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This article is about the internal organ. For other uses, of deaths.[9][10] Of these more than three quarters folsee Heart (disambiguation).
low coronary artery disease and stroke.[9] Risk factors include: smoking, being overweight, little exercise, high
pressure, and poorly controlled
The heart is a muscular organ in humans and other an- cholesterol, high blood [11]
diabetes, among others.
Diagnosis of CVD is often
imals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of
done
by
listening
to
the
heart-sounds
with a stethoscope,
[1]
the circulatory system. Blood provides the body with
ECG or by ultrasound.[3] Specialists who focus on disoxygen and nutrients, and also assists in the removal of
metabolic wastes.[2] The heart is located in the middle eases of the heart are called cardiologists, although many
specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment.[10]
compartment of the mediastinum in the chest.[3]
In humans, other mammals and birds the heart is divided
into four chambers: upper left and right atria; and lower
left and right ventricles.[4][5] Commonly the right atrium
and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and
their left counterparts as the left heart.[6] Fish in contrast
have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while reptiles have three chambers.[5] In a healthy heart blood ows
one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backow.[3] The heart is enclosed in a protective sac,
the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of
uid. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers:
epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.[7]
1 Structure
The heart is situated in the middle of the mediastinum behind the breastbone in the chest, at the level of thoracic
vertebrae T5-T8. The largest part of the heart is usually
slightly oset to the left side of the chest (though occasionally it may be oset to the right) and is felt to be on
the left because the left heart is stronger, since it pumps
to all body parts. Because the heart is between the lungs,
the left lung in turn is smaller than the right lung because
it has to accommodate the heart.
1 STRUCTURE
The human heart is in the middle of the thorax, with its apex
pointing to the left.[12]
veins the venae cavae, and the great arteries, the aorta
and pulmonary artery, are attached to the upper part of
the heart, called the base, which is located at the level
of the third costal cartilage.[7] The lower tip of the heart,
the apex, lies just to the left of the sternum between the
junction of the fourth and fth ribs near their articulation
with the costal cartilages.[7] The right side of the heart is
deected forwards, and the left deected to the back.[7]
The heart is cone-shaped, with its base positioned upwards and tapering down to the apex.[7] A stethoscope can
be placed directly over the apex so that the heartbeats can
be counted. An adult heart has a mass of 250350 grams
(912 oz).[14] The heart is typically the size of a st: 12
cm (5 in) in length, 8 cm (3.5 in) wide, and 6 cm (2.5
in) in thickness.[7] Well-trained athletes can have much
larger hearts due to the eects of exercise on the heart
muscle, similar to the response of skeletal muscle.[7]
1.2
Chambers
the atrioventricular valves and separated from the ventricles by the coronary sulcus. There is an ear-shaped structure in the upper right atrium called the right atrial appendage, or auricle, and another in the upper left atrium,
the left atrial appendage. The right atrium and the right
ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the right
heart and this sometimes includes the pulmonary artery.
Similarly, the left atrium and the left ventricle together
are sometimes referred to as the left heart. The ventricles
The pacemaker cells make up just (1% of cells) and form are separated by the anterior longitudinal sulcus and the
posterior interventricular sulcus.
the conduction system of the heart. They are generally much smaller than the contractile cells and have few The cardiac skeleton is made of dense connective tismyobrils which gives them limited contractibility. Their sue and this gives structure to the heart. It forms the
function is similar in many respects to neurons.[7]
atrioventricular septum which separates the atria from the
rings which serve as bases for
The cardiac muscle pattern is elegant and complex, as the ventricles, and the brous
[17]
the
four
heart
valves.
The
cardiac skeleton also promuscle cells swirl and spiral around the chambers of the
vides
an
important
boundary
in
the hearts electrical con[7]
heart. They form a gure 8 pattern around the atria and
duction
system
since
collagen
cannot
conduct electricity.
