Ballistic Formulas

(from http://www.nennstiel-ruprecht.de/bullfly/index.htm )

Abbreviations
A

Bullet cross section area; A = pd2/4

Velocity of sound in air, a = a(p,T,h)

Symbolic variable, indicating bullet geometry

Bullet diameter

ec

Unit vector into the direction of the bullet' s longitudinal axis

et

Unit vector into the direction of the tangent to the trajectory

Acceleration of gravity; g = g(j ,y)

Relative humidity of air

Ix

Axial (or polar) moment of inertia of the bullet

Iy

Transverse (or equatorial) moment of inertia of the bullet

Bullet length

Bullet mass

Ma

Mach number

Air pressure

Re

Reynolds number

rE

Mean radius of the earth; rE = 6 356 766 m

Absolute air temperature

vw

Bullet velocity with respect to wind system

Altitude of bullet above sea level

Azimuth angle

Yaw angle

r
m

Angle of inclination of the trajectory

Air density r = r (p,T,h)
Absolute viscosity of air; m = m(T)

Degree of latitude

Spin rate of bullet (angular velocity)

wE

Angular velocity of the earths rotation; wE = 7.29.10-5 rad/s

Azimuth and degree of latitude

The azimuth a is defined as the angle enclosed between the positive x-axis of a xyz reference frame
and the north direction. a is always positive and may take values between 0 and 360. The xz-plane
is parallel to the surface of the earth at the selected location.

j is the degree of latitude and depends on the location on the globe (-90 <= j <=+90)

The force of gravity

Abbreviations
ej

Unit vector, opposite to the direction of the acceleration of gravity

FG

The force of gravity

Explanation
The force of gravity is proportional to the mass of the projectile and the local acceleration of gravity.
The force is directed towards the center of the earth and attacks at the CG.
The force of gravity is responsible for the bending of the trajectory.

The centrifugal force

Abbreviations
FZ

Centrifugal force

Explanation
The figure above shows a cut through the globe. The formula gives the components of the centrifugal
force in an xyz - reference frame, the y -axis being antiparallel to the force of gravity.
The y - component of the centrifugal force can be regarded as a correction of the force of gravity, the
other components are generally neglected in ballistics because of their smallness.

The Coriolis force

Abbreviations
Fc

Coriolis force

Velocity vector with respect to xyz - coordinate system

Vector of the angular velocity of the earths rotation
with respect to xyz - coordinate system.

Explanation
The magnitude of the fictitious Coriolis force is so small that it is usually completely neglected and as a rule of thumb - only has to be considered in ballistics for ranges of 20 km or more (artillery shells

The drag force

Abbreviations
cD

Drag coefficient

FD

Drag force

Explanation

The drag force FD is the component of the force FW in the direction opposite to that of the motion of
the centre of gravity (see figure
). The force FW results from pressure differences at the bullet's
surface, caused by the air, streaming against the moving body. In the case of the absence of yaw, the
drag FD is the only component of the force FW .
The drag force is the most important aerodynamic force. Given the atmosphere conditions p,T,h, the
reference area A and the momentary velocity vw, the drag force is completely determined by the the
drag coefficient cD .

The drag coefficient

The drag coefficient cD is the most important aerodynamic coefficient and generally
depends on
- bullet geometry (symbolic variable B),
- Mach number Ma,
- Reynolds number Re,
- the angle of yaw
The following assumptions and simplifications are usually made in ballistics:

1. Re neglection
It can be shown, that with the exception of very low velocities, the Re dependency of cD can be
neglected.

2.

dependency

Depending on the physical ballistic model applied, an angle of yaw is either completely neglected
( =0) or only small angles of yaw are considered. Large angles of yaw are an indication of instability.
For small angles of yaw the following approximation is usually made:

a) cD(B,Ma, ) = cDo(B,Ma) + cD (B,Ma) *

/2

Another theory which accounts for arbitrary angles of yaw is called the "crossflow analogy prediction
method". A discussion of this method is far beyond the scope of this article, however the general type
of equation for the drag coefficient is as follows:

b) cD(B,Ma, ) = cDo(B,Ma) + F(B,Ma,Re, )

3. Determination of the zero-yaw drag coefficient

The zero-yaw drag coefficient as a function of the Mach number Ma is generally determined
experimentally either by wind tunnel tests or from Doppler Radar measurements.

