Ancient Greek

This article is about the language. For Ancient Greek culture in general, see Ancient Greece. For Ancient Greek
population groups, see List of ancient Greek tribes.
Classical Greek redirects here. For the culture, see
Classical Greece.
Ancient Greek is the form of Greek used in ancient

Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, and Doric, many of them

with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in
standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions.
There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek is
a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from
Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems, the "Iliad" and
"Odyssey", and in later poems by other authors. Homeric
Greek had signicant dierences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era
dialects.

1.1 History
The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic
language family are not well understood because of a
lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist
about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the
common Proto-Indo-European language. They have the
same general outline, but dier in some of the detail. The
only attested dialect from this period[2] is Mycenaean, but
its relationship to the historical dialects and the historical
circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups
already existed in some form.

Beginning of Homer's Odyssey

Greece and the ancient world around the ninth to sixth

centuries BC (the Archaic period), around the fth to
fourth centuries BC (Classical period), and around the
third century BC to sixth century AD (Hellenistic period). It is antedated in the second millennium BC by
Mycenaean Greek.
The language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine
(common), while the language from the late period onward features no considerable dierences from Medieval
Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage
of its own, although in its earlier form, it closely resembled the Classical. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of
the classic and earlier periods included several regional
dialects.

Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect

groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of
the Dorian invasion(s)and that their rst appearances
as precise alphabetic writing began in the eighth century
BC. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical
Dorians. Moreover, the invasion is known to have disAncient Greek was the language of Homer and placed population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who
of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and regarded themselves as descendants of the population disphilosophers. It has contributed many words to En- placed by or contending with the Dorians.
glish vocabulary and has been a standard subject of The Greeks of this period believed there were three mastudy in educational institutions of the West since the jor divisions of all Greek peopleDorians, Aeolians, and
Renaissance. This article primarily contains information Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own denabout the Epic and Classical phases of the language.
ing and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight
of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot,
far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of
people and language is quite similar to the results of mod1 Dialects
ern archaeological-linguistic investigation.
One standard formulation for the dialects is:[3]

Main article: Ancient Greek dialects

West vs. non-west Greek is the strongest marked and earAncient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into liest division, with non-west in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or
many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcado-Cypriot, or Aeolic
1

2 PHONOLOGY

and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-west is

called East Greek.

2 Phonology

The Arcado-Cypriot group apparently descended more 2.1

closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age.

Dierences
European

from

Proto-Indo-

Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek inuence, and can in some respects be considered a tran- Main article: Proto-Greek language
sitional dialect. Thessalian likewise had come under
Northwest Greek inuence, though to a lesser degree.
Ancient Greek diers from Proto-Indo-European and
Pamphylian, spoken in a small area on the south-western other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In
coast of Asia Minor and little preserved in inscriptions, phonotactics, Ancient Greek words could only end in a
may be either a fth major dialect group, or it is Myce- vowel or /n s r/; nal stops were lost, as in milk,
naean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native compared with of milk (genitive). Ancient
Greek of the classical period also diered in phonemic
inuence.
inventory:
Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further
subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its
PIE *s became /h/ at the beginning of a word
surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had
(debuccalization): Latin sex, English six, Ancient
several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric
Greek /hks/.
(including Cretan Doric), Southern Peloponnesus Doric
(including Laconian, the dialect of Sparta), and Northern
PIE *s was lost between vowels via an intermediate
Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian).
step of debuccalization: Sanskrit janasas, Latin generis (where s > r by rhotacism), Greek *genesos >
The Lesbian dialect was a member of the Aegean/Asiatic
*genehos
> Ancient Greek (/gneos/), Attic
Aeolic sub-group.
(/gnos/) of a kind.
All the groups were represented by colonies beyond
PIE *y /j/ became /h/ (debuccalization) or /(d)z/
Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally de(fortition): Sanskrit yas, Ancient Greek who
veloped local characteristics, often under the inuence of
(relative pronoun); Latin iugum, English yoke, Ansettlers or neighbors speaking dierent Greek dialects.
cient Greek /zygs/.
The dialects outside the Ionic group are known mainly
from inscriptions, notable exceptions being fragments of
PIE *w, which occurred in Mycenaean and some
the works of the poetess Sappho from the island of Lesbos
non-Attic dialects, was lost: early Doric , Enand the poems of the Boeotian poet, Pindar.
glish work, Attic Greek /rgon/.
After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late
PIE and Mycenaean labiovelars changed to plain
300s BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or
stops (labials, dentals, and velars) in the later Greek
Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek,
dialects: for instance, PIE *k became /p/ or /t/ in
but with inuence from other dialects. This dialect slowly
Attic: Attic Greek /p/ where?", Latin qu;
replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect
Attic Greek /ts/, Latin quis who?".
has survived to the present in the form of the Tsakonian
dialect of Modern Greek, spoken in the region of mod PIE voiced aspirated stops *b d g g were
ern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist termidevoiced and became the aspirated stops /p
nations into most verbs of Demotic Greek. By about the
t k/ in Ancient Greek.
500s AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into
Medieval Greek.

2.2 Phonemic inventory

Main article: Ancient Greek phonology

1.2

Other languages

Ancient Macedonian was an Indo-European language

closely related to Greek, but its exact relationship is unclear because of insucient data: possibly a dialect of
Greek; a sibling language to Greek; or a close cousin to
Greek, and perhaps related to some extent, to Thracian
and Phrygian languages. The Pella curse tablet is one of
many nds that support the idea that the Ancient Macedonian language is closely related to the Doric Greek dialect.

The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very dierent

from that of Modern Greek. Ancient Greek had long and
short vowels; many diphthongs; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops; and a pitch
accent. In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants
are shortmany vowels and diphthongs once pronounced
distinctly are pronounced as /i/ (iotacism). Some of the
stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives,
and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent. Many
of these changes took place in the Koine Greek period.

3.1

Augment

The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not junctive, optative or imperative. The innitives and parreect all pronunciation changes.
ticiples correspond to the nite combinations of tense, asThe examples below represent Attic Greek in the 5th pect, and voice.
century BC. Ancient pronunciation can never be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from this period is well 3.1 Augment
documented and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
represent.
a prex /e-/, called the augment. This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like then,
added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual
2.2.1 Consonants
meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the
[] occurred as an allophone of /n/ used before velars and aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the
as an allophone of // before nasals. /r/ was probably other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect
voiceless when word-initial (written ). /s/ was assimi- and pluperfect exist).
lated to [z] before voiced consonants.
2.2.2

Vowels

/o/ raised to [u], probably by the 4th century BC.

Morphology

Main article: Ancient Greek grammar

Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages, is

The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prexes e (stems beginning with r, however, add er). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel:
a, , e,
i,
o,
u,
ai i
ei i or ei
oi i
au u or au
eu u or eu
ou ou

Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e ei. The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels. In verbs with a
Ostracon bearing the name of Cimon, Stoa of Attalos
prex, the augment is placed not at the start of the word,
but between the prex and the original verb. For examhighly inected. It is highly archaic in its preservation
ple, (-) (I attack) goes to o in the
of Proto-Indo-European forms. In Ancient Greek, nouns
aorist.
(including proper nouns) have ve cases (nominative,
genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative), three genders Following Homer's practice, the augment is sometimes
(masculine, feminine, and neuter), and three numbers not made in poetry, especially epic poetry.
(singular, dual, and plural). Verbs have four moods The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see
(indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and optative) and below.
three voices (active, middle, and passive), as well as
three persons (rst, second, and third) and various other
forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations 3.2 Reduplication
of tenses and aspect (generally simply called tenses):
the present, future, and imperfect are imperfective in Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future
aspect; the aorist (perfective aspect); a present perfect, perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem.
pluperfect and future perfect. Most tenses display all four (Note that a few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplimoods and three voices, although there is no future sub- cate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.)
junctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect sub- The three types of reduplication are:

6 MODERN USE
Syllabic reduplication: Most verbs beginning with
a single consonant, or a cluster of a stop with a
sonorant, add a syllable consisting of the initial
consonant followed by e. An aspirated consonant,
however, reduplicates in its unaspirated equivalent:
Grassmanns law.

, ,
, ,

,


.

Augment: Verbs beginning with a vowel, as well as

those beginning with a cluster other than those in- The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplies Attic
dicated previously (and occasionally for a few other Greek from the Classical period of Ancient Greek:
verbs) reduplicate in the same fashion as the augment. This remains in all forms of the perfect, not
, , just the indicative.
, :
' '
Attic reduplication: Some verbs beginning with an
, a, e or o, followed by a sonorant (or occasionally d or
.
g), reduplicate by adding a syllable consisting of the
.
initial vowel and following consonant, and lengthening the following vowel. Hence er err, an
ann, ol oll, ed edd. This is not actually Transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern verspecic to Attic Greek, despite its name, but it was sion of the Erasmian scheme:
generalized in Attic. This originally involved reduplicating a cluster consisting of a laryngeal and sonoHti mn hmes, ndres Athnaoi,
rant, hence hl hlehl oll with normal Greek
pepnthate hup tn emn katgrn, ouk
development of laryngeals. (Forms with a stop were
oda: eg d' on ka auts hup' autn olgou
analogous.)
emauto epelathmn, hot pithans legon.
Katoi alths ge hs pos eipen oudn
eirksin.
Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically.
For example, lamban (root lab) has the perfect stem
eilpha (not *lelpha) because it was originally slamban, Using the IPA:
with perfect seslpha, becoming eilpha through compensatory lengthening.
/hti men hyms | ndres atnaio i |
Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of
pepntate | hypo t n em n katrn | uk
certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of
oda dn kai autos | hyp aut n olu
the roots initial consonant followed by i. A nasal stop
emaut | epelatmn | ht pitan s leon
appears after the reduplication in some verbs.[5]
katoi altz e | hs pos epn | uden
er kasin /

Writing system

Main article: Greek orthography

Ancient Greek was written in the Greek alphabet, with
some variation among dialects. Early texts are written
in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard
during the classic period. Modern editions of Ancient
Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks, interword spacing, modern punctuation, and
sometimes mixed case, but these were all introduced
later.

Translated into English:

What you, men of Athens, have learned from
my accusers, I do not know: but I, for my part,
nearly forgot who I was thanks to them, since
they spoke so persuasively. And yet, of the
truth, they have spoken, one might say, nothing at all.

6 Modern use

See also: Classical compound

The study of Ancient Greek in European countries in
5 Example text
addition to Latin occupied an important place in the syllabus from the Renaissance until the beginning of the
The beginning of Homer's Iliad exemplies the Archaic 20th century. Ancient Greek is still taught as a compulperiod of Ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more sory or optional subject especially at traditional or elite
details):
schools throughout Europe, such as public schools and

5
An isolated community near Trabzon, Turkey, an area
where Pontic Greek is spoken, has been found to speak a
variety of Greek that has parallels, both structurally and
in its vocabulary, to Ancient Greek not present in other
varieties.[18] As few as 5,000 people speak the dialect but
linguists believe that it is the closest living language to
Ancient Greek.[19][20]
Ancient Greek is often used in the coinage of modern
technical terms in the European languages: see English
words of Greek origin. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek
roots are used in many of the scientic names of species
and in scientic terminology.
The words as they are inscribed on the marble
of the 1955 Leonidas Monument at Thermopylae

grammar schools in the United Kingdom. It is compulsory in the Liceo classico in Italy, in the gymnasium in the Netherlands, in some classes in Austria, in
Croatia in klasina gimnazija and it is optional in the
Humanistisches Gymnasium in Germany (usually as a
third language after Latin and English, from the age of 14
to 18). In 2006/07, 15,000 pupils studied Ancient Greek
in Germany according to the Federal Statistical Oce of
Germany, and 280,000 pupils studied it in Italy.[6] It is
a compulsory subject alongside Latin in the Humanities
branch of Spanish Bachillerato. Ancient Greek is also
taught at most major universities worldwide, often combined with Latin as part of Classics. It will also be taught
in state primary schools in the UK, to boost childrens
language skills,[7][8][9] and will be oered as a foreign
language to pupils in all primary schools from 2014 as
part of a major drive to boost education standards, together with Latin, Mandarin, French, German, Spanish,
and Italian.[10] Ancient Greek is also taught as a compulsory subject in Gymnasia and Lykia in Greece.[11][12]
Modern authors rarely write in Ancient Greek, though Jan
Kesadlo wrote some poetry and prose in the language,
and some volumes of Asterix[13] and Harry Potter and
the Philosophers Stone[14] have been translated into Ancient Greek. O K (Onomata Kexiasmena)is the rst magazine of crosswords and puzzles in
Ancient Greek.[15] Its rst issue appeared in April 2015
as an annex to Hebdomada Aenigmatum. Alfred Rahlfs
included a preface, a short history of the Septuagint text,
and other front matter translated into Ancient Greek in
his 1935 edition of the Septuagint; Robert Hanhart also
included the introductory remarks to the 2006 revised
RahlfsHanhart edition in the language as well.[16]
Ancient Greek is also used by organizations and individuals, mainly Greek, who wish to denote their respect,
admiration or preference for the use of this language.
This use is sometimes considered graphical, nationalistic or funny. In any case, the fact that modern Greeks
can still wholly or partly understand texts written in nonarchaic forms of ancient Greek shows the anity of modern Greek language to its ancestral predecessor.[17]

7 See also
Ancient Greek grammar
Proto-Greek language
Ancient Greek dialects
Mycenaean Greek
Koine Greek
Medieval Greek
Modern Greek
Varieties of Modern Greek
Greek language
Hellenic languages
Exploring the Ancient Greek Language and Culture
(competition)
Greek alphabet
Greek diacritics
List of Greek phrases (mostly Ancient Greek)
List of Greek words with English derivatives
Koine Greek Spoken

8 References
[1] Nordho, Sebastian; Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel,
Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). Ancient
Greek (to 1453)". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
[2] Imprecisely attested and somewhat reconstructive due to
its being written in an ill-tting syllabary (Linear B).
[3] This one appears in recent versions of the Encyclopdia
Britannica, which also lists the major works that dene the
subject.

10

[4] Roger D. Woodard (2008), Greek dialects, in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
[5] Palmer, Leonard (1996). The Greek Language. Norman,
OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 262. ISBN 08061-2844-5.
[6]
[7] Ancient Greek 'to be taught in state schools". Telegraph.co.uk. 30 July 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
[8] Primaries go Greek to help teach English - Education
News - 30 July 2010.

EXTERNAL LINKS

10 External links
Online Greek resources Dictionaries, grammar,
virtual libraries, fonts, etc.
Alpheios Combines LSJ, Autenrieth, Smyths
grammar and inection tables in a browser add-on
for use on any web site
Ancient Greek basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
Ancient Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary
words (from Wiktionarys Swadesh list appendix)

[9] Now look, Latins ne, but Greek might be even Beta
TES Editorial 2010 - TSL Education Ltd.
[10] More primary schools to oer Latin and ancient Greek,
The Telegraph, 26 November 2012
[11] " , ,
H ". Retrieved 3 May
2015.
[12] " ".
Retrieved 3 May 2015.
[13] Asterix around the World - the many Languages of Asterix. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
[14] Areios Potr kai tu philosophu lithos, Bloomsbury 2004,
ISBN 1-58234-826-X
[15] ,
http://www.repubblica.it/ultimora/24ore/nazionale/
news-dettaglio/4581488 Enigmistica: nasce prima rivista
in greco antico 2015).
[16] Rahlfs, Alfred, and Hanhart, Robert (eds.), Septuaginta,
editio altera (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006).

10.1 Grammar learning

A more extensive grammar of the Ancient Greek
language written by J. Rietveld
Recitation of classics books
Perseus Greek dictionaries
Greek-Language.com Information on the history
of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning
Greek
Free Lessons in Ancient Greek, Bilingual Libraries,
Forum
A critical survey of websites devoted to Ancient
Greek

[17] Akropolis World News. Retrieved 3 May 2015.