[7]
around the bases of the great vessels. Deeper ventricuThe
interatrial
septum
separates
the
atria
and the interlar muscles also form a gure 8 around the two ventricles
[7]
ventricular
septum
separates
the
ventricles.
The interand proceed toward the apex. More supercial layers of
ventricular
septum
is
much
thicker
than
the
interatrial
[7]
ventricular muscle wrap around both ventricles. This
septum,
since
the
ventricles
need
to
generate
greater
prescomplex swirling pattern allows the heart to pump blood
[7]
sure
when
they
contract.
[7]
more eectively than a simple linear pattern would.
As with skeletal muscles the heart can increase in size and
eciency with exercise.[7] Thus endurance athletes such 1.2.1 Valves
as marathon runners may have a heart that has increased
Main article: Heart valves
in size by up to 40%.[15]
The pericardium surrounds the heart. It consists of two
membranes: an inner serous membrane called the epicardium, and an outer brous membrane.[16] These enclose the pericardial cavity which contains the pericardial
uid that lubricates the surface of the heart.
1.2
Chambers
With the atria and major vessels removed, all four valves
are clearly visible.[7]
Superior
Vena Cava
Aorta
Pulmonary
Artery
Pulmonary
Vein
Right
Atrium
Left
Atrium
Mitral
Valve
Left
Ventricle
Pulmonary
Valve
Tricuspid
Valve
Aortic
Valve
Right
Ventricle
1 STRUCTURE
1.2.2 Right heart
Frontal section showing papillary muscles attached to the tricuspid valve on the right and to the mitral valve on the left via chordae tendineae.[7]
The atria receive venous blood on a nearly continuous basis, preventing venous ow from stopping while the ventricles are contracting. While most ventricular lling occurs while the atria are relaxed, they do demonstrate a
contractile phase when they actively pump blood into the
ventricles just prior to ventricular contraction. The right
Between the left atrium and left ventricle is the mitral atrium[7]is connected to the right ventricle by the tricuspid
valve, also known as the bicuspid valve due to its having valve.
two cusps, an anterior and a posterior medial cusp. These When the myocardium of the ventricle contracts, prescusps are also attached via chordae tendinae to two pap- sure within the ventricular chamber rises. Blood, like
illary muscles projecting from the ventricular wall.
any uid, ows from higher pressure to lower pressure
The tricuspid and the mitral valves are the atrioventric- areas, in this case, toward the pulmonary artery and the
atrium. To prevent any potential backow, the papillary
ular valves. During the relaxation phase of the cardiac
cycle, the papillary muscles are also relaxed and the ten- muscles also contract, generating tension on the chordae
tendineae. This prevents the aps of the valves from besion on the chordae tendineae is slight. However, as the
ventricle contracts, so do the papillary muscles. This cre- ing forced into the atria and regurgitation of the[7]blood
ates tension on the chordae tendineae, helping to hold the back into the atria during ventricular contraction.
cusps of the atrioventricular valves in place and prevent- The walls of the right ventricle are lined with trabeculae
carneae, ridges of cardiac muscle covered by endoing them from being blown back into the atria.[7]
The semilunar pulmonary valve is located at the base of cardium. In addition to these muscular ridges, a band of
the pulmonary artery. This has three cusps which are not cardiac muscle, also covered by endocardium, known as
attached to any papillary muscles. When the ventricle re- the moderator band reinforces the thin walls of the right
laxes blood ows back into the ventricle from the artery ventricle and plays a crucial role in cardiac conduction.
and this ow of blood lls the pocket-like valve, press- It arises from the lower part of the interventricular sepventricle
ing against the cusps which close to seal the valve. The tum and crosses the interior space of the right
[7]
to
connect
with
the
inferior
papillary
muscle.
semilunar aortic valve is at the base of the aorta and also
is not attached to papillary muscles. This too has three When the right ventricle contracts, it ejects blood into
cusps which close with the pressure of the blood owing the pulmonary artery, which branches into the left and
back from the aorta.[7]
right pulmonary arteries that carry it to each lung. The
5
upper surface of the right ventricle begins to taper as it
approaches the pulmonary artery. At the base of the pulmonary artery is the pulmonary semilunar valve that prevents backow from the pulmonary artery.[7]
1.2.3
Left heart
1.3
Coronary circulation
Right atrium
Right coronary
artery
Posterior
descending artery
Right
marginal artery
Right ventricle
Left ventricle
Arterial supply to the heart (red), with other areas labelled (blue).
3 PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology
3.1
Blood ow
3.2
Electrical conduction
astole, the atria contract to pump blood to the ventricles. Preload refers to how much blood is in the ventricles at the
This coordination ensures blood is pumped eciently to end of diastole, at their most full. A main factor is how
the body.[7]
long it takes the ventricles to llif the ventricles conthen there is less time to ll and the preload
At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, in early diastole, tract faster, [7]
will
be
less.
Preload can also be aected by a persons
both the atria and ventricles are relaxed. Since blood
hydration
status.
. It is important because of the Frankmoves from areas of high pressure to areas of low presStarling
mechanism.
This states that the force of contracsure, when the chambers are relaxed, blood will ow into
tion
is
directly
proportional
to the initial length of musthe atria (through the coronary sinus and the pulmonary
cle ber. This means that a ventricle will contract more
veins). As the atria begin to ll, the pressure will rise
[7]
so that the blood will move from the atria into the ven- forcefully, the more it is stretched.
tricles. In late diastole the atria contract pumping more
blood into the ventricles. This causes a rise in pressure
in the ventricles, and in ventricular systole blood will be
pumped into the pulmonary artery.
Electrical conduction
The x-axis reects time with a recording of the heart sounds. The
y-axis represents pressure.[7]
blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute. To calculate this, multiply the amount pumped out by each ventricle, the stroke volume (SV), by the heart rate (HR), in
beats per minute.[7] Cardiac output can be represented by
the equation: CO = HR x SV[7] The average cardiac output, using an average SV of about 70mL, is 5.25 L/min,
with a range of 4.08.0 L/min.[7] The stroke volume is
normally measured using an echocardiogram and can be Transmission of a cardiac action potential through the hearts
inuenced by the size of the heart, physical and mental conduction system
condition of the individual, sex, contractility, duration of
contraction, preload and afterload.[7]
established by the sinoatrial node, the hearts pacemaker.
3 PHYSIOLOGY
Atrioventricular
node
Bachmann's
bundle
His bundle
Left posterior
bundle
Right bundle
3.3
Heart rate
Purkinje
fibers
When the sinoatrial cells are resting, they have a negative charge on their membranes. However a rapid inux of sodium ions causes the membranes charge to
become positive. This is called depolarisation and occurs spontaneously.[7] Once the cell has a suciently high
charge, the sodium channels close and calcium ions then
begin to enter the cell, shortly after which potassium begins to leave it. All the ions travel through ion channels in
the membrane of the sinoatrial cells. The potassium and
calcium only start to move out of and into the cell once it
has a suciently high charge, and so are called voltagegated. Shortly after this, the calcium channels close and
potassium channels open, allowing potassium to leave the
cell. This causes the cell to have a negative resting charge
and is called repolarization. When the membrane potential reaches approximately 60 mV, the potassium channels close and the process may begin again.[7]
The ions move from areas where they are concentrated to
where they are not. For this reason sodium moves into
the cell from outside, and potassium moves from within
the cell to outside the cell. Calcium also plays a critical
role. Their inux through slow channels means that the
sinoatrial cells have a prolonged pleateau phase when
they have a positive charge. A part of this is called the
absolute refractory period. Calcium ions also combine
with the regulatory protein troponin C in the troponin
complex to enable contraction of the cardiac muscle, and
separate from the protein to allow relaxation.[27]
3.4
Heart sounds
9
of receptors including proprioreceptors, baroreceptors,
and chemoreceptors, plus stimuli from the limbic system.
