Bits and Pieces

3
Chapter Three
Bits and Pieces
Objectives
Define and review the geometric shapes of the semicircle, ellipse, and
hyperbola from the perspective of modelling and migration.
Define and evaluate instantaneous, interval, average, stacking, RMS, DMO, and
migration velocities.
Gain insight to the Fourier transform and aliasing.
Become acquainted with the wave equation and be exposed to some methods
of applying it to seismic data.
Identify the differences between time and depth migrations.
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A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations
3.1 Circles, ellipses, and hyperbolas

Some simple observations of a circle
center of a circle represents the location of a source and receiver
reflections from any part of the circle have the same traveltime
circle is a special form of an ellipse in which the foci are co-located
the circle and hyperbola are directly related
a triangle whose base is a diameter and whose apex lies on the circumference
will have a right angle opposite the diameter.
x2 + z2 = r2
Figure 3.1 The circle and its geometry.
Page 3.2
(3.1)
Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces
3.1.1 Some observations of an ellipse
The foci are special points for an ellipse, and in seismic processing, they
represent the locations of the source and receiver.
A ray through one focus (source) will reflect off the ellipse and pass through
the other focus (receiver).
Length of the raypath from one focus to any location on the ellipse and on to
the other focus will always be constant.
Similarly, a raypath of fixed length that starts and ends at the foci will describe
an ellipse.
An ellipse will tend toward the shape of a circle when the distance between the
foci is much less than the raypath.
x2 z 2
+ =1
a 2 b2
Figure 3.2 The ellipse and its geometry.
Page 3.3
(3.2)
3.1.2 Some observations of an hyperbola
A diffraction pattern has the shape of a hyperbola as defined below.
The depth of the apex is Zo, and the half offset is h.
Slope of the hyperbola (diffraction) tends to 45o asymptotes when h >> Zo,
Asymptotes intersect at the surface and for all diffractions on the zero offset
section.
A hyperbola also has two foci and may be defined as having the same
difference in length from each of the foci.
z 2 x 2 =zo2
(3.3)
z 2 = zo2 + x 2
(3.4)
For two way times,
4x 2
T =T + 2
v
2
2
o
Figure 3.3 The hyperbola and associated definitions.
Page 3.4
(3.5)
3.1.3 Relationships between the circle and hyperbola
A diffraction hyperbola with its apex on a semicircle will also pass through the
bottom of the circle.
The apex of a diffraction hyperbola and any other point on the diffraction
hyperbola will lie on a semicircle with a center at time-zero above the point.
a)
b)
Figure 3.4 Relationship of the diffraction hyperbola and the semicircle (a)
showing the angles and (b) the intersections.
Page 3.5
3.1.4 Relationships between the ellipse and hyperbola
The ellipse defines a constant total distance from the two foci, i.e.
d1 + d2 = d3 + d4.
The hyperbola defines the difference in distance between the two foci, i.e.
s2 - s1 = s4 - s3.
Figure 3.5 The relationship between the ellipse and hyperbola.
Figure 3.6 Two orthogonal antenna systems used for navigation. The difference
in time from each antenna system will locate four positions on corresponding
hyperbola.
Page 3.6
The two following figures illustrate non-geophysical applications of the ellipsoid.
Figure 3.7 The Mormon Tabernacle in Salt Lake City has an ellipsoid shape with
the pulpit at one focus. People sitting near the other focus can hear a whisper at
200 ft.
Figure 3.8 Lithotripsy: A method for breaking gallstones uses an ellipsoid cavity
with a fluid that matches the velocity of tissue. A spark at one focus will reflect
energy to the focus within the patient and break the gallstones [97].
Page 3.7
3.2 Velocities (instantaneous, average, RMS, stacking,

interval, migration, and DMO)
It will be assumed that a geological formation has one acoustic velocity that is
defined by the instantaneous velocity and that a well log is a good source for
interval velocities.
At this time we assume P-waves in an isotropic medium.
Other types of velocity are defined for convenience and are described as follows:
Average velocities are used to convert directly from time to the corresponding
points in depth (or visa versa).
RMS velocities are defined to simplify the computation of raypath traveltimes

or moveout correction. .
Stacking velocities are used to create the best-looking stack. For isotropic
horizontal layers with small offsets, they should be equal to the RMS
velocities, VNMO = VRMS.. Dipping areas of the section Vstk require the stacking
velocities Vstk to be higher than the RMS velocities [115]. When the effects of
dip have been removed, moveout velocities are often considered equivalent to
RMS velocities (for all offsets), allowing the estimation of interval velocities.
Interval velocities are assumed constant over a small range. They may be
derived from well-log velocities using either an average or RMS computation,
depending on the application. Interval velocities may also be estimated from
RMS velocities (by way of stacking velocities) using Dix equation [442] [443].
Migration velocities produce the best-looking migrated section and should be

either RMS or interval velocities and not the stacking velocities. Other factors
that effect 2-D migration velocities are sideswipe and oblique reflectors [4].
When applying NMO prior to the DMO process, the NMO should use RMS
velocities and not the stacking velocities.
Transverse anisotropy may occur in horizontally layered media, where, at a given

location, the velocity may vary from 10% to 20% with dip.
Conventional processing ignores the effects of transverse anisotropy. Its effect
on traveltimes may be partially absorbed into stacking and migration velocities.
Azimuthal anisotropy may be caused by depositional environment. Its effect in
3-D processing may require gathers to be formed using an azimuthal parameter.
Shallow azimuthal anisotropy may also effect weathering analysis.
Page 3.8
Typical seismic processing defines a stacking velocity to give a best fit for NMO.
Occasionally, these velocities are assumed to be RMS with interval velocities
computed using Dixs equation [442] (see Figure 3.12). This method is subject to
serious error in structured data where the stacking velocities are increased by the
cosine of the dip to produce the best stack.
The inclusion of DMO and migration in the velocity analysis loop removes the
effects of dip on stacking velocities. These stacking velocities will tend toward
RMS velocities from which the interval velocities may be estimated.
Velocities are picked at discrete points. It is assumed RMS velocities are

linearly interpolated between picks, and that interval velocities are constant
between picks. Linear interpolation is considered accurate enough for standard
processing even though it may not be strictly accurate relative to the constant
interval velocity assumption.
RMS velocities, Vrms are defined from interval velocities for the purpose of
simplifying the computation of raypath traveltimes or moveout correction. They
enable the curved raypaths on an isotropic horizontally layered medium to be
approximated with linear rays on a time section [56]. These linear rays form
triangles, allowing the hyperbolic assumption of traveltimes. This definition is
strictly for small offsets as the real traveltimes are more complex and may require
a polynomial approximation for larger offsets. A best hyperbolic fit to the
traveltimes in an isotropic horizontally layered medium with any offset will use a
velocity defined as the normal moveout velocity VNMO , often equated to Vrms.
In the presence of anisotropy, it is the difference between well-log estimates of
Vrms, and VNMO that leads to estimates of the anisotropy.
The diffraction shape may be quite complex, even in horizontally layered
structures. Hyperbolic moveout that achieves a best fit using a stacking velocity
may have a zero-offset time that varies from the actual zero-offset time. See
Yilmaz [83] pages 159 to 168 for additional information.
Questions:
What type of velocity does the speedometer in a car read?
What type of velocity may be calculated from the odometer reading and
elapsed time?
Page 3.9
3.2.1 Instantaneous velocity (Vins)

The true structure is defined by the instantaneous velocity. The instantaneous
velocity should be similar to the well-log velocity and represents the actual
velocity of the subsurface at a specific location. It is defined as a small increment
of distance divided by the time required for the acoustic wave to travel across that
distance.
Vins =
Small dist. d z
=
Time inc.
dt
Figure 3.9 Instantaneous velocity.
Remember that we are assuming isotropic media.
Page 3.10
(3.6)
3.2.2 Average velocity (Vave)

The average velocity relates a total distance with a total traveltime, and is not
concerned with what happens within the measurements. An average speed of
travel does not require knowledge of refueling stops or the maximum speed
traveled, but only with the total distance and total time. In geophysics, the
average velocity is used to relate a specific depth with a specific time in
time/depth conversions.
n= N
t =T
specific dist. 1
Vave (T ) =
Vins ( t ) dt
=
time required T t =0
V (n) t
n =0
int
n= N
tn
(3.7)
n =0
Vave
Figure 3.10 Average velocity of the defined instantaneous velocity.
Average velocities are only valid for vertical velocity variations, and it should not
be used for structures with significant lateral velocity variations. When lateral
velocities are present, image-ray conversions should be used. See work by
Hubral [3].
Page 3.11
3.2.3 RMS velocity ( Vrms)

