Technically and Operationally

EPR v/s N1 indication

A comparison between N1 and EPR based on the confusion cockpit crews
have on the significance, and differences between EPR and N1.
The thrust that the engine of a jetliner is delivering is expressed to the flight
crew either as N1, or EPR. Crews use these figures every day, yet confusion
exists in the minds of most as to what these parameters really refer to. Not
helping one bit are the flight crew operating manuals which dont describe
these parameters in sufficient detail.

Cutaway of the Pratt and Whitney PW4168

What is displayed to the pilot is based on the engines that are mounted to
the specific aircraft.
An Airbus A330, for instance, can be fitted with the:
GE CF6-80E1, Pratt and Whitney PW4000.
The A330s with the:
PW4000 display the engines EPR, N1, EGT, and N2.
GE engines display only the N1, EGT and N2.

The most effective way to understand these engine parameters that are
displayed in the cockpit is to first observe and understand the jet engine
itself.
Lets take the P&W4168 for this example.
The Pratt and Whitney 4168 is one of three engine options that power the
twin engine Airbus A330s. This engine is part of the PW4000 family, and
belongs to the -100 sub-family. The -100 is due to the fan tip diameter
being 100 inches. This particular engine delivers 68,000lbs of thrust at sea
level. Hence the engine model is 4168.
The PW 4168 is a twin spool engine. In essence, there are two coaxial
shafts, running independent of each other. They are not mechanically
coupled, but rather aerodynamically coupled.
The inner shaft drives the fan that is visible at the front of the engine. This
shaft also drives a few compressor turbines aft of the fan, and make up the
low pressure compressor section.
The outer shaft drives the high pressure compressors, which further
compress the air from the low pressure compressors. This compressed air is
then mixed with a fine spray of aircraft turbine fuel. The mixture of fuel and
hot compressed air ignites, which forces hot, expanding gases to rush out
through the rear of the engine.
To convert some of this energy in the hot gases to rotational mechanical
energy, turbines at the rear of the engine are present, attached to the inner
and outer coaxial shafts. These turbines are responsible for driving the low
pressure and high pressure compressor turbines, which keeps the engine
cycle alive.
For the PW 4168, the maximum rated takeoff thrust, at sea level with an
ambient of 30C is 68,000 lbs.
Of the volume of air sucked by the huge fan at the front, 17% of the air is
forced into the Low Pressure (LP) compressor. 83% of the air simply exits
the engine without entering the compressor, and this is the bypass air.
It is this 83% of air that is responsible for most of the thrust developed by
the engine. The remaining air that entered the compressor only helps keep
the engine cycle running.

At this takeoff thrust, the inner coaxial shaft that drives the Fan, and the
Low Pressure compressors is spinning at 3600 revolutions per minute (rpm).
The outer coaxial shaft which drives the high pressure compressors is
running at 10,450 rpm.
With these values, we can get down to explaining the figures that a pilot
sees in his cockpit engine displays.

PW4168 UPPER DISPLAY

Older pure single spool jet engines, and low bypass jet engines described
engine pressure ratio, or EPR, as the ratio of pt3 over pt1 (Total pressure at
point 3 over total pressure at point 1: see above image for clarity). The
same definition holds good even today. On the Airbus A330 displays in the
cockpit, the EPR display goes only till a numbered 1.8. The maximum goaround EPR on the thrust ratings charts is 1.660, with the PW4148.
Below the EPR is the Exhaust Gas Temperature, or the EGT, which is the
temperature of the air thats exiting the LP turbine.
Below the EGT, is displayed the N1, or the fan speed, or the speed of the
inner coaxial shaft. As per the manufacturer, the previously mentioned fan
speed of 3600rpm is treated as 101% N1.

On the sides of the semicircular N1 gauges are the N2 readings of the

corresponding engine. The N2 is the speed of the outer coaxial shaft, or the
shaft that drives the high pressure compressor. As per the manufacturer, the
previously mentioned 10,450rpm is treated as 103%.

EPR vs N1
PW engines use EPR as the thrust reference parameter.
GE uses the N1 as the thrust reference parameter.
With the chosen thrust reference parameter, thrust is controlled to target
the thrust at takeoff, and climbs. Cruise is a speed based reference, while
descent is usually at idle thrust.
The advantage with EPR is that it is a pressure ratio, and is indicative of
engine thrust. Simple physics will tell you how: Force (Thrust) = Pressure
multiplied by the Area of application. According to Boeing, EPR is more
directly related to, and a much better indicator of thrust than the
compressor speeds (N1 and N2), and therefore is more advantageous in
terms of accuracy to utilize EPR to control engine operation.
The flip side of EPR is that in multi spool engines (such as the twin spool
(shaft) PW4168, there is the issue of stability in control of thrust.
Because changes in thrust setting take time to respond, and the filtering of
noise from sensors delays response time, there is a negative impact on
stability.
Besides, EPR is dependent on the prevailing local atmospheric conditions (as
pressure is affected by temperature and aircraft altitude). With a parameter
such as fan speed, or N1, the response is much better and the measurement
of speed a lot more accurate than the measurement of pressure difference,
which allows for excellent stability in control. N1 is simply the fan rotational
speed, which is independent of the prevailing local atmospheric conditions.
EPR is the measure of a quantity that relates to the performance of the
engine. N1 relates to a parameter which is responsible for the performance
of the engine. As such, N1 does not take into account the other variables
which may affect thrust, such as engine performance degradation after
several years. If, for example, 50,000lbs of thrust demanded a hypothetical
EPR of 1.27, no matter what the status of the engine, an EPR of 1.27 in the