Through a series of reexes these help regulate and sustain blood ow. For example, increased physical activity
results in increased rates of ring by various proprioreceptors located in muscles, joint capsules, and tendons.
With increased rates of ring, the parasympathetic stimulation may decrease or sympathetic stimulation may increase as needed in order to increase blood ow.[7]
Similarly, baroreceptors are stretch receptors located in
the aortic sinus, carotid bodies, the venae cavae, and other
locations, including pulmonary vessels and the right side
of the heart itself. Rates of ring from the baroreceptors
represent blood pressure, level of physical activity, and
the relative distribution of blood. The cardiac centers
monitor baroreceptor ring to maintain cardiac homeostasis, a mechanism called the baroreceptor reex. With
increased pressure and stretch, the rate of baroreceptor
ring increases, and the cardiac centers decrease sympathetic stimulation and increase parasympathetic stimulation. As pressure and stretch decrease, the rate of
baroreceptor ring decreases, and the cardiac centers increase sympathetic stimulation and decrease parasympathetic stimulation.[7]
There is a similar reex, called the atrial reex or
Bainbridge reex, associated with varying rates of blood
ow to the atria. Increased venous return stretches the
walls of the atria where specialized baroreceptors are located. However, as the atrial baroreceptors increase their
rate of ring and as they stretch due to the increased blood
pressure, the cardiac center responds by increasing sympathetic stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic stimulation to increase HR. The opposite is also true.[7]
In addition to the autonomic nervous system, other factors can impact on this. These include epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones; levels of various ions
including calcium, potassium, and sodium; body temperature; hypoxia; and pH balance. Factors that increase
the heart rate can include release of norepinephrine,
hypoxemia, low blood pressure and dehydration, a strong
emotional response, a higher body temperature, and
metabolic and hormonal factors such as a low potassium
or sodium level or stimulus from thyroid hormones.[7] Decreased body temperature, relaxation, and metabolic factors can also contribute to a decrease in heart rate.[7]
One of the simplest methods of assessing the hearts condition is to listen to it using a stethoscope.[7] In a healthy
heart, there are only two audible heart sounds, called S1
and S2. The rst heart sound S1, is the sound created
by the closing of the atrioventricular valves during venThe cardiovascular centres receive input from a series tricular contraction and is normally described as lub.
10
4 CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
listening for heart murmurs.
The second heart sound, S2, is the sound of the semilunar valves closing during ventricular diastole and is described as dub.[7] Each sound consists of two components, reecting the slight dierence in time as the two
valves close.[29] S2 may split into two distinct sounds, either as a result of inspiration or dierent valvular or cardiac problems.[29] Additional heart sounds may also be
present and these give rise to gallop rhythms. A third
heart sound, S3 usually indicates an increase in ventricular blood volume. A fourth heart sound S4 is referred to
as an atrial gallop and is produced by the sound of blood
being forced into a sti ventricle. The combined presence of S3 and S4 give a quadruple gallop.[7]
Heart murmurs are abnormal heart sounds which can
be either pathological or benign.[30] One example of
a murmur is Stills murmur, which presents a musical
sound in children, has no symptoms and disappears in
adolescence.[31]
A dierent type of sound, a pericardial friction rub can
be heard in cases of pericarditis where the inamed membranes can rub together.[32]
Clinical signicance
Being such a complex organ the heart is prone to several cardiovascular diseases some becoming more prevalent with ageing.[33] Heart disease is a major cause of
death, accounting for an average of 30% of all deaths in
2008, globally.[9] This rate varies from a lower 28% to a
high 40% in high-income countries.[10] Doctors that specialise in the heart are called cardiologists. Many other
medical professionals are involved in treating diseases of
the heart, including doctors such as general practitioners,
cardiothoracic surgeons and intensivists, and allied health
practitioners including physiotherapists and dieticians.