Ancient Greek Tutorials Berkeley Language Center of the University of California

[18] Jason and the argot: land where Greeks ancient language
survives, The Independent, 3 January 2011

A Digital Tutorial For Ancient Greek Based on

Whites First Greek Book

[19] Against all odds: archaic Greek in a modern world, University of Cambridge

New Testament Greek

[20] Archaic Greek in a modern world video from Cambridge

University, on YouTube

Further reading
P. Chantraine (1968), Dictionnaire tymologique de
la langue grecque, Klincksieck, Paris.
Athenaze A series of textbooks on Ancient Greek
published for school use
Hansen, Hardy and Quinn, Gerald M. (1992) Greek:
An Intensive Course, Fordham University Press
Easterling, P & Handley, C. Greek Scripts: An illustrated introduction. London: Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 2001. ISBN 0-902984-179

Acropolis World News A summary of the latest

world news in Ancient Greek, Juan Coderch, University of St Andrews

10.2 Classical texts

Perseus Greek and Roman Materials
Ancient Greek Texts

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Ancient Greek Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek?oldid=673103707 Contributors: William Avery, Michael Hardy,

DopeshJustin, Andres, Stefan Khn, Dwo, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Choster, Andrewman327, Dragons ight, Furrykef, Jusjih,
PuzzletChung, Robbot, Benwing, Blainster, Hippietrail, JesseW, Saforrest, Raeky, JerryFriedman, Giftlite, Lupin, Jacob1207, Henry
Flower, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Macrakis, Kmsiever, Alexf, Antandrus, JimWae, Pmanderson, Marcos, Dovi, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury
Tail, Lacrimosus, Imaglang, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Paul August, Bender235, Kaisershatner,
Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Stesmo, Smalljim, JW1805, Danski14, Alansohn, Ricky81682, Alex '05, Snowolf, Ross
Burgess, Wtmitchell, Mavros, Suruena, Garzo, Abanima, Angr, StradivariusTV, Oliphaunt, Twthmoses, Steinbach, Karmosin, Wayward,
Doric Loon, Nema Fakei, Gerbrant, Stevey7788, RuM, Graham87, Dpr, AllanBz, Mayumashu, Koavf, Bob A, Kalogeropoulos, Dolphonia, Canisestmortis, Miskin, Nihiltres, GnuDoyng, Gurch, Idaltu, Butros, Chobot, E Pluribus Anthony, YurikBot, Wavelength, Chanlyn, Alma Pater, Phantomsteve, RussBot, RJC, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Lucinos~enwiki, Rodasmith, Rsrikanth05, Bruno Gripp, Megistias,
Aeusoes1, Denihilonihil, Cubicalbubble88, DeadEyeArrow, Botteville, Tomisti, Alpha 4615, Nlu, Tonym88, Igin, Zargulon, Deville,
BorgQueen, GraemeL, JoanneB, CWenger, Hans soplopuco, ArgosDad, Allens, Rnabet~enwiki, RG2, Philip Stevens, GrinBot~enwiki,
Mhardcastle, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Imz, Haza-w, Philx, InverseHypercube, Hydrogen Iodide, Kimon, C.Fred, Bomac, AndreasJS,
ScaldingHotSoup, Thrax, Kjaergaard, HalfShadow, Mslimix, Magicalsaumy, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Rmosler2100, Chris the speller,
Ciacchi, Persian Poet Gal, Greatgavini, SchftyThree,
, Robth, Oatmeal batman, Cplakidas, Akhilleus, Yannos, Rrburke, Addshore,
Krich, Flyguy649, Jaimie Henry, Nakon, Warren, Salt Yeung, Lcarscad, Dantadd, DMacks, Bejnar, Kukini, FlyHigh, LDHan, SashatoBot,
NikoSilver, Michael Bednarek, JorisvS, Hvn0413, Ryulong, Woteva, Cerealkiller13, Hectorian, MrDolomite, KJS77, Norm mit, BranStark,
Iridescent, Lakers, Joseph Solis in Australia, RokasT~enwiki, Supergrunch, Raystorm, Mwpalmer, Vega84, Barbaar, Rawling, FilipeS,
Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Creft, MC10, Mato, Gogo Dodo, Sullivan9211, Julian Mendez, Nmajdan, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller,
Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Gimmetrow, BetacommandBot, Epbr123, Wachowich, NJPharris, Marek69, Escarbot, Grandin, AntiVandalBot,
Majorly, Widefox, Nipisiquit, VinnyMendoza, Modernist, Dylan Lake, Spencer, Storkk, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, Ericoides, Ringsjodjuren, Andonic, LittleOldMe, Acroterion, , WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Ishikawa Minoru, JamesBWatson, Fordsfords, Avicennasis,
