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Experiment 5:
Loading Effects of Meters and Thevenins Theorem

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS
MEASUREMENT LABORATORY

EEEB111

EXPERIMENT 5:
Loading Effects of Meters and Thevenins Theorem
Assessed OBE Course Objectives: CO1 and CO5
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this laboratory experiment is to identify the loading effects of digital and
analogue voltmeter and to validate the Thevenins Theorem.
INTRODUCTION
Loading Effects in DC Measurements
1. The DArsonval Movement
Ideally, the internal resistance of a voltmeter is infinite () while the internal resistance of
an ammeter should be zero (0) ohms to minimize its effect on a circuit when taking
measurements.
However, because measuring instruments are not ideal, they do draw current from the
circuit thus causing an effect known as loading.
Most analog ammeters and voltmeters operate based on a current sensing mechanism
called a "DArsonval movement". In this mechanism, a wire coil wrapped around a soft
iron shaft is mounted between two magnetic lines, a proportionate torque is produced
which rotates the coil and moves an attached pointer along a calibrated scale.
There is always a resistance RM associated with the coil of a wire.
2. Analogue Ammeter
A single scale ammeter may be modeled as an ideal movement (short circuit) in series
with the movement resistance, RM. In order to create an ammeter scale with a larger fullscale range, a shunt resistor is placed in parallel with the movement to draw off a
proportionate amount of the current (Figure 5.1a). Thus the total meter resistance of a
multi range ammeter is the parallel combination of the shunt resistance and the movement
resistance RM (Figure 5.1b).

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Figure 5.1a: Multi-range Ammeter

Figure 5.2a: Circuit without

Ammeter

Figure 5.1b: Equivalent

Ammeter Resistance

Figure 5.2b: Circuit with Ammeter

Since the ammeter is always connected in series with elements in the branch in which
current is to be measured, this meter resistance Rmeter = RM // Rshunt, affects the circuit by
placing an additional series resistance in the branch where current is being measured.
Also, since the shunt resistance must become progressively smaller to construct larger
scales, the meter resistance is dependent on scale.
3. Analogue Voltmeter
The DArsonval movement can be used as a voltmeter by calibrating the voltmeter scale
corresponding to the product of the current through the movement multiplied by the
movement resistance.
To increase the voltage scale, a resistor is placed in series with the movement resistance.
Placing the voltmeter in parallel with the element across which voltage is to be measured
loads the circuit by placing a parallel resistor Rmeter = RM + Rseries across the elements (see
Figures 5.3a and 5.4b).
This parallel resistance draws current from the rest of the circuit. Like the ammeter, the
voltmeter resistance is scale dependent.

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Figure 5.3a: Multi-range Voltmeter

Figure 5.4a: Circuit without

Voltmeter

Figure 5.3b: Equivalent

Voltmeter Resistance

Figure 5.4b: Circuit with

Voltmeter

4. Meter Scales
Many analog meters have an ohm/volt rating on the face of the meter. The meter
resistance for a particular scale may be found by the following formula:
Rmeter = (/ ) x (full-scale voltage selected)
/

Figure 5.5: Meter Scale of a analogue meter.

The digital voltmeter generally has very high input impedance (in the mega ohm range)
so that the loading effect is minimized.
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Summary:
Measurement devices connected in a circuit to determine the currents or the voltages are
theoretically designed to prevent any disturbance in the behavior of the circuit.
However, in practice such perfection is impossible. It is then normal to expect that
these measurement devices will slightly modify the voltage and the current distribution in
the circuit and introduce some errors in the measurements. This phenomenon is known as
the loading effect in a circuit.
Remarks:
When a measurement device has to be connected in a circuit, the following rules must be
respected:
1. A voltmeter must always be connected in parallel with the element(s) across which
the voltage is to be measured.
2. An ammeter must always be connected in series with the element(s)through which
the current is to be measured.
3. Make sure to verify the polarity of all voltages and the direction of all currents
before you connect the measurement device to avoid a deviation in the wrong
direction that might damage the meter.
4. First, select the largest range of values available on the meter and progressively
reduce the scale (increase the sensitivity) in order to achieve the most precise reading
that is possible without taking the risk of overloading the measurement device. This
procedure also ensures to minimize the relative instrumental error.

