolar compounds. Water and vegetable oil do not mix because water is polar
and oil is nonpolar. Polar molecules are attracted. Soap helps connect these. The poplar
ends are attracted to water molecules. Their nonpolar ends mix easily with the dirt.

18-4: Crystal Chemistry

Mineral Properties
Minerals are naturally occurring solids that have crystal structures and definite chemical
composition. Most are compounds. Some include shininess, density, hardness, etc.
Another key property is the way in which the minerals break apart. All depend on its
chemical composition.
Bonding in Mineral Crystals
Every mineral has a crystal structure.
Structure is a characteristic property.
The
arrangement of particles in a mineral and the kinds of bonds holding them together
determine properties such as crystal shape, hardness, and the way the crystal breaks apart.
An Ionic Crystal
One can easily scratch halite. When bonds in an ionic crystal break, they break
along a face of ions. A blow or crushing action shifts the ions slightly so that positive
ions are next to other positive ions and negatives ions are next to other negative
ions. This creates a weakness that pushes each other away, breaking bonds. The
result is the cube-shaped crystal characteristic of halite.
A Covalent Crystal
Covalent bonds in quartz are much stronger than the ionic bonds in halite. It does
not have clear lines of weakness. You cannot crush it into predictable shapes. It
would be similar to chipped glass, which makes the characteristic of quartz.
Comparing Crystals

Chapter 18: Atoms and Bonding