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You are here: Reference Materials > Analysis Method Theory > Material Balance Analysis Theory
Overview
Material balance analysis is an interpretation method used to determine original fluids-in-place (OFIP) based on production and static pressure data. The general
material balance equation relates the original oil, gas, and water in the reservoir to production volumes and current pressure conditions / fluid properties. The material
balance equations considered assume tank type behaviour at any given datum depth - the reservoir is considered to have the same pressure and fluid properties at any
location in the reservoir. This assumption is quite reasonable provided that quality production and static pressure measurements are obtained.
Consider the case of the depletion of the reservoir pictured below. At a given time after the production of fluids from the reservoir has commenced, the pressure will have
dropped from its initial reservoir pressure pi, to some average reservoir pressure p. Using the law of mass balance, during the pressure drop (p), the expansion of the
fluids leftover in the reservoir must be equal to the volume of fluids produced from the reservoir.
The simplest way to visualize material balance is that if the measured surface volume of oil, gas and water were returned to a reservoir at the reduced pressure, it must
fit exactly into the volume of the total fluid expansion plus the fluid influx.
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The general form of the equation can be described as net withdrawal (withdrawal - injection) = expansion of the hydrocarbon fluids in the system + cumulative water
influx. This is shown in the equation below.
Each term in the equation can be grouped based on the part of the system it represents. The table below shows the terms and a simplified version of the general
equation based on the terms.
Description
Simplified general equation.
Volume of withdrawal (production and injection) at
reservoir conditions is determined by the oil, water
and gas produced at the surface.
Total expansion.
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Description
reservoir depletes. As the reservoir is produced, the
pressure declines and the entire reservoir pore
volume is reduced due to compaction. The change
in volume expels an equal volume of fluid as
production and is therefore additive in the expansion
terms.
Ratio of gas cap to original oil in place. A gas cap
also implies that the initial pressure in the oil column
must be equal to the bubble point pressure.
If the reservoir is connected to an active aquifer,
then once the pressure drop is communicated
throughout the reservoir, the water will encroach into
the reservoir resulting in a net water influx. To
calculate the amount of water influx, either the
Fetkovich, Carter Tracey,
Not all terms will be used at any one time, but the purpose of a complete equation is to provide a basis from which to analyze many types of reservoirs: gas expansion,
solution gas drive, gas cap drive, water drive, etc. Terms that are not needed for a particular reservoir type will cancel out of the equation. For example, when there is no
gas cap originally present, the G and Bgiterms are zero.
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In this equation, it is assumed that gas expansion is the only driving force causing production. This form is commonly used because the expansion of gas often
dominates over the expansion of oil, water, and rock. Bg is the ratio of gas volume at reservoir conditions to gas volume at standard conditions. This is expanded using
the real gas law.
The reservoir temperature is considered to remain constant. The compressibility factor (Z) for standard conditions is assumed to be 1. The number of moles of gas do
not change from reservoir to surface. Standard temperature and pressure are known constants. When Bgis replaced and the constants are cancelled out, the gas
material balance equation then simplifies to:
When plotted on a graph of p/Z versus cumulative production, the equation can be analyzed as a linear relationship. Several measurements of static pressure and the
corresponding cumulative productions can be used to determine the x-intercept of the plot - the original gas-in-place (OGIP), shown as G in the equation.
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Overpressured Reservoir
At typical reservoir conditions, gas compressibility is orders of magnitude greater than that of the formation rock or residual fluids. In reservoirs at high initial pressures
the gas compressibility is much lower, in the same order of magnitude as the formation. A typical example of this would be an overpressured reservoir, which is a
reservoir at a higher pressure than the hydrostatic column of water at that depth - in other words, a higher than expected initial pressure given the depth. In this situation,
ignoring the formation and residual fluid compressibility will result in over-prediction of the original gas-in-place. The initial depletion will show effects of both depletion
and reservoir compaction and the slope of a p/Z plot will be shallower. Once the pressure is much lower than the initial pressure, gas expansion is dominant and a
steeper slope is observed on the p/Z plot. When matching on the shallower slope of this bow-shaped trend, all later pressure data will be lower than the analysis line, and
the estimated original gas-in-place will be higher than the true original gas-in-place. The plot below shows an overpressured reservoir matched on the initial data and the
analysis line of the advance material balance method.
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Based on the definition of compressibility, the following equation represents the total effect of formation and residual fluid compressibility:
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The approximate form of this equation, found by considering compressibility for oil, water, and the formation as constant; and ex as 1 + x, is:
In order to use this compressibility in the material balance equation, the change in pore volume is taken relative to the initial pore volume. The rigorous and approximate
forms are shown below.
Rigorous form:
Approximate form:
Water-drive Reservoir
Some gas reservoirs may be connected to aquifers that provide pressure support to the gas reservoir as it is depleted. In this case, the pressure decrease in the gas
reservoir is balanced by water encroaching into the reservoir. As this happens, the pore volume of gas is decreasing and the average reservoir pressure is maintained.
