University of Moratuwa

Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Electronic Instrumentation
and Control

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Performance Characteristics
A knowledge of the performance
characteristics of an instrument is essential
for selecting the most suitable instrument
specific measuring jobs
Static characteristics
Dynamic characteristics
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Comparison of Characteristics
Static
Static characteristics are
obtained via a
calibration process.
Considered for
instruments which are
used to measure fixed
process conditions.
Fixed via calibration.

Dynamic
The response of an
instrument as the
measured variable
changes at the input.
Eg. Slowness and
sluggish response of
instrument.
Fixed via compensation.

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Static Characteristics
Accuracy: Degree of exactness between the
measured and expected values.(A1)
Precision is related to accuracy: Accuracy
sometimes means precision. However precision
measurements may not be accurate.(A2)
Significant figures is also a quantity
representing accuracy. This is the error of
representation.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Static Characteristics
Sensitivity: The smallest change in the
measured variable it responds too. This is
dO/dI. This is a relationship between the
input and the output. (A3)
Reproducibility: Consistency and
repeatability of measurements. Successive
values should not change. This determines
the precision of an instrument.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Useful Static Quantities

Expected value: The design value or most
probable value.
Measured Value: The actual value that the
instrument indicates.
Error: Deviation of the true value from the
desired value.

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Undesirable Static Characteristics

Drift: Change of the instrument reading
over a period of time.
Dead Zones: Instrument is not responsive
Hysteresis: Difference in loading and
unloading.
Threshold: Input required from zero position to
indicate value.
Resolution: Over and above the threshold input,
the minimum increment in input to produce a
perceptible output.(A4)
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Static Errors
Human
Gross (human mistakes of reading and
recording), Misuse, Observational (due lack of
knowledge to use the instrument)

Random
Systematic
Instrumental errors such as inherent short
comings and loading effects.
Environmental errors.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Loading Errors
Voltmeters should be applied in shunt and should
have high input impedance (A5)
Ammeters should be applied in series and should
have a low input impedance.
Loading avoids unnecessary voltage drops due to
current drawn by the instrument.
However for maximum power to be transmitted
the condition is resistance being matched.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Supplementary Reading
Introduction to
Instrumentation and
control A.K. Ghosh
Main reading
pp. 4 - pp. 19

Optional reading
pp. 23 pp. 37
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

10

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Dynamic Characteristics
Describes the behavior of the system with
time with some input given to the system.
The behavior of the system is represented
via a differential equation/transfer function.
Dynamic response characterizes the system.
Idealized inputs (step, impulse etc.) is used
to obtain the dynamic response.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

11

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of response: it is the rapidity with
which the instrument response to a change
in the measured quantity.
Fidelity: The degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured
variable without dynamic error (ability to
faithfully reproduce)
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

12

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Dynamic Characteristics
Lag: It is the retardation in the response of
an instrument to changes in the measured
variable.
Dynamic Error: It is the difference between
the true value of a quantity changing with
time and the value indicated by instrument,
if no static error is assumed (Note the
difference with static error slew rate)
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

13

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Entities Required to Study the

Dynamic Characteristics
Transfer function: Determines the type of
instrument. A cascade of transfer function is
possible. (A6)
Response: Time domain analysis is required
to obtain the dynamic response.
Bode Plots: System characterization in the
frequency domain to obtain response.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Instrument Categorization
Zero Order: Obeys an algebraic equation
First Order: Dynamic relation between the
input and the output of the instrument is
characterized by a first order DE.
Second Order: Dynamic relation between
the input and the output of the instrument is
characterized by a second order DE.
Others are a combination of the above.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

15

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Zero Order Instruments (A7)

Linear relationship between input and
output.
No distortions at the output.
No time lag of any sort between the input
and output.
This is considered to be the ideal dynamic
response.
Example is a potentiometer.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

First Order Instruments (A8)

System is characterized by a first order
ODE.
Time constant determines the response.
Step, Ramp and Impulse responses are used
to characterize the operation of the
instrument.
A temperature measuring system can be
given as an example.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

17

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Supplementary Reading
Introduction to
Instrumentation and
control A.K. Ghosh
Main reading
pp. 42 - pp. 68
pp. 276 pp. 304

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

18

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Compensation
Dynamic characteristics can be altered by
compensation.
Need to know control strategies.
Stability is an issue when controlling the
equipment.
Hence learning control theoretic approach is
useful.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

19

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Recap
Instruments can be using stand alone or in groups.
Instruments have static and dynamic
characteristics.
Static properties (errors) can be avoided by
calibration.
Dynamic properties (errors) can be avoided by
compensation.
Dynamic characteristics are based on order of the
instrument. The control is based on adjusting these
characteristics.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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10

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Control
Control as a measure of compensation.
Control as a method to maintain the physical
quantity we are measuring.
Control as a way of understanding the internal
operation of the instrument so that on can wisely
choose an instrument. (fast instruments vs. slow
instruments)
Control as a way of keeping a group of
instruments stable.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

21

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Control Systems Open Loop

Fig 15.1 Cannot compensate for external
disturbances.
Cannot be automated.
In the figure the temperature has to be
adjusted manually.
No tracking of input signals.

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

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11

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Control Systems Closed Loop

Automatic maintenance of signal
conditions.
Physical parameters of the system is used
for automated tracking.
Automatic feedback control system as in
Fig 15.3

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

23

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Properties of Closed Loop Control

Lowers the gain of the system.
The system characteristics will depend on the
feedback factor for large open loop gains.
Lowers the system dependency on the process
transfer function. Drift cushioning.
O/P impedance is lowered.
BW is increased.
The effect of disturbance is accounted for.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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12

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Supplementary Reading
Introduction to
Instrumentation and
control A.K. Ghosh
Main reading
pp. 276-282

Optional Reading
Control system
document on the web.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

25

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Control System Analysis

Objectives
Transient response adjustment
Steady state characteristics adjustment.
Stability compensation.

We are trying to obtain a desired response.

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Transient Response Design

We shall use a quantitative measure of
transient response.
We will analyze a systems existing transient
response.
We shall seek to adjust the design
parameters to yield a desired transient
response.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

27

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Steady-State Design
Steady state accuracy is the most important
parameter.
This is also based on the transient response.
We shall define quantitative measure for
steady state accuracy.
We shall design corrective measures to
reduce the steady state error.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Stability
Natural response - does not depend on the
input. If this grows out of proportion system
instability occurs. Need to be controlled.
Forced response depends on the input.
Controlled via controlling the input.
Measures of stability will be defined and
then methods learnt how to derive these.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

29

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Analysis Sequence
Determine physical system from
requirements.
Transform physical system into a
schematic.
Construct a mathematical model.
Perform block diagram reduction.
Analysis and design for the parameters
previously mentioned.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Block Diagram Reduction

Essential part of the mathematical
modeling.
Rules can be used.
Rules are based on moving the feedback
point on the diagram.

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

31

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Pole-Zero Plot and Root Locus

Poles and zero locations on the complex
plane determine the response of the system.
Real axis poles generate exponential responses.
Complex poles generate oscillatory responses.

The movement of the system poles with the

variation of the gain of the system is plotted
using the Root Locus.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Supplementary Reading
Electronic
Instrumentation by
H.S. Kalsi
Main reading
1.1 to 1.7

Optional reading
1.8 to 1.12
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

33

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Measurement Quantities
AC: average, rms, peak etc.
Crest factor: Vo-p/Vrms. Waveforms with
high CFs require the measuring instrument
to tolerate very large peak voltages while
simultaneously measuring the much smaller
rms value.
Phase: Phase drifts are important in some
measurements (eg. Lissajous figures)
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Measurement Quantities (Cont..)

AC Power: Instantaneous power and
average power. Any AC waveforms that
have the same rms value will cause the
same power to be delivered to a resistor.
Non sinusoidal waveforms: Fourier
components.
Harmonics: Multiple of fundamental
frequency.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

35

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Measurement Quantities (Cont..)

Square wave: Testing of amplifiers.
Pulse train: A pulse train generates
harmonics with amplitudes that are
dependent on the duty cycle. Can be used to
measure BW with the energy concentrated
below 1/tau.
Combined AC and DC: Instrument should
handle this.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Measurement Quantities (Cont..)

Modulated Signals: AM and FM modulated
signals. Instrument should handle spurious
signals.
Decibel measurements: Manageable
measurement.
dBm, dBV etc .

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

37

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Loading Effects
Loading is caused by the external
instrument load and the internal source
resistance.
If the instrument loads the circuit correct
measurements cannot be taken.
Voltage measurements should have infinite
instrument resistance and for current
measurements it should be zero.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Bandwidth Limitations
Any instrument has an operating BW.
The instrument BW is defined as the
frequency at which the instruments
response has decreased by 3dB.
For some instruments even if you have
exceeded BW, it may still be usable. Eg.
Frequency counter.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

39

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Bandwidth Limitations (Cont..)

The use of BW limitations for DC
measuring and AC measuring equipment is
important.
For non sinusoidal waveform measuring the
BW of the instrument should be high.
Otherwise some harmonics will fall outside
the measuring BW. Eg. Square wave. Such
equipment are expensive.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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20

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Rise Time Limitation

Ideal waveforms have instantaneous jumps in the
waveform. Practical waveforms do not have these.
The instrument may also not be capable of
jumping to voltage levels instantaneously.
Rise time=0.35/BW
The instrument should have a rise time
significantly smaller than the rise time being
measured.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

41

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Supplementary Reading
Electronic
Instrumentation by
H.S. Kalsi
Main reading
3.1 to 3.5

Optional reading
3.6 to 3.9
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

42

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

DC Voltmeter
Ideal voltmeter will have no internal
resistance. A practical voltmeter has a shunt
resistor.
Fig 1.0: Measuring set up.
Basic range can be increased by using an
external multiplier resistance.

EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control

2005

September 14,

43

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Chopper type DC Voltmeter

Used to measure small voltages.
The DC voltage is chopped into an AC
voltage of frequency 100-300Hz. The
residual DC is blocked using a capacitor.
Immune to drift problems.
Input impedance is high.
Figure 2.0. Construction.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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22

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Supplementary Reading
Electronic
Instrumentation by
H.S. Kalsi
Main reading
4.1 to 4.11

Optional reading
None.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

45

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

AC Voltmeter
Unless otherwise stated the AC voltmeter is
usually calibrated to read RMS values.
For AC meters, the BW is critical. The accuracy
of the meter is usually defined using the BW.
Usually AC meters are calibrated to read sine
waveforms and factors should be used for non
sinusoidal waveforms.
Meters may have coupling capacitors to block DC.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

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University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Average Responding Meter

This is a low cost version of the AC
voltmeter.
Figure 3.0 Construction.
The average value is found and calibrated to
read the RMS.
Only valid for sine waves in rectified form.
Its a reliable technique as long as the
frequency and the shape are not varied.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

47

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Peak Responding Meter

The difference with the previous type is the
manner in which the diode and the capacitor is
used.
Figure 4.0 Construction.
The Peak voltage is calibrated to read RMS.
The advantage is that the diode circuitry can be
moved into the probe so that the equipment will
take no AC waveforms and hence no BW
limitations.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

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24

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

True RMS Voltmeter

Complex waveforms are best measured
using a true rms voltmeter.
Expensive.
The meter is based on a meter indication by
sensing the waveform heating power using
thermo couples.
Heating is based on the rms value.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

49

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Supplementary Reading
Electronic
Instrumentation by
H.S. Kalsi
Main reading
4.12 to4.19

Optional reading
4.20 to 4.26
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

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25

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Digital Voltmeters
Desirable features
Types
Ramp technique
Low cost, easy to design
Single ramp requires excellent characteristics.
Large errors possible due to noise.

Dual slope integrating type DVM

Accuracy of the measured voltage is independent of the
integrating time constant.
Independent of the oscillator frequency.
Noise performance is good.
EN341 Electronic Instrumentation and Control
2005

September 14,

51

University of Moratuwa
Department of Electronic and Telecommunication Engineering

Signal Sources

Models, and ground plane

Sine wave sources
Imperfections in sine wave sources
Function generators
Arbitrary waveform generators.

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2005

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