The RMS velocity is an apparent velocity that takes into account Snell's law of
refraction and enables a simple calculation for normal moveout and diffractions.
RMS is derived from "root mean squared" and is defined in [56], [83] and [442] as
n= N
t =T
2
Vrms
(T )
1
Vins2 ( t ) dt
T t =0
V (n) t
n =0
2
int
n=N
n =0
V
Vrms ( n ) =
2
int
(3.8)
tn
( 0 ) t0 + V (1) t1 + V ( 2 ) t2 + ... + V ( n ) tn
2
int
2
int
t0 + t1 + t2 + ... + tn
2
int
(3.9)
Vave
Vrms
Figure 3.11 The velocity diagram showing the RMS velocity.
RMS velocities defined above are accurate for small offsets when computing NMO
correction. Larger offsets may require more terms in the MO equation (as given in
section 3.2.1 in [83]).
The term RMS velocities will also be used (in an approximate sense) to refer to:
best fit velocities for horizontal reflectors, Vrms Vstk, (isotropic media)
velocities extracted from stacking velocities in which the dip-dependent factor
has been removed, i.e. Vrms Vstk cos(dip), or
NMO velocities used prior to the application of dip moveout (DMO).
Page 3.12
3.2.4 Stacking velocities (Vstk)

Stacking velocities Vstk are chosen to obtain the "best looking" stack from the
NMO equation (3.10), where T and T0 are two-way times and h is half the sourcereceiver offset. The double quotes emphasize that velocity picking is subjective
and that stacking velocities are not necessarily equal to theoretical RMS
velocities.
2
nmo
4h 2
=T + 2
.
Vstk (To )
2
o
(3.10)
The use of the word "robust" is very applicable for stacking velocities. These
velocities cover many approximations that are made in seismic processing and
have enabled the processing of complex data structures well beyond the original
assumptions of NMO and stacking. Anisotropy is one approximation that is
partially absorbed into that stacking velocity.
Another robust feature of stacking velocities is its ability to improve the
appearance of dipping data by increasing the stacking velocities with
Vstk =
Vrms
.
cos ( )
(3.11)
Equation (3.11) enables NMO to stack energy of a dipping event at a CMP location;
however, this process does smear data along the dipping event. This equation is
derived in Volume II, Section 7.0.9 and is attributed to Levin [115].
Since the stacking velocities incorporate dipping information, care must be taken
when using them for other processes such as interval velocity analysis, migration,
or inversion. If used for velocity analysis, the results may be unreliable and
absurd to the point of negative interval velocities (Figure 3.12).
Remember that the stacking velocities are defined for a best-fit hyperbola, and
that T0 of the hyperbola may not be exactly the same as the actual zero-offset
time. See Yilmaz [83] pages 159 - 166 for more detailed information.
Page 3.13
3.2.5 Interval velocities (Vint)

Interval velocities combine the instantaneous velocities over a defined interval.
The actual definition of interval velocities depends on the application. If the
application involves time to depth estimations, then an average velocity over the
interval T1,2 from T1 to T2 is used, i.e.
Vint (T1,2 ) =
specific dist.
1
=
time required T1,2
T2
T1
Vins ( t ) dt .
(3.12)
When the use of interval velocities are associated with NMO or migration
applications, the RMS definition is used, i.e.,
Vint2 (T )
1
T1,2
T2
T1
Vins2 ( t ) dt .
(3.13)
Interval velocities may be estimated from seismic processing using Dixs equation
and the RMS velocities that are derived from stacking velocities. Dixs equation
for interval n may be derived from equation (3.9) and is
2
2
Vrms
n ) tn Vrms
(
( n - 1) tn-1
Vint ( n ) =
tn tn 1
(3.14)
The interval velocities derived in this manner tend to be continuous along events
and aid in the velocity analysis process.
When the interval velocity is estimated from stacking velocities of dipping data,
inaccurate results occur. The stacking velocity for dipping data is increased by
equation (3.11), and repeated as (3.15), i.e.,
Vstk =
Vrms
.
cos(dip )
(3.15)
Using the stacking velocity of equation (3.15) as RMS velocities in equation (3.14)
will produce interval velocities that may vary in an extreme manner, i.e., they may
be very high, or very low, and even negative as illustrated in Figure 3.12.
Page 3.14
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3.12 Illustration of errors in interval velocity when estimated from stacking
velocities in area of dipping geology. Part (a) shows the instantaneous and RMS
velocities of the geological structure in (b). The resulting stacking velocity is
shown in (c), with the incorrect interval velocities in (d) estimated from (c).
Always convert stacking velocities to RMS velocities by removing

dipping effects before estimating interval velocities.
We typically use Vrms for Vstk when the structure is horizontal. This
assumes no anisotropy present. When anisotropy is present, Vrms
obtained from well information is not equivalent to Vstk.
Processing that includes DMO has significantly improved the science of velocity
analysis and by passes the "dip" problem. Velocity analysis that includes DMO
derives RMS-type velocities and has helped automate the process.
Page 3.15
3.2.6 Assumption of linear raypaths

In a constant velocity medium, the travel times for NMO or a diffraction are
hyperbolic. When the velocity increase with depth, as illustrated in Figure 3.13a,
the raypath curves, adding complexity to the problem.
The raypaths in Figure 3.13a are curved because velocity increases with depth.
The traveltimes of the NMO or diffraction curve in Figure 3.1a is described by a

N
polynomial t = an x 2 n = a0 + a1 x 2 + a2 x 4 + a3 x 6 + ... .
2
n =0
The NMO or diffraction curve is usually approximated by the first two terms of
the polynomial giving a hyperbola t 2 = t02 + a1 x 2 , i.e. equation (3.10).
The hyperbolic assumption is possible when using the RMS velocities defined
in equations 3.8 and 3.9. The hyperbolic and RMS velocity approximation
assumes horizontally layered media and is accurate for small offsets.
The hyperbolic approximation is shown in (b), and from Pythagorean theorem,

the raypaths on the time section are linear.
The time section is often superimposed on top of the geological structure with the
vertical time T0 scaled to coincide with a reflection at depth z as illustrated in (c).
Estimating the true depth z from T0 must use the average velocity Vave.
The use of the RMS velocities with T0 will only estimate a pseudo depth z0.
The assumed linear raypaths will have errors in the angle of incidence and
reflection.
The hyperbolic approximation of traveltimes is one of the most significant

developments in exploration seismology.
The travel time from any location on the surface to a scatterpoint, or
from any scatterpoint to any point on the surface,
can be approximated by using the RMS velocity and the geometry.
At this point we still assume horizontally layered media.
Dipping events are approximated using stacking velocities.
Even in structured media, the traveltimes of specula reflection energy tends to be
hyperbolic.
NMO correction and Kirchhoff time migration are based on this assumption.
Page 3.16
t
Diffraction
t
Hyperbola
T0
T0, z0
T
T0
T
x
z
a)
b)
T
T0
z0
True depth z
T
c)
Figure 3.13 Raypaths and traveltimes in a) are for the actual the depth structure
and b) the assumed linear raypaths on the time section. The actual diffraction in
(a) is approximated by the hyperbola in (b). Part c) illustrates overlapping time
and depth sections that confuse the pseudo depth with the actual depth.
Assume that the raypaths in Figure 3.13b are zero-offset to the scatterpoint.
Define the equation for the two-way traveltime T in terms of T0, x, and Vrms.
Assume the raypaths in Figure 3.1b are to the same midpoint. Define the two-way
traveltime T in terms of T0, h, and Vrms.
Page 3.17
3.2.7 The power of the RMS assumption

In a review, I emphasize that in a multi-layered media, where we would normally
have to do raytracing to get the travel times; we dont. We simply use the RMS
velocity Vrms defined at the time T0 of the scatterpoint, then assume that the rays
are linear on the time section, and compute the traveltimes with a hyperbolic
equation of the form:
a1 x 2
t =T + 2
Vrms
2
2
0
(0.1)
Figure 3.14 illustrates the general concept in (a), a CMP gather in (b), post-stack
Kirchhoff migration in (c), and the double square-root equation in (d).
For a CMP gather, we compute the normal moveout correction for horizontal
reflectors by using the hyperbolic equation:
4h 2
t =T + 2 .
Vrms
2
2
0
(0.2)
Dipping reflectors require the RMS velocity to be replaced by stacking velocities.

For a post-stack Kirchhoff migration, we compute the two-way traveltime with the
hyperbolic equation:
4x2
t =T + 2 .
Vrms
2
2
0
(0.3)
Prestack Kirchhoff time migration computes the individual one-way traveltimes of

the source and receiver ray paths to give the double square-root equation:
T02 hs2
T02 hr2
t = t s + tr =
+ 2 +
+ 2
4 Vrms
4 Vrms
(0.4)
where hs and hr are the offsets from the location of the migrated trace to the
location of the source and receiver.
Page 3.18
T0
Scatterpoint
a)
h
CMP
CMP
gather
T0
Scatterpoint
b)
x
Post-stack
migration
T0 Scatterpoint
c)
x
hr
hs
Pre-stack
migration
T0
Scatterpoint
d)
Figure 3.14 RMS velocity assumption for a) any rays to or from a scatterpoint, b) a
CMP gather, c) zero-offset migration, and d) prestack migration.
Page 3.19
3.2.8 Fermats principle

What is the shortest path from P to S?
Figure 3.15 Direct and refracted raypaths.