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Thevenins Theorem
1. Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Thevenins theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where
VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

+
V

Linear twoterminal circuit

Load

Figure 5.6a: Original

RTh
+
V

VTh

Load

Figure 5.6b: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Figure 5.6:

Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin

equivalent

VTh is the open-circuit voltage across the terminal as illustrated in Figure 5.7a. RTh is the
input resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off as illustrated
in Figure 5.7b.

Linear two-terminal
circuit

VTh = voc
Figure 5.7a: Finding VTh

+
voc

Linear circuit with

all independent
sources set equal to
zero

RTh

RTh = Rin
Figure 5.7b: Finding RTh

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The Thevenin equivalent circuit is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit
can deliver to a load. For the circuit shown in Figure 5.7, the power delivered to the load
is
2
VTh
RL
P = i2 R L =
R Th + R L

RTh
a

VTh

RL
b
Figure 5.8: Maximum Power Transfer Circuit

For a circuit shown in Figure 5.8, VTh and RTh are fixed. By varying the load resistance,
RL, the power delivered to the load varies as illustrated in Figure 5.9.

RL
Figure 5.9: Graph of Power delivered to RL, PRL versus RL

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen RL= RTh.
Therefore,

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PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT

1. Calculate the voltage across R2, V2 in the circuit of Figure 5.10.

R1 = 100 k

+
VS =10 V

V2
_

R2 = 100 k

Figure 5.10: Voltage Divider Circuit

2. An analogue voltmeter with a meter resistance, Rmeter = 200 k is used to measure V2.
a. Re-draw the circuit of Figure 5.10 to include the voltmeters internal resistance.

b. Calculate the voltage across R2, V2 in the circuit re-drawn above.

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3. Evaluate the VTh and RTh of the circuit shown in of Figure 5.11 at terminal A-B. Draw the
equivalent circuit.

R1 = 1k

R3 = 3.3k
A

VS = 10V

R2 = 2.2k
B

Figure 5.11: Circuit to be simplified to equivalent VTh and RTh

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UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
College of Engineering
Semester: I / II / Special
Academic Year: 20 .. / 20 ..
COURSE CODE:
EEEB111
LAB INSTRUCTOR:
TITLE: Loading Effects of Meters and Thevenins Theorem

EXPERIMENT NO.:
DATE:

5
TIME:

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this laboratory experiment is to identify the loading effects of digital
and analogue voltmeter, used in measuring voltage values and to validate the
Thevenins Theorem.
MARKS:

PRE-LAB:
Q1
Q2
Q3

/1
/1.5
/1.5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS:
Part A : Voltmeter Loading Study
Table 5.1
VS measured
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Part B : Thevenins Theorem
Table 5.4
VS measured
Table 5.5
Table 5.6
Table 5.7

/1
/0.5
/2
/1
/1.5
/0.5
/2
/1.5
/4

POST-LAB:
Part A : Voltmeter Loading Study
Q1
Q2
Q3
Part B : Thevenins Theorem
Q1
Q2
Part C : Open Ended Question

/1
/2
/1
/2
/2
/2

CONCLUSIONS:

/2
TOTAL:
/30

INSTRUCTORS COMMENTS:
STUDENT NAME:

STUDENT ID:

GROUP MEMBER:

STUDENT ID:

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SECTION:

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EQUIPMENT
1. Resistors: 100k(2), 1 k(2), 2.2 k, 3.3 k
2. Decade Resistance Box
3. Analogue Multimeter (VOM)
4. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
5. DC Power Supply
6. DMM Probes x 2nos.
7. Crocodile Clips Connectors x 2nos.
8. Protoboard
9. Wire 22 AWG x 2nos.
PROCEDURES
This laboratory experiment is to create awareness about the loading effects present in voltage
measuring devices.
Part A: Voltmeter Loading Study

a. Refer to Figure 5.10 in Pre-Lab.

b. Measure the resistance of resistors R1 and R2 with the DMM.
c. Record the values in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Measured values of resistors
Resistors

Nominal Value
()

R1

100k

R2

100k

Measured Value
()

d. Construct the circuit in Figure 5.10.

e. Set the source voltage VS = 10V, using the DMM for setting accuracy.
Measured VS = ___________

f. Measure the voltage across R2, V2 with the DMM and VOM using 10V scale.
g. Record the results in Table 5.2.

