Importance of Irrigation

Definition
the supply of water to crops and landscaping plants by artificial means
Estimates of magnitude
world-wide: 544 million acres
(17% of land 1/3 of food production)
Purpose

Raise a crop where nothing would grow otherwise (e.g., desert areas)
Grow a more profitable crop (e.g., alfalfa vs. wheat)
Increase the yield and/or quality of a given crop (e.g., fruit)
Increase the aesthetic value of a landscape (e.g., turf, ornamentals)

Reasons for yield/quality increase

Reduced water stress

Better germination and stands
Higher plant populations
More efficient use of fertilizer
Improved varieties

Other Benefits of Irrigation

Leaching of salts
Frost protection
Plant/soil cooling
Chemical application
Wind erosion control
Waste disposal

Types of Systems

Sprinkler
pressurized irrigation through devices called sprinklers (water is
discharged into the air and hopefully infiltrates near where it lands)
used on agricultural and horticultural crops, turf, landscape plants
Surface
Irrigation water flows across the field to the point of infiltration
primarily used on agricultural crops and orchards
Micro (drip, trickle)
frequent, slow application of irrigation water using pressurized systems
used in landscape and nursery applications, and on high-value agricultural
and horticultural crops

Water Measurement

Volume
Quantity of water; Water at rest
Gallon, cubic foot, etc.
V = A d (units: acre-inch, acre-foot, hectare-meter etc.)
Depth
Rainfall measured as depth; Useful for irrigation applications as well
Inch, foot, millimeter, centimeter, etc.
D = V / A (units: usually inches or millimeters)
Flow
Volume of water per unit time; Water in motion
Gallons per minute, cubic feet per second, acre-inches per day, liters per
second, cubic meters per second etc.
Q = V / t (units must be consistent)

Soil Water Relationships

Texture
Definition: relative proportions of various sizes of individual soil particles
USDA classifications
Sand: 0.05 2.0 mm
Silt: 0.002 - 0.05 mm
Clay: <0.002 mm
Textural triangle: USDA Textural Classes
Coarse vs. Fine, Light vs. Heavy
Affects water movement and storage
Structure
Definition: how soil particles are grouped or arranged
Affects root penetration and water intake and movement

Water in Soils

Soil water content

Mw
Ms

Mass water content (m)

m = mass water content (fraction)
Mw = mass of water evaporated, g
105oC)
Ms = mass of dry soil, g

(24 hours @

Equivalent depth of water (d)

d = volume of water per unit land area = (v A L) / A = v L
d = equivalent depth of water in a soil layer
L = depth (thickness) of the soil layer

Soil Water Potential

Description
Measure of the energy status of the soil water
Important because it reflects how hard plants must work to extract water
Units of measure are normally bars or atmospheres

 Soil water potentials are negative pressures (tension or suction)

Water flows from a higher (less negative) potential to a lower (more
negative) potential
Irrigation Scheduling
General Approaches

Maintain soil moisture within desired limits

direct measurement
moisture accounting
Use plant status indicators to trigger irrigation
wilting, leaf rolling, leaf color
canopy-air temperature difference
Irrigate according to calendar or fixed schedule
Irrigation district delivery schedule
Watching the neighbors

Canals: Conveyance of water, open and closed conduits. Canals and tunnels functions
and classification of canals, canal alignment, balancing depth. design of lined canals,
design of unlined canals, critical velocity, regime canals, Kennedys and Laceys
theories, advantages of lines canals, method of lining. Design of lines canals.
.

Lining of Irrigation Canals

Most of the irrigation channels in Iraq are earthen channels. The
major advantage of an earth channel is its low initial cost, these suffer
from certain disadvantages, like the following:1- Maximum velocity limited to prevent erosion.
2- Seepage of water into the ground.
3- Possibility of vegetation growth in banks, leading to increased friction.
4-Possibility of bank failure, due to erosion.
5-More maintenance requirement.