Fermat's principle:
The seismic raypath between two points is that for which the first-order variation
of traveltime with respect to all neighbouring paths is zero (Sheriff [543],[550]).
In simple terms a ray will usually follow the path of shortest time.
(A maximum path is optimum for zero offset rays to a buried focus.)
Even though the raypath PQRS is longer in distance than PS, the traveltime for
PQRS will be shorter as the raypath spends more time in the higher velocity
portion than in the lower velocity portion.
Page 3.20
Consider Figure 3.16 below.
What path would a lifeguard take to reach the person crying for help?
What path should a lifeguard take to reach the person crying for help?
What are the two main parameters that determine the path?
Figure 3.16 Lifeguard path.
We encounter the application of Fermats principle many time in nature, and our
intuition usually is correct.
Consider:
Hiking across fields that may be hard and easy to walk on and ones that
may have been plowed, and difficult to walk on.
Driving across a city:

o Do you take the shortest and most direct path, or a free-way that may
have a longer distance to travel.
o Do you want to optimize with respect to time, distance, fuel economy, or
some other parameter such as alternate shopping locations?
o Do you include probabilities in you plans such as the times of possible
traffic congestion.
Page 3.21
An additional concept of Fermats principle deals with the minimum (or maximum)
traveltime. Consider Figure 3.17.
The thicker ray path in (a) represents the actual raypath with alternate paths
shown on either side. The traveltimes (T) for the various paths are shown by the
curve in (b). From (b) we can observe that the minimum traveltime along paths
between A and B is the actual raypath, verifying Fermats principle.
At the minimum, the slope of the curve is horizontal.
A small error in the refraction point location has negligible effect on the
traveltime. (See construction in Figure 2.28).
Actual
raypath
a)
b)
Figure 3.17 Minimum traveltime illustration with a) showing possible raypaths

and b) the corresponding of traveltime verses the refraction point location.
Fermats principle also tells us that small errors in the raypath location will have
negligible effect on the estimation of the traveltime.
Traveltime computations for depth migration may be simplified by using an

approximate raypath location to save on computational overhead.
Some
contractors have even used straight raypaths when estimating traveltimes for
depth migrations.
Page 3.22
3.2.9 Exercise for velocity estimation.

The structure is defined as shown below by its instantaneous velocity.
Figure 3.18 Structure for velocity calculations.

Compute the traveltimes TB, TC and TD at the depths B, C, and D (one-way time).
Instantaneous times TAB, TBC, and TCD are,
TAB =
dist 1000
=
= 0.5 sec
vel
2000
TBC = ... =
1000
= 0.25 sec
4000
TCD = ... =
1000
= 0.167 sec
6000
TB = 0.5 sec ,
TC = 0.75 sec TD = 0.917 sec
Page 3.23
Compute the average velocities at B, C, D.
Vave ( B ) =
dist
1000
=
= 2000 ft/sec
time
0.5
Vave (C ) =
...
2000
= 2667 ft/sec
0.75
Vave ( D ) =
...
3000
= 3272 ft/sec
0.917
Vave
Figure 3.19 Plot of Average velocity.
Page 3.24
Compute the RMS velocities at B, C, and, D using equation (3.8).

1
20002 0.5 2
=2000 ft/s
Vrms (B )=
0.5
20002 0.5 + 40002 0.25 2

=2828 ft/s
Vrms (C )=
0.5
+
0.25
2000 2 0.5 + 4000 2 0.25 + 6000 2 0.167 2

=3614 f/s
Vrms (D )=
0.5
+
0.25
+
0.167
Vrms
Figure 3.20 Plot of RMS velocity on simple structure.
Page 3.25
3.2.10 Construction for time response of rays

The following constructions plot the traveltimes of rays that first ignore, and then
apply, Snell's law. The first construction uses shortest distance raypaths and
ignores Snell's law: the second includes refraction for a relative comparison.
Traveltimes using the RMS velocity and offset are computed to be plotted for
comparison with the construction.
3.2.10.1 Construction: Time response of straight rays (incorrect)

In Figure 3.21:
Equate a velocity of 2000 with unity.
In the first layer, use a time measure equal to the distance.
In the second layer, use a time measure that is one half the distance traveled
(two times the velocity or half the slowness).
In the third layer, use a time measure equal to one-third the distance traveled
(three times the velocity or one-third the slowness).
The horizontal dashed line in the figure represents one half and one third the
distance across the respective instantaneous velocities and should be used to
construct the traveltimes.
Construct the traveltimes by:
Measuring the incremental traveltimes of each ray in the different velocity

bands.
Plot the accumulated times for each ray on the time graph (b) below the
surface location of the ray.
The traveltimes on (b) define the straight raypath diffraction shape that is to be
compared to the true shape.
Page 3.26
a)
b)
Figure 3.21 Construction of incorrect diffraction shape found by assuming a
direct raypath; (a) shows the ray paths and (b) area for plotting travel times.
Page 3.27
3.2.10.2 Construction: Time response of refracted rays (correct)

Use the same time to distance principles from the previous construction
Use a time measure equal to distance in the top layer.
Plot the incremental and total times in Figure 3.22b.
In the second layer use a time measure of one half the distance.
In the third layer use a time measure of one-third the distance.
Plot the five raypath traveltimes.
Add the traveltimes from Figure 3.21 to Figure 3.22.
Add to the plot, the computed values using RMS velocities that are found on
the following page.
Note how well the RMS velocities allow the NMO computation to match the actual
traveltimes. (They should if constructed accurately).
One interesting feature that may be observed from this construction is that
minimum distance raypaths also appear hyperbolic. An adjusted stacking
velocity would allow reasonable NMO or migration of the data. This concept is
used in some modelling based processes to improve run times.
Page 3.28
a)
b)
Figure 3.22 Construction of diffraction shape with refracted raypath.
Page 3.29
3.2.10.3 Computation of traveltimes using RMS velocities

Using the zero offset traveltime T(D) from page 3.23 (which should be the same
time on both constructions), the RMS velocity at D from page 3.25, and the various
offsets in Figure 3.22, compute the traveltimes using the one-way NMO equation,
2
h
T(D) = 0.9167,
= T
2
0
1) h 2
(
+ 2
Vrms (T0 )
(3.16)
Vrms(D) = 3614
1000
T ( h = 1000 ) = 0.91672 +
36142
1
2
2000
T ( h = 2000 ) = 0.91672 +
36142
1
2
T ( h = 3000 )
30002
2
= 0.9167 +
36142
1
2
T ( h = 4000 )
40002
2
= 0.9167 +
36142
1
2
= 0.958
= 1.071
= 1.237
= 1.437
Add these times to the plot of Figure 3.22 and compare their locations with the
times found from the construction.
Page 3.30
3.3 The Fourier transform

3.3.1 Introduction
The Fourier Transform (FT) deals with continuous time and frequencies. We often
use this term when we are really using the discrete Fourier transform.
The Fourier Series (FS) deals with periodic and continuous time, but discrete
frequencies.
The Discrete Fourier Series (DFS) deals with discrete time and frequencies such
as that stored in a computer. This is what we really use.
The length of one domain defines the sample interval in the other. As the length
approaches infinity, the other domain has a very small sampling interval and may
be considered to be continuous.
When the length of a domain is shorter, then wrap-around or aliasing may occur
and the DFS is a poor match to the FT.
The Fourier transform is a mathematical process that converts a signal such as
time recording, into another form such as a frequency spectrum.
Some
advantages of the transformed data are:
the complex process of convolution in the time domain but becomes a trivial
process of multiplication in the frequency domain,
derivatives and integrals also become multiplication in the frequency domain,
in the 2-D space events with the same dip transform to one location.
Some interesting points of the transform are:
the Fourier transform samples represent the magnitude and phase of a range
of sinusoidal signals,
the summation of these sinusoids reproduce the input signal,
a temporal, or time series of samples, (e.g., a trace) is transformed into a

sequence of frequencies which are designated by F or ,
a spatial, or distance series of samples is transformed into wave numbers that

are designated by K. The wave number may also be referred to as frequency.
Page 3.31
3.3.2 Examples of summing sinusoids to create signals.

The following figures illustrates the summation of sinusoids to produce various
periodic waveforms, note:
The relative amplitude and phase of the sinusoids,
The periodic sinusoids produce periodic waveforms,
Adding more sinusoids with higher frequencies will improve the approximated
waveform.
Waveform
a)
b)
Figure 3.23 Summing a) two and b) three sinusoids to approximate a triangular

periodic waveform.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3.24 Summing five sinusoids to produce periodic waveforms; (a) a

triangular, (b) a square, (c) a rectified sine wave, and (d) a ramp.
Page 3.32
The magnitude and phase of the sinusoids can be varied to have special effects.
In the figures below, time zero is indicated at the center of each image, with the
left image containing only cosines that sum to approximate a sinx/x wavelet, while
the right side is composed of sines to produce a wavelet that has been phase
shifted by 90o.
Frequency
Frequency
Sum
T=0
a)
b)
Figure 3.25 Summing a) cosines to create a zero phase wavelet t = 0.0, and b)
sines to create a 90 degree wavelet. Zero time is at the center. (FOUTIERexamples.m )
Frequency
Phase
shift
Frequency
The phase may also be modified to change the location of the wavelet. Figure
3.26 shows two images with a positive and negative phase shifts that vary linearly
with frequency. The phase-shift is measured at t=0 on each plot.
a)
b)
Figure 3.26 Two linear phase shift applied to the cosines to displace the wavelet.
Page 3.33
More frequencies produce a narrower wavelet as illustrated in Figure 3.27. (Time

