Adsorption and Its Applications in Industry and Environmental Protection Vol II Applications in Environmental Protection

PREFACE
Every aspect of h u m a n activity is closely connected with the natural

environment. Whether or not we are aware, or care, every day each of us
interacts with and affects our environment. The rapid development of technology,
especially at the end of 20th century, has increased enormously man's ability to
produce goods which, in turn, have enhanced his standard of living. On the other
hand, this development has also generated a secondary phenomenon, the
environment pollution. Such effect led to deterioration of life quality. Thus,
improvement of the life quality owing to innovative technologies caused negative
effects for the environment.
In order to keep the balance between technology development and main
components of the man's environment the appropriate technologies should be
used which appear to be a powerful force for the improvement of the
environment. The relevant activities for upgrading the quality of ground water,
drinking water, soