Atlas Copco Eyer ere) = a a 4 K=(e | (0), ea isProduction: Atlas Copco AB, Stockholm, Sweden Editors: Torgny Rogert, Atlas Copco AB S. Bertil Andersson, Atlas Copco Airpower N.V. Printed by: Ljungforetagen AB, Sweden 1975 Vou (ddl ea 4 dom [74 _ AtlasCopco Manual Sitlas CopcoPreface oo... 6 i © 5 i ; ey Goneceees eta 98 Exploration equipment... 255 Finishing Equipment . Historical notes on ai 7 ie PescHmi Me 118 Equipment for surveys. . 2s. 256 Conventional paint spr & Phgsten data r . Equipment for prospecting drilling . 259 High-pressure spray painting . The Atlas Copco story 13 + Physical data for somegses 126 Diamond core drills . 5 261 Automatic spray painting equipment Atlas Copco today... ..... 20 Compressors 127 Electron ate spray painting... : 2 __ lot spraying . . International standardization 23 iB ortable compresso Grouting equipment ie Spray booths and cabinets 3.1 Recommendations and Porible ston com Pee g Paint circulation system The international unit system 27 ‘Airoarmer The aan srilibreaker 218 pee 3.3. Conversion factors 29 sate a 143 Plug hole drill 281 Blast cleaning. . 3.4 ‘Temperature scales A Stationary compressors, : i Air cleaners and reduction valves Be ; 30 ct ee ’ 145 Pneumatic breakers 281 bs oa Se . Single-acting reciprocating ] Hole-making with diamond eegescmes o 3.6 Graphical symbols 34 Gompressers : 146 ave a 283 Pneumatic components Z Double-acting reciprocating Rammers . - 2 284 ‘Ait cylinders |. Compressed air theory 45 compressors -. 158 Sheeting drivers eae pcre 41 Whats air? i Oilfree reciprocating compressors. 168 BOMpS i te aS Oilreservoirs |... 1.00: ca) Basie laweottherniidyaamics 36 Oilfree rotary screw compressors. | 170 TPR shectingrigs 6 ss ss a); Cantrot valves 43. Physical aws eo Booster compressor... 5 17 Compressed air processes 44 ‘acuum pumps 179 Industrial technique. 293 Compressed air Hine equipment 45 Gasflow .... 2... 48 por He Power tools and mechanization 294 y co 5. Basic heat transfer theory. ss. $2 Airdryers ss... eee 183 ee ne en ek leatcontent ..... : 2 ecippertion’ Guar ¢a soe co 288 $2 Conduction...) |). 52 Mining and construction te . 189 Reseracnetoas eee B10 5.3 Convection»... 2. 5 Sd. Introduction . tees 190 GMechaiizition .).. 00-4. - 309 | Se eaciaucn see ee B 190 Automatic drill rigs ©. 5. 329 5.5. Heat transmis nO es + 7 MOB + 194 ) 5.6 Heat exchangers cia: Highway and construction work. 203 Pee tts! a8 | eisdbeietsity we es a 8 Down-the-hole drilling 2... . . 205 surface treatment == - ss ss 6.1 Direct current ©) 2) 11)! 55 Mi i Se 3 Moana cupmen! «30 | Ramet trinity oo tee sO act wrenches... t Feeds. ; paca 28 s 353 | a ee fects ie. 8 8 Drill rigs for surface drilling |. | 219 fe werumnes LL 387 | petite oe iB Overbaaen dings cits BB Grinders and sanders re 73 Compressor displacement and Dust collecting eq Lt) 31 Beet Lilli 33 2, Long-hole percussion drilling rigs |. 232 Tapers... 374 T4_ Soecitic energy requirement" <6) Hydraulic booms 23 Niler j;unpolasce 1 os 5 Survey of compressor types. lard rigs for pueees a DA Mibbler pe ee * see 716 Special applications Fi ean ie ipsa ae Circular saw. a76 77 Comprenpriane aes ey kes Ble ce a - 235 Chippinghammers. 6... + + 376 ; ae Special dril ei : 78 Compressed air quality 1 80 Paneworl meres a) Rivelmehamimers: ss Cy Rareciyicontrol * .. 86 Fullfacer tunnelling machines | |. 240 Scalers PELE Ett lt 380 pe ee saiaxs 489 Drill steel equipment... 2. . 243 Engraving pen | 380 Ul gliodcgeromnanes <2 2 $8 Landers and apes 20 eae a | - Winches. , 252 Airhoists 2... oe 387 4Preface The Atlas Copeo Manual is intended to give the reader con- centrated facts about compressed air and related fields of technology and about the Atlas Copco product range. As distinguished from Edition 1, the theoretical sections related to specific industries are now moved to the respective industry section—before each product catalogue. As the theoretical sections are universal in scope and quite separate from the product parts, the Atlas Copco Manual is very well suited for educational purposes. Complementary material such as wall charts, film strips, films etc. is available from Atlas Copco on request. Audio-visual material based on this manual is being prepared for schools and for training purposes. For details about contents and availability please contact nearest Atlas Copco office or write direct to the address below The new, internationally accepted SI-units are employed throughout the general theoretical section while both ST and English units have been used in the product catalogues. For further details see page 27 and the enclosed book-mark. ‘The objective has been to make the product section as com- plete as possible in spite of changes caused by rapid techni- cal development. If, however, more detailed specifications on the respective products are required, comprehensive technical literature is available from Atlas Copco. Similar handbooks have also been prepared by local Atlas Copco Companies and are printed in Finnish, Dutch, Ger- man, Greek, Italian, Spanish and Swedish. Further editions are planned at two year intervals, so in order to keep the Manuals as useful as possible, we welcome all comments and suggestions on corrections, additions and enquiries which should be addressed to: Atlas Copco AB, Communications Department, S-10523 STOCKHOLM, Sweden ‘The data given in the product par at he The sata ave sare correct, at the te of printing, but due to tinuous predue development we reserve themightto make changes. 6 1 Historical notes on air compression Many technical applications derive from the primitive state of mankind. For example, the first application of compressed air was blowing on cinders to make them flare up into a live fire. The air used for blowing was compressed in the lungs which may be regarded as a “compressor” provided by nature. The capacity and performance of this compressor are quite impressive. The human lungs are capable of pro- cessing 100 litres of air per minute, or 6 cubic metres per hour, and they ‘exert a pressure of 0.02—0.08 bar. In its healthy state this human compressor is unexcelled in relia- bility, and the service costs are nil. The question might be asked how our culture would have developed if our aspira- tion apparatus had not been capable of assistance in making upa fire. But the human compressor proved entirely inadequate when mankind more than 3000 years B.C. began to melt metals like gold, copper, tin and lead found in pure form in nature, also later for the reduction of their oxides, that constituted the raw materials for the early metallurgists when they began to turn out metallic artifacts. To reach the temperatures need- ed—in excess of 1000°C—a mightier compressor was requir- ed, but this one too was provided by nature, namely the wind compressed against a hillside and ascending over a ridge. Egyptian and Sumerian goldsmiths invented a more con- venient and reliable means of compressing air for the blast they needed to melt their noble metals. They used a blowpipe and so indeed do their colleagues today. It is adequate for their purpose, but the capacity is of course insufficient for volume smelting of metals. The first mechanical compressor, the hand operated bellows —was not invented until the middle of the Third Millennium, and the much more efficient foot-bellows did not come into use until about 1500 B.C. This was when the alloying of metallic copper and tin to obtain bronze had developed into a stable production process, as illustrated by a painting in an Egyptian tomb from about this period. This might be con- sidered as the birth of the compressed air. Jotding to @ painting in an Egyptian tomb 1500 B.C. Foot operated Melting of gota ‘om animat stomachs deliver the air for the furnacesBellows, foot operated or driven by a water-wheel, remained in use for the following two thousand years, and it was not until 1762 that they began to be replaced, at first by a blow- ing cylinder invented by John Smeaton and driven by a water- wheel. As the capacity of the coke-fired blast furnaces kept increasing, the conventional bellows proved altogether in- adequate and Smeaton's blowing cylinder, arthough primitive in construction, provided a solution, But it was not until John Wilkinson had invented a boring mill for cannons also capable of turning out large and accurately machined cast- iron cylinders, that efficient blasting machines—not to men- tion steam engines—could be built. The first blasting machine ever built was turned out by Wilkinson and installed in his machine shop at Wilby in Shropshire in 1776. This, then was an early prototype of all mechanical compressors. It was capable of producing an air blast with a pressure of about one bar, which raised the compression temperature to the limit tolerated by the leather links used to control the wooden (later steel) valves. Bellows and the early blowing machines—as well as subse- quent compressors—were chiefly used to supply a combustion blast to metallurgical furnaces and also to ventilate under- ground workings.The ventilation was necessary as the ore was mined by heating the walls with open fires and subse- quent cooling with water. In other words, the use of com- pressed air was throughout the millennia limited to the extrac- tion and fabrication of metals, although vacuum pumps and compressors were utilized by the 17th century natural phi- losophers in their experiments, following the example of such ancient Greek pioneers as Ctesibius and Heron. To find out when the work capability of compressed air first was used we must go back many thousand years to the day when the first hunter had tried out a blow-pipe and arrow for game Killing. It is almost unbelievable what a range and precision a primitive man can obtain with such a weapon. The use of compressed air as medium of energy transmission began to be discussed in earnest around 1800 when it had been found that steam, owing to its rapid cooling and con- densation, was limited to very short distances. The metal- lurgical plants had grown in size and there was an urgent need to supplement the installed steam plants with water power. One such attempt was made in Wales in the 1820s. A waterfall in a narrow valley could not be utilized because the site did not permit building of a rolling mill. Instead, the mill was erected about 1000 metres from the fall, which was developed and provided with water-wheels that drove the compressors. The compressed air was conducted through a pipeline to drive the air motors installed in the mill. But the plant refused to start up. The blowing machines worked as expected, but the air motors did not move. At a public meeting, to which the foremost engineers in Britain had been invited, some of them declared that the project was doomed to failure because it was contrary to nature. ‘A native hunter using a blow-pipe to propel an Hand operated bellows equipped with suction valve give_air for ventilation of mines. After ‘gtieola 1590 ‘A committee was appointed to report on the problem, and eventually the cause of the failure was revealed. The long airline had been built of vitrified clay pipes, which when used for water conduction had provided tight, but obviously they leaked air. There are numerous examples of such costly early failures that may appear silly to subsequent generations of engineers who have benefitted from previous errors. But they are certainly not a thing of the past, because anyone intent on creating something really new is apt to forget some basic factor The first successful large-scale transmission of energy in the form of compressed air took place in connection with the advance of the Mt. Cenis tunnel in the Swiss Alps. This was a double-track railway tunnel with a length of 13.6 km. The work began in 1857 with manual drilling at a rate of advance that would have finished the job in 30 years. Therefore, al- ready at the outset, the railway management had decided to use @ pneumatic rock drill and compressors operating at a pressure of 6 bar. After four years, compressors built along (wo different lines were installed at both portals of the tunnel, and rock drills designed by Germain Sommeiller, chief en- uineer of the tunnel was available for operation. Drilling waggon in the Mont Cenis tunnel. 40 persons served the waggoneee It is interesting to note that both compressors were of the wet type, ie. water was used to cool the air inside the cylinders. This seemingly odd design was chosen instead of trying to develop the blowing machine because the engineers feared “the heat wall” that they believed would present insurmountable difficulties with cylinders and valves. Actu- ally, serious valving trouble soon developed on those com- pressors operating on the principle of a falling water column, whereas the so-called “water spout” reciprocating compres- sors provided with water pistons proved technically viable. The difficulties met with in this firstattempt at using pneumat- ic rock drills are illustrated by the fact that for every 9 rock drills in operation on each heading 54 machines were being repaired. The tremendous stresses to which the materials are exposed in percussion tools require altogether different ma- terials than those then available, better know-how on heat treatment and mastery of stress concentration phenomena in order to shape the components properly. When the two teams met in the tunnel there were 7,000 metres of airline extending from the portal to the break- through heading. It had been demonstrated in practice that compressed air could indeed be transmitted over long dis- tance. The Mt. Cenis performance attracted international publicity in newspapers and technical journals. Discussions arose about the possibility of building a distribution net for com- Compressor from the Mont Conis tunnel. The piston Fis driven by 2 water wheel over @ crank. Fhe water in the vertical cylinder serves as a ‘piston “Compressor station in the Paris pneumatic eystom 1888, 7 steam engines driving 14 compressors, total 1500 kW Boe ee ae : eee OF ee pressed air for the purpose of supplying industry and trade with energy that could be applied to individual machines. Thus already 1875 an industrial site was planned close to Trollhattan, the biggest hydro-electric plant of southern Sweden. 3,600 kW of the maximum available 130,000 kW was intended to drive air compressors. However, this project never materialized. The breakthrough came instead in France where the Austrian engineer Viktor Popp obtained a concession to use the Paris sewer system for a compressed air distribution network that would supply piirts of the city with compressed air. The plant was put in Operation in 1888 when Popp had installed a 1,500 kW compressor plant feeding 7 km mains, to which 50 km of subsidiary feeder lines were added. The plant delivered air at a pressure of 6 bar. By 1891, the installed capacity was 18,000 kW. One of the reasons for the immediate success of the Popp venture was the rapid extension of the network and, not least, his introduction of a novel clock that always gave the correct time by being driven by timed pulses from the com- pressor plant. The clock became a prestige item, and all restaurants, shops, factories, physicians and lawyers insisted on having one installed. Once compressed air was available in a premise, it was a simple matter to connect up other pneumatic apparatus. Inventors in most industrialized countries now got busy, and a large number of patents were issued for all sorts of ma- chines and tools. In Paris, for example, compressed air was used for the following: Pneumatic clocks Pneumatic dispatch systems Passenger lifts Wine and beer dispensing Air motors of up to 70 KW for the operation of machine tools, looms, presses, ete Pneumatic drive of DC generators of up to 35 kW for the lighting of restaurants, theatres, shops, hospitals, etc. Here, again, novelty and prestige played an important part in the rapid application of compressed ‘The pneumatic service in Paris received tremendous public- ity, and engineers from all countries flocked to Paris to study and report. A great many of their reviews ended with the conclusion that this was indeed the energy distribution system of the future. They took a wholly negative attitude to the electric distribution system that was still in its infancy, and found numerous technical reasons why it could not possibly become a success However, there were other engineers who were just as enthusiastic about the new electric system and thoroughly convinced that pneumatic operation within a short time would be superseded by electric power because of the poor efficiency of the pneumatic plant. Neither of the two schools were proved right, Compressed air plants kept developing and expanding, while electric transmission systems became the Wexclusive means of distributing power. Now, compressed air serves as an important complement to electricity. With pneumatic tools and apparatus the performance of the human hand has been immensely improved without losing its in- comparable flexibility and sensitivity ~the necessary require- ments for doing precision work. Pneumatic tools are light- weight, durable and safe, and they are not fatiguing to the operator. Compressed air is employed also for monitoring, control and regulation, frequently in combination with elec- tric and hydraulic systems Concluding, it is the overall economy of a system that counts and not its efficiency. On this basis, compressed air com- petes with electric power in numerous fields of application, and it is a necessary complement to electricity in many more. ‘This manual presents ample evidence of the vital part played by compressed air in modern industry. Primitive black-smith made blowing machine with square cylinder. Swedish steel mil 1839 12 2 The Atlas Copco story The original comnany in the Atlas Copco Group—named Atlas—was founued in Stockholm in 1873. According to its articles of association it was to engage in the manufacture of rolling stoc}, for the railways, Sweden was at the time what today is known as a development country and in the process of expanding its railway net. : + The country was sparsely settled—with less than ten inhab- itants per square kilometre—and its economy was almost entirely based on farming. Merely a few years before the company wal founded a poor harvest brought about na wide starvation, which resulted in reducing the birth rate by one half, as well as eliminating a large number of elderly people. Still, Sweden had old traditions as a mining and metal producing country, and had been a major supplier of copper and iron to the Continent and Britain. Owing to these exports, Sweden had been able to carry on war and take part in European power politics for a couple of hundred years. But the mining and metals industries had lost their former importance after the Napoleonic wars, and in the 1870's Sweden was a poor country financially and had to borrow abroad to finance the building of the railways, busi- ness and indu: Various aspects of the Atlas plantin the 1880's ppt terthoy oe 4.0. Wallenberg Founder of the company and first chairman of the Board 13Atlas, however, was an outstanding exception to this general trend. It was financed entirely by local capital, because among its founders was the well-known banker A.O. Wallenberg, who at the middle of the century had participated in estab- lishing Stockholms Enskilda Bank. This bank together with the Wallenberg family has made major contributions to the development of Sweden into an efficient industrial country. After three years Atlas had 610 employees and its sales approached SKr. 3 million. But then sales began to decline and the average turnover for the first ten years was only Skr. 1.3 million a year. The company took orders for steam engines, locomobiles, rolling mills and other heavy machinery, in addition to railway stock. It even succeeded in developing a modest export business, and during the 1880's it delivered some 900 passenger coaches and freight cars to the neighbouring countries. Then, at the middle of the decade, Burope suffered a severe depression which hit the less developed countries, among them Sweden, very hard. Atlas for instance had, for three consecutive years, to sell its output at 25 percent below its ‘own costs. As a consequence, the company had to be recon- structed with fresh capital twice at the end of the 1880's. During the 1890's the demand for railway stock declined sharply and Atlas took up the manufacture of machine tools which subsequently became one of its main lines of business. It was at this time that one of its engineers spent the years 1892-93 in the United States to study the rapidly expanding American industry and returned home full of enthusiasm about the performance of some pneumatic riveting and chip- ping hammers he had seen there, He brought back two such tools with him. Atlas had already in 1888 bought a pneu- matic riveting press and a compressor for the boilershop. The new interesting tools were immediately put to work. ‘They proved eminently successful and substantially reduced the cost of boiler manufacture and raised the product quality. hop round 1900 14 al American tools broke down it was not possible to wait for spare parts to be shipped across the Atlantic, so instead the parts were made in the company's wa shops. To prevent stoppages several spares were made al the same time. Rumours about the modern manufacturing methods at Atlas spread to other machine shops, and when one of the oldest engineering firms in the country made an enquiry about the possibility of producing such equipment in the country, Atlas was happy to oblige. The home-made vveting and chipping hammers were delivered and, as it turned out, the company found itself in a new line of busi- ness. But itawas to take 50 years before the pneumatic line made a definite impact on the company's business and line of production, During the ensuing years the line of air tools of the com- pany's own design kept expanding, and drilling and grinding machines, rock drills, etc. were added to the riveters and chipping hammers. A special department for rock drills and tools was formed in 1901, and in 1904 the first air compres- sor was made. In 1917, Atlas was merged with AB Diesels Motorer which since 1898 had been building diesel engines on one of the original licences granted by Rudolf Diesel. The two com- panies shared to a big extent the same owners, and after the merger Atlas Diesel, the new company, concentrated on diesel engines, compressors, rock drills, and pneumatic tools. The postwar depression at the beginning of the twenties struck the Swedish industry a severe blow. Atlas Diesel's order stock declined sharply and new capital was needed Stationary compressor installed in a mine, 380 /s, 160 r/min, 1910 as first portable compressor 1907. tion engine and single-stage compr ‘common crank shat, lb ignSennen to keep the company alive. The new capital was invested in ‘a complete modernization of the company’s machine shops and products. An export organization was also built up at reat cost. By the end of the twenties the investments began to pay off and business picked up. But the company had hardly recovered from the postwar slump when it was hit again, this time by the worst depres- sion on record which shook the entire world economy in the carly thirties. Once again the company had to be refinanced by the Wallenberg finance group which believed in the future of the company. After a few years, the output began to in- crease. Atlas Diesel had become known abroad as a reliable manufacturer of diesel engines and pneumatic equipment. When World War IT broke out in 1939 the company was at long last in a sound financial position and the future looked promising. ‘The war brought serious problems to a company that had come to live on an export business that now suddenly van- ished. All resources were mobilized to place the company in the best possible position when the war ended, New pro- ducts were developed, and particularly in the field of rock drilling radical innovations were made. Column-mounted, hand-rotated rock drill 1910 16 Atlas rock drills had always been appreciated for their sturdy performance in hard rock. Granite and gneiss outcrops throughout Scandinavia and Atlas had to build machines capable of drilling in this hard rock. Although the rock drills stood up to the rugged work, there still remained the heavy wear on the drill steels used with the machines. The steels had to be reforged after only 0.5 or at the most | metre of hole drilled. Besides the heavy direct costs, there were the indirect costs of having to circulate large tonnages of drill steels between the workingfaces below ground and the smithy above ground The transport of the steels through shafts and narrow drifts also put a heavy burden on underground operations. To find a solution to this problem the company began a long- term research and development project, in cooperation with Sandvik, the well-known Swedish manufacturer of drill steels and tungsten carbides, with the aim of replacing the forged drill steels with rods provided with brazed tungsten carbide bits. Such bits had been used in coal mining before the war, but to apply them in hard rock mining was thought alto- gether impossible. It required numerous lengthy and costly trials before the carbide bits were improves to the point where they could be offered to the company’s customers in mining and contract- ing. But the potentials of the new bits were immediately Self-rotating, pusher leg mounted rock drils with tungsten carbide tipped drill stee!s. First generation of the “Swedish Method” 1946 17eee | appreciated, and in conjunction with these industries an altogether new method of rock excavation was developed It became known as the “Swedish Method” and had reached a satisfactory state of technical development a year after the war ended ‘The Swedish Method involved the use of light-weight, self- rotating pusher-feed rock drills in combination with drill steels tipped with cemented tungsten carbide bits brazed to the rods. The service life of the bits had by that time been extended many times, in some cases hundredfold. The meth- od proved both technically and economically advantageous, and when introduced abroad, in Europe and the United States —subsequently around the world—it proved a sensation. Naturally, it became an economic success for the company. By 1948, it became quite obvious to the company's board that the world-wide interest shown in its new products, partic- ularly the rock drilling equipment and the compressors, far exceeded the company’s means of satisfying the demand ‘The new capital required to bring all the products up to a profitable level of output would be of such a large scale that it could not be raised under the prevailing conditions of capital shortage. ‘The Board therefore took the brave decision to sell its diesel engine business, which represented one-third of the turnover, and to shed the production of hydraulic torque converters and electrical handtools. Instead, Atlas Diesel would con- centrate its development work and production on pneumatic equipment and compressors. Some fresh capital was obtained from the sale of the diesel business, but the major benefit gained was the large plant space and the manpower that be- came available for the expanded production of pneumatic equipment. Some time after this operation the name of the company was changed to Atlas Copco. This type of structural company rationalization has become commonplace in most industrialized countries in recent years, but then they are very often imposed by negative contingencies. In the Atlas Copco case, the operation was an act of positive long-range planning and it enabled the com- pany to develop rapidly into an international group and a leading world supplier of pneumatic equipment. With the concentration of the product lines followed an in- tensive development work and a restructuring of the orga- nization, Independent production units were set up with their own product development and design departments. A com- mon research laboratory was established for long-term prod- uct development. Independent sales companies were ¢s- tablished on all major markets and the philosophy of direct customer sales with technical feed-back was established, The basic structure of the Atlas Copco group is shown on page 20. But the rapid world-wide growth of Atlas Copco is not only the result of high-quality products and adequate production pacity. The company’s marketing policy has been a prin- cipal instrument for attracting and retaining its customers 18 throughout the world. Briefly expressed, the policy is based on service—a technical and economic service of a kind that may be exemplified by the sale of mining and contracting equipment. Although the pneumatic plant used in mines and tunnels may al first sight appear the same, the selling and acquisition of the equipment are quite different in motivation and technical philosophy. : However, both customer categories appreciate the oppor- tunity of penetrating the technical and economic details of their plant acquisitions with the company's project engineers to reach the best possible solutions to their individual prob- Jems. From such detailed discussions going on in all parts of the world Atlas Copco’s project departments get to be fa- miliar not only with the customers’ current requirements but also the future trends, and their experience is applied to the progressive development of equipment and methods. Atlas Copco is not only selling machines but also technical know- how for industrial rationalization. ‘The rock drilling industries are particularly interesting owing to their progressive attitude to new technologies. A new machine, or an innovation introduced in the United States or Europe becomes discussed in Australia and South Africa within a few months, and vice versa. As for the rest of its product lines, Atlas Copco has found that a surprisingly large part of its dynamic marketing policy and the practices originally applied to rock drilling can be used also for other products, to the mutual benefit of the company and its customers. Today, an ever increasing part of the company's activities is directed towards the manu facturing industry with a product assortment ranging from small handtools to complete industrial production plants. By always having the customer's economic interest at heart— and this obviously includes an efficient after-sales service— Atlas Copco continues to gain new customers without losing the old ones. 19Atlas Copco today Atlas Copco is mainly concerned with compressed air tech- nology and is one of the world’s foremost companies in this field. ‘The Atlas Copco Group is a world-embracing organization with own sales companies in 35 countries and agents in another 85. Inall, it has about 17,000 employees, spread over five continents. Group billings in 1974 amounted to nearly 3,000,000,000 Swedish Kronor or approx. US $ 750,000,000. Of the Group's aggregate sales volume 90% derive from markets outside Sweden. The most important buying regions are the major industrial countries of Western Europe. About 60 % of the total output is sold in these countries. ‘The hard core of the Group consists of the parent company, Atlas Copco AB, and three product companies: Atlas Copco MCT AB, Atlas Copco Airpower N.V. and Atlas Copco Tools AB. ‘The parent company, with its headquarters in Stockholm, is concerned with finance, research, marketing, production, public relations, advertising, administration, etc. as related to the Group. It has also two separate functions, namely the Distributor Sales Department and the Eastern Sales Depart- ment which market Group products sold through agents or directly to the customers. ‘The three product companies design, develop and manu- facture their products and direct marketing operations through the Group's sales organization. The Group's basic organization Gsm =a qe) CE 20 Snr Atlas Copco MCT AB with six subsidiary manufacturing units. The company's mining equipment range includes light and heavy rock drills with feeds, mechanized rock drill rigs, loaders, dumpers and winches.. The contractors’ product range comprises tools such as paving breakers, sheeting drivers, plughole drills, pumps, motor drills, tampers, crawler and wagon drills and rock drills with feeds. ‘The company also manufactures and markets machines and accessories for diamond core drilling, prospecting and grout- 1g. SandvikeCoromant drill steel equipment is also included the sales programme as well as auger drills. Independent companies are: Atlas Copco Craelius AB, Sundbyberg, Sweden, with sub- sidiaries in Great Britain, France and Germany. Manufac- tures bits and in-the-hole equipment for diamond core drilling and prospecting. Atlas Copco Maschinen A.G., Thun, Switzerland. Develops and markets full face tunnelling machines. Atlas Copco Airpower N.V. with three subsidiary manufacturing units. The company range includes piston and rotary screw compressors of sta- tionary as well as portable design. Special compressor types are jet engine starters and compressors for completely oil- free compressed air. The installation equipment comprises receivers, aftercoolers and ait dryers. Atlas Copco Tools AB with six subsidiary manufacturing units. Manufactures and markets industrial tools such as air drills, serew drivers, nut runners, grinders, riveting and chipping hammers. The prog- ramme also includes air motors, pneumatic components and automatic systems, finishing equipment and air line accessories. Atlas Copco ABEM AB An independent subsidiary in Stockholm, Manufactures and markets geophysical instuments for ore and water prospect- ing, industrial measuring instruments. Monsun Tison AB An independent subsidiary in Boris. Develops and manu- factures pneumatic components; develops, manufactures and markets hydraulic components and systems. In addition to the three product companies, there are manu- facturing units mainly serving local markets in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, India, Mexico, Spain and South Africa. aA business founded on service Throughout the world, Atlas Copco markets its equipment on the basis of service that begins with the provision of technical and economical consultation on methods, equip- ment and installation. It is followed up by after-sales service on the equipment delivered to the customers in every coun- try and region served by an Atlas Copco Group company. The service facilities include central and local workshops managed by the subsidiaries, supplemented by on-site serv- ice with fully-equipped service vans. The purchase of Atlas Copco equipment is accompanied by technical operating and maintenance literature, frequently in the customer's own language. 22 3. International standardization Atlas Copco has for many years been actively engaged in international standardization work. ‘The first part of this chapter lists some international bodies and presents some of their publications. The benefit of international standardiza- tion is obvious, not only to the manufacturer but also to the customer, in that it inereases interchangeability of parts and enables a comparison on an equal basis of performance statements. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was founded in 1947, Its origin dates back to 1926 when the In- ternational Federation of the National Standardizing Asso- ciations (ISA) was set up by about 20 member countries. ISA ceased to work in 1942. In 1944 the United Nations Standards Co-ordinating Com- mittee (UNSCC) succeeded the former ISA till it was replac- ed by ISO. Earlier ISO issued recommendations, but from 1972 they are international standards. ISQ.works with a number of tech- nical committees (TC). The committees that are of direct interest in this context are TCL — Boilers and Pressure vessels C29 — Small tools TC30 — Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits C39 — Machine tools (Hydraulics) TC43. — Acoustics TC70 — Internal combustion engines TC82_ — Mining TC112 — Vacuum technology TC1I8 — Compressors, pneumatic tools and pneumatic machines TC131 — Fluid power systems and components The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) was founded in 1906. They deel with all questions of an electro- technical character. They were affiliated to the ISO in 1947. This commission, while preserving its autonomy, functions as the Electrical Division of ISO. Two other important international bodies are: The International Oil-Hydraulic and Pneumatic Commission (CETOP) founded 1962 in which 13 countries are repre- sented, and the European Committee of Manufacturers of Compressors, Vacuum Pumps and Pneumatic Tools (PNEUROP) founded 1959, in which 13 European coun- tries are represented. One important task of CETOP and PNEUROP has been to work out Codes and Recommendations that later on are forwarded to ISO for consideration as International Stand- ards. 23mR 3.1 Recommendations and standards Below are listed some more important publications, issued by the four bodies mentioned in the introduction to this chapter ISO General ISO 1000 — SI units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of certain other units. ISOJR 1219 — Graphical symbols for hydraulic and pneu- matic eq power tr ISO/DIS 2944 — Fluid power systems and components — Nominal pressures. ISO/DIS 3322 — Fluid power cylinders ~ Nominal pressure ment and accessories for fluid ratings Testing ISO/R S41 — Measurement of fluid flow, by means of orifice plates and nozzles. ISO 1217 — Displacement compressors. Acceptance tests. ISO/R 1402 — Hydrostatic testing of rubber hose. ISO/R 1607/1 — Methods of measurement of the perform- ance characteristics of positive displace- ment vacuum pumps. ISO 2151 — Measurement of airborne noise emitted by compressor/prime-mover units intended for outdoor use. 1S0 2787 — Rotary and percussive pneumatic tools. Acceptance tests. Design ISO/R 721 — Rock drilling—Integral stems. TSOJR 72: — Rock drilling—Hollow hexagonal drill steels in bar forn ISO/R 723 — Rock drilling— Forged collared shanks and chuck bustings for hollow hexagonal drill steels. ISOJR 1173 — Assembly tools for bolts and screws— Hexagon drive ends for power tools. ISO/R 1174 — Assembly tools for bolts and screws— Driving squares for power socket wrenches and hand socket wrenches ISO/R 1180 — Shanks for pneumatic tools and fitting dimensions for chuck-bustings—Part I. ISO/R 1404 — Industrial air hose. ISO 1436 — Wire reinforced, rubber covered hydraulic hose. 24 ISO/R 1571 — Shanks for pneumatic tools and fitting di- mensions for chuck-bustings~ Part II. ISO/R 1717 — Rock drilling— Rotary drill rods and rotary drill bits for dry drilling~Connecting di- mension ISO/R 1718 — Rock drilling—Drill rods and detachable bits for percussive drilling. ISO/R 1719 — Rock drilling-Extension drill-steel equip- . ment for percussive long-hole drilling— Rope threaded equipments "/s to 1'/s in. (22 t0 32 mm). ISOJR 1720. ~ — Rock drilling—Extension drill-steel equip- ment for percussive long-hole drilling— Rope threaded equipments 1'/2 to 2 in, (38 to 51 mm). ISO/R 1721 — Rock drilling—Extension drill-steel equip- ment for percussive long-hole drilling— Reverse-butiress threaded equipments— 1'6to | "Va in, (27 to 32 mm) ISO/R 1722 — Rock drilling~Extension drill-steel equip- ment for percussive long-hole drilling— Reverse-buttress threaded equipments— 142 to 2/2 in. (8 to 64 mm) ISO/DIS 3320 — Fluid power cylinders—Cylinder bore and piston rod diameters~ Metric series. TSO/DIS 3321 — Fluid power cylinders~Cylinder bore and piston rod diameters~Inch series. IEC IEC Publ. 34.1 — Rating and performance of rotating elec- trical machines. PNEUROP Compressors. Classification and glossary of technical terms, Pneumatic tools. Classification and glossary of technical terms. Vacuum pumps. Classification and glossary of technical terms. Vacuum pumps. Acceptance specifications (3 parts) Vacuum flanges and connexions. Dimensions. SI-guide. CETOP General RPI — Units RP3 — — Symbols for hydraulic and pneumatic equipment and accessories for power transmission by fluid. RP4 —— Characteristics—Pneumatic cylinders. RP SP — Specification for pneumatic cylinders. RP6P — Pipe couplings for pneumatic pipe-coupling thread. 25RP 19P — Characteristics, Pneumatic directional control valves RP 20P — Characteristic: RP21P — Characteristi valves. RP 22P — Characteristics. Pneumatic shuttle non-return and quick exhauster valves. RP 23P — Characteristics. Pneumatic pressure intensifiers. RP 24P — Characteristics. Pneumatic rectilinear piston- type cylinders RP 25P — Characteristics. Pneumatic filters and water traps. RP 26P — Characteristics. Lubricators. RP 27P — Characteristics. Air dryers. RP 28P_ ~ Characteristics. Connections RP 29P — Characteristics. Pneumatic quick-action coup- Pneumatic flow control valv Pneumatic pressure control acteristics. Pneumatic rotating and tele- RP30P — scopic joints. RP 33 — Graphical symbols and definitions for logic and related functions in fluid circuits, RP 44P_ — Pneumatic fluid power glossary. RP 49P — Technological symbols for fluid logic and related devices with and without moving parts. RP S7P — Characteristics. Pneumatic pressure relief. valves. Testing RP SOP — Flow capacity of pneumatic components. RP S4P_ — Specification for polyamid tubing type 11 and 12 for pneumatic transmissions, Design RP7P = Pneumatic cylinder—minimum port sizes in rela- tion to cylinder bores 925 to 400 mm RP 32P_ — Sub-plates ("/s", '/4", Yo", 5/3!, 1") for directional control valves. RP 34P — Couplings for industrial air hoses. RP 37P_ — Recommended diameter for tubes and hoses, RP 38P_ — Guidance on relation between part threads and pipe/hose diameters. RP 40P_ — Hose couplings—claw-type. RP43P_ — Pneumatic cylinders—Operating conditions and dimensions~Serial 932 to 100 mm, RP SIP — Pneumatic cylinders—Basic data— Internal diam- eters, piston strokes, piston rod diamete piston rod threads. RP 53P = Operating conditions and dimensions of the pneumatic cylinder series 0125 to 320 mm, RP 59P_ = Quick action couplings—sizes 8, 11 and 13 mm. 26 rere 3.2 The international unit system ‘Any given physical quantity, be it length, time, work, etc is the product of a numerical value {4} and a unit [A] so that = {A} - [A] The unit [A] can be chosen arbitrarily, but it is advisable to define units in such a way that they are derived from a few fundamental units by equations without other numerical factors than unity and that the equations between numerical values of quantities have the same form as the equations between the quantities, A system defined in this way is called a coherent system. ‘A coherent system is formed by defining the units of a few fundamental quantities independently. These are called fun- damental units. The units of all other quantities are defined by equations with no other numerical factors than unity and are called derived units. It is a free choice which quantities should be con- sidered as fundamental and also how many. In the absolute system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time, International cooperation in the field of quantities and units started in 1875, when the Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM) was founded. Various unit systems have since then been proposed and used. The biggest step forward to reach a really international unit system was taken when CIPM, in 1960, adopted the Systéme International d'Unités, with the abbreviation SI. Since then practically every nation in the world has accepted it, and made it legally binding. ‘The system includes three classes of unit 0 base units 1 supplementary units and 1 derived units ‘The International System of Units is founded on seven base units, They are: uenuty Name Symbol length metre m mass Wogram 0 second : time slectrie current ampere a thermodynamic temperature weWn K luminous intonsty candela ot amount of substance mole mol 27Supplementary units are radian for plane angle and steradian for solid angle. Derived units are expressed in terms of base or supplemen- tary units. ‘Those of interest to us are: ‘Quantity Name | Symbot ‘supplementary wnite frequency note | he | tHe= 154 force newton | N | 4N= 1 kgm:5 pressure and stress pascal | Pa | 1 Pa=1N-m= Wwork.energy. quantity ofeat joule | J powor watt | w tect tension vot |v blectric capacitance ftarad | F lactic resistance fohm | Inductance Inenry | oH Besides the units described above the Comité International des Poids et Mesures have recognized certain units that have such praetical importance that they must be retained for general use. The most important are: Quantity Name ot unit | Symbol Definition time minute min min = 60s hour h th= 60min ay 4 fda 26h volume 1 tHuld pressure bar bar Multiples of SL-units The following prefixes are used to form names and symbols of multiples of the ST units. ‘symbol Name Factor by which the Unie ts multipied t tere 10 s siga 10 ™ mega 108 k kilo 10° h acto 108 a deca 10 a deol 10% © cent io m mil 102 ‘ micro 104 A nano 10 e pico 10-8 28 A _ eee ee 3.3 Conversion factors a Quantity From Into Multipty by Length inch m 254-102 foot m 0.3048, Area inch mt 0.6852 107 foot? m 92.90: 10° Volume inch? tre 16.39: 10° foo? tre 28.32 ‘gallon UK) lie 4.546 gallon (US) titre 3785 Mass pound ka 0.4536 Force ko N 9.807 ‘ot N 4448 Torque pom Nem 9.507 latin nem 0.1130 iot-tt Nem 1.388 Pressure kp/em? bar 0.9807 Pa bar 40-104 Ietviné bar 68.95: 10% Work wh w 36-10 kom td 9807-102 kcal Wu 4187 Bru oa 1.085 tort wa 4358-102 Power kom/s ew 9807-10 eal’a ew 1.463- 10° hyp (matric) ew 07388 hp (UK) iow 07487 atu kw 0.2981 102 Capacity mifmin Us 1867 to/min is oars Velocity tts mis 2a itimin mis 5468-102 Density tine kgime 2768-109 tae gym? 1602 Therrial conductivity keal/im-h:*C)— Wi{m-K) 1.183 Btuatte nr) Wim: KD 1731 Heat translor keal/on?h-") Wim K) 4.183 BTUME nF) Wile? K) 5678 ; CC ee Dynamic viscosity oP Pas 105 Kinematic viscosity St mits 10s Specific eneray hp: min/m* an 4419 requiterment (mettic) Inp/(100 ofm)(U.K.) J 1s80 seni un 3.000- 102 29EE 3.4 Temperature scales Corresponding temperatures Kelvin Celsius Rankine Fahrenheit Romark °K ~218, oR ~45987°F Absolute 2010 25837 K 1778 °C 459.67°R oF 273.15 oc 49167°R oF Melting point of jee 278.18 K 001 °c 491.69°R, 9202 °F Triplepoint of water Temperature conversion where foc is the temperature in degrees celsius fop is the temperature in degrees fahrenheit Tx is the temperature in kelvin 3.5 Compressed air terms and definitions Displacement compressor A machine where a static pressure rise is obtained by allow- ing successive volumes of gas to be aspired into and ex- hausted out of a closed space by means of the displacement of a moving member Dynamic compressor A machine in which a static pressure rise is obtained by con- verting kinetic energy to pressure energy during the passage of the gas through the machine. The kinetic energy is im- parted to the gas by one or more successive impellers. Booster A machine which aspires gas which has already been com- pressed and delivers the same at a higher pressure. Pressure ratio The ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet pressure NOTES. ~Stage pressure ratio is the pressure ratio for any particular stage in a multi-stage compressor, the discharge pressure being taken before the intercooler. Overall stage pressure ratio is the pressure ratio for any par= ticular stage in a multi-stage compressor, the discharge pres- sure being taken after the intercooler. 30 Intercooling ‘The removal of heat from a gas between stages. NOTE.—Ideal intercooling prevails when the temperature of the gas leaving the intercooler equals the temperature of the gas at the intake of the first stage. Aftercooling . “The removal of heat from a gas after the compression i completed. Displacement of a compressor The volume displaced by the compressing element of the first stage per unit of time Clearance volume The volume inside a compression space, which contains gas trapped at the end of the compression cycle. Relative clearance volume The ratio of clearance volume to the volume swept by the compressing element, Capacity of a compressor ‘The actual volume rate of flow of gas compressed and de- livered at the discharge point, referred to conditions of total temperature, total pressure and composition (e.g. humidity) prevailing at the inlet point Capacity of a vacuum pump The actual volume rate of flow of gas aspired and compressed by the first stage of a vacuum pump and referred to condi- tions of total temperature, total pressure and composition (e.g. humidity) prevailing at the inlet point. NOTE.—It is normally assumed that the final stage of the vacuum pump discharges to a pressure of I bar absolute. Free air Air at the atmospheric conditions of the site and unaffected by the compressor. Volumetric efficiency The ratio of capacity to displacement of a compressor or vacuum pump Surge limit The flow limit below which stable operation of a dynamic compressor is not possible. 31Polytropic process ‘A compression or expansion process of a perfect gas in which the relation between pressure and volume follows the equation. ‘onstant pow The exponent n can have various values. For example, constant pe describes an isothermal process, i.e. the gas temperature remains constant. p> w=constant describes an isentropic process, i.e. the gas entropy remains constant. NOTE.—In some countries this process is called adiabatic, but to avoid confusion between adiabatic (no heat exchange with the surroundings) and reversible adiabatic (isentropic) processes it is called here isentropic. Compressibility factor Z A factor expressing the deyiation of the real gas from a per- fect gas. een Po? vol r Shaft speed irregularity The dimensionless number obtained when the difference be- tween maximum and minimum instantaneous shaft speeds during one period is divided by the arithmetic mean of these two. max" min Shaft speed irregularity = 2 Amaxt! min, Ideal multi-stage compression The condition when a perfect gas is isentropically com- pressed and the gas inlet temperature and also the amount of work spent is the same for each stage. Isothermal power consumption ‘The power which is theoretically required to compress a gas under constant temperature, in a compressor free from losses, from a given inlet pressure to a given discharge pressure Isentropic power consumption ‘The power which is theoretically required to compress a gas under constant entropy, from a given inlet pressure to a given discharge pressure. In multi-stage compression the theoret- 32 ice. isentropic power consumption is calculated assuming ideal conditions. Shaft input ‘The power required at the compressor drive shaft. Losses in external transmissions such as gears and belt drives are not included. Mechanical efficiency The ratio of the indicated power to shaft input. Specific energy requirement ‘The shaft input per unit of compressor capacity. Isothermal efficiency ‘The ratio of the isothermal power consumption to shaft input. Isentropic efficiency The ratio of the real gas isentropic power consumption to shaft input. Fuel consumption ‘The mass flow rate of fuel consumed by the prime mover. Specific fuel consumption ‘The ratio of fuel consumption to compressor capacity Direction of rotation The direction of rotation of a compressor is defined as clock- wise or anti-clockwise when looking at the driven end of the shaft 33em 3.6 Graphical symbols 4. Compressed air theory Table 3.6 shows some more common pneumatic and hy- draulic symbols according to ISO Recommendation ISO/R | 1219. 4.1 What is air? Our atmosphere Fig. 4.1.1 — The atmosphere Before the crust of our planet solidified it was surrounded 3000 km to SK Exosphere by hydrogen. The supply of hydrogen from the magma ee stopped when the crust hardened, Part of the hydrogen di appeared into the universe and gases like ammonia and water Jonosphere were broken down into nitrogen and oxygen by photo-syn- ‘Mesosphere thesis. This is how our present day atmosphere was created. Stratosphere . | The closest layer of the atmosphere is called the tropos- Troposphers | phere. See figure 4.1.1. This is where we meet the various shut-ot valve types of weather and where the clouds are. ‘The temperature drops with increasing altitude. At the outer ‘ parts of the troposphere the temperature is around ~S3°C throttle valve Outside of this we find the stratosphere and the mesosphere ‘This region is free from clonds and storms. The next layer is titer the ionosphere which is electrically conductive and reflects radiowaves. The outermost layer is the exosphere where the uravity forces from our planet are reduced to such a level that @ Dt pneumatic tow ae ae molecules and atoms with sufficient velocity can disappear ee drain pipe safety valve enclosure for several components assembled in one unit pipe connection hydraulic tow out into the universe. Air Air is colourless, odourless, tasteless gas. It is a mixture of ee individual gases. The most careful estimates give 15.17 10!” kg for the total mass of the atmosphere which surrounds our planet This is slightly less than a one millionth part of the planet by compressor water tap, automatic drain vacuum pump SOHO SOEO< + +f hyrrautc pump (varie capacity) lubricator mass. The composition of the air remains relatively constant from pneumatic motor B enti SEGARA Se A sealevel up to at least 20 km altitude. 1 prossure operated diractional Table 4.1.2 The composition of dry air bydraulc motor HATA LH Erte in me prs tri two catnt postion Component ercont - Srmace single acting elder Silvaan iat yf sequence valve fitrogen aah eat a ‘Oxygen 20.95 23.15 frgon O88 18 Corton dioxide ons owe prea oc q proosure regulator Neon oot acoi2s ptm o.oease o.eooor2 sect 7 Nathan o.aca's seoeost electric motor - totic pressure switch ee 00 acooes Carbon monoxide o.aceot .co002 Wavous oxide” o coors o.cones M a © pressure gap hyaronen" 00005 ‘.ov00035 Oxon occone o.oeeee? pai ca Xeni © co0000 «000086 =i} sme Nitogen dioxide b.c000n01 aiseeoace ted eto tn radon exo sho a) ‘open tank +S- ow met : flow meter ‘The figures for the gases marked" vary a little, 34 35