in now plotted vertically and frequency horizontal.)
Note in all these figures that the lowest (non zero) frequency is always one
complete cycle. This fundamental frequency is also the interval between each
frequency. Therefore, the frequency interval f is related to the duration T of the
waveforms or the total time of the trace giving the relationship,
f =
1
T
(3.17)
At this point we could consider the time traces to be continuous, but in reality
there are closely separated points with a sample interval t or a sample rate of
Fsamp. The maximum frequency Fmax that can be recorded must be less than the
Nyquist frequency, Fnyq that is half the sampling frequency Fsamp i.e.,
Fmax Fnyq
Fsamp
2
1
.
2t
(3.18)
We can write the summation of these sinusoids f(t) over the time interval T as
2 t
4 t
6 t
f ( t ) = a0 + a1 cos
+ a2 cos
+ a3 cos
+ ...
T
T
T
.
2 t
4 t
6 t
+ b1 sin
+ b2 sin
+ b3 sin
+ ...
T
T
T
or
n= N
n 2 t
n 2 t
f ( t ) = a0 + an cos
+ bn sin
T
T
n =1
(3.19)
where the Fourier Series coefficients an and bn are computed from (assuming
continuous time)
1
n 2 t
an = f ( t ) cos
dt
T 0
T
1
n 2 t
bn = f ( t ) sin
dt
T 0
T
(3.20)
The coefficients an and bn may be expressed as magnitude and phase where

b
cn = an + bn and . n = tan 1 n giving,
an
n= N
n 2 t
f ( t ) = c0 + cn cos
+ n .
T
n =1
Page 3.34
Frequency
Time
Frequency
a)
Frequency
Time
Frequency
b)
c)
d)
Time
Frequency
e)
Figure 3.27 The size of the frequency band contributes to the shape of the
wavelet. More frequencies produce a narrower wavelet that will allow higher
resolution between similar wavelets. The number of sinusoids are 4, 9, 14, 18, and
50.
Page 3.35
The previous used sinusoids with the same amplitude. In general the amplitudes
vary as illustrated in the following figures. The amplitudes (cn) are plotted above
the corresponding sinusoids.
Figure 3.28a shows the sinusoids with an amplitude weighting of sinx/x (really
sinf/f) that produces a box-car weighting of a sinusoid. Figure 3.28b weights the
sinusoids with a triangular shape that produces a time trace that has a (sinx/x)2
weighting of a sinusoid.
Time
Frequency
a)
Time
Frequency
b)
Figure 3.28 The amplitudes of the sinusoids were multiplied in a) by a sinx/x
function that was centered over the central trace, and b) with a limited triangular
shape window.
Page 3.36
The amplitudes of the sinusoids, shown in the red box in Figure 3.29, is called the
spectrum. The magnitude and phase of the spectrum contain the complete
information that is needed to create the summed trace indicated in green.
Time
We do not need to show the sinusoids as their information is entirely contained

within the spectrum. Fourier processing enables us to use the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT) to convert directly from one domain (say time) to the other
domain (frequency) . The process can be reversed by using the inverse DFT
(IDFT) to convert the spectrum back to the time trace.
Trace
a)
Frequency
Spectrum
I-DFT
DFT
Trace
b)
Figure 3.29 Illustration of a) the spectrum and trace in sinusoidal format and in b)
the conventional form without the sinusoidal traces.
The an and bn coefficients may also be expressed in a complex form allowing the
sines and cosines to be expressed as an exponential. The exponential form is
very convenient when working with differential equations as the derivative of an
exponential is simply itself.
Page 3.37
3.3.3 Examples of 1-D Fourier transforms pairs
Figure 3.30 Examples of Fourier transform pairs waveforms from Lathi [560].
Page 3.38
3.3.4 Fast Fourier transform

The FFT or Fast Fourier Transform is a fast algorithm for computing the Discrete
Fourier Series. It requires the number of input samples to be a power of 2, such
as 256, 512, 1024, etc. In geophysics, we often have a trace that is say, two
seconds long, and sampled at two milliseconds, giving 1000 samples. It is
therefore necessary to add 24 points to this trace to make 1024 samples before it
can be Fourier Transformed with the FFT.
An input trace with 1024 real samples will produce 512 complex samples in the
transformed space. The complex samples may be expressed in a real and
imaginary format, or as a magnitude and phase.
Sometime the input trace is complex, both real and imaginary, and in this case
1024 complex input samples produces 1024 complex samples in transformed
space. As each sample represents a "variable," the number of variables before
the transform must equal the number of variables after the transform.
Page 3.39
3.3.5 Fourier transform of seismic data

The discrete Fourier transform requires the input signal (trace) to be periodic. We
therefore assume the input trace itself to be periodic, with a period that equals the
length of the input trace that includes the padding to make it FFT compatible.
Figure 3.31 repeats a figure introducing the Fourier transform and a periodic
seismic trace to emphasize the periodic.
Waveform
t = 0 ???
Tmax
Seismic trace
Figure 3.31 Seismic trace is assumed to be periodic when using the DFT.
The fundamental frequency of the seismic trace f0 above will have a period that is
equal to the inverse of the maximum time Tmax, i.e. f0 = Tmax. This frequency is
also the frequency interval f on the discrete Fourier transformed trace, i.e. f = f0.
Page 3.40
Figure 3.32 below shows in (a) a trace and (b) the corresponding amplitude
spectrum.
Amp
t
a)
Amp
Frequency
b)
Figure 3.32 A seismic trace showing in (a) the time domain and in (b) the
amplitude spectrum in the frequency domain.
Page 3.41
3.3.4 2-D Fourier transform

A real time domain trace is transform using a 1-D Fourier transform into a two
sided Fourier transform. Each side (positive and negative frequencies) are
conjugately related. Consequently we usually only consider one side of the
spectrum.
A similar relationship occurs in the 2-D Fourier transform (FT). Data in the 2-D FT
should normally be considered with positive and negative wave-numbers and
frequencies as illustrated in Figure 3.33a. Because the input 2-D data (x, t) is real,
there is diagonal conjugate symmetry in the transform space (kx, f).
Because of this symmetry, only two quadrant are displayed. The origin of the (kx,
f) space can be located in a number of locations, as illustrated in (b), (c), and (d).
Displays with the origin in the center of the upper or lower space are typical in the
industry. The boundaries of the (kx, f) space are the Nyquist wave number and
frequencies, and energy should not cross that boundary.
Great care is taken to ensure that a 1-D trace is not aliased. However, when a
number of traces are combined into 2-D space, 2-D aliasing can and quite often
does occur.
Consequently, I like to locate the origin located in the upper right of (d). In this
display, the spatial Nyquist wavenumber is in the vertical center and 2-D aliasing
is easier to comprehend. Note that the vertical scale is considered to be positive
frequencies. (Data in the fourth quadrant is often considered to have positive kx
and f values.)
2-D FFTs may swap the energy in the quadrants because of the different methods
of defining the Fourier transform; i.e. the sign on the exponential. Consider
testing a dip in (x, t) space and identifying which quadrant it is transformed to.
Page 3.42
fnyquist
2nd quadrant
Ist quadrant
Congugate
symetry
knyquist
-knyquist
Origin
rd
th
3 quadrant
4 quadrant
-fnyquist
a)
-knyquist
fnyquist
2nd quadrant
knyquist
Origin
Ist quadrant
3rd quadrant
-knyquist
4th quadrant
fnyquist
knyquist
Origin
b)
c)
-knyquist
knyquist
Origin
3rd quadrant
th
4 quadrant
fnyquist
d)
Figure 3.33 Various views of the (kx, f) space and the orogin.
Page 3.43
3.3.5 Exercise comparing data in (x, t) and (Kx, ) transform domains.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 3.34 2-D Fourier transform pairs in (a) to (f).
Page 3.44
d)
e)
f)
Page 3.45
3.4 Aliasing in one and two dimension.

3.4.1 Sampling in one dimension
Numbers stored in a computer may represent many different things and must be
interpreted by the user for what is intended. Consider the following figure:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3.35 Interpretation and interpolation of samples in (a) depends on the
application, such as (b) a staircase, (c) a picket fence, or (d) a continuous multivalued signal.
Page 3.46
The samples of Figure 3.35a may be interpreted to represent a staircase, the tops
of a picket fence, or a multi-valued function. One logical approach would be to
join the samples with straight lines. Another approach may use a more complex
method to interpolate the point between the samples. How the points are
interpolated may have a significant effect on:
the sampling rate,
how data is stored,
or the way programs are written to interpolate the data.
Complicated shaped signals must have a sufficient number of samples to define

the desired shape. If not enough points are used, the implied interpolation will
not represent the desired signal. This error is called aliasing.
The data must be sample with a high enough sampling frequency Fs to prevent
aliasing. This is referred to as the Nyquist criteria. One-half the sampling
frequency is referred to as the Nyquist frequency Fnyq, and to prevent aliasing, the
maximum frequency of the signal must be less than the Nyquist frequency.
Fnyq =
Fs
1
=
2 2 t
The Nyquist criteria requires:

The sampling frequency to be greater than twice the
maximum frequency.
or
"There must be at least two samples for the period of the
highest frequency in the signal."
The Nyquist criteria sets a theoretical limit for the lowest possible sampling
frequency. It is possible but difficult or expensive to recover the original signal
when sampled at this rate. Usually a much higher sampling rate is used to enable
the interpolation to be easier and faster.
There becomes a compromise between a higher sampling rate that requires more
memory but has a faster run time, verses a lower sample rate that requires less
memory but a more elaborate interpolation scheme that may require a longer run
time.
Page 3.47
3.4.2 Aliasing construction

Aliasing is illustrated by the construction in Figure 3.36. Sinusoids are sampled at
various rates.
1. Connect the samples with straight lines.
2. Compare the interpolated curve with the original curve and note the
appearance of any new apparent frequencies.
3. Estimate how many samples are required per cycle for linear
interpolation.
Comments and conclusions
Linear interpolation may be adequate for seismic traces if the sample rate is
more than six times the maximum frequency.
The Nyquist theorem states that the sample rate must be at least two samples
per period, but from the construction, linear interpolation will fail at these
rates.
When sampling below the Nyquist rate, a sinusoid will appear at a lower
frequency.
The original continuous time signal with a maximum frequency that is close to
the Nyquist frequency can be exactly recovered if a Sinx/x is used.
Software could be written to take advantage of a reduced sampling rate. It

would be a compromise between speed and size of storage.
Sinx/x
interpolators may take ten times as long as linear interpolators.
Linear interpolation may be OK is the sampling rate is greater than six times the
maximum frequency.
Page 3.48
Figure 3.36 Exercise to illustrate aliasing; connect the dots with straight lines to
evaluate linear interpolation.
Page 3.49
3.4.3 Sampling and signal recovery (interpolation)

Assume we have continuous time signal that is band limited in Figure 3.37a and
the amplitude spectrum in (b).
Now assume a periodic sampling in time (c) with its periodic sampling in
frequency (d).
Sampling is accomplished by multiplying the two continuous time signals in (a)
and (c) to get (e). The sampled spectrum in (f) is obtained by convolving the
corresponding spectrums in (b) and (d).
We can recover the original continuous signal in (a) exactly by applying a box-car
filter in the frequency domain to isolate the original spectrum, as illustrated by the
dashed box in (f).
Multiplying by the box car in the frequency domain is equivalent to convolving the
sampled signal in (e) with a sinc or sinx/x waveform as illustrated in (g).
The main points:

1. A un-aliased sampled signal can reconstruct the exact continuous original
signal by convolving with a sinc function.
2. The sinc waveform extends to infinity in each direction and requires a very
long sampled signal.
3. Convolving with a very long operator will require a large computational
effort.
4. Data stored in a computer has a finite length and will require the sinc
interpolator to be truncated.
5. Sampling at a higher rate will enable the use of a shorter convolutional
waveform.
Page 3.50
Convolve
Multiply
Figure 3.37 Sequence of figures illustrating the sampling and reconstruction of a

continuous signal from Lathi [560].
Page 3.51
3.4.4 Increasing the sample rate

A larger sampling frequency fm = 1/dt, will separate the periodic
spectra as illustrated in Figure 3.38a below which contains twice the
sampling frequency of Figure 3.37d. The increased separation makes
it easier to isolate the central spectrum with an interpolation operator
that is not a boxcar in the frequency domain.
The interpolating filter is continuous in the time domain and therefore
is not periodic in the frequency domain. It therefore attenuates all the
periodic spectra beyond the central spectra.
a)
Interpolation
filter
b)
Figure 3.38 Illustrating a) double sampling frequency of that shown in Figure

3.37d producing in b) an increased separation between the periodic spectra for
easier isolation.
We desire the interpolator to have a spectrum that is reasonably flat in the area of
the signal spectrum, but tends to zero by the time it reaches the other periodic
spectra.
Page 3.52
3.4.5 Sinc function in the discrete domain

Our discussion about a sinc function is only correct for the Fourier transform of
continuous functions. In the discrete world, where sampling has produced a
maximum frequency, the infinite extent of the sinc function will wrap around in
either domain, .i.e., the sinc function is replaced with its periodic form
F (t ) =
A1 =
sin ( xN )
xN
sin ( xN )
.
N sin ( x )
A2 =
sin ( xN )
N sin ( x )
(3.17)
N = 21
Figure 3.39 Comparison of the continuous sinc function and its corresponding
discrete function. This figure can represent both time and frequency domains.
(2005\SincSinNt.m)
The sinc function has infinite extent, while the discrete form is the sinc function
convolved with the periodic impulse train. The discrete function contains the
overlapping tails and is only slightly different from the continuous sinc function
over the first half of the spectrum as illustrated in Figure 3.39. When N is smaller,
the difference increases. Note that N should be an odd value.
Page 3.53
3.4.6 Interpolation operators

The sinc interpolator is very efficient in the frequency (wavenumber) domain by
isolating the desired spectrum with a box-car shape. However, it is inefficient to
apply in the time domain. We will now consider the interpolating functions
defined in the time domain that have a finite extent as illustrated in Figure 3.40.
A boxcar interpolator in the time domain is chosen to be the width of the sample
interval then convolved with the data resulting in a blocky interpolation (a). The
effect in the transformed domain is to multiply the periodic spectra with a sinc
function. The attenuation of the periodic spectra is quite poor as there is
significant ring to the sinc function.
A triangular interpolator has a base with of two sample intervals and can be
formed by convolving a boxcar with itself (or convolving the data twice with a
boxcar). The effect on the time data is a linear interpolation (b) between each
point. In the transformed domain, the spectrum is the product of the two sinc
functions or sinc2. There is a better attenuation of the higher frequencies, but the
pass band is smaller.
We can also convolve the triangle interpolator with the boxcar to produce a
quadratic interpolator (c) that produces a smooth curve. The spectrum is sinc3.
There is excellent attenuation of the higher frequencies but more attenuation in
the pass band.
These three interpolators and their transforms are illustrated in Figure 3.41. Note
the location of the line at a relative frequency of 0.1 that represents 20% of the
Nyquist frequency. The relative attenuation of the higher frequencies in this band
can be observed from the three sincn spectra. When n > 2, smoothing occurs and
the interpolated points will not pass through the original sample points.
A spline interpolator fits a polynomial curve to the samples.
polynomial
A trivial cubic
yi ( x ) = ai + bi x + ci x 2 + di x 3 ,
(3.**)
could use four point yi ( xi 1 , xi , xi +1 , xi + 2 ) to define a curve that is only used in the
window between the two central points yi ( xi , xi +1 ) . However, the curvature would
be discontinuous from one window to the next. The cubic spline uses the two
central points to fit yi ( x) and two additional constrains that use the second
derivative (
yi ( x) = ci + di x ) to ensure continuity of curvature at the two central
points
yi ( xi , xi +1 ) . A set of equations from each window is inverted to get the
corresponding coefficients for each yi ( x) . Each equation is then used to fill the
corresponding window. This method ensures a fit at each point. A feature of the
cubic spline is that the matrix is tri-diagonal for easier inversion. All spline
interpolators can also be used with arbitrary intervals between each sample.
Page 3.54
a)
b)
c)
Figure 3.40 Interpolation illustrations using a) boxcar, b) linear, and c) quadratic
functions
a)
b)
Figure 3.41 Three interpolators in a) with a boxcar, linear, and quadratic shape,
and b) their corresponding Fourier transforms. (N = 11)
Continued convolution of boxcar with itself produces interpolators that tend to
the shape of a Gaussian function (Central limit theorem). A three point boxcar
interpolator is self convolved up to nine times with the results illustrated in Figure
3.42. Convolving with a box car a number of times (say three) is also an efficient
method of smoothing that is often used to smooth elevations to produce a floating
datum: the size of the boxcar would equal a spread-length.
Figure 3.42 Continued convolution of a three point boxcar with itself produces an
interpolator that tends to the Gaussian shape. (N = 3)
Page 3.55
3.4.7 Wrap around effects of aliasing

Use of the Discrete Fourier Series assumes both time and frequency domains are
periodic. When the Nyquist criteria is violated, the periodic nature of the
spectrum causes overlap with some of the frequencies as illustrated in Figure
3.43 and Figure 3.44.
A seismic trace sampled with 2-millisecond sample rate, or 500 Hz sampling
frequency will have a Nyquist frequency Fnyq of 250 Hz. The usual seismic signal
has a frequency content less than 100 Hz, well below the Nyquist rate and has
about five samples per cycle (of the maximum frequency). When the maximum
frequency is 80 Hz, there are 6 samples per cycle.
If a signal is sampled at a rate such that the Nyquist frequency is less than the
maximum frequency, the frequencies above the Nyquist rate will appear to be
reflected back at the Nyquist frequency as illustrated in Figure 3.43.
a)
b)
Figure 3.43 Aliasing in the frequency domain with (a) a normal sample rate, and
(b) when the sampling frequency is halved.
Page 3.56
The aliased frequencies may also be illustrated by the periodic spectrum

illustrated in Figure 3.44 with a comb filter illustrated in (a) and in (b) a two-sided
spectrum repeated over the interval Fs1. When Fs1 is halved to Fs2, the spectra
overlap as shown in (c). The arrows show the periodic locations of the new Fsamp.
The periodic nature of the spectrum may also be considered as a single spectrum
wrapped in a circle with the circumference defined by the sampling frequency, as
illustrated in (d). Shrinking the diameter will cause the spectrum to overlap.
a)
Amp
-Fnyq
Fnyq
b)
Freq
Lower sampling
frequency
Amp
-Fs2
-Fnyq
Freq
Fs1
Fnyq
2Fs2
Fs2
c)
Fs1
Fs2
d)
Figure 3.44 Aliasing viewed from repeated spectra, with a) the comb filter of
sampling theory, b) normal sampling, c) half the sampling frequency, and d)
illustrating the circular wrap-around concept where the circumference defines the
sampling frequency.
Page 3.57
3.4.8 Aliasing in two dimensions