same atmospheric conditions is guaranteed to deliver the same amount of

thrust. However, if this thrust required around 90%N1, and the engine
gradually degraded over time (time period being many months or years),
the N1 required to deliver the same thrust in the same environmental
conditions will now be higher. In this way, N1 is not a reliable parameter for
thrust setting over very long periods of time, while it is the presence of an
N1 indication that enables crew to recognize performance degradation.
Consider an engine suffering a bird strike. Blades will get damaged, due to
which the pressures developed across the engine will suffer. If at that point,
the N1 and N2 are held constant, the EPR may fall below the otherwise
expected EPR.
This way, the crew can ascertain that the engine has been damaged. By the
extent of deviation of EPR from the expected EPR at the given speeds of N1
and N2, the extent of damage may be gauged.
Under such a condition, advancing the thrust/throttle levers till the EPR
value is close to the desired values will ensure almost the same engine
thrust, albeit at higher engine rotational speeds. A display with N values only
will not be able to convey as much information to the pilot.

But EPR relies on two pitot probes: one that is ahead of the fan, and the
other that is aft of the fan. The pressure sensed by these two pitot probes
results in the indicated EPR. However, they are faced with the same
operational issues as other pitot probes: they are susceptible to foreign
objects, such as insects and ice, clogging the opening. This can lead to faulty
EPR readings, which are not indicative of the actual thrust generated by the
engine.
The crash of Air Florida Flight 90 into the Potomac river is a result of the EPR
probes having been clogged due to improper de-icing practices. The Boeing
737-200 took off with thrust lesser than what was required in the icing
conditions (~1.7 EPR), despite the faulty EPR readings showing the desired
value of 2.04 EPR. When the crew realized that they were low on thrust, the
throttle levers were advanced to full thrust position a little too late to
salvage the situation, taking away the lives of 70 persons.
When penetrating turbulence, engine thrust is set with reference to N1, not
EPR, (A330 PW4168)

The N1, N2, and N3 (where applicable) sensors are not susceptible to
failures like the EPR probes. This makes the N readings very reliable.
The N readings do not fluctuate as a result of atmospheric variations, unlike
the EPR.
Fo r this reason, when penetrating a turbulent region in flight, N1 values are
used as reference, even if EPR readings are available.

N1 MODE
The A330 with PW4168 has two modes of power setting, EPR mode and N1
mode. In normal mode, engine thrust setting is made through control of the
EPR. The required EPR is set by controlling the fuel flow to the engines. The
command EPR is computed by processing the pilots input (thrust lever
angle), altitude, mach number, ambient temperature, and the status of the
engine bleeds.
In case the pressure sensors used to compute EPR fail, the engine control
reverts to rated N1 mode. In this mode, the N1 power setting is
determined as a function of the thrust lever angle, altitude, and engine inlet
total temperature.
In the event that the engine inlet total air temperature probe fails, or the
ambient pressure sensors fail, the engine reverts to the unrated N1 mode,
where the power setting is determined solely as a function of the thrust lever
angle, limited to the maximum N1, or the N1 that results in an engine
overheat (if the engine inlet total air temperature probe is available).

Conclusion

N1 settings on the A330 powered by PW4168s, in lieu of EPR settings in case

of an unavailability of reliable EPR readings.
N readings, if not the primary readings in certain engine-aircraft
combinations, are definitely a lot more reliable due to their independence
from other measured parameters.
The EPR on the other hand needs carefully positioned probes, which must
provide both pressure and temperature data to a computer (without
temperature data, thrust is not controlled in the EPR mode but the N1
unrated mode).
This EPR control depends upon two probes providing minimum 4 data, in
contrast to the N sensor which needs only rotational speed data from a
single sensor. In case of an inability to control thrust using EPR, the thrust
control system always falls back upon a more reliable N1. In fact, when
setting thrust, crews always cross check the developed EPR with the engine
N1.

In effect, this increases crew workload.

While N readings are not true indicators of thrust, an undamaged engine
over a substantially long period of time will hold a good correlation between
generated thrust and N readings in known atmospheric conditions.
EPR may provide the crew with better awareness about the engine
performance, but the EPR itself is nowhere as reliable as the robust,
independent and highly reliable N readings.