See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/251558592

Empirical correlations of shear wave velocity (V

s) and penetration resistance (SPT-N) for
different soils in an earthquake-prone area
(Erbaa-Turkey)
ARTICLE in ENGINEERING GEOLOGY APRIL 2011
Impact Factor: 1.76 DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.01.007

CITATIONS

DOWNLOADS

VIEWS

10

640

550

3 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Muge K. Akin

Tamer Topal

Yuzuncu Yil University

Middle East Technical University

9 PUBLICATIONS 36 CITATIONS

50 PUBLICATIONS 601 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

SEE PROFILE

Available from: Tamer Topal

Retrieved on: 29 June 2015

Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e n g g e o

Empirical correlations of shear wave velocity (Vs) and penetration resistance (SPT-N)
for different soils in an earthquake-prone area (Erbaa-Turkey)
Muge K. Akin a,, Steven L. Kramer b, Tamer Topal c
a
b
c

Dept. of Geological Engineering, Yuzuncu Yl University, Van, Turkey

Dept.of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
Dept. of Geological Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 17 August 2010
Received in revised form 17 January 2011
Accepted 24 January 2011
Available online 2 February 2011
Keywords:
SPT-based uphole
Shear wave velocity
SPT-N
Erbaa
Turkey

a b s t r a c t
The seismicity of the northern part of Turkey is mainly controlled by the North Anatolian Fault zone (NAFZ).
The NAFZ is one of the world's most active seismic zones, and has produced destructive earthquakes and
related hazards in the northern region of Turkey. Several earthquakes and earthquake-related hazards have
occurred along different segments of this fault zone in the recent past. The study area, Erbaa town, is located
along the eastern segment of North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) and is one of the largest towns of Tokat
Province in the Middle Black Sea Region of Turkey. The center of Erbaa is located on the left embankment of
the Kelkit River. After the disastrous 1942 (Ms = 7.2) and 1943 (Ms = 7.6) earthquakes, the settlement was
shifted southwards.
As a part of a seismic microzonation study of the Erbaa area, shear wave velocity (Vs) values of the geological
units exposed in this area were required for site response analyses. The geological units in the study area
consist mainly of alluvial and Pliocene units. These layers were evaluated on the basis of drilling, in-situ (SPT,
SCPTU and SPT-based uphole) and laboratory testing. In this study, empirical correlations between shear
wave velocity (Vs) and standard penetration test blow counts (SPT-N) were considered in order to dene
shear wave velocity proles for the study area. The relationships between shear wave velocity, Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) blow-counts and the soil properties were evaluated as functions of depth. SPT-based
uphole tests were performed to measure shear wave velocity during drilling operations in some of the
borings. The SPT-based Vs values were computed with different empirical formulas and compared with the
measured SPTbased uphole Vs measurements. The empirical correlations were found to require modication
to provide the best correlation for this site. The depth factor was considered during the development of new
empirical equations. Therefore, a site-specic formula was proposed in order to obtain Vs proles for all layers
in the study area.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Turkey is one of the most earthquake-prone countries in the world.
The seismicity of the northern part of Turkey is mainly controlled by
the active North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ). The NAFZ is one of the
main active seismic zones, and has caused numerous destructive
earthquakes and related hazards in the northern region of Turkey. The
settlement of Erbaa (population approximately 100,000), located
along the eastern segment of the NAFZ, is one of the largest towns of
Tokat Province in the Middle Black Sea Region of Turkey. It is located
in a critical area in terms of the construction and development
aspects. The city center of Erbaa is located on the left embankment of
the Kelkit River. After the disastrous 1942 (Ms = 7.2) and 1943
(Ms = 7.6) earthquakes, most subsequent development in the Erbaa

Corresponding author. Fax: + 90 312 210 57 50.

E-mail address: mugeakink@gmail.com (M.K. Akin).
0013-7952/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.01.007

region was shifted to the hilly region south of the Kelkit River.
Substantial development remained on the alluvial deposits near the
river, however, and rapid increase in population has led to pressure to
expand the developed areas back toward the Kelkit River. The
locations of the new and old settlements are depicted in Fig. 1.
As a part of a microzonation study for the Erbaa area, shear wave
velocity (Vs) values of the geological units exposed in this area are
required for site response analyses. The shear wave velocity is a
fundamental parameter required to dene the dynamic properties of
soils. It is useful in the evaluation of foundation stiffness, earthquake
site response, liquefaction potential, soil density, site classication,
soil stratigraphy and foundation settlements (Richart et al., 1970;
Seed and Idriss, 1970; Schnabel et al., 1972; Sykora and Stokoe, 1983;
Burland, 1989; Sasitharan et al., 1994; Shibuya et al., 1995; Kramer,
1996; Andrus and Stokoe, 1997; Wills and Silva, 1998; Mayne et al.,
1999; Dobry et al., 2000; Lehane and Fahey, 2002; Seed et al., 2003;
Stewart et al., 2003; McGillivray and Mayne, 2004; Holzer et al., 2005;
McGillivray, 2007).

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area.

Shear wave velocities of soil proles are most accurately

determined using in-situ seismic measurements. Because in-situ
measurements involve very low strain levels, the measured shear
wave velocity can be used to obtain the maximum shear modulus
(Gmax) at a particular depth in a soil deposit. The maximum shear

modulus can be computed from shear wave velocity and mass density
() using the following expression:
2

Gmax = Vs

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Fig. 2. Simplied geological and tectonic map of Erbaa and its vicinity.
Modied from Barka et al., 2000.

However, the maximum shear modulus (Gmax) can also be

estimated (Kramer, 1996) by empirical correlation to the results of
in-situ tests such as the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), Cone

Penetration Test (CPT), Dilatometer Test (DMT), and Pressuremeter

Test (PMT).
One of the most commonly used empirical approaches is based on
the measured SPT resistance of the soil. A number of studies have been
carried out to identify empirical shear wave velocity relationships for
different soils (Ohba and Toriumi, 1970; Imai and Yoshimura, 1970;
Fujiwara, 1972; Ohsaki and Iwasaki, 1973; Imai, 1977; Ohta and Goto,
1978; Seed and Idriss, 1981; Imai and Tonouchi, 1982; Sykora and
Stokoe, 1983; Jinan, 1987; Lee, 1990; Sisman, 1995; Iyisan, 1996;
Kayabal, 1996; Jafari et al., 1997; Pitilakis et al., 1999; Kiku et al.,
2001; Jafari et al., 2002; Andrus et al., 2006; Hasanebi and Ulusay,
2007; Hanumantharao and Ramana, 2008; Dikmen, 2009). Some of
the empirical relationships use uncorrected SPT blow counts and, the
others are based on energy-corrected SPT blow counts. Such relationships have been proposed for many different soils.
In this study, the empirical correlations between shear wave
velocity and SPT blow counts are considered in order to characterize
the shear wave velocity proles of the Erbaa study area. The geological
units were evaluated on the basis of drilling, in-situ testing (e.g. SPT,
SPT-based uphole, and SCPTU), and laboratory testing. Two main
types of units were observed in the study area, namely Pliocene and
alluvial deposits. They were distinguished as Pliocene clay and sand
layers and/or alluvial clay and sand layers in the empirical calculations. The in-situ and laboratory data obtained in subsurface
investigations were correlated to dene proper site-specic Vs

Fig. 3. Geological map of the study area.