Two dipping events are shown in Figure 3.45. The positive dip 1 contains higher
frequencies than the negative dip 2. Data in each time trace is well sampled, and
not aliased. However, horizontal traces will be aliased as illustrated by the
horizontal traces at the bottom of the figure. It shows amplitudes taken from the
position indicated in the main figure. Only one sample defines the aliased dip.
Figure 3.45 Two dipping events with different bandwidths. The horizontal trace
across the bottom shows the amplitudes taken from the main figure.
Aliasing energy can be identified in the 2-D Fourier transform of the above figure.
A schematic representation of the FK domain is shown in Figure 3.46. Note:
The aliased event 1 crosses over the spatial Nyquist frequency Kn.
The aliased frequencies are indicated in gray.
The maximum frequency before spatial aliasing is Fc.
The maximum frequency after aliasing is F1.
Page 3.58
Fc or Kc
F1
Fmax
Figure 3.46 Examples of FK data illustrating spatial aliasing.

Aliasing could be prevented by limiting the frequency content of the dipping event
to Fc. The frequency Fc may be defined from
tan ( ) =
Kn
Kc
(3.21)
where is the dip before or after migration, Kn is the spatial Nyquist frequency,
and Kc the cut off frequency expressed in depth parameters, i.e.
Kn =
1
2 CMPx
, and
Kc =
2
Fc
V
(3.22)
giving a cut-off frequency fc by the aliasing equation:
fc =
V
4 CMPx tan ( )
(3.23)
This important equation is also used to define the station interval (2 * CMPx) in
field designs. Some alternate forms of this equation replace q with a, then tan(a)
with sin(). Care must be taken to know whether fc is before or after migration.
Additional information on aliasing may be found in Bancroft [554], [555], [625], and
Lumley [310], [445], and [462].
Page 3.59
3.4.9 Time domain aliasing in two dimensions

Aliasing and wrap-around also occurs in the times and space domain as
illustrated in Figure 3.47. This time domain image shows an input structure and
the resulting section obtained from Fourier Transform modelling. Note that
energy of the dipping event departs from one side of the model and re-enters on
the other side.
This effect is more pronounced when the figure repeated many times and with
higher amplitudes as illustrated in Figure 3.48. Events are seen leaving one
section and appear to enter the neighbouring section, which in reality is the same
section.
x
a)
b)
Figure 3.47 Time domain wrap-around illustrated by (a) showing an input

structure and (b) a model formed by using the Fourier transform.
Page 3.60
Figure 3.48 The wrap-around in Figure 3.24 is repeated many times illustrating
wraparound when using the Fourier transform.
Page 3.61
The following figure contains an example of a poor FK migration algorithm that

contains many artifacts of wraparound when using the mod50.sgy data..
The main migrated event that is encircled by the widest blue line has many other
pseudo events at the same dip. Three are identified by the thinner blue lines.
Also note the numerous smiles and frowns with various radii that result from the
lower spike on the input section.
Figure 3.49 FK migration (very poor quality) that illustrates spatial wrap-around.
The FK migrated section is repeated tile fashion in Figure 3.50 to aid in
identifying the source of the artifacts. The energy in each tile is migrated relative
to the neighbouring zero depths; both upper and lower.
Exercise:
1. Locate the relative source of the artifacts in the encircled events.
2. Locate the center of curvature for the many smiles and frowns that
originate from the lower spike on the input section.
3. Note that the reflection and the reflector intersect at the apparent surface.
4. Blue reflectors indicate the apparent surface is above the actual surface,
while green indicates an apparent surface below the actual surface.
Page 3.62
Figure 3.50 Tiled version of the FK migration on the previous page to illustrate
wrap-around.
Page 3.63
3.4.10 Examples of aliasing and its effects on migration

Figure 3.51 shows three images of a) an input section, b) the 2-D Fourier
transform, and c) the 'frequency' domain migration. Note
The origin is at the upper left corner.
The Nyquist wave-number occurs at the center of the horizontal transform

space.
The energy of the dipping event crosses the Nyquist wave number in (b).
After migration, only the left portion of the dipping energy in (c) is correctly
migrated. The remaining energy is distorted by the migration and becomes
noise to the remaining part of the migration. (A full discussion of this effect is
given later in section 4.4)
x
kx
a)
b)
kx
f
c)
Figure 3.51 Illustration of aliasing or wraparound in the frequency domain
showing (a) an input time section, (b) the 2-D Fourier transform and (c) the
migration in the frequency domain. Spatial aliasing occurs at the center vertical
line.
Page 3.64
One method of controlling aliasing is illustrated in Figure 3.34 in which the aliased
frequencies are removed with a high cut filter that is applied to the temporal
frequencies.
kx
t
a)
b)
kx
f
c)
Figure 3.52 Similar to Figure 3.51 except that the input section has been filtered
with a low pass frequency filter to prevent aliasing.
Page 3.65
Figure 3.53 illustrates an extreme case of aliasing with temporal frequencies

extended to the Nyquist frequency (as well as the Nyquist wave-number). Now the
effects in the frequency domain migration are more apparent. The migrated time
domain in (d) displays the migrated noise close to the original positions of the
diffraction and dipping event.
kx
t
a)
b)
x
kx
t
d)
c)
Figure 3.53 Illustration of the consequence of aliasing. The input section (a) has
a very high frequency content, in (b) the aliased energy visible in the transform
domain is severe, with (c) showing migration and (d) the migrated time section
showing aliasing noise.
Page 3.66
x
t
a)
kx
b)
Figure 3.54 Repeat of Figure 3.53 illustrating a) the correctly migrated and b)
aliased dipping energy.
Page 3.67
3.5 Trace interpolation to reduce aliasing

The design of an acquisition project requires the trace spacing to be close enough
to prevent aliasing. However, some 3-D projects are deliberately acquired with a
larger trace spacing for to reduce costs, with the anticipation that aliasing effects
may be reduced with trace interpolation.
Kirchhoff and FK methods may be written to deliberately migrate aliased data,
thereby preserving the frequency of the aliased data, however, aliasing noise will
be present [445]. Choices are made between acceptable noise and desired
frequency content of dipping events.
It is also possible to insert or interpolate traces to reduce aliasing. This may be
accomplished by a number of methods
Inserting a dead traces between existing traces
Linear interpolation between neighboring traces
Dip interpolation by cross correlating neighboring traces,
2-D Fourier transform methods
X methods
Use of DMO
The worst form of trace interpolation, adding dead traces can preserve the
frequency of dipping events with a controlled addition of aliased noise. This is
illustrated in Figure 3.55 which shows the xt and FK domains a) before and b)
after one dead trace was inserted between the live time domain traces, while c)
show an ideal interpolation. Note:
Dipping event in the input data (a) is aliased, where the maximum usable
frequency is F1, and the aliased portion shown in red.
Adding dead traces in the time domain causes the FK domain to double, with
the original FK transform repeated twice, as illustrated in (b).
The left dipping event in (b) is still aliased.
The right dipping event is not aliased and has a maximum frequency of F2.
FK filtering (or migration) should remove a large amount of aliased noise

above 45 degrees.
Page 3.68
45
Aliased
energy
a)
45
Aliased
noise
b)
45
c)
Figure 3.55 Illustration dead trace interpolation, a) is the original xt, and FK
domain of an aliased dip, b) the result after adding dead traces between each live
trace in the time domain, and c) an ideal interpolation.
Interpolation should be performed before migration when the reflection energy is

less than 45 degrees. The migration process itself should help to remove the
noise. Some migration algorithms, such as finite difference, are unable to remove
dipping noise and an FK filter may be required before migration.
Page 3.69
3.6 The wave equation(s)

There are many forms of the wave equation and many assumptions that are made
to derive these many different forms. The most common assumptions are the
medium is acoustic and that only P-waves exist (no shear waves) and that energy
is propagated in one direction (no multiples). The following is a brief introduction
to various types of the scalar "wave equations".
Using Kosloff's [295] notation, the acoustic two dimensional wave equation, with
velocity v(x, z), pressure P(x, z, t), bulk modulus K, and density (x, z) is,
1 P
1 P
=
x x
z z
1 2P
.
K t2
(3.24)
The usual form of the wave equation expressed with constant density is,
2P 2P
1 2P
+
=
v2 t 2
x2 z 2
(3.25)
Another form is represented in the Fourier transform domain with second order
partial derivatives of P with respect to x, z, and t, giving,
k +k = 2
x
z v
2
(3.26)
where the k and terms are the Fourier transforms of distance and time.
The paraxial wave equation, or single square root equation may be written as,
k z = 2 k x2
v
(3.27)
or when inverse transforming kz to the derivative we get