Fig.: Zero-yaw drag coefficient for two military bullets

M80 (cal. 7.62 x 51 Nato)
SS109 (cal. 5.56 x 45)
There is also software available which estimates the zero-yaw drag coefficient as a function of the
Mach number from bullet geometry. The latter method is mainly applied in the development phase of
a new projectile.

4. Standard drag functions

Generally each bullet geometry has its own zero-yaw drag coefficient as a function of the Mach
number. This means, that specific - time-consuming and expensive - measurements would be
required for each bullet geometry. A widely used simplification makes use of a "standard drag
function" cDo standard which depends on the Mach number alone and a form factor iD which depends on
the bullet geometry alone according to:

cDo(B,Ma) = iD(B) * cDo standard(Ma)

If this simplification is applicable, the determination of the drag coefficient of a bullet as a function of
the Mach number is reduced to the determination of a suitable form factor alone. It will be shown that
the concept of the ballistic coefficient, widely used in the US for small arms projectiles follows this
idea.

Abbreviations

cD

Drag coefficient; cD(B,Ma,Re, )

cDostandard

Zero-yaw standard drag function

iD

Form factor

The ballistic coefficient (bc)

The 'ballistic coefficient' or bc is a measure for the drag experienced by a bullet moving through the
atmosphere, which is widely used by manufacturers of reloading components, mainly in the US.
Although, from a modern point of view, bcs are a remainder of the pioneer times of exterior ballistics,
ballistic coefficients have been determined experimentally for so many handgun bullets, that no
treatise on exterior ballistics would be allowed to neglect it..

The bc of a test bullet bctest moving at velocity v is a real number and defined as
the deceleration due to drag of a "standard" bullet
devided by
the deceleration due to drag of the test bullet.
The standard bullet is said to have a mass of 1 lb (0.4536 kg) and a diameter of 1 in (25.4 mm). The
drag coefficients of the standard bullet can be derived from the G1-function given in literature and will
be named cDoG1(Ma) .
Using

cDotest(B,Ma) = iDtest(B) * cDoG1(Ma)

one finds for the bc (assuming "standard" atmosphere conditions)

bctest=1 / iDtest(B) * mtest / d2test

This formula also shows that the bc and the form factor iD of a "test" bullet are two aspects of the
same principal simplification: the substitution of the (unknown) particular drag function of a bullet by
the (given) "standard" drag function of the standard bullet (see also here).

Abbreviations
cDotest

Zero-yaw drag coefficient of test bullet

cDoG1

Zero-yaw G1 standard drag coefficient

iDtest

Form factor of test bullet

bctest

Ballistic coefficient of test bullet

mtest

Mass of test bullet in lb

dtest

Diameter of test bullet in inches

The ballistic coefficient (bc)

The 'ballistic coefficient' or bc is a measure for the drag experienced by a bullet moving through the
atmosphere, which is widely used by manufacturers of reloading components, mainly in the US.
Although, from a modern point of view, bcs are a remainder of the pioneer times of exterior ballistics,
ballistic coefficients have been determined experimentally for so many handgun bullets, that no
treatise on exterior ballistics would be allowed to neglect it..
The bc of a test bullet bctest moving at velocity v is a real number and defined as
the deceleration due to drag of a "standard" bullet
devided by
the deceleration due to drag of the test bullet.
The standard bullet is said to have a mass of 1 lb (0.4536 kg) and a diameter of 1 in (25.4 mm). The
drag coefficients of the standard bullet can be derived from the G1-function given in literature and will
be named cDoG1(Ma) .
Using

cDotest(B,Ma) = iDtest(B) * cDoG1(Ma)

one finds for the bc (assuming "standard" atmosphere conditions)

bctest=1 / iDtest(B) * mtest / d2test

This formula also shows that the bc and the form factor iD of a "test" bullet are two aspects of the
same principal simplification: the substitution of the (unknown) particular drag function of a bullet by
the (given) "standard" drag function of the standard bullet (see also here).