Obesity, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol can
all increase the risk of developing heart disease. However, half the number of heart attacks occur in people
with normal cholesterol levels. It is generally accepted
that factors such as exercise or the lack of it, good or
poor diet, and overall well-being (including emotional),
aect heart health.[34][35][36][37] Exercise results in the
addition of protein myolaments and this can result in
hypertrophy where the size of individual cells are increased but not their number.[7] This is a condition known
as athletic heart syndrome. The hearts of athletes can
pump more eciently at lower heart rates. However,
enlarged hearts can have a pathological cause such as
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, which can result in a heart
of 1000 g (2 lb) in mass.[7] The cause of an abnormally
enlarged heart muscle is unknown, but the condition is
often undiagnosed and can cause sudden death in young
athletes.[7]
Coronary artery disease is also known as ischemic heart
disease, and atherosclerotic disease and is the most common form of heart disease. The underlying mechanism of
this disease is atherosclerosisa build-up of plaque along
the inner walls of the arteries which narrows them, reducing the blood ow to the heart. It is the leading cause
of heart attacks and the most common cause of death,
globally.[38] It is also the main cause of angina.
Cardiomyopathy and most commonly dilated cardiomyopathy, is a noticeable deterioration of the heart muscles
ability to contract, which can lead to heart failure.[39][40]
Other common causes of heart failure (which can also be
The stethoscope is used for auscultation of the heart, congestive), are heart attacks, valve disorders and high
and is one of the most iconic symbols for medicine. blood pressure. This happens when the heart is pumpA number of diseases can be detected primarily by
4.2
Assessment
11
4.1
Diagnosis
4.2
Assessment
4.2.1
Examination
4.2.2 Electrocardiogram
Main article: Electrocardiography
Using surface electrodes on the body, it is possible to
12
5 HISTORY
A cardiac stress test uses exercise or drugs to stimulate of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BC,
the heart and provoke a measurable response to the stress although their function was not fully understood. On
in order to gauge the hearts eectiveness.
dissection, arteries are typically empty of blood because
blood pools in the veins after death. It was subsequently
assumed they were lled with air and served to transport
4.3 Treatment
air around the body.
Philosophers distinguished veins from arteries, but
Angiogenesis represents a therapeutic target for cardiothought the pulse was a property of arteries. Erasistratos
vascular disease.[43]
observed that arteries cut during life bleed. He ascribed
Debrillation is used to treat serious arrhythmias. the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an
Articial pacemakers used to regulate the heartbeat can artery is replaced with blood which entered by very small
also incorporate a debrillator.
vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently
postulated capillaries, but with reversed ow of blood.
4.4
Surgery
5
5.1
History
Ancient
5.2 Pre-modern
The earliest descriptions of the coronary and pulmonary
circulation systems can be found in the Commentary on
Anatomy in Avicennas Canon, published in 1242 by Ibn
al-Nas.[44] In his manuscript, al-Nas wrote that blood
passes through the pulmonary circulation instead of moving from the right to the left ventricle as previously believed by Galen.[45] His work was later translated into
Latin by Andrea Alpago.[46]
In Europe, the teachings of Galen continued to dominate
the academic community and his doctrines were adopted
as the ocial canon of the Church. Andreas Vesalius
questioned some of Galens beliefs of the heart in De humani corporis fabrica (1543), but his magnum opus was
interpreted as a challenge to the authorities and he was
Heart and its blood vessels, by Leonardo da Vinci, 15th century subjected to a number of attacks.[47] Michael Servetus
wrote in Christianismi Restitutio (1553) that blood ows
The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician from one side of the heart to the other via the lungs.[47]
13
5.3
Modern
14
OTHER ANIMALS
7 Other animals
Further information: Circulatory system
6.2
Food
Animal hearts are widely consumed as food. As they are 7.1 Double circulatory systems
almost entirely muscle, they are high in protein. They are
often included in dishes with other oal, for example in In the heart of lungsh, the septum extends part-way into
the pan-Ottoman kokoretsi.