A3nm, Cpl Syx, Canton japan, WLU, Pax:Vobiscum, TheRanger, Rickterp, Jackson Peebles, MartinBot, DoSiDo, Centpacrr, CommonsDelinker, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Maurice Carbonaro, 88888, Georgiou, NuclearWarhead, Katalaveno,
Touch Of Light, MetsFan76, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Treisijs, Gstarst, TheNewPhobia, SoCalSuperEagle, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Macedonian, DoorsAjar, Darana, Wikieditor3000, Robotchicken1886, Thulium, Domitius, Crnica~enwiki, Jack Naven Rulez,
Billinghurst, Duncan1, Synthebot, Burntsauce, Thanatos666, Why Not A Duck, RedRabbit1983, Radagast3, Fanatix, SieBot, Alessgrimal,
Tosun, Markmc, Scarian, Tatiana24, Alcadies, Mikey112117, RJaguar3, Araignee, The Evil Spartan, Oda Mari, JSpung, Redmarkviolinist, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Hello71, Jdaloner, Steven Zhang, Lightmouse, Helikophis, Quisquillian, En, G.a.ys are di$gusting!,
Arthana, Maelgwnbot, Dimboukas, Michael Peter Fustumum, 3rdAlcove, Invertzoo, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Wildmanofthewoods,
What1993, DionysosProteus, WanderSage, Drmies, Fobizan, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Klubnick, Blanchardb, Ashmedai 119,
Noelleskie, Puchiko, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Wikitumnus, Superr07, GokonSSJ5, Perkeleperkele, Fenway4201912, Jwmorris121,
Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, SoxBot III, Egmontaz, Shiftmain7, Slayerteez, Budelberger, XLinkBot, Muspilli, Rror, Facts707, Skarebo,
Bird Vision, HexaChord, Klundarr, Giorgos Tzimas, ConCompS, FokkerTISM, Yolgnu, Atethnekos, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Fluernutter, Hiya555hiya, GK1973, Orc 455, FiriBot, LinkFA-Bot, CuteHappyBrute, Erutuon, Krano, MuZemike, Crazymadlover, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Amirobot, Cclawara, Zakronian, , Tempodivalse, Arjun G. Menon, Rubinbot,
Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Piogre, Merube 89, Pani0202, Algorithme, Materialscientist, Danno uk, Citation bot, Will Oga Booga, Haidata,
Edgarglen, Jimbolino2000, Xqbot, Whiyufghj, Coutasji, Traqwe, Neswtuop, Capricorn42, Urggatys, Lele giannoni, DSisyphBot, Jmundo,
Savant-fou, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Amaury, Moxy, Dumu Eduba, HomoLiteratus, Jts010011, FrescoBot, Wikipe-tan, Marco9673,
TTGL, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Loyalist Cannons, Philly boy92, , 123, Jhbuk, Steve2011, Aelfan1, Greco22, Selenagomezturtle101, Vrenator, Lpsickle, Reaper Eternal, Jerd10, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki,
WikitanvirBot, Never give in, Rapidspace1232123, Syncategoremata, RA0808, Whatsup6798, Solarra, Winner 42, K6ka, Lucas Thoms,
John Cline, PotatoBot, LucienneRieux, Messesupstu, A930913, Malarz pl BOT, Neddy1234, Rcsprinter123, Fubajoe, Brandmeister,
Y-barton, Cyberdog958, Philafrenzy, Linkinparklover12, Tot12, ChuispastonBot, DASHBotAV, Spicemix, ResearchRave, Petrb, ClueBot
NG, Iiii I I I, Mrlagit25, Zachsass, Catlemur, Ckoune, Guive37, Delusion23, In twilight, Widr, Cognate247, Helpful Pixie Bot, Rappelletoi, Wbm1058, Regulov, Must be the best, Untilarea22, AngBent, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Davidiad, Furkaocean, Silvrous, Atomician,
Notesenses, Mainquick3, , Klilidiplomus, Tha Godly Beast, Jakehey, Josyboy, Wikiwikiwiki444, Dhnlin, Camo ice,
Melenc, Ducknish, JYBot, Euphiletos, Greekandlatin, Dexbot, Dominiktesla, Mr. Guye, Mogism, Abwehrkraft, Lugia2453, PlatonPlotin,
Slimjim1999, Rushtonau, 069952497a, Jaai123, BlackMansBurden, Jiao Zoeng chong, Mdaskal, Svnti fav, FrigidNinja, Hdh4241, Lfdder, Marcus Munitions, Diana deaz, Poop123098, Jr8825, Alexamena, Jan Kaninchen, Nomad Bro, Jim250, Maxboy123, Abrasax108,
Noyster, Afro-Eurasian, VeryCrocker, And the world died, Connymenzel, Tofergofer, Comander Chaos, Picenzo56, Darkangel3727, Thatonepersonwhohugstrees, Louise3478, 35hotdog, Artlatinlover, Parkerp555, Ajneo0, Roxy Goddard, Paul3752, 420blazeitfggt, Theannie,
KasparBot, Gavin Withee, BinaryFlower, Jeraphine, Sweepy, SpeedDemon520 and Anonymous: 566