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Fig. 4. The general distribution of the previous and recent boreholes in the study area.

proles in Erbaa. A new technique, referred to as the SPT-based

uphole method by Bang and Kim (2007), was used to measure the
shear wave velocities. Measured Vs values from SPT-based uphole and
those implied by SPT-based empirical approaches were both obtained.
The comparison of the measured and empirical relations was
conducted to illustrate the efciency of this new method, as well.
The empirically calculated and measured shear wave velocities were
correlated, and then new empirical site-specic formulas are
proposed for the study area.
2. Geology and tectonics
The study area of Erbaa and its close vicinity are within a pull-apart
basin formed by the tectonic activity of the NAFZ. The NAFZ is 1500km-long, seismically active, right-lateral strike slip fault that accommodates relative motion between the Anatolian and Black Sea Plates
(Sengor et al., 1985). Between 1939 and 1967, the NAFZ ruptured
during six large, westward-propagating earthquakes with magnitudes
greater than 7, and caused approximately 900 km surface break
(Allen, 1969; Ketin, 1969; Ambraseys, 1970). Erbaa is located on the
eastern part of the NAFZ. Surface ruptures of the 1939 (Ms = 8.0),
1942 (Ms = 7.2) and 1943 (Ms = 7.6) earthquakes occurred in the
Tasova-Erbaa and Niksar basins (Barka et al., 2000). The November,
26, 1943 Tosya earthquake (Mw = 7.6) produced 280 km long surface
rupture which could be the second longest surface faulting in that
sequence (Emre et al., 2006). The Tasova-Erbaa pull-apart basin is
approximately 65 km long and 1518 km wide. The northern margin
of the study area is surrounded by the fault segments that ruptured in
the 1942 and 1943 earthquakes (Fig. 2). The southern part is bounded
by the Esencay fault, which has a different morphological expression;

however, no instrumental and/or historical earthquakes have been

mentioned in the study of Barka et al. (2000) related to this fault.
Erbaa lies within the First Degree Earthquake Zone of Turkey (http://
www.deprem.gov.tr/indexen.html). It is one of the most important
seismic areas on the NAFZ with a past seismic activity. The 1942 and
1943 Niksar-Erbaa earthquakes are the most destructive earthquakes for
the region. No seismic activity with higher magnitude has been recorded
since the 1942 Erbaa-Niksar earthquake in this area.
Metamorphic rocks and the limestone layers as basement rocks
can be observed with an age from Permian to Eocene in the study area
in a regional macro scale. These rocks are overlain by Upper Eocene
volcanics (basalt, andesite, agglomerate, and tuff) and alternating
sandstone and siltstone layers. These units are covered by Pliocene
deposits consisting of semi-consolidated clay, silt, sand, and gravel
with an unconformity and a recent Quaternary alluvial unit (Aktimur
et al., 1992) (Fig. 2). The alluvium, which includes gravel, sand, and
silty clay, can be observed in the basement of Kelkit river valleys and
in the northern part of the Erbaa basin. The alluvial unit consists of
heterogeneous materials, derived from various older geological units
in the vicinity. Their lateral and vertical extents cannot be easily
traced, since they are in the form of wedges and lenses. The
Quaternary alluvial unit and Pliocene deposits broadly cover the
study area. While the northern part of the settlement area is located
on the alluvial unit, the Pliocene deposits dominate the southern part
of Erbaa (Ylmaz, 1998) (Fig. 3).
3. In-situ tests
A total of 104 boreholes have been drilled in the study area. Previous
geotechnical investigations of the study area, which include 56 borings

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Fig. 5. Depth to GWL map of the study area.

and laboratory test results (Ankara University Project, Canik and Kayabali,
2000; Industrial area, Akademi Ltd. Sti., 2002; and Water treatment plant,
Metropol Muh., 2005), were evaluated in this study. The depths of these
boreholes ranged from 10 to 20 m. SPT blow counts were taken at 1.5 m
depth intervals in the boreholes. A total of 48 new boreholes with
intended 30 m depths were drilled to obtain and correlate SPT-based
shear wave velocity values. An intensive sampling and testing program
was applied during the drilling. SPT tests carried out through new 48
boreholes were performed at every 1 m and undisturbed samples (UD)
were taken at every 1 m (where possible) to obtain a continuous soil
prole as much as possible. However, some boreholes could not reach the
desired depth due to the presence of gravelly layers which caused
borehole collapse. The distribution of these boreholes is shown in Fig. 4.
A total of 1390 m of drilling, including 1341 SPT and 312 UD
samples, was performed in this study. The depth of the ground water
level (GWL) at the study area varied between 1 and 19 m, with a few
dry boreholes encountered in the Pliocene units. The GWL in the area
of the Pliocene units, which were generally at higher ground surface
elevations, was deeper (1319 m) than those in the alluvium. The
alluvium unit had a very shallow GWL (12 m) with about one-half
meter uctuation in the dry season near the Kelkit River (Fig. 5). SPT
blow count values from the boreholes were evaluated separately for
the different geological units. The alluvial units had generally low SPT
blow count values (N b 20) indicating a loose-medium dense
sedimentation. Refusal SPT blow counts were mostly obtained in
gravelly layers of the alluvium. In addition, the Pliocene units mostly
reveal refusal during SPT tests after 1015 m in depth.
Several geophysical tests were performed at the site to compare the
characteristics of the soil layers with other eld and laboratory data.
Some 24 electrical resistivity, 23 seismic refraction, 30 seismic cone

penetrometer with pore water pressure (SCPTU) applications, 10 SPTbased uphole surveys, and three downhole surveys were carried out.
Resistivity surveys were performed at 24 points along three proles
in Erbaa to differentiate geological units and the bedrock depth (Fig. 6).
Electrical soundings using the Schlumberger method (Schlumberger,
1920) were applied during resistivity measurements and a total of
150 m depth was investigated. A low frequency original resistivity
instrument working with an alternating current was employed during
the resistivity surveys. Seismic refraction measurements were performed at 23 locations to obtain the subsurface geologic conditions in
Erbaa. A digital seismograph with 24-byte A/D resolution and 12
channels was utilized in the seismic refraction surveys. Seismic
refraction surveys were carried out to a depth of 30 m along three
sections to obtain shear wave velocity prole (Fig. 6). Eventually, three
different layers were dened with respect to seismic measurements.
The SPT-based uphole method, which uses the impact energy of the
split spoon sampler during the SPT test as a vibration source, was rstly
introduced by Ohta et al. (1978). Later, Bang and Kim (2007) used the
same method by interpreting the test results. They introduced the SPTbased uphole test as a combination of low and high-strain tests. The SPTbased uphole test is a modied version of the seismic uphole method. It
uses a number of receivers (geophones) inserted on the ground surface
to obtain the shear wave velocity prole of a site. A schematic diagram of
the SPT-based uphole method is shown in Fig. 7.
The testing procedure can be briey described as follows: surface
geophones are placed on the ground surface at selected distances
from the boring. A minimum of two receivers are required and at least
ve receivers are recommended since using more receivers can
provide better results. The interpretation process assumes the site to
be horizontally layered. Data from the receivers close to the drill rig

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Fig. 6. Distribution of geophysical survey points.

are preferred because less refraction of their wave paths occurs.