the ventricle. This allows for some degree of separation
Chicken hearts are considered to be giblets, and are of- between the de-oxygenated bloodstream destined for the
ten grilled on skewers: Japanese hto yakitori, Brazilian lungs and the oxygenated stream that is delivered to the
churrasco de corao, Indonesian chicken heart satay.[56] rest of the body. The absence of such a division in living
They can also be pan-fried, as in Jerusalem mixed grill. In amphibian species may be partly due to the amount of
Egyptian cuisine, they can be used, nely chopped, as part respiration that occurs through the skin; thus, the blood
of stung for chicken.[57] Many recipes combined them returned to the heart through the vena cavae is already
with other giblets, such as the Mexican pollo en menuden- partially oxygenated. As a result, there may be less need
for a ner division between the two bloodstreams than in
cias[58] and the Russian ragu iz kurinyikh potrokhov.[59]
lungsh or other tetrapods. Nonetheless, in at least some
The hearts of beef, pork, and mutton can generally be in- species of amphibian, the spongy nature of the ventricle
terchanged in recipes. As heart is a hard-working muscle, does seem to maintain more of a separation between the
it makes for rm and rather dry meat,[60] so is generally bloodstreams. Also, the original valves of the conus arslow-cooked. Another way of dealing with toughness is teriosus have been replaced by a spiral valve that divides
to julienne the meat, as in Chinese stir-fried heart.[61]
it into two parallel parts, thereby helping to keep the two
Beef heart may be grilled or braised.[60] In the Peruvian bloodstreams separate.[64]
anticuchos de corazn, barbecued beef hearts are grilled Adult amphibians and most reptiles have a double circulaafter being tenderized through long marination in a spice tory system but the heart is not separated into two pumps.
and vinegar mixture. An Australian recipe for mock The development of the double system is necessitated by
goose is actually braised stued beef heart.[62]
the presence of lungs which deliver oxygenated blood diPig heart is stewed, poached, braised,[63] or made into rectly to the heart.
7.3
Fish
15
7.3 Fish
Main article: Fish anatomy Heart
Primitive sh have a four-chambered heart, but the
7.2
chambers are arranged sequentially so that this primitive heart is quite unlike the four-chambered hearts of
mammals and birds. The rst chamber is the sinus venosus, which collects deoxygenated blood, from the body,
through the hepatic and cardinal veins. From here, blood
ows into the atrium and then to the powerful muscular ventricle where the main pumping action will take
place. The fourth and nal chamber is the conus arteriosus which contains several valves and sends blood to
the ventral aorta. The ventral aorta delivers blood to the
gills where it is oxygenated and ows, through the dorsal
aorta, into the rest of the body. (In tetrapods, the ventral
aorta has divided in two; one half forms the ascending
aorta, while the other forms the pulmonary artery).[64]
In the adult sh, the four chambers are not arranged in a
straight row but, instead form an S-shape with the latter
two chambers lying above the former two. This relatively
simpler pattern is found in cartilaginous sh and in the
ray-nned sh. In teleosts, the conus arteriosus is very
small and can more accurately be described as part of
the aorta rather than of the heart proper. The conus arteriosus is not present in any amniotes, presumably having been absorbed into the ventricles over the course of
evolution. Similarly, while the sinus venosus is present
as a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds, it is
otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer
distinguishable.[64]
7.4 Invertebrates
Arthropods have an open circulatory system, and often
some short open-ended arteries.The arthropod heart is
typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body,
under the back and from the base of the head. Instead of
blood the circulatory uid is haemolymph which carries
the most commonly used respiratory pigment, copperbased haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter; iron-based
haemoglobin is used by only a few arthropods. The heart
contracts in ripples from the rear to the front of the ani-
16
REFERENCES
9 References
This article incorporates text from the CC-BY book:
OpenStax College, Anatomy & Physiology. OpenStax
CNX. 30 jul 2014..
[1] Taber, Clarence Wilbur; Venes, Donald (2009). Tabers
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The tube-like heart (green) of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae extends horizontally across the body, interlinked with the
diamond-shaped wing muscles (also green) and surrounded by
pericardial cells (red). Blue depicts cell nuclei.