Types of Canal Lining

Types of lining are generally classified according to the materials
used for their construction. Concrete, rock masonry, brick masonry,
bentonite-earth mixtures, natural clays of low permeability, and different
mixtures of rubble, plastic, and asphaltic materials are the commonly
used materials for canal lining. The suitability of the lining material is
decided by:
A- Economy.
B- Structural stability.
C- Resistance to erosion.
E- Durability.
F- Hydraulic efficiency.

[A] Concrete Lining

[B] Precast concrete lining
[C] Shotcrete Lining
[D] Bricks, Tiles and Stone lining
[E] Asphaltic Lining
[F] Earth Linings
1- Stabilized Earth Linings
Sub-grade is stabilized using either clay for granular subgrade or by
adding chemicals that compact the soil.
2- Loose Earth Blankets
Fine grained soil is laid on the sub grade and evenly spread. However,
this type of lining is subject to erosion, and requires a flatter side slopes
of canal.
3- Compacted Earth Linings
The graded soil containing about 15 percent clay is spread over the
subgrade and compacted.
4- Buried Bentonite Membranes
Bentonite is a special type of clay soil, found naturally, which swell
considerably when wetted.
5- Soil-cement Linings:
These linings are constructed using cement (15 to 20 per cent by
volume) and sandy soil (not containing more than about 35 per cent of silt
and clay particles). Cement and sandy soil can be mixed in place and
compacted at the optimum moisture content. This method of construction
is termed the dry-mixed soil-cement method.

3- Failure of Canal Lining

The main causes of failure of lining are the water pressure that
developed behind the lining material due to high water table, saturation
of the embankment by canal water, sudden lowering of water levels in the
channel, and saturation of the embankment sustained by continuous
rainfall. When the water level in canal was raised and lowered the banks
suffering from instability due to erosion and seepage through the banks
may be occurs. In order to minimize the seepage, a secondary berms were
constructed along the length of bank at various locations.
Diversion head works: Weirs and Barrages, Layout of diversion head works and
components, failure of hydraulic structures on previous foundations, Blighs Creep

theory, Lanes weighted theory and Khoslas theory, concept of low net, u/s and d/s
cutoffs and protection measures, design of vertical drop weir.
Canal Structures: Types of falls and their location, design principles and Trapezoidal
notch fall, siphon well drop, straight glacis fall. Canal regulation works, alignment of off
taking canal. Distributary head regulators and cross regulation and their design. Canal
escapes, types of metering flumes, types of canal modules and proportionality,
sensitivity, flexibility.
Cross Drainage Works: Definition, classification, design principles of aqueducts,
siphon aqueducts, canal siphons, super passages and inlet and outlets, selection of cross
drainage works.
Bridges and Culverts: Discharge, Waterway and sour depth computations, Depth of
Bridge foundation, spans and vertical clearance, efflux computations, pipe culverts and
box culverts.
Water Power: Classification of Hydropower plants, definitions pf terms, load, head,
power, efficiency, load factor, installed capacity, utilization factor, capacity factor, use of
mass curve and flow duration curve. Components of power plant-intakes, fore/bay,
penstocks, functions and types of sewage tanks, General arrangement of power house,
sub-structure and super-structure.
.

Design of Hydraulic
Structures
Design of Hydraulic
Structures
COURSE Contents
1. Introduction
2. Gravity Dams Site selection,
Forces,
Stability analysis.

3. Diversion Works Weirs and

Barrages
4. Canals Design and Canal Falls.
5. Cross Drainage Works
6. Head Regulators and Cross
regulators
IS Codes
IS Code 6512: Criteria for Design of Solid Gravity
Dams
IS Code 1893: Criteria for Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures
IS Code 7784-Cross-Drainage Works: Part 1 General
IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2 Aqueduct
IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2
Syphon Aqueduct
IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2
Canal Syphon
IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2
Superpassage
IS Code 7784- Cross-Drainage Works: Part 2
Level Crossing

CEL351: Design of

Why study Hydraulic Structures?