Often this reservoir will show a flat pressure trend after some depletion. An example of this behaviour on a p/Z plot is shown below.
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The change in reservoir volume due to net encroached water can be determined from the following equation:
To use this in the material balance, the change in pore volume is taken relative to the initial pore volume, shown below.
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When dealing with this equation, the major unknown value to be determined is water encroachment from the aquifer (We). Two aquifer models are provided to determine
net encroached water: Schilthuis Steady-State Model and Fetkovich Model.
Using this model, the only parameter to solve for is the transfer coefficient (J).
Fetkovich
In the Fetkovich aquifer, the aquifer is assumed to be in pseudo-steady state and deplete according to the material balance equation. In this model, both the aquifer
volume and transfer coefficient must be determined. The equations are shown below.
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While the transfer coefficient is defined, the required inputs to calculate the transfer coefficient are often not known. More commonly the transfer coefficient is determined
as part of matching the p/Z plot.
Connected Reservoir
Another scenario which will appear as pressure support on the p/Z plot is the connected reservoir model. The generic description is that two gas reservoirs are
connected, described by a transfer coefficient between them, and gas feeds from one tank to the other as one of the tanks is depleted. This can be observed with two
gas reservoirs with some communication, two zones in a reservoir with different permeability or some barrier between them, or even another way of considering the
situation of free and adsorbed gas in a reservoir. Because both water-drive and connected reservoirs show pressure support, it can be easy to mistake which model
should be used. In a connected reservoir, the influx into the main reservoir is gas as compared to influx of water in water-drive. So the pressure support will be
accompanied by more gas in the reservoir rather than a shrinking reservoir as in water-drive. Typically if the initial p/Z trend points to an original gas-in-place smaller than
the cumulative production, a connected reservoir will be the appropriate model to use.
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For a connected reservoir, the material balance equation is written as shown below to account for gas influx.
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This can be converted into a dimensionless term similar to the terms describing relative change in pore volume (cwip, cep, and cd) for other models, as shown below.
Similar to the water-drive model, the influx of gas from the second reservoir (GT) is likely not a known value, and so must be determined based on the size of the
connected reservoir and the transfer coefficient between the reservoirs. The equation for gas influx is shown below.
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An example of the plot is shown below. The scatter shown in the data points demonstrates the difficulty in determining trends in the reservoir behaviour.
This method works for most reservoir types. In the case of an undersaturated reservoir (above bubble point) the Eg + Bgi * Efw term will be zero and this plot will not be
as useful. The standard Havlena-Odeh plot can be substituted for one that excludes free gas terms.
In this form of the equation, N is the slope on a plot of expansion terms versus withdrawal and influx terms. There is no intercept so the analysis line is typically forced
through zero. Similar to the Havlena-Odeh plot that includes gas terms, if water influx is neglected and a non-linear trend results, this can be a diagnostic for observing
water drive effects. An example of the plot is shown below.
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N vs. Time
Using plots of various terms in the material balance equation can be used for overall analysis, but each pressure measurement can be independently used for material
balance calculation. Comparing the results of overall analysis and single-point calculations demonstrates whether there is consistency between the methods. It is
expected that the single-point calculations will remain in a trend around the original oil-in-place determined from the overall analysis. This comparison can be plotted as a
series of original oil-in-place results displayed at the point in time of the pressure measurement, with a continuous line at the value of original oil-in-place from the overall
analysis. The plot is shown below.
This plot is also useful as a diagnostic to determine if the correct reservoir type has been assumed, and also to assess the data quality. An inconsistent trend usually
indicates that the quality of the pressure measurements are not good, or the definition of the wells in the reservoir should be reviewed. A consistent upward trend
indicates that another drive mechanism may be present, whereas a downward trend indicates that not all wells in the reservoir have been included in the analysis.
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Drive Indices
Drive indices for oil reservoirs indicate the relative magnitude of the various energy sources acting in the reservoir. A simple description of a drive index is the ratio of a
particular expansion term to the net withdrawal (hydrocarbon voidage). These drive indices are cumulative and will change as the reservoir is produced. A plot of drive
indices and the details of specific drive indices are shown below.
Description
Depletion Drive Index
If the drive indices do not sum to unity (or very close to 1), the correct solution to the material balance has not been obtained.
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In a volumetric reservoir producing due to depletion drive only, production is balanced by the oil and water/formation expansion and the original oil-in-place is constant. If
a plot of cumulative oil production versus the net withdrawal over expansion is created with this reservoir type's data, the points will remain along a horizontal line.
If a gas cap is present, there will be a gas expansion component in the reservoir's production. As production continues and the reservoir pressure decreased, the gas
expansion term increases with an increasing gas formation volume factor. To balance this, the withdrawal over oil/water/formation expansion term must also continue to
increase. Thus in the case of gas cap drive, the Dake plot will show a continually increasing trend.
Similarly, if water drive is present the withdrawal over oil/water/formation expansion term must increase to balance the water influx. With a very strong aquifer the water
influx may continue to increase with time, while a limited or small aquifer may have an initial increase in water influx that eventually decreases.