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Table 5.2: Measured values of V2

Measured Voltage (V)
DMM

VOM 10 V scale

V2
Most DMMs have an internal impedance of 10M or greater. For the VOM, however, the
internal resistance can be found on the scale used from the ohm/volt rating.

h. Find the ohm/volt rating (/V) on the VOM.

i. Then, calculate the Rmeter for the VOM on the 10V. Use the following formula:
Rmeter = (VOM s

(ohms)
ratings) x (full-scale voltage selected)
V ( volts)

j. Record the results in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Meters internal resistances
Meter
resistance

DMM ()

Rmeter

10 M

VOM 10V scale

()

Part B: Thevenins Theorem

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

a. Refer to Figure 5.11 in Pre-Lab.

b. Measure the resistance of resistors R1, R2 and R3 and record in Table 5.4.
c. A resistor act as load, RL, is to be connected at terminal A-B. Use 1k for RL.
Measure and the record the resistance of RL in Table 5.4.

d. Set VS to 10V. Measure VS and record it here. VS = ____________

Table 5.4:

Resistance of Circuit of Figure 5.11 and RL

Resistors

Nominal Value
()

R1

1k

R2

2.1k

R3

3.3k

RL

1k

Measured Value
()

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e. Construct the circuit as per Figure 5.11. Connect RL at Terminal A-B.

f. Measure voltage across RL (VRL ) and record in Table 5.6.
g. Based on the measured value of VS, R1, R2 and R3, calculate the VTh and RTh. Show
the calculation. Get your instructors verification on the calculation.
Table 5.5:

Calculation of RTh and VTh

Thevenin Resistance,RTh ()

Thevenin Voltage, VTh

(V)

Based on
measured
value of
VS, R1,
R2 and R3

h. Construct the equivalent Thevenin circuit using the VTh and RTh calculated. For RTh
use decade resistor box. Use the same RL used previously.

i. Measure voltage across RL (VRL ) and record in Table 5.6

Table 5.6: Measured values of
VRL
Circuit of
Figure 5.11

VRL

VRL
Equivalent
Thevenin circuit

VRL

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Maximum Power Transfer

a. Set the value of RL to 500 using the decade resistor box. Measure RL and record in
Table 5.7.

b. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 5.12. R1 = 3.3k and VS= 7V are closest
values to reflect the the VTh and RTh calculated in Table 5.5.

c. Measure the voltage across RL, VRL and record in Table 5.7. Calculate the PRL using
the formula given in Table 5.7. You are required to use measured value of RL for the
calculation of PRL .
R1= 3.3k

VS = 7V

RL
0-10 k

+
VRL

Figure 5.12: Maximum Power Transfer Circuit

d. Repeat the previous procedures for all the values of RL as in Table 5.7.
Table 5.7: Measured values for VRL

RL ()

Measured Value RL
()

VRL (V)

and PRL

PRL =

V2R

RL

(W)

500
1k
2k
3k
4k
5k
6k
7k
8k

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POST-LAB ASSIGNMENT:
Show workings of all calculations.
Part A: Voltmeter Loading Study
1. Calculate the ideal value of voltage V2. Use only the DMM measured R1, R2 and VS
values.

2. With the internal resistance found in Table 5.3 calculate the theoretical value of V2 for
DMM and VOM on 10 V scale. Use only the DMM measured R1, R2 and VS values.
Record in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8: Calculated values of V2

Voltage calculated (V)
DMM

VOM 10V scale

V2

3. What is the effect towards the value of a measured current, IRN flowing through a resistor,
RN using an ammeter? Explain.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Part B: Thevenins Theorem

1. Plot a graph of PRL versus RL on the graph paper provided. Use appropriate scale for
X-axis and Y-axis.
2. Referring to the graph, what is value of RL resulted in maximum power transfer to RL.
Record the value in Table 5.8
Table 5.8: Values of RL resulting in maximum power transfer
Maximum
Measured Value
Power
Theoretical
Transfer
value
% Error
(From Graph PRL
versus RL)

RL

Part C: Open Ended Question

1. How can we understand that the digital multimeter has higher internal resistance
compared to analog multimeter? Briefly explain.

CONCLUSIONS:
Identify TWO (2) main understandings that you have gained from this experiment.

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