INTRODUCTION
Development of water resources of
a region
Requires
Conception
Planning
Design
Construction
Operation
of various facilities to utilise and
control water, and
to maintain water quality.
Utilize/Need water
Domestic & Industrial uses
Irrigation
Power generation
Navigation
Other purposes

Water Resources Engineering

Utilisation of water
Control of water
Water quality management
Water is controlled and regulated
Flood control
Land drainage
Sewerage
Bridges
Not cause damage to property,
inconvenience to the
public, or loss of life
Water-quality management
Required quality of water for
different uses
Preserve Ecological balance
Contamination of
Groundwater/Surface water
Water Resources development
projects are planned

to serve various purposes

Main Purposes
Domestic & Industrial uses,
Irrigation
Power generation, Navigation,
Flood control
Secondary Purposes
Recreational, Fish and wild life,
Drainage control,
Watershed management, Sediment
control,
Salinity control, Pollution
abatement
Miscellaneous Purposes
Employment, Accelerate
development etc
Single-purpose andMulti-purpose
Water Resources projects Two
Main Steps

First step How much water is

available?
Knowledge of Hydrology
Precipitation average
Abstraction Losses
Runoff, Yield of basin
Flood Peak runoff
Reservoir sizing Mass curve
Second step How to utilise and
control water?
Require various structure
Hydraulic Structures
Types of Hydraulic Structures
Storage
Diversion
Transportation
Regulation
Control
Main source of water is
Precipitation

Precipitation is not uniform over

space and time
Monsoon, North East, Himalaya,
W. Ghat
Store water at surplus location
during surplus
period Storage structures
Reservoirs
Dam and Reservoir coexist
Dam solid barrier across river
Reservoir artificial lake u/s of
dam
Reservoir
Dam

Reservoir
Dam Spillway

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Types of Reservoirs Single-purpose
and Multi-purpose

Storage (or conservation) reservoirs

Flood control reservoirs
Multipurpose reservoir
Distribution reservoirs
Balancing reservoirs
Flood Control runoff exceeding
safe capacity of
river is stored in the reservoir.
Stored water is
released in controlled manner
Detention Reservoirs regulated by
GATES
Adv: More flexibility of operation and
better control of
outflow; Discharge from various
reservoirs can be adjusted
Disadv: More expensive; Possibility of
human error

Retarding Reservoirs UNGATES

Adv: Less expensive; Outflow is
automatic so possibility of
human error
Disadv: No flexibility of operation;
Discharge from various
reservoirs may coincide heavy flood

Multipurpose Reservoirs
Serve two or more purposes. In India,
most of the reservoirs
are designed as multipurpose reservoirs
to store water for
irrigation and hydropower, and also to
effect flood control

Distribution Reservoirs
Small storage reservoirs to tide over the
peak demand of
water. The distribution reservoir is
helpful in permitting
the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It
stores water

during the period of lean demand and

supplies the same
during the period of high demand. As the
storage is
limited, it merely helps in distribution of
water as per
demand for a day or so and not for
storing it for a long
period. Distribution reservoirs are mainly
used for
municipal water supply but rarely used
for the supply of
water for irrigation.

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Multipurpose Reservoirs
Serve two or more purposes. In India,
most of the reservoirs
are designed as multipurpose reservoirs
to store water for
irrigation and hydropower, and also to
effect flood control

Distribution Reservoirs

Small storage reservoirs to tide over the

peak demand of
water. The distribution reservoir is
helpful in permitting
the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It
stores water
during the period of lean demand and
supplies the same
during the period of high demand. As the
storage is
limited, it merely helps in distribution of
water as per
demand for a day or so and not for
storing it for a long
period. Distribution reservoirs are mainly
used for
municipal water supply but rarely used
for the supply of
water for irrigation.