1
2
P
v2 2
2
= i 2 k x P = i 1 2 k x P .
z
v
v
2
(3.28)
Approximate solutions to the square root in the above equation lead to the
development of the parabolic wave equation, also known as the 15 degree
solution, where the variable P is now replaced by a time shifted Q, i.e.,
Q
iv 2
=
kx Q ,
z 2
Page 3.70
(3.29)
or,
Q v 2Q
=
.
z 2i x 2
(3.30)
Another approximation to equation 3.28 yields the 45 degree approximation,
- i k x2
Q
=
Q
z vk x2 .
2
v 2
(3.31)
The above methods solved for the depth derivative dQ/dz. This derivative may be
used with the wavefield at depth z to compute a new wavefield at depth z+z.
Using the following definition of the derivative, i.e.,
dP (z ) P (z + z )P (z )
,
dz
z
(3.32)
the terms may be rearranged to solve for the wave field at P(z+z), i.e.,
P (z + z )P (z ) + z
P ( z )
.
z
(3.33)
Many other solutions exist that are based on alternate approximation to the
square root found in the above equations. Some are in Appendix 1.
The Eikonal equation is similar in some manners to the wave equation 3.25 and is
included for a comparison.
2
+
x
1
.
V2
(3.34)
The Eikonal equation does not involve the pressure wave P but is an equation of
slowness used for computing local travel times for depth migration.
Page 3.71
3.7 Derivatives and an approximate solution to the full wave

equation
The wave equation is a partial differential equation that is usually solved with
advanced mathematical principles. The basics are quite simple to understand and
simulate in a computer. This following is a brief introduction to illustrate the finite
difference method. (A 15 degree solution is presented in section 5.6.1, with
additional solutions in Appendix 1).
Differential equations relate "things" such as position, velocity, and acceleration,
or other "things" such as temperature, and the rate at which temperature
changes. Recall
Velocity is the rate of change of distance with respect to time.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
The rate of change of "something" such as x relative to time t is defined by the

derivative with the mathematical symbol,
dx
,
dt
(3.35)
where dx approximates a small part of x, and dt approximates a small part of time

t. The small distance divided by a small time gives the velocity. Similarly, a small
change in velocity divided by a small change in time gives the acceleration. i.e.,
distance
x,
velocity
v =
dx
,
dt
a =
dv
dt
acceleration
d dx
dt dt
d2x
= 2 .
dt
The wave equation relates the rate of changing pressure in the x and z directions
with the rate of changing in pressure over time, i.e.,
2P 2P
1 2P
+
=
.
v2 t 2
x2 z 2
Page 3.72
(3.36)
The relationship between two "things" may be plotted on a graph as illustrated in

Figure 3.56 The geometry for a) the first and b) the second derivatives.When
relating distance with time, the slope or first derivative would give velocity. The
velocity at a point midway between t7 and t8 is approximately,
vel (7 ) =
dx
dt
distance
x ( 8 ) x (7 )
.
t ( 8 ) t (7 )
(3.37)
distance
x8
x8
x7
x6
x7
x6
t6
t7
t8
time
t6
t7
t8
time
Figure 3.56 The geometry for a) the first and b) the second derivatives.
The second derivative or acceleration at t7 would be found from,
x ( 8 ) x (7 ) x (7 ) x ( 6 )
d x vel (7 ) vel ( 6 )
t
t
=
accel (7 ) = 2
t
t
dt
2
x ( 6 ) 2x (7 ) + x ( 8 ) T x (7 )
=
t 2
t 2
(3.38)
where T is the second derivative operator (1, -2, 1) on three equally spaced values.
Now back to the wave equation, each of the second derivatives may be
approximated by
d 2 p Px 1 2Px + Px +1 T Px
= 2
x 2
x
dx 2
with z, and t constant,
d 2 p Pz 1 2Pz + Pz +1 T Pz
= 2
dz 2
z 2
z
with x, and t constant,
d 2 p Pt 1 2Pt + Pt +1 T Pt
= 2
t 2
t
dt 2
with x, and z constant.
Page 3.73
These second derivatives are taken at a point (x, z, t) within the volume and along
the respective orthogonal axis illustrated in Figure 3.57. In these equations the
value of P at (x, z, t) is simplified to Px, Pz, and Pt, relative to the respective axis.
Pz-1
Pt+1
Px+1
P
Px-1
Pt-1
Pz+1
Figure 3.57 Orthogonal direction of x, z, and t for solving the wave equation.
The wave equation requires the finite difference terms to balance, i.e.,
Px 1 2P + Px +1 Pz 1 2P + Pz +1 Pt 1 2P + Pt +1
+
=
.
V 2 t 2
x 2
z 2
(3.39)
If we know six of the seven points we can find the seventh point by rearranging
the above equation to solve for that point. When modelling, we have two vertical
planes of P at times at t =0 and t =1 and desire to find the value at the next time
plane at t =2. We therefore solve equation 3.39 for Pt+1, first getting
P 2P + Px +1 Pz 1 2P + Pz +1
+
Pt 1 2P + Pt +1 = V 2t 2 x 1
,
x 2
z 2
(3.40)
P 2P + Px +1 Pz 1 2P + Pz +1
+
Pt +1 = 2P Pt 1 + V 2t 2 x 1
.
2
x
z 2
(3.41)
then,
The process is repeated for all points on the computed plane P(t=1) and then the
process repeated for all points on the next plane P(t=2) and so forth. This method
was used in the modelling examples in chapter two. Given the first two "photos,"
all the points in the next photo were computed using the above equation, and then
the next photo, and so on.
Page 3.74
Equation (3.39) may be modified to solve for P at (t-1) to perform a reverse time
migration as in Fricke [98]. It may also be modified to solve for P at (z+1) to
compute a new depth layer in downward continuation migration.
A solution for Pz+1 could be used for full wave equation migration, but is not
normally used as it propagates energy in all directions, including multiples from
velocity interfaces. This may seem an advantage, but at the present time it is very
difficult to define the structure accurately enough to collapse the multiples. The
one-way wave equations do not have this problem.
An additional problem encountered by this method is the requirement of the two
starting layers.
Note the following regarding differentials:
Partial differential equations may also be solved with the aid of the Fourier
transform where derivatives may be computed exactly by a frequency
multiplication and phase shift.
The first derivative is difficult to accurately represent in the time domain,

(why ?).
The second derivative is easier to represent in the time domain than the first
derivative, (why ?).
Page 3.75
3.8 Time and depth migration

3.8.1 What is time migration?
It assumes:
assumes a horizontally layered medium
the output is defined as a time section
relative positioning errors in positioning errors may occur in areas with lateral
velocity variations,
velocities are estimated for a local area to focus the data.
A time migration velocity model is based on the RMS velocities that can be
extracted from the stacking velocities.
Kirchhoff time migration:
Usually defines the diffraction shape as a hyperbola from RMS velocities.
Assumes the diffraction is symmetrical.
Collapses energy to the apex of the diffraction.
A higher order polynomial for the diffraction shape may be used.
Downward continuation time migration:
Slowly collapses a diffraction at the same time location on the time section
with each downward step.
The velocity for each downward step is an interval velocity that is computed
from the RMS velocity.
A band of data from each time section becomes part of the migrated section.
Time migration is fast.

Local or relative positioning is assumed.
It is usually the responsibility of the processor.
Page 3.76
3.8.2 What is depth migration?

Depth migration assumes:
a known complex velocity structure,
the output is in depth,
correct absolute positioning of the data.
Practical depth migration estimates a velocity model by starting at the surface and
estimating the velocity to, and the location of, the first horizon. When that
horizon is defined, the velocity to the next horizon is estimated, and the location
is then defined and then This is known as the layer stripping method. Errors
in any shallow layer will effect those below.
Kirchhoff depth migration:
defines the diffraction shape from ray tracing or wavefront modelling.
Downward continuation depth migration:
Slowly collapses diffraction on the time section with each downward step.
Moves the diffraction towards the top of the time section as the downward step
is increased.
After a downward continuation step to depth z, the top time samples P(x, t=0)
are copied to form the migrated section at each depth layer P(x, z).
FK migration:
Tends to a depth migration because of the time to depth stretching.
It is only valid for smoothly varying velocities.
Depth migration assumes a known depth structure.
Velocity anisotropy should always be considered.
Many iterations may be required to define the depth structure.
Usually one depth layer is defined for each iteration.
Tomographic solutions enable the velocities of multiple layers

to be estimated simultaneously.
Depth migration is the responsibility of an interpreter.
Page 3.77
3.8.3 Advantages and disadvantages of time migration