However, the nearby receivers can be affected by vibrations from the
drill rig, so it is advised to drop the hammer manually after turning off
the drill rig. SPT tests are generally performed at 1 to 1.5 m intervals.
After reaching the desired depth, the SPT-based uphole method can be
performed simultaneously with the conventional SPT test. In order to

check the repeatability, signal traces from multiple hammer blows

should be compared at each testing depth. The distance from the tip of
the split spoon sampler to the ground surface should be measured at
each stage of testing. After drilling to the next testing depth, the same
steps should be repeated until the end of borehole (Kim et al., 2004;
Bang and Kim, 2007).

Fig. 7. A schematic diagram of SPT-based uphole method.

Modied from Bang and Kim, 2007.

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

The SPT-based uphole method was used for the rst time in Turkey
as a part of this study. The method was applied in the newly drilled 10
boreholes (BH 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 18, 23, 28, 30, and 33) to obtain shear
wave velocity of both Pliocene and alluvial deposits. A total of seven
geophones with 2 m spacing were placed on the nearly horizontal
ground surface, and the measurements were recorded during
hammering in SPT applications. As recommended, two-component
(radial and vertical) geophones were used in order to obtain better
travel time information. Two recordings were conducted during SPT
application for every meter (Akin et al., 2010).
In this method, the shear waves are produced by SPT hammer
impact without any additional explosives or mechanical sources. One
of the typical examples of SPT-based uphole records is depicted in
Fig. 8 for BH-10.
A total of 30 SCPTU measurements with varying depths were
performed in accordance with ASTM D5778-95 (2000) standards
(Fig. 9). The depths reached by the cone penetration test (CPT) apparatus
at some locations were adversely affected by gravelly layers. The depths
of the SCPTU applications ranged from 1 m to 11.4 m.
4. Subsurface conditions for Alluvial and Pliocene soils in Erbaa
The Pliocene deposits are mainly observed towards the hills in the
southern part of the Erbaa study area. As previously described, the
Pliocene deposits consist mainly of uncemented gravel, sand and
occasionally uncompacted sandstone layers. The groundwater level is
assumed to be deeper, since some of 30 m deep boreholes towards the
hills opened during this study in this geological unit were all dry.
Most of the study area is covered with alluvium. The thickness of
the alluvium in the northern part (near the Kelkit River) is generally
greater than that found in the southern part. The alluvium contains
stratied materials of heterogeneous grain sizes, derived from various

geological units in the vicinity. The alluvium in the Erbaa area consists
of gravelly, sandy, silty, clayey layers. The alluvium has a generally
shallow groundwater level, especially in the northern part of Erbaa
towards the Kelkit River. Besides, the alluvial fans were observed in
the small river beds do not spread over a wide area in the Erbaa basin
(Fig. 3).
Laboratory tests indicated that the gravelly and sandy layers had
lower water contents than the silty and clayey layers in alluvium unit.
Moreover, the average water content of the clay layers in the Pliocene
units was lower than those in the alluvial areas. The water contents of
samples varied between 1.1% and 63.9% for the alluvium, and between
4% and 31.6% for the Pliocene unit. The soil classication is based on
the Unied Soil Classication System (USCS), sandy (SM and SP-SW)
and clayey sand (SC) layers were observed in the alluvium. The clayey
gravel (GC) unit showed plasticity similar to the clayey sand (SC).
Based on Atterberg limits, the alluvial clay would be classied as low
plasticity clay (CL). The Pliocene gravel unit contains clay particles.
The clayey gravel unit (GC) is low-plastic. Furthermore, the sandy
layers are represented by clayey sand (SC) and the clayey deposits
(CL-CH) in the Pliocene unit were also generally observed.
The geological and geotechnical properties of the study area were
investigated in sections and an overall evaluation of the eld studies
was performed. Five cross-sections along the study area (Fig. 10) were
investigated; one of the cross-sections (IVIV) mentioned in Fig. 10 is
illustrated in Fig. 11 including SPT blow counts (N30, is the number of
blows for 30 cm depth in SPT) for each borehole. This cross-section
reveals the heterogeneity of the soil layers from SE to NW of the study
area. Pliocene layers are exposed at topographically higher levels and
the lithology of the soil layers changes as the ground surface slopes
downward towards the Kelkit River.
Typical gravel lenses which may produce refusal blow counts were
rarely seen in the typical cross-section. The boundary of the soil units,
especially in the Pliocene units, is also illustrated in the same gure. As
shown in Fig. 11, the ground water level became shallower toward the
Kelkit River.

5. Empirically-calculated shear wave velocity (Vs)

Fig. 8. One of the typical examples of SPT-based uphole records for BH-10.

Correlations between SPT resistance and shear wave velocity have

been proposed for a number of different soil types (Ohba and Toriumi,
1970; Imai and Yoshimura, 1970; Fujiwara, 1972; Ohsaki and Iwasaki,
1973; Imai, 1977; Ohta and Goto, 1978; Seed and Idriss, 1981; Imai
and Tonouchi, 1982; Sykora and Stokoe, 1983; Jinan, 1987; Lee, 1990;
Sisman, 1995; Iyisan, 1996; Kayabal, 1996; Jafari et al., 1997; Pitilakis
et al., 1999; Kiku et al., 2001; Jafari et al., 2002; Andrus et al., 2006;
Hasanebi and Ulusay, 2007; Hanumantharao and Ramana, 2008;
Dikmen, 2009). One of the typical calculations of SPT-N based Vs
correlations for all soils in BH-2 with respect to different researchers is
given in Fig. 12. In these relationships, SPT-N30 blow count is mostly
considered, but some relations were derived using energy corrected
SPT blow count (N60). A summary of the actual empirical relationships
between SPT resistance and Vs in the literature is presented in Table 1
for different soil types. A common feature of these empirical relations
is their lack of dependence on effective stress or depth. Fig. 13
(current gure without Erbaa data) shows the high level of variability
in Vs predicted by these empirical models; this variability likely
reects the different characteristics of the soils from which each of the
empirical models were developed. Such high variability suggests that
some site-specic Vs measurements may be required in order to make
accurate predictions of Vs from SPT results.
It should be noted that nearly all of the empirical relationships listed
in Table 1 use a powerlaw relationship between Vs and SPT resistance.
In these relationships, the values of the exponent, which control the
curvature of the relationship, are more consistent than the constant that
controls the amplitude. This accounts for the generally similar shapes of