Additional images
The human heart viewed from the front
The human heart viewed from behind
The coronary circulation
Play media
An MRI scan showing the human heart
An anatomical specimen of the heart
Heart Illustration with circulatory system.
17
[15] Hall, Arthur C. Guyton, John E. (2005). Textbook of medical physiology (11th ed. ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. pp. 106364. ISBN 978-0-7216-0240-0.
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[43] Stegmann TJ (2005). New vessels for the heart : angiogenesis as new treatment for coronary heart (1st ed.). Henderson, NV: CardioVascular Biotherapies Inc. ISBN 978-09765583-0-9.
[28] Hall, Arthur C. Guyton, John E. (2005). Textbook of medical physiology (11th ed. ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. pp. 116122. ISBN 978-0-7216-0240-0.
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9780729541985.
18
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[48] AIRD, W. C. Discovery of the cardiovascular system:
from Galen to William Harvey. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 9: 118129. doi:10.1111/j.15387836.2011.04312.x.
[49] Silverman, M. E. (13 June 2006). Why Does the Heart
Beat?: The Discovery of the Electrical System of the
Heart. Circulation (journal) 113 (23): 27752781.
doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.616771. PMID
16769927.
[50] Cooley, Denton A. Recollections of the Early Years of
Heart Transplantation and the Total Articial Heart. Articial Organs 35 (4): 353357. doi:10.1111/j.15251594.2011.01235.x.
[51] Miniati, Douglas N.; Robbins, Robert C. Heart transplantation: a thirty-year perspective: A Thirty-Year Perspective. Annual Review of Medicine 53 (1): 189205.
doi:10.1146/annurev.med.53.082901.104050.
[52] Neubauer, Stefan (15 March 2007).
The Failing Heart An Engine Out of Fuel. New England Journal of Medicine 356 (11): 11401151.
doi:10.1056/NEJMra063052. PMID 17360992.
[53] Britannica, Ib; Slider, Ab, Egyptian heart and soul conception. The word was also transcribed by Wallis Budge as
Ab.
[54] Aristotle. On the Parts of Animals. book 3, ch. 4 (De
partibus animalium)
[55] Galen, De usu partium corporis humani (The Use of the
Parts of the Human Body), book 6.
[56] Indonesia Magazine, 25 (1994), p. 67
[57] Samia Abdennour, Firakh mahshiya wi mihammara
recipe 117, Egyptian Cooking: And Other Middle Eastern
Recipes, American University in Cairo Press, 2010.
[58] Diana Kennedy, My Mexico: A Culinary Odyssey with
Recipes, University of Texas Press, updated edition, 2013,
ISBN 029274840X, p. 100
[59] Alla Sacharow, Classic Russian Cuisine: A Magnicent Selection of More Than 400 Traditional Recipes, 1993, ISBN
1559701749, page unknown
[60] Irma S. Rombauer, Marion Rombauer Becker, The Joy of
Cooking, 1975, p. 508
[61] Calvin W. Schwabe, Unmentionable Cuisine, University of
Virginia Press, 1979 (reprint), ISBN 0813911621, p. 96
[62] John Torode, Beef: And Other Bovine Matters, Taunton
Press, 2009, ISBN 1600851266, p. 230
[63] Jennie Milsom, The Connoisseurs Guide to Meat, 2009m
ISBN 1402770502, p. 171
10
EXTERNAL LINKS
10 External links
What Is the Heart? NIH
The Gross Physiology of the Cardiovascular System
(2nd Ed., 2012) Robert M. Anderson, M.D. (CCBY-NC)
Atlas of Human Cardiac Anatomy
Dissection review of the anatomy of the Human
Heart including vessels, internal and external features
Prenatal human heart development
Anatomy of the Human Heart Texas Heart Institute
Animal hearts: sh, squid
19
11
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11.2
Images
11.2
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21
File:2020_SA_Node_Tracing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/2020_SA_Node_Tracing.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013. Original
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