Time migration, even though it is an approximation, it is still the main work horse
in the industry and is used much more than its depth counterpart.
The following reasons highlight the durability of time migration.
The objective is best focusing and correct relative positioning [743].
The stacked time section and the migrated time section appear quite similar
with respect to the position of the data.
Diffractions collapse to the same position.
Velocities only need to be within 3 to 10 percent.
Small change in velocity only affects the focusing of the data, not the time
position.
Velocities may be focused independent of time or depth.
Complex structures in a shallower part of the section do not effect the

migration of the data below.
It is usually computationally faster.
Requires fewer runs to produce desired results.
Is the responsibility of the processor (not interpreter).
A robust process.
Disadvantages of time migration are:
Output is in time, not depth.
Structured data may not be positioned correctly.
Does not position dipping data as accurately as depth migration.
Might not focus structurally complex data.
When comparing sections acquired with various propagation modes (P-P, S-S,
or P-S), reflections from the same event will occur at different times.
The advantages and disadvantages of time migration become the disadvantages

and advantages of depth migration. The following lists are presented to
emphasize some of the points of depth migration.
Page 3.78
3.8.4 Advantages and disadvantages of depth migration

The advantages of depth migration are:
The objective is to have correct absolute positioning [743],
It is displayed in depth,
It may be structurally correct (if the velocity model is correct),
When comparing sections acquired with various propagation modes (P-P, S-S,
or P-S), reflections from the same event should occur at the same depth.
Disadvantages of depth migration are:
Requires many iterations to converge on a suitable depth model.
Highly dependent on the structure above the point of migration.
May require long run-times.
May converge to an incorrect geological model.
May require special hardware to handle interactive processing.
Requires velocities to be within 0.5 to 1.0 percent.
Depth positioning errors are directly proportional to velocity errors.
The geological model becomes the responsibility of the interpreter.
The geological model must include anisotropy.
The objective of seismic migration is to produce a section that represents the

geological structure of the Earth. This implies that the migration should only
output a depth section. Fortunately, the development of migration introduced
time migration, one that is robust, and in most areas approximates the benefits of
depth migration.
There are areas in which the data is too complex for time migration, or in which
the depth migration is superior. Even in these cases the time migration has been
very useful in helping to develop the depth models used in the depth migrations.
In highly structured data, it may not be possible to define a depth model, and only
time migration solutions that attempt to focus the data may be practical.
Page 3.79
3.8.5 The effect of lateral velocity changes on diffractions

Figure 3.58a illustrates a geological structure with a lateral velocity change
defined by a dipping interface. The rays traced through this dipping layer define a
tilted diffraction shape that is illustrated in part (b). Note
the diffraction is tilted,
the apex has moved horizontally to the right,
the apex is below the point where the image ray meets the surface, and
the tilted diffraction is now non-hyperbolic.
Image ray
a)
Apparent
location
b)
Figure 3.58 Lateral velocity change in (a) causes a tilt on the diffraction (b).
Collapsing this diffraction using vertical hyperbolas will result in a misspositioning and smearing of the assumed diffracting point. The positioning error
may be corrected by tracing the image ray back to the scatter point.
Page 3.80
3.8.6 A pictorial summary

Time Migration
Depth Migration
Hyperbola
Computed diffraction
a)
Time section
Depth section
b)
Z=0
Diffractions at same time
Diffractions converge to surface

c)
Figure 3.59 Pictorial comparisons of time and depth migrations.
Page 3.81
3.8.7 Image ray conversion from time to depth migration

Time migration is usually the starting point for depth migration. Image ray
processing introduced by Hubral [3] converts the time migrated data to an
approximate depth migrated structure.
The shortest time raypath from a point reflector to the surface is an image ray.
This image ray will also represent the apex (minimum time) on a diffraction. Time
migration collapses energy to this point at the apex of diffractions. The image ray
may curve in areas with lateral velocity variation, but will arrive normal to the
surface, or in a vertical direction. Tracing this raypath from the surface on a
depth model enables a lateral correction and a time to depth conversion from
which, samples in the time migrated section may be moved to approximate a
depth migration.
The approximate depth structures, and the interval velocities from time migration,
help to define the initial depth model.
Papers by Parkes [80] and Loveridge [79] use ray tracing to relate the time
migration and depth migration, and their diagram is repeated below.
Figure 3.60 Time and depth migrations related by normal and image rays.
Page 3.82
Normal rays are the familiar zero offset rays that reflect at right angles from the
reflectors
Image rays are rays that leave the surface vertically and travel to the reflector,
as illustrated in the following diagram.
Figure 3.61 Description of 'normal' and 'image' rays.

Use of the traveltimes with vertical and lateral positions along an image ray will
allow the conversion of a time migrated section to an approximate depth migrated
section. That is implied in Figure 3.61 where time migration tends to position the
migrated energy at the apex of the diffraction or below time zero of the image ray.
Note however, that the energy of the tilted diffraction will be dispersed since it will
not align exactly with the time migration hyperbola.
Care must be taken to ensure the time section is a true time section and not a
hybrid migration produced by time to depth stretch in an FK migration.
Why is the image ray a minimum travel time from a scatterpoint to the surface?
1. Consider a wavefront emanating from a scatterpoint. The first arrival of the
wavefront at the surface will be tangent to the surface (otherwise another point
will have reached there first). Rays are normal to the wavefront and thus
normal to the surface.
2. Imagine a colocated source and receiver at the scatter point and the surface as
a reflector; the raypath (minimum time) must be normal to the reflector.
Black [323, 324 , and 331] confirms that image ray correction is not an exact
process, and is only accurate for moderate dips. Bevc et al [582] identify errors
with image ray corrections.
Image ray correction is of great value in establishing an initial depth model.
Page 3.83
3.9 Points to note in Chapter 3
A semicircle represents all possible reflectors for a given time response when
the source and receiver are located at the same position (constant velocity).
An ellipse represents all possible reflectors for a given time response when the
source and receiver are located at the foci of the ellipse (constant velocity).
The shape of a diffraction may be described by a hyperbola and is accurate

when using the RMS velocity in a vertically varying velocity.
Instantaneous velocity defines the geological structure.
Average velocity is used for direct time to depth conversion.
Stacking velocity is part of NMO and gives the best stack.
Stacking velocities should be RMS velocities in horizontal areas and faster in

dipping areas.
RMS velocities are related to the interval velocities.
Migration should use RMS or instantaneous velocities where appropriate,

however some migrations use smoothed forms of the velocity.
DMO processing requires the NMO to be calculated with RMS (and not
stacking) velocities.
The Fourier transform presents a different view of the same information.
A wave form may be reconstructed by summing sinusoids.
Signals may wrap-around when using the Fourier Transform.
2-D aliasing is controlled by dip, CMP interval, frequency and velocity.
There are many forms of the wave equation.
Derivatives may be approximated by simple expressions.
Time migration is based on the assumption of hyperbolic diffraction shapes.
Depth migration involves a complex process to accurately define the

diffraction shapes based on a velocity model.
Image rays may be used to convert a time migrated section into an

approximate depth migration.
Page 3.84
For further information

Conics: Schaum's Mathematical Handbook [382]
Fourier transform: Digital Signal Processing [384]
Numerical Recipes [187]
The Fourier Transform and its Applications [385]
Wave equations: Claerbout's "Imaging The Earth's Interior" [294]
Finite difference solutions: Claerbout [294] Kosloff's [295]
Finite difference modelling: Fricke [98]
Time and depth migration: Parks [80]
Page 3.85
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3

Gain insight to the Fourier transform and aliasing.

Identify the differences between time and depth migrations.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.1 Circles, ellipses, and hyperbolas

center of a circle represents the location of a source and receiver

circle is a special form of an ellipse in which the foci are co-located

the circle and hyperbola are directly related

Figure 3.1 The circle and its geometry.

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

3.1.1 Some observations of an ellipse

Figure 3.2 The ellipse and its geometry.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.1.2 Some observations of an hyperbola

A diffraction pattern has the shape of a hyperbola as defined below.

The depth of the apex is Zo, and the half offset is h.

For two way times,

Figure 3.3 The hyperbola and associated definitions.

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

3.1.3 Relationships between the circle and hyperbola

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.1.4 Relationships between the ellipse and hyperbola

Figure 3.5 The relationship between the ellipse and hyperbola.

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

The two following figures illustrate non-geophysical applications of the ellipsoid.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.2 Velocities (instantaneous, average, RMS, stacking,

RMS velocities are defined to simplify the computation of raypath traveltimes

Migration velocities produce the best-looking migrated section and should be

Transverse anisotropy may occur in horizontally layered media, where, at a given

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

Velocities are picked at discrete points. It is assumed RMS velocities are

What type of velocity does the speedometer in a car read?

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.2.1 Instantaneous velocity (Vins)

Figure 3.9 Instantaneous velocity.

Remember that we are assuming isotropic media.

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

3.2.2 Average velocity (Vave)

Figure 3.10 Average velocity of the defined instantaneous velocity.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.2.3 RMS velocity ( Vrms)

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

3.2.4 Stacking velocities (Vstk)

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.2.5 Interval velocities (Vint)

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

Always convert stacking velocities to RMS velocities by removing

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.2.6 Assumption of linear raypaths

The traveltimes of the NMO or diffraction curve in Figure 3.1a is described by a

The hyperbolic approximation is shown in (b), and from Pythagorean theorem,

The hyperbolic approximation of traveltimes is one of the most significant

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.2.7 The power of the RMS assumption

Dipping reflectors require the RMS velocity to be replaced by stacking velocities.

Prestack Kirchhoff time migration computes the individual one-way traveltimes of

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

3.2.8 Fermats principle

Figure 3.15 Direct and refracted raypaths.

Chapter 3 Bits and Pieces

Consider Figure 3.16 below.