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The Campbell plot is a very similar diagnostic to Dake, with the exception that it incorporates a gas cap if required. In the Campbell plot, the withdrawal is plotted against
withdrawal over total expansion, while the water influx term is neglected. If there is no water influx, the data will plot as a horizontal line. If there is water influx into the
reservoir, the withdrawal over total expansion term will increase proportionally to the water influx over total expansion. The Campbell plot can be more sensitive to the
strength of the aquifer. In this version of the material balance, using only ET neglects the water and formation compressibility (compaction) term. The Campbell plot is
shown below.
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Voidage replacement ratio is defined as the ratio of injected reservoir volume to produced reservoir volume.
Typically, waterflooding commences after a period of primary production. The purpose of waterflooding is to enhance recovery by maintaining reservoir pressure, or
when necessary, increasing reservoir pressure so that it approaches the bubble point pressure to maintain solution gas. Consequently, instantaneous voidage
replacement ratio often commences at values greater than one, and then declines gradually to one as the target reservoir pressure is achieved. On the other hand,
cumulative
Voidage replacement calculations are often conducted on the entire reservoir. Since reservoirs are more heterogenous than homogenous, even though the
Use of voidage replacement calculations is an excellent way to better understand connectivity within a reservoir.
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A small reduction in pressure below the bubble point causes the release of a large amount of gas in the reservoir. An additional property is used to the describe volatile
oil - the volatile oil ratio Rv. The volatile oil ratio describes the amount of volatilized oil in the reservoir gas phase and is typically expressed in
Regular material balance does not account for volatile oil. In a reservoir containing volatile oil, the Walsh formulation is used to calculate original oil-in-place. The
equations which are modified from standard material balance are shown below.
Terms
Description
Modified withdrawal term for
volatile oil.
King (1993)
The gas material balance equation can be expressed in general terms as:
Gp = G Gr
The material balance proposed by King (1993) is the most comprehensive, and considers the following with respect to the gas material balance equation:
Gas adsorbed in the coal matrix
Gas contained in the cleats (fracture system)
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Water compressibility
There are two sources of gas in CBM reservoirs, the gas adsorbed in the matrix, and the gas stored in the cleat space:
Gtotal = Gadsorbed + Gcleats
The gas adsorbed in the coal matrix can be described by the Langmuir isotherm:
As the above equation expresses volume in scf/ton, the total volume of adsorbed gas in the reservoir can be found by the following equation:
Where:
A = area (acres)
h = net pay (ft)
Gadsorbed = volume of adsorbed gas (mmscf)
P = pressure (psia)
PL = Langmuir pressure (psia)
VL = Langmuir volume (scf/ton)
b = bulk density (g/cm3)
The gas contained in the cleat volume is described by the equation for volumetric storage in the pore space:
Where:
A = area (acres)
Bg = gas formation volume factor (ft3/scf)
Gcleats = volume of gas stored in the cleats (mmscf)
h = net pay (ft)
Sw = water saturation
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= porosity
Adding the two gas volumes results in the following expression for the total gas content:
The above equation can be used to calculate the initial gas in place (Gi) by using the pressure, porosity, and water saturation at initial conditions. The remaining gas (Gr)
can be calculated using pressure, porosity, and water saturation at the current average reservoir pressure. Substituting the original gas in place, and the remaining gas
at the current conditions into the general gas material balance equation will yield:
Where:
A = area (ft2)
Bw = water formation volume factor (ft3/scf)
cw = water compressibility (1/psia)
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The gas formation volume factor can be expressed using the gas real gas law as follows:
Substituting these three equations into the gas material balance equation yields the following:
OGIP can be calculated from the above equation when p = 0 (implying the pressure has been completely depleted, and all the gas has been produced):
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Dividing the Gp equation by the expression for OGIP yields a more useful form of the material balance equation:
Plotting P/Z* versus Gp yields the familiar graphical representation of the material balance equation, with a y-intercept at Pi/Zi*, and an x-intercept at OGIP.
Seidle (1999)
Seidle (1999) suggested using a similar material balance as that developed by King, but with the simplifying assumption that the water saturation is constant. This
simplification is justified by the assumption that the water saturation in CBM reservoirs have little impact on the calculations as the term in which it appears is small in
comparison to the one in which it is added to. For much of the producing life a well, the expression for Z* is dominated by the ratio of sorbed to free gas in the
denominator. Formation and water compressibilities are also assumed to be negligible. These assumptions result in the following expression for Z*:
This definition of Z* can be used in the same material balance equation derived by the King method:
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Where:
A = area (acres)
h = net pay (ft)
Gadsorbed = volume of adsorbed gas (mmscf)
P = pressure (psia)
PL = Langmuir pressure (psia)
VL = Langmuir volume (scf/ton)
b = bulk density (g/cm3)
The gas material balance equation can be expressed as:
Gp = G Gr
which becomes,
Plotting
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