PENGANTAR

Modul metodologi penelitian dan

statitstika dasar kesehatan
(disampaikan pada semester ganjil 2015/2016)

drg. Michael A. Leman,

MMedEd
3 Agustus 2015

Reference:
Fraenkel JR, Wallen NE, Hyun HH. How to design and evaluate research in education.
New York: Mc-Graw Hill; 2012
Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison K. Research methods in education. New York:
Routledge; 2011.

No problem,
no research
(Leedy)
I keep six honest serving-men (They
taught me all I knew); Their names are
What and Why and When And How
and Where and Who
(Kipling, 1902/1988, p. 3)

Is the Teachers Assumption Co

Ways of
knowing
Reference:
Fraenkel JR, Wallen NE, Hyun HH. How
to design and evaluate research in
education. New York: Mc-Graw Hill;
2012

The search for truth

People have long been concerned to
come to grisp with their environment
and to understand the nature of the
phenomena it presents to their
senses. They set out to achieve these
ends by experience, reasoning, and
research (Mouly, 1978).
The limitations of personal experience in
the form of common-sense knowing.

concerned to come to grisp= berkelahi, berusaha me

The search for truth

People attempt to comprehend the
world around them, by using three
types of reasoning:
Deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Inductive-deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning
Based on the sylogism (silogisme), such as:
All planets orbit the sun.
The earth is a planet.
Therefore the earth orbits the sun.

The assumption underlying the syllogism is

that through a sequence of formal steps
of logic, from the general to the
particular, a valid conclusion can be
deduced from a valid premise

Inductive reasoning
The history of reasoning was to undergo a
dramatic change in the 1600s when
Francis Bacon began to lay increasing stress
on the observational basis of science. Being
critical of the model of deductive reasoning
on the grounds that its major premises were
often preconceived notions which
inevitably bias the conclusions, he
proposed in its place the method of
inductive reasoning by means of which
the study of a number of individual
cases would lead to an hypothesis and
eventually to a generalization.

Inductive reasoning
Mouly (1978) explains it by suggesting that
Bacons basic premise was that, with
sufficient data, even if one does not have
a preconceived idea of their significance
or meaning, nevertheless important
relationships and laws would be
discovered by the alert observer.
Logic and authority in themselves were no
longer regarded as conclusive means of
proof and instead became sources of
hypotheses about the world and its
phenomena.

Inductive-deductive
reasoning
Bacons inductive method was eventually
followed by the inductive-deductive approach
which combines Aristotelian deduction
with Baconian induction. Here the
researcher is involved in a back-and-forth
process of induction (from observation to
hypothesis) and deduction (from hypothesis
to implications) (Mouly 1978).
Hypotheses are tested rigorously and, if
necessary, revised.

The Research Process

Statement of the research problem

The problem statement should be accompanied by
a description of the background of the problem (what
factors caused it to be a problem in the first place) and
a rationale or justification for studying it.
Formulation of an exploratory question or a
hypothesis
Research problems are usually stated as questions,
and often as hypotheses. A hypothesis is a
prediction, a statement of what specific results or
outcomes are expected to occur. The hypotheses of a
study should clearly indicate any relationships
expected between the variables (the factors,
characteristics, or conditions) being investigated and
be so stated that they can be tested within a
reasonable period of time. Not all studies are
hypothesis-testing studies, but many are.

Definitions:
All key terms in the problem statement and
hypothesis should be defined as clearly as
possible.
Review of the related literature:
Other studies related to the research problem
should be located and their results briefly
summarized. The literature review (of
appropriate journals, reports, monographs,
etc.) should shed light on what is already
known about the problem and should indicate
logically why the proposed study would result in
an extension of this prior knowledge.
Sample:
The subjects* (the sample) of the study and
the larger group, or population (to whom
results are to be generalized), should be clearly
identified.

Instrumentation:
Each of the measuring instruments that will be
used to collect data from the subjects should be
described in detail, and a rationale should be given
for its use.
Procedures:
The actual procedures of the studywhat the
researcher will do (what, when, where, how, and
with whom) from beginning to end, in the order in
which they will occurshould be spelled out in
detail (although this is not written in stone). A
realistic time schedule outlining when various tasks
are to be started, along with expected completion
dates, should also be provided. All materials (e.g.,
textbooks) and/or equipment (e.g., computers) that
will be used in the study should also be described.

Procedures: (cont)

The general design or methodology (e.g., an

experiment or a survey) to be used should be
stated. In addition, possible sources of bias should
be identified, and how they will be controlled
should be explained.
Data analysis:
Any statistical techniques, both descriptive
and inferential, to be used in the data analysis
should be described. The comparisons to be
made to answer the research question should be
made clear.

Types Of Research
1. Quantitative research
2. Qualitative research
3. Experimental research
4. Correlational research
5. Causal-comparative research
6. Survey research
7. Ethnographic research*
8. Historical research*
9. Action research*
10.Evaluation research*

*jarang dalam bidang kesehata

Historical research
In this type of research, some aspect
of the past is studied, either by
perusing documents of the period or
by interviewing individuals who lived
during the time. The researcher
then attempts to reconstruct as
accurately as possible what
happened during that time and
to explain why it did.

Action research
Action research is conducted by
one or more individuals or groups
for the purpose of solving a problem
or obtaining information in order to
inform local practice. Those involved
in action research generally want to
solve some kind of day-to-day
immediate problem.

Evaluation research
Formative evaluation are intended to
improve the object being evaluated; they
help to form or strengthen it by examining
the delivery of the program or technology and
the quality of its implementation.
Sumative evaluation seek to examine the
effect or outcomes of an object by
describing what happens after the
delivery of the program or technology in
order to assess ehtjer the object caused the
outcome.

General Research types

1. Descriptive studies:
1. Survey research
2. Qualitative research (etnographic and historical research)
2. Associational research:
a. Correlational research
b. Causal comparative research
3. Intervention studies:
a. Ethnographic research
b. Historical research
c. Action research
d. Evaluation research
4. Meta analysis (trying to locate all the studies on a particular topic)