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Fig. 9. Distribution of SCPTU locations.

the curves. A notable exception is the relationship of Jafari et al. (1997),

which shows an inconsistently large sensitivity of Vs to SPT resistance.
The relationships proposed for all Erbaa alluvial and Pliocene soils
in this study (red dashed line in Fig. 13) are quite compatible with the
equations, which have similar trends, introduced by Hasanebi and
Ulusay (2007), Imai and Tonouchi (1982), and Ohba and Toriumi
(1970). On the other hand, the Jafari et al. (1997) relationship reveals
a very different trend from all the other equations. Furthermore, the
relationship proposed for the Erbaa alluvial sand (red dashed line in
Fig. 14) presents similarities with Dikmen (2009) and Raptakis et al.
(1995) correlations. For sandy soils, Okamoto et al. (1989) and
Hanumantharao and Ramana (2008) relations provide higher velocities than all the other equations. The newly developed relation for the
Pliocene sands shows similarities with Imai (1977) and Hasanebi and
Ulusay (2007) relations (Fig. 14). The Lee (1990) relationship for the
alluvial clay type soils has a similar trend with the proposed
relationships in this study. Besides, Imai (1977) relationship is quite
relevant to the relation suggested for the Pliocene clay in the study
area (Fig. 15).

geophones are evaluated. However, the two geophones closest to the

drill rig were found to produce unrealistically high velocities
apparently caused by their proximity to the rig. Although it is advised
to turn off the engine, it has a capability to give unrealistic results for
the interpretations. On the other hand, the results from the more
distant geophones were prone to the effects of refraction-inuenced
path. As a result, the shear wave velocities obtained from the 3rd
geophone were believed to provide the best indication of in situ
velocity. The reason for selecting these 3rd geophone results was
achieving consistent and realistic results for the study area after the
interpretations of all geophone results. Therefore, the shear wave
velocities obtained from the third geophone (g-3) were used to
develop the nal shear wave velocity proles (Akin et al., 2010). The
shear wave velocity proles obtained from SPT-based uphole tests
based on the third geophone results are depicted in Fig. 17 for the
alluvial and Pliocene soils of Erbaa.

6. Measured shear wave velocity (Vs) based on SPT-based uphole

method

The shear wave velocities measured in the SPT-based uphole tests

can be compared with those estimated using empirical models for
different soil types. The SPT-N and Vs correlations of the Erbaa soils
with respect to the aforementioned relationships are presented with
the shear wave velocities determined from the SPT-based uphole
results. Moreover, the shear wave velocity determined from CPT,
seismic refraction, and the SPT-based uphole tests are compared in
Fig. 18. Although a continuous shear wave velocity prole down to a
depth of 25 m could be obtained from the SPT-based uphole test for
BH-10, seismic refraction and CPT-based Vs measurements only give

The shear wave velocity of the Erbaa soils can be determined from
SPT-based uphole method using seven geophones at ten different
boreholes (BH-4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 18, 23, 28, 30, and 33). The distributions
of shear wave velocity with depth given by the seven different
geophones at BH-4 are illustrated in Fig. 16.
At the beginning of the shear wave velocity measurements from
the SPT-based uphole tests, travel time measurements from all seven

7. Comparison of measured and empirically-calculated shear wave

velocities

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Fig. 10. A schematic diagram of cross-section lines in the study area.

Fig. 11. A typical cross-section of study area (from SE to NW).

10

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Kanai (1966)

Vs (m/s)
0

200

400

600

Ohba&Toriumi (1970)

800

1000

1200

Imai&Yoshimura (1970)

0
Fujiwara (1972)
Ohsaki&Iwasaki (1973)
Imai et al. (1975)

5
Imai (1977)
Ohta&Goto (1978)
Seed&Idriss (1981)

10

Imai&Tonouchi (1982)

Depth (m)

Tonouchi et al. (1983)

Jinan (1987)

15

Yokota et al. (1991)

Kalteziotis et al. (1992)
Athanasopoulos (1995)

20

Sisman (1995)
Iyisan (1996)
Jafari et al. (1997)

25

Kiku et al. (2001)

Hasancebi&Ulusay (2007)
Hanumantharao&Ramana(2008)

BH-2
30

Dikmen (2009)

Fig. 12. SPT-N and Vs correlations for all soils in BH-2 with respect to different researchers.
Table 1
Summary of empirical correlations based on SPT-N vs. Vs.
Researcher(s)

Kanai (1966)
Imai and Yoshimura (1970)
Ohba and Toriumi (1970)
Fujiwara (1972)
Shibata (1970)
Ohta et al. (1972)
Ohsaki and Iwasaki (1973)
Imai et al. (1975)
Imai (1977)
Ohta and Goto (1978)
Seed and Idriss (1981)
Imai and Tonouchi (1982)
Seed et al. (1983)
Sykora and Stokoe (1983)
Tonouchi et al. (1983)
Fumal and Tinsley (1985)
Jinan (1987)
Okamoto et al. (1989)
Lee (1990)
Yokota et al. (1991)a
Kalteziotis et al. (1992)
Pitilakis et al. (1992)
Athanasopoulos (1995)
Raptakis et al. (1995)
Sisman (1995)
Iyisan (1996)
Kayabal (1996)
Jafari et al. (1997)
Pitilakis et al. (1999)
Kiku et al. (2001)
Jafari et al. (2002)
Hasanebi and Ulusay (2007)
Hanumantharao and Ramana (2008)
Dikmen (2009)
a

Adopted from Jafari et al. (2002).