11.2

Images

File:AGMA_Ostrakon_Cimon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/AGMA_Ostrakon_Cimon.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marsyas
File:Account_of_the_construction_of_Athena_Parthenos_by_Phidias.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/1e/Account_of_the_construction_of_Athena_Parthenos_by_Phidias.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally
posted to Flickr as Account of the supervisors ... Original artist: Tilemahos Efthimiadis
File:AncientGreekDialects_(Woodard)_en.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/
AncientGreekDialects_%28Woodard%29_en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader. Data after Woodard
(2008), see below. Base map Image:Greece map blank.svg (public domain) Original artist: Fut.Perf.
File:Beginning_Odyssey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Beginning_Odyssey.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work (using Wikisource for text) Original artist: User:Bibi Saint-Pol

11

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original

artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Greek_Digamma_normal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Greek_Digamma_normal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on C. Faulmann, Schriftzeichen und Alphabete aller Zeiten und Vlker, Wien 1880,
and Edward M. Thompson, An introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography, Oxford 1912. Original artist: Fut.Perf.
File:Greek_Eta_tack.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Greek_Eta_tack.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, based on C. Faulmann, Schriftzeichen und Alphabete aller Zeiten und Vlker, Wien 1880, and Edward M. Thompson, An introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography, Oxford 1912. Original artist: Fut.Perf.
File:Greek_Koppa_normal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Greek_Koppa_normal.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on C. Faulmann, Schriftzeichen und Alphabete aller Zeiten und Vlker, Wien 1880, and
Edward M. Thompson, An introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography, Oxford 1912. Original artist: Fut.Perf.
File:Greek_Sampi_Ionian.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Greek_Sampi_Ionian.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Future Perfect at Sunrise
File:Greek_San_slanted.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Greek_San_slanted.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work, based on C. Faulmann, Schriftzeichen und Alphabete aller Zeiten und Vlker, Wien 1880, and Edward
M. Thompson, An introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography, Oxford 1912. Original artist: Fut.Perf.
File:Greek_Sigma_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Greek_Sigma_01.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, based on glyph table used by Greek epigraphy website Poinikastas [1] Original artist: Fut.Perf.
File:Greek_alphabet_alpha-omega.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Greek_alphabet_alpha-omega.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Homeric_Greece-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Homeric_Greece-en.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Inspir de la carte ACHAEANS and TROJANS du site de Carlos Parada Original artist: Pinpin
File:Incubator-notext.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Meddie_Egg_horizontal_line.svg Original artist: NielsF
File:Molon_labe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Molon_labe.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: The picture has been taken by me. It is part of a relevant photo gallery at Battle of Thermopylae. All the material is available under
the GFDL. Original artist: Fkerasar
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

11.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0