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Balancing Reservoirs

A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir

constructed d/s of
the main reservoir for holding water
released from the
main reservoir.

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Storage Capacity of Reservoirs
Storage capacity of a reservoir depends
upon the topography of
the site and the height of dam.
Engineering surveys
The storage capacity and the water
spread area at different
elevations can be determined from the
contour map.
In addition to finding out the capacity of
a reservoir, the
contour map of the reservoir can also be
used to determine
the land and property which would be
submerged when the
reservoir is filled upto various elevations.

To estimate the compensation to be paid

to the owners of the
submerged property and land. The time
schedule,
according to which the areas should be
evacuated, as the
reservoir is gradually filled, can also be
drawn..

RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS
Storage Capacity of a Reservoir
Both the elevation-area curve and the
elevation- storage curve on
the same paper. Abscissa - areas and
volumes - opposite
di ti
Area-Elevation Curve
from contour map An
elevation-area curve is
then drawn between
the surface area as
abscissa and the
elevation as ordinate.

Elevation-Capacity
Curve: is determined
from elevation-area
curve using diff
formulae.

Storage Capacity calculation

formulae
1. Trapezoidal formula
2. Cone formula
3. Prismoidal formula
4. Storage Volume from cross-sectional
areas

Basic Terms and Definitions

1. Full reservoir level (FRL): is the
highest water level to which
the water surface will rise during normal
operating
conditions. Also called the full tank level
(FTL) or the
normal pool level (NPL).

2. Maximum water level (MWL): is the

maximum level to which
the water surface will rise when the
design flood passes over
the spillway. Also called the maximum
pool level (MPL) or
maximum flood level (MFL).
3. Minimum pool level: is the lowest level
up to which the water
is withdrawn from the reservoir under
ordinary conditions.
It corresponds to the elevation of the
lowest outlet (or
sluiceway) of the dam. However, in the
case of a reservoir for
hydroelectric power; the minimum pool
level is fixed after
considering the minimum working head
required for the
efficient working of turbines.

Basic Terms and Definitions

4. Useful storage: volume of water stored

between the full
reservoir level and the minimum pool
level. Also known as
the live storage.
5. Surcharge storage: is the volume of
water stored above the
full reservoir level upto the maximum
water level. The
surcharge storage is an uncontrolled
storage which exists
only when the river is in flood and the
flood water is passing
over the spillway. This storage is available
only for the
absorption of flood and it cannot be used
for other purposes.
6. Dead storage: volume of water held
below the minimum pool
level. The dead storage is not useful, as it
cannot be used for
any purpose under ordinary operating
conditions.

7. Bank storage: If the banks of the

reservoir are porous, some
water is temporarily stored by them when
the reservoir is
full.
8. Valley storage: The volume of water
held by the natural river
channel in its valley upto the top of its
banks before the
construction of a reservoir is called the
valley storage. May
be important in flood control reservoirs.
9. Yield from a reservoir: Yield is the
volume of water which
can be withdrawn from a reservoir in a
specified period of
time. The yield is determined from the
storage capacity of
the reservoir and the mass inflow curve.
10 Safe yield (Firm yield): is the
maximum quantity of water
which can be supplied from a reservoir in
a specified period

of time during a critical dry year. Lowest

recorded natural
flow of the river for a number of years is
taken as the
critical dry period for determining the
safe yield
11. Secondary yield: is the quantity of
water which is available
during the period of high flow in the
rivers when the yield is
more than the safe yield. It is supplied on
as and when basis
at the lower rates. The hydropower
developed from
secondary yield is sold to industries at
cheaper rates.
12. Average yield: is the arithmetic
average of the firm yield
and the secondary yield over a long
period of time.
13. Design yield: is the yield adopted in
the design of a reservoir.

Fixed after considering the urgency of the

water needs and
the amount of risk involved. The design
yield should be such
that the demands of the consumers are
reasonably met with,
and at the same time, the storage required
is not unduly
large.