Abbreviations
cDotest

Zero-yaw drag coefficient of test bullet

cDoG1

Zero-yaw G1 standard drag coefficient

iDtest

Form factor of test bullet

bctest

Ballistic coefficient of test bullet

mtest

Mass of test bullet in lb

dtest

Diameter of test bullet in inches

The lift force

Abbreviations
cL

Lift coefficient; cL(B,Ma.Re, )

eL

Unit vector

FL

Lift force

Explanation
The lift force FL (also called cross-wind force) is the component of the wind force FW in the direction
perpendicular to that of the motion of the center of gravity in the plane of the yaw angle
. The lift
force vanishes in the absence of yaw and is the reason for the drift of a spinning projectile even in the
absence of wind.

The overturning moment

The forces F1 and F2 (see previous figure

) form a free couple, which is said to be the

aerodynamic moment of the wind force or simply overturning moment Mw (see

). This
moment tries to rotate the bullet about an axis through the CG, perpendicular to the axis of symmetry
of the bullet. The overturning moment tends to increase the angle of yaw .
The force FW, which applies at the CG can be split into a force, opposite to the direction of the
movement of the CG (the direction of the velocity vector v), which is called the drag force FD
or simply drag and a force, perpendicular to this direction, which is called the lift force FL
simply lift.

The overturning moment

or

Abbreviations
cM

Overturning moment coefficient, cM(B, Ma, Re,

eW

Unit vector

MW

Overturning moment

Explanation
The point of the longitudinal axis, at which the resulting wind force F1 appears to attack is called the
centre of pressure CPW of the wind force, which, for spin-stabilized bullets is located ahead of the
CG. As the flow field varies, the location of the CPW varies as a function of the Mach number. Due to
the non-coincidence of the CG and the CPW, a moment is associated with the wind force. This
moment MW is called overturning moment or yawing moment (see figure
). For spinstabilized projectiles MW tends to increase the yaw angle and destabilizes the bullet. In the absence
of spin, the moment would cause the bullet to tumble.

The spin damping moment

Abbreviations
cspin

Spin damping moment coefficient; cspin(B,Ma.Re)

MS

Spin damping moment

Explanation

Skin friction at the bullet's surface retards its spinning motion. The spin damping moment (also: roll
damping moment) is given by the above formula. The spin damping coefficient depends on bullet
geometry and the flow type (laminar or turbulent).

The Magnus force

Abbreviations
cMag

Magnus force coefficient; cMag(B,Ma,Re, , )

eM

Unit vector

FM

Magnus force

Explanation
The Magnus force FM arises from an asymmetry in the flow field, while the air stream against a
rotating and yawing body interacts with its boundary layer and applies at the CPM (see figure
).
Depending on the flow field, the CPM may be located ahead or behind the CG. The Magnus force
vanishes in the absence of rotation and in the absence of a yaw angle.
The Magnus force is usually very small and mainly depends on bullet geometry, spin rate, velocity
and the angle of yaw. In exterior ballistics, the above expression is used for the Magnus force.

The Magnus force

For the whole bullet, the Magnus effect (which arises from the boundary layer interaction of the
inclined and rotating body with the flowfield) results in the Magnus force FM
which applies at
its centre of pressure CPM. The location of the CPM varies as a function of the flowfield conditions
and can be located either behind or ahead of the CG.
The figure above assumes that the CPM is located behind the CG. Experiments have shown that this
comes true for a 7.62 x 51 FMJ standard Nato bullet at least close to the muzzle in the high
supersonic velocity regime.

The overturning moment

Abbreviations
cM

Overturning moment coefficient, cM(B, Ma, Re,

eW

Unit vector

MW

Overturning moment

Explanation
The point of the longitudinal axis, at which the resulting wind force F1 appears to attack is called the
centre of pressure CPW of the wind force, which, for spin-stabilized bullets is located ahead of the
CG. As the flow field varies, the location of the CPW varies as a function of the Mach number. Due to
the non-coincidence of the CG and the CPW, a moment is associated with the wind force. This
moment MW is called overturning moment or yawing moment (see figure
). For spinstabilized projectiles MW tends to increase the yaw angle and destabilizes the bullet. In the absence
of spin, the moment would cause the bullet to tumble.