Vs (m/s)
All soils

Sands

Clays

Vs = 19N0.6
Vs = 76N0.33
Vs = 84N0.31
Vs = 92.1N0.337

Vs = 81.4N0.39
Vs = 89.9N0.341
Vs = 91N0.337
Vs = 85.35N0.348
Vs = 61.4N0.5
Vs = 97N0.314

Vs = 97N0.314

Vs = 116.1(N + 0.3185)0.202

Vs = 121N0.27
Vs = 76.2N0.24

Vs = 107.6N0.36

Vs = 32.8N0.51
Vs = 51.5N0.516

Vs = 22N0.85

Vs = 68.3N0.292

Vs = 90N0.309
Vs = 82.6N0.43
Vs = 58N0.39

Vs = 32N0.5
Vs = 87N0.36
Vs = 59.4N0.47

Vs = 80.6N0.331

Vs = 56.4N0.5
Vs = 100.5N0.29

Vs = 152 + 5.1N0.27

Vs = 125N0.3
Vs = 57N0.49

Vs = 162N0.17

Vs = 100N0.24

Vs = 175 + (3.75 N)

Vs = 145(N60)0.178

Vs = 90.82N0.319
Vs = 79N0.434
Vs = 73N0.33

Vs = 102N0.292

Vs = 114N0.31

Vs = 132(N60)0.271

Vs = 27N0.73
Vs = 97.89N0.269

Vs = 44N0.48

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

11

600

All alluvial soils

500

Vs (m/s)

400

300

200

100

10

20

30

40

50

SPT-N30

Kanai (1966)

Ohba & Toriumi (1970)

Imai & Yoshimura (1970)

Fujiwara (1972)

Ohsaki & Iwasaki (1973)

Imai et al. (1975)

Imai (1977)

Ohta & Goto (1978)

Seed & Idriss (1981)

Imai & Tonouchi (1982)

Tonouchi et al. (1983)

Jinan (1987)

Yokota et al. (1991)

Kalteziotis et al. (1992)

Athanasopoulos (1995)

Sisman (1995)

Iyisan (1996)

Jafari et al. (1997)

Kiku et al. (2001)

Hasancebi & Ulusay (2007)

Hanumantharao & Ramana (2008)

Dikmen (2009)

This study

This study

600

All Pliocene soils

500

Vs (m/s)

400

300

200

100

10

20

30

40

50

SPT-N30
Kanai (1966)

Ohba & Toriumi (1970)

Imai & Yoshimura (1970)

Fujiwara (1972)

Ohsaki & Iwasaki (1973)

Imai et al. (1975)

Imai (1977)

Ohta & Goto (1978)

Seed & Idriss (1981)

Imai & Tonouchi (1982)

Tonouchi et al. (1983)

Jinan (1987)

Yokota et al. (1991)

Kalteziotis et al. (1992)

Athanasopoulos (1995)

Sisman (1995)

Iyisan (1996)

Jafari et al. (1997)

Kiku et al. (2001)

Hasancebi & Ulusay (2007)

Hanumantharao & Ramana (2008)

Dikmen (2009)

This study

This study

Fig. 13. SPT-N and Vs empirical relations for all soils in Erbaa.

12

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

450

Alluvial sands
400

350

Vs (m/s)

300

250

200

150

100

50

10

20

Shibata (1970)
Imai (1977)
Seed et al. (1983)
Fumal & Tinsley (1985)
Lee (1990)
Raptakis et al. (1995)
Hasancebi & Ulusay (2007)
Dikmen (2009)
This study

30

SPT-N30

40

50

Ohta et al. (1972)

Ohsaki & Iwasaki (1973)
Sykora & Stokoe (1983)
Okamoto et al. (1989)
Pitilakis et al. (1992)
Kayabali (1996)
Hanumantharao & Ramana (2008)
This study

500

Pliocene sands

400

Vs (m/s)

300

200

100

10
Shibata (1970)
Imai (1977)
Seed et al. (1983)
Fumal & Tinsley (1985)
Lee (1990)
Raptakis et al. (1995)
Hasancebi & Ulusay (2007)
Dikmen (2009)
This study

20

30

SPT-N30

40

50

Ohta et al. (1972)

Ohsaki & Iwasaki (1973)
Sykora & Stokoe (1983)
Okamoto et al. (1989)
Pitilakis et al. (1992)
Kayabali (1996)
Hanumantharao & Ramana (2008)
This study

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

13

500

Imai (1977)

Alluvial clays

Lee (1990)
400

Jafari et al.
(2002)
300

Vs (m/s)

Hasancebi
& Ulusay
(2007)
Dikmen
(2009)

200

This study
100
This study

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

SPT-N30

500
Imai (1977)

Pliocene clays

Lee (1990)

400

Jafari et al.
(2002)

Vs (m/s)

300
Hasancebi
& Ulusay
(2007)
200
Dikmen
(2009)

This study

100

This study
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

SPT-N30
Fig. 15. SPT-N and Vs empirical relations for clayey soils in Erbaa.

shear wave velocity values to depths of 57 m. The correlation of

shear wave velocity proles is similar for the available data in both
CPT-based measurements and SPT-based uphole measurements as
seen in Fig. 18.

8. General evaluation
Each of the empirical relationships listed in Table 1 expressed
shear wave velocity measurement directly as a function of SPT blow

Fig. 14. SPT-N and Vs empirical relations for sandy soils in Erbaa.

14

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Vs (m/s)

Vs (m/s)
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

100

200

300

400

500

0
g-1

g-2

g-3

10

Depth (m)

10

Depth (m)

g-4

g-5

15

15

CPT-based Vs

20

g-6

Seismic refraction-based Vs

20

g-7

25
SPT-based uphole (geophone-3)

Average

25

30
Fig. 18. Comparison of shear wave velocity determined from CPT, seismic refraction,
and SPT-based uphole for BH-10 location.

SPT-based uphole (BH-4)

Fig. 16. Shear wave velocity distribution for all geophones (BH-4).

count without overburden corrections or consideration of vertical

effective stress or depth (Bellana, 2009). One exception belongs to the
study of Andrus et al. (2006) who used N1(60) values for the
calculation of shear wave velocity.

Vs (m/s)
0

100

200

300

The distribution of the shear wave velocity data with respect to

SPT-N value at the same depth with SPT application and SPT-based
uphole test is considered in the interpretations. These proposed
relationships are classied into three main groups according to three
main soil types of the study area: for all soils, for sand, and for clay.
Moreover, the alluvial and Pliocene deposits are evaluated separately
to consider the geologic age factor in this study. Consequently, new
empirical relationships between SPT-N and Vs are proposed for

400

Vs (m/s)

500

100

200

300

400

500

600

0
BH-4
BH-12
BH-6

BH-23

BH-8
BH-33

BH-10

10

BH-18

10

Depth (m)

BH-28
BH-30

15

Depth (m)

30

15

20

20

25

25

30

30

Fig. 17. Shear wave velocity proles obtained from SPT-based uphole tests (a: alluvial soils, and b: Pliocene soils).