The overturning moment

The forces F1 and F2 (see previous figure

) form a free couple, which is said to be the

aerodynamic moment of the wind force or simply overturning moment Mw (see

). This
moment tries to rotate the bullet about an axis through the CG, perpendicular to the axis of symmetry
of the bullet. The overturning moment tends to increase the angle of yaw .
The force FW, which applies at the CG can be split into a force, opposite to the direction of the
movement of the CG (the direction of the velocity vector v), which is called the drag force FD
or simply drag and a force, perpendicular to this direction, which is called the lift force FL
simply lift.

The Magnus moment

or

Abbreviations
cMp

Magnus moment coefficient; cMp(B,Ma,Re,w,d)

eMM

Unit vector

MM

Magnus moment

Explanation
As the Magnus force applies at the CPM, which does not necessarily coincide with the CG, a Magnus
moment MM (see figure
) is associated with that force. The location of the centre of pressure of
the Magnus force depends on the flow field and can be located ahead or behind the CG. The Magnus
moment turns out to be very important for the dynamic stability of spin-stabilized bullets. For the
Magnus moment, the above expression is used in exterior ballistics.

The gyroscopic stability condition

Abbreviations
cMa

Overturning moment coefficient derivative; cMa(B,Ma)

sg

Gyroscopic stability factor

Explanation
A spin-stabilized projectile is said to be gyroscopically stable, if, in the presence of a yaw angle d, it
responds to an external wind force F1 with the general motion of nutation and precession. In this case
the longitudinal axis of the bullet moves into a direction perpendicular to the direction of the wind
force.
It can be shown by a mathematical treatment that this condition is fulfilled, if the gyroscopic stability
factor sg exceeds unity. This demand is called the gyroscopic stability condition. A bullet can be
made gyroscopically stable by sufficiently spinning it (by increasing w!).
As the spin rate w decreases more slowly than the velocity vw, the gyroscopic stability factor sg, at
least close to the muzzle, continuously increases. An practical example is shown in a figure
.
Thus, if a bullet is gyroscopically stable at the muzzle, it will be gyroscopically stable for the rest of its
flight. The quantity sg also depends on the air density r and this is the reason, why special attention
has to be paid to guarantee gyroscopic stability at extreme cold weather conditions.
Bullet and gun designers usually prefer sg > 1.2...1.5, but it is also possible to introduce too much
stabilization. This is called over-stabilization.
The gyroscopic (also called static) stability factor depends on only one aerodynamic coefficient (the
overturning moment coefficient derivative cMa) and thus is much easier to determine than the dynamic
stability factor. This may be the reason, why some ballistic publications only consider static stability if
it comes to stability considerations.
However, the gyroscopic stability condition only is a necessary condition to guarantee a stable
flight, but is by no means sufficient. Two other conditions - the conditions of dynamic stability and the
tractability condition must be fulfilled.

Gyroscopic (static) stability factor

This figure shows the gyroscopic stability factor of the 7.62 x 51 Nato bullet M80, fired at an angle
of departure of 32, a muzzle velocity of 870 m/s and a rifling pitch at the muzzle of 12 inches. The
M80 bullet shows static stability over the whole flight path as the static stability condition sg>1 is
fulfilled everywhere. The value of sg adopts a minimum of 1.35 at the muzzle.
Generally it can be stated that if a bullet is statically stable at the muzzle, it will be statically stable for
the rest of its flight. This can be easily understood from the fact, that the static stability factor is
proportional to the ratio of the bullets rotational and transversal velocity (see formula
). As the
the rotational velocity is much less damped than the transversal velocity (which is damped due to the
action of the drag), the static stability factor increases, at least for the major part of the trajectory.
Bullet and gun designers usually prefer sg > 1.2 ..1.5 at the muzzle, however it has been observed
that many handgun bullet show excessive static stability.

The dynamic stability condition

Abbreviations
cD

Drag coefficient

cLa

Lift coefficient derivative

cMpa

Magnus moment coefficient derivative

cmq+cma

Pitch damping moment derivative

sg

Gyroscopic (static) stability factor

sd

Dynamic stability factor

Explanation
A projectile is said to be dynamically stable, if its yawing motion of nutation and precession is
damped out with time, which means that an angle of yaw induced at the muzzle (the initial yaw)
decreases.
A dynamic stability factor sd can be defined from the linearized theory of gyroscopes (assuming only a
small angle of yaw) and the above dynamic stability condition can be formulated. An alternate
formulation of this condition

leads to the illustrative stability triangle.

sd however depends on five aerodynamic coefficients. Because these coefficients are hard to
determine, it can become very complicated to calculate the dynamic stability factor, which varies as a
function of the momentary bullet velocity.

The stability triangle

Abbreviations
sg

Gyroscopic stability factor

sd

Dynamic stability factor

Explanations
The dynamic stability condition
can be expressed in an alternate way. leading to a very
illustrative interpretation of bullet stability.
In using a quantity s, according to the above definition, the dynamic stability condition takes a very
simple form (see above formula). This means that for a bullet to be gyroscopically and dynamically
stable, a plot of s vs. sd has to remain completely within the stability triangle (green area in the figure
below).

The red areas are regions of gyroscopic stability but dynamic instability: either the slow mode
oscillation (left area) or the fast mode oscillation (right area) get umdamped.

The stability triangle

Abbreviations
sg

Gyroscopic stability factor

sd

Dynamic stability factor

Explanations
The dynamic stability condition
can be expressed in an alternate way. leading to a very
illustrative interpretation of bullet stability.
In using a quantity s, according to the above definition, the dynamic stability condition takes a very
simple form (see above formula). This means that for a bullet to be gyroscopically and dynamically
stable, a plot of s vs. sd has to remain completely within the stability triangle (green area in the figure
below).

The red areas are regions of gyroscopic stability but dynamic instability: either the slow mode
oscillation (left area) or the fast mode oscillation (right area) get umdamped.

The tractability condition

Abbreviations
f

Tractability factor

fl

Low limit tractability factor; fl 5.7

sg

Gyroscopic stability factor

dp

Yaw of repose vector

Explanation
The tractability factor f characterizes the ability of the projectile's longitudinal axis to follow the
bending trajectory (see figure
). The quantity f can simply be defined as the inverse of the yaw
of repose. It can be shown that the tractability factor f is proportional to the inverse of the gyroscopic
stability factor.

Over-stabilized bullet

This figure schematically shows an over-stabilized bullet on a high-angle trajectory.

An over-stabilized bullet rotates too fast and its axis tends to keep its orientation in space. The
bullets longitudional axis becomes uncapable to follow the bending path of the trajectory. Overstabilization is said to occur, if the angle enclosed between the bullets axis of form and the tangent to
the trajectory (the yaw of repose) exceeds a value of approximately 10.
Over-stabilization of a bullet is most probable, if a bullet has excessive static stability (a high value
of sg and a low value for the tractability factor
) and is fired at a high angle of departure,
especially when fired vertically. An over-stabilized bullet on a high-angle trajectory lands base first.
However, when firing bullets from handguns, over-stabilization is of minor importance in normal
shooting situation, but must be considered when firing at high angles of elevation.

The yaw of repose

Abbreviations
cM a
dp

Overturning moment coefficient derivative coefficient

Yaw of repose vector

Explanation
The repose angle of yaw (or yaw of repose, also called equilibrium yaw) is the angle, by which the
momentary axis of precession deviates from the direction of flight (see figure
). As soon as the
transient yaw induced at the muzzle has been damped out for a stable bullet, the yaw angle d equals
the yaw of repose.
The magnitude of the yaw of repose angle is typically only fractions of a degree close to the muzzle,
but may take considerable values close to the summit especially for high-elevation angles.
The occurrence of the yaw of repose is responsible for the side drift of spin-stabilized projectiles even
in the absence of wind. The spin-dependent side drift is also called derivation.
It can be shown that for right-hand twist, the yaw of repose lies to the right of the trajectory. Thus the
bullet nose rosettes with an average off-set to the right, leading to a side drift to the right.
The above formula for the yaw of repose vector is an approximation for stable bullet flight.

The yaw of repose

If a bullet flies stable (gyroscopically and dynamically!) and the transient yaw has been damped out,
usually after a travelling distance of a few thousands of calibres, the bullets axis of symmetry and the
tangent to the trajectory deviate by a small angle, which is said to be the yaw of repose

For bullets fired with right-handed twist, the longitudinal axis points to the right and a little bit upward
with respect to the direction of flight, leading to a side drift to the right. The yaw of repose, although
normally measuring only fractions of a degree, is the reason for the side deviation of spin-stabilized
bullets.