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

15

Vs (m/s)
100.00
0

150.00

200.00

250.00

300.00

350.00

400.00

5
N=10

10

Depth (m)

N=20
N=30

15

N=40

20

N=50

25

30

35

Vs (m/s)
150.00
0

200.00

250.00

300.00

350.00

400.00

5
N=10

10

Depth (m)

N=20
N=30

15

N=40

20

N=50

25

30

35
Fig. 19. Comparison of the proposed empirical relations for constant SPT-N value for (a) all alluvial soils, and (b) all Pliocene soils.

different alluvial and Pliocene soils in the study area in accordance

with the SPT-based uphole measurements.
As aforementioned, the shear wave velocity determined from SPTbased uphole test and SPT-N30 blow count at the same depth with SPT
application and SPT-based uphole tests are considered during the

construction of empirical relationships. The proposed empirical

relationships between Vs (m/s) and SPT-N30 are evaluated to
investigate the effect of changes for the depth (z) or vertical effective
stress. The following powerlaw expressions including depth (in
meters) based on multiple regressions are obtained for different soil
categories. It should be noted that the proposed Eqs. ((2) to (7)) are
valid down to 25 m depth for the study area.
for all alluvial soils

r = 0:89

Vs = 38:55N0:176 z0:481

for alluvial sand

r = 0:94

Vs = 78:1N0:116 z0:35

for alluvial clay

r = 0:92

Vs = 121:75N0:101 z0:216

for all Pliocene soils r = 0:94

for Pliocene sand

0:109 0:426

Vs = 59:44N

Table 2
The results of regression analyses.
Soil type

Alluvial sand
Alluvial clay
All alluvial soils
Pliocene sand
Pliocene clay
All Pliocene soils

Model 1

Model 2

ln

4.0280
4.7037
4.2052
3.7432
4.9479
3.6542

0.4405
0.2629
0.4671
0.4740
0.1941
0.5440

0.3231
0.1564
0.2905
0.3037
0.1512
0.1344

Vs

ln

4.0852
4.8023
4.3576
3.6519
4.9457
3.9523

0.1091
0.1007
0.1162
0.1756
0.0490
0.3588

0.4257
0.2161
0.3505
0.4815
0.2317
0.1772

0.1940
0.0916
0.1883
0.1421
0.0934
0.0656

Vs

0:359 0:177

Vs = 52:04N

r = 0:98

16

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Vs = 140:61N0:049 z0:232

for Pliocene clay r = 0:89

Two of the proposed correlations are evaluated for constant SPT-N

blow count value and the related graphics are shown in Fig. 19. These
relationships reveal that the low values for SPT-N blow count are
mostly affected from the depth during the calculation of shear wave
velocities.
To investigate the inuence of depth on the prediction of shear
wave velocity for the Erbaa soils, two velocity models were
investigated. The rst was of a form similar to the great majority of
those listed in Table 1 in that the velocity was assumed to be
independent of depth or vertical effective stress, i.e.,
Vs = aN

where a and b are the constants to be determined by regression. The

second model assumed that the velocity was inuenced by both SPT
resistance and depth, and was of the form
d

Vs = cN z

where c, d, and e are the constants to be determined by regression. The

powerlaw forms of these models allow them to be written as
lnVs = lna + b lnN

10

and
lnVs = lnc + d lnN + e lnz

11

In this form, linear regression can be used to determine the values

of the constants that best t the velocity data. The results of these
analyses are presented in Table 2. Of particular note are the values of
the standard deviations of the residuals these values indicate the
uncertainty in Vs associated with each of the models.
The results of the regression analyses provide means for
comparing the uncertainties in predicting Vs from measured SPT
resistance for the Erbaa soils both with and without consideration of
depth. The uncertainty in Vs given N and z can be seen to be
signicantly lower than that obtained when Vs is estimated given N
alone as given in Table 2.
Similar correlations between Vs and energy-corrected SPT-N (N60)
for silts, sands, and clays were proposed by Pitilakis et al. (1999).
Accordingly, SPT-N value was corrected by 60% energy ratio to get the
average ratio of the actual energy delivered by safety hammers to the
theoretical free-fall energy. Pitilakis et al. (1999) mentioned that the
proposed correlation for clays is compatible with the existing
relationships proposed by Imai (1977) and Lee (1990). However,
the relationship proposed for silts and sands reveal quite dissimilar
results when compared to the existing relations. The reason for
dissimilarity was explained in these sand soil type relations by the
saturation of Vs at 400 m/s depending upon the employed dataset.
Furthermore, Hasanebi and Ulusay (2007) stated that the proposed
equations based on uncorrected SPT-N values provide a somewhat
better t than the equations based on energy-corrected SPT-N values.
The use of equation for all soils based on uncorrected blow-counts
(SPT-N) is applicable for the indirect estimations of Vs (Hasanebi and
Ulusay, 2007).
Furthermore, the proposed equations based on uncorrected SPT
blow count values including the depth effect will be useful for the
shear wave velocity prole. The use of these equations for different

soils will be applicable for the indirect estimations of Vs in Erbaa

(Akin, 2009).
9. Conclusions and recommendations
Shear wave velocity proles of Erbaa were developed to provide
data for site response analyses as a part of a microzonation study. The
geological units observed in the study area consist of alluvial and
Pliocene mostly clayey-sandy units. The layers were separately
evaluated on the basis of the in-situ and laboratory tests, and eld
explorations.
The seismic uphole method which uses the impact energy of the
split spoon sampler of SPT test as a source was applied in this study
(SPT-based uphole method) to obtain shear wave velocity measurements. The measured SPT values were computed with different
empirical formulas and compared with Vs measurements for the sitespecic area.
Shear wave velocity values obtained from geophysical tests and
empirical correlations were also evaluated in this study. The
correlated results conrmed that these newly adapted formulas
including depth effects can be used for the study area. Measured and
empirically calculated shear wave velocities are consistent with each
other. The dataset obtained from SPT-based uphole tests can be used
in the future investigations.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the Scientic and Technical
Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) (TUBITAK-CAYDAG no:
107Y068), the Research Foundation of Middle East Technical
University (BAP no: 2009-03-09-01) and the Research Foundation
of the Prime Ministry State Planning Organization (DPT no: CUBAP M359/DPT 2006K-120220). The authors gratefully acknowledge Prof.
Dr. Orhan Tatar from Cumhuriyet University for his support during the
DPT project. The Fulbright program gave the opportunity to make this
research mutually and internationally possible in USA. The authors
would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments.
References
Akademi Ltd. Sti., 2002. Erbaa Organize Sanayi Bolgesi Jeoloji-Jeoteknik Etut Raporu,
Ankara, (unpublished-in Turkish).
Akin, M., 2009. Seismic Microzonation of Erbaa (Tokat-Turkey) Located Along Eastern
Segment of the North Anatolian Fault Zone, PhD Dissertation, Middle East Technical
University, pp. 416.
Akin, M., Kramer, S.L., Topal, T., 2010. Comparison of measured and estimated shear
wave velocities in a seismically active area (Erbaa, Turkey). Fifth International
Conference on Recent advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil
Dynamics, Paper No:1.21a, San Diego, California.
Aktimur, T., Ates, S., Yurdakul, E., Tekirli, E., ve Kecer, M., 1992. Niksar-Erbaa ve Destek
Dolayinin Jeolojisi. MTA Dergisi, 114. 36 pp., (in Turkish).
Allen, C.R., 1969. Active Faulting in Northern Turkey Division of Geological Science,
California Institute of Technology, Contribution No. 1577, p. 32.
Ambraseys, N.N., 1970. Some characteristic features of the North Anatolian fault zone.
Tectonophysics 9, 143165.
Andrus, R.D., Stokoe, K.H., 1997. Liquefaction resistance based on shear wave velocity in
evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. In: Youd, T.L., Idriss, I.M. (Eds.),
National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER) Workshop.
Proceedings, Salt Lake, UT, pp. 89128.
Andrus, R.D., Fairbanks, C.D., Zhang, J., Camp, W.M., Casey, T.J., Cleary, T.J., Wright, W.B.,
2006. Shear-wave velocity and seismic response of nearsurface sediments in
Charleston, South Carolina. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 96 (5),
18971914.
ASTM D 577895, 2000. Standard Test Method for Performing Electronic Friction Cone
and Piezocone Penetration Testing of Soils. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
Athanasopoulos, G.A., 1995. Empirical correlations Vs-N SPT for soils of Greece: a
comparative study of reliability. In: Akmak, A.S. (Ed.), Proceedings of 7th International
Conference on Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering (Chania, Crete).
Computational Mechanics, Southampton 1936.
Bang, E., Kim, D., 2007. Evaluation of shear wave velocity prole using SPT-based
uphole method. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 27, 741758.
Barka, A.A., Akyz, S.H., Cohen, H.A., Watchorn, F., 2000. Tectonic evolution of the
Niksar and Taova, Erbaa pull-apart basins, North Anatolian Fault Zone: their
signicance for the motion of the Anatolian block. Tectonophysics 322, 243264.

M.K. Akin et al. / Engineering Geology 119 (2011) 117

Bellana, N., 2009. Shear Wave Velocity as Function of SPT Penetration Resistance and
Vertical Effective Stress at California Bridge Sites. MSc. Thesis, University of
California, Los angeles. 67 pages.
Burland, J.B., 1989. Small is beautiful: the stiffness of soils at small strains. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 26 (4), 499516.
Canik, B. and K. Kayabali, 2000. Erbaa (Tokat) Zeminlerinin Depremsellik Acisindan
Degerlendirilmesi, Ankara University report (unpublished-in Turkish).
Dikmen, U., 2009. Statistical correlations of shear wave velocity and penetration
resistance for soils. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering 6, 6172.
Dobry, R., Borcherdt, R.D., Crouse, C.B., Idriss, I.M., Joyner, W.B., Martin, G.R., Power, M.S.,
Rinne, E.E., Seed, R.B., 2000. New site coefcient and site classication system used in
recent building code provisions. Earthquake Spectra 16 (1), 4167.
Emre, O., Kondo, H., Yildirim, C., Ozaksoy, V., 2006. Surface Rupture of 1943 Tosya
Earthquake, North Anatolian Fault. 59th Geological Congress of Turkey, MTA,
Ankara (in Turkish).
Fujiwara, T., 1972. Estimation of ground movements in actual destructive earthquakes.
Proceedings of the Fourth European Symposium on Earthquake Engineering,
London, pp. 125132.
Fumal, T.E., Tinsley, J.C., 1985. Mapping shear wave velocities of near surface geological
materials. In: Ziony, T.I. (Ed.), In: Predicting areal limits of earthquake induced
landsliding; In evaluation of earthquake hazards in the Los Angeles region An
earth science perspective. USGS Paper 1360, 127150.
Hanumantharao, C., Ramana, G.V., 2008. Dynamic soil properties for microzonation of
Delhi, India. Journal of Earth Systen Science 117 (S2), 719730.
Hasanebi, N., Ulusay, R., 2007. Empirical correlations between shear wave velocity and
penetration resistance for ground shaking assessments. Bulletin of Engineering
Geology and the Environment 66, 203213.
Holzer, T.L., Bennett, M.J., Noce, T.E., Tinsley, J.C., 2005. Shear-wave velocity of surcial
geologic sediments in northern California: statistical distributions and depth
dependence. Earthquake Spectra 21, 161177.
http://www.deprem.gov.tr/indexen.html.
Imai, T., 1977. P and S wave velocities of the ground in Japan. Proceeding of IX
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 2, pp.
127132.
Imai, T., Tonouchi, K., 1982. Correlation of N-value with S-wave velocity and shear
modulus. Proceedings of the 2nd European Symposium of Penetration Testing,
Amsterdam, pp. 5772.
Imai, T., Yoshimura, Y., 1970. Elastic wave velocity and soil properties in soft soil.
Tsuchito-Kiso 18 (1), 1722 (in Japanese).
Imai, T., Fumoto, H., Yokota, K., 1975. The relation of mechanical properties of soil to Pand S- wave velocities in Japan. Proceedings of 4th Japan Earthquake Engineering
Symp. 8996 (in Japanese).
Iyisan, R., 1996. Correlations between shear wave velocity and in-situ penetration test
results. Chamber of Civil Engineers of Turkey. Teknik Dergi 7 (2), 11871199
(in Turkish).
Jafari, M.K., Asghari, A., Rahmani, I., 1997. Empirical correlation between shear wave
velocity (Vs) and SPT-N value for south of Tehran soils. Proceedings of 4th
International Conference on Civil Engineering (Tehran, Iran) (in Persian).
Jafari, M.K., Shaee, A., Razmkhah, A., 2002. Dynamic properties of ne grained soils in
south of Tehran. Journal of Seismological Earthquake Engineering 4, 2535.
Jinan, Z., 1987. Correlation between seismic wave velocity and the number of blow of
SPT and depth. Selected Papers from the Chinese Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, pp. 92100.
Kalteziotis, N., Sabatakakis, N., Vassiliou, J., 1992. Evaluation of dynamic characteristics
of Greek soil formations. In: Second Hellenic Conference on Geotechnical
Engineering 2, 239246 (in Greek).
Kanai, K., 1966. Conf. on Cone Penetrometer The Ministry of Public Works and
Settlement (Ankara, Turkey) (presented by Y Sakai, 1968).
Kayabal, K., 1996. Soil liquefaction evaluation using shear wave velocity. Engineering
Geology 44 (1), 121127.
Ketin, I., 1969. Kuzey Anadolu Fay hakknda. MTA Dergisi 72, 125 (in Turkish).
Kiku, H., Yoshida, N., Yasuda, S., Irisawa, T., Nakazawa, H., Shimizu, Y., Ansal, A., Erkan,
A., 2001. In-situ penetration tests and soil proling in Adapazari, Turkey.
Proceedings of the ICSMGE/TC4 Satellite Conference on Lessons Learned From
Recent Strong Earthquakes, pp. 259265.
Kim, D.S., Bang, E.S., Seo, W.S., 2004. Evaluation of shear wave velocity prole using
SPT-Uphole method. International site characterization, ISC-2 Porto, Portugal,
pp. 339344.
Kramer, S.L., 1996. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey. 653 pp.
Lee, S.H., 1990. Regression models of shear wave velocities. Journal of the Chinese
Institute of Engineers 13, 519532.
Lehane, B., Fahey, M., 2002. A simplied non-linear settlement prediction model for
foundations on sand. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 39 (2), 293303.
Mayne, P.W., Schneider, J.A., Martin, G.K., 1999. Small- and large strain soil properties
from seismic at dilatometer tests. Proceedings of 2nd Int. Symp. on Pre-Failure
Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, Torino, 1, pp. 419427.
McGillivray, A.V., 2007. Enhanced integration of shear wave velocity proling in directpush site characterization systems. Ph.D. thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology,
370 pp.

17

McGillivray, A.V., Mayne, P.W., 2004. Seismic piezocone and seismic at dilatometer
tests at Treporti. Proceedings of 2nd Int. Conf. on Site Characterization, Porto, 2,
pp. 16951700.
Metropol Muh., 2005. Erbaa (Tokat) Sivi-atik Aritma Tesis Sahasinin Jeoljik-JeoteknikJeozik Etut Raporu, Samsun (unpublished-in Turkish).
Ohba, S., Toriumi, I., 1970. Dynamic response characteristics of Osaka Plain. Proceedings
of the Annual Meeting, A. I. J (in Japanese).
Ohsaki, Y., Iwasaki, R., 1973. On dynamic shear moduli and Poisson's ratio of soil
deposits. Soil Found 13, 6173.
Ohta, Y., Goto, N., 1978. Empirical shear wave velocity equations in terms of
characteristics soil indexes. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 6,
167187.
Ohta, T., Hara, A., Niwa, M., Sakano, T., 1972. Elastic shear moduli as estimated from
N-value Proc. 7th Ann. Convention of Japan Society of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, pp. 265268.
Ohta, Y., Goto, N., Kagami, H., Shiono, K., 1978. Shear wave velocity measurement
during a standard penetration test. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics 6, 4350.
Okamoto, T., Kokusho, T., Yoshida, Y., Kusuonoki, K., 1989. Comparison of surface versus
subsurface wave source for P-S logging in sand layer. Proceedings of 44th Ann.
Conf. JSCE, 3, pp. 996997 (in Japanese).
Pitilakis, K.D., Anastasiadis, A., Raptakis, D., 1992. Field and laboratory determination of
dynamic properties of natural soil deposits. Proceedings of 10th World Conf.
Earthquake Engineering, Rotherdam 12751280.
Pitilakis, K., Raptakis, D., Lontzetidis, K.T., Vassilikou, T., Jongmans, D., 1999.
Geotechnical and geophysical description of Euro-Seistests, using eld and
laboratory tests, and moderate strong ground motions. Journal of Earthquake
Engineering 3, 381409.
Raptakis, D.G., Anastasiadis, S.A.J., Pitilakis, K.D., Lontzetidis, K.S., 1995. Shear wave
velocities and damping of Greek natural soils. Proceedings of 10th European Conf.
Earthquake Engineering, Vienna, pp. 477482.
Richart, F.E., Hall, J.R., Woods, R.D., 1970. Vibrations of Soils and Foundations. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 414 pp.
Sasitharan, S., Robertson, P.K., Sego, D.C., Morgenstern, N.R., 1994. State-boundary
surface for very loose sand and its practical implications. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal 31, 321334.
Schlumberger, C., 1920. Etude sur la prospection electrique du sous-sol. Gaultier-Villars
et Cie, Paris. 94 pp.
Schnabel, P.B., Lysmer, J.L., Seed, H.B., 1972. SHAKE: a computer program for earthquake
response analysis of horizontally layered sites. Report EERC-72/12, Earthquake
Engineering Research Center (EERC), Berkeley, California.
Seed, H.B., Idriss, I.M., 1970. Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic response
analyses. Rep. No. EERC-70/10, Earthquake Engg. Research Center, Univ. of
California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California.
Seed, H.B., Idriss, I.M., 1981. Evaluation of liquefaction potential sand deposits based on
observation of performance in previous earthquakes. ASCE National Convention
(MO), pp. 481544.
Seed, H.B., Idriss, I.M., Arango, I., 1983. Evaluation of liquefaction potential using eld
performance data. J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE 109, 458482.
Seed, R.B., Cetin, K.O., Moss, R.E.S., Kammerer, A.M., Wu, J., Pestana, J.M., Riemer, M.F.,
Sancio, R.B., Bray, J.D., Kayen, R.E., Faris, A., 2003. Recent advances in soil
liquefaction engineering: a unied and consistent framework. 26th Annual ASCE
Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar, Long Beach, CA, ASCE, Reston, VA, 71.
Sengor, A.M.C., Gorur, N., Saroglu, F., 1985. Strikeslip faulting and related basin
formation in zones of tectonic escape: Turkey as a case study. In: Biddle, K.,
Christie-Blick, N. (Eds.), StrikeSlip Deformation, Basin Formation, Sedimentation:
SEPM Spec. Publ., 37, pp. 227264.
Shibata, T., 1970. Analysis of liquefaction of saturated sand during cyclic loading.
Disaster Prevention Res. Inst. Bull. 13, 563570.
Shibuya, S., Yamashita, S., Mitachi, T., Tanaka, H., 1995. Effects of sample disturbance on
Gmax of soilsa case study. 1st International Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, 1, p. 77.
Sisman, H., 1995. An investigation on relationships between shear wave velocity, and
SPT and pressuremeter test results. MSc Thesis, Ankara University, Geophysical
Engineering Department, Ankara, 75 p (in Turkish).
Stewart, J.P., Liu, A.H., Choi, Y., 2003. Amplication factors for spectral acceleration in
tectonically active regions. Bulletin. Seismological Society of America 93 (1),
332352.
Sykora, D.E., Stokoe, K.H., 1983. Correlations of in-situ measurements in sands of shear
wave velocity. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 20, 125136.
Tonouchi, K., Sakayama, T., Imai, T., 1983. S wave velocity in the ground and the
damping factor. Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geologists 2627, 327333.
Wills, C.J., Silva, W., 1998. Shear wave velocity characteristics of geologic units in
California. Earthquake Spectra 14 (3), 533556.
Yilmaz, I., 1998. Kklce Reglatr-Erbaa HES Iletim Hatti Gzergahindaki Alvyal
Zeminlerin ime ve Oturma Sorunlarinin Jeomhendislik Deerlendirmesi Ph.D.
thesis, Cumhuriyet Univ., Sivas, 102 p., unpublished (in Turkish).
Yokota, K., Imai, T., Konno, M., 1991. Dynamic deformation characteristics of soils
determined by laboratory tests. OYO Tee. Rep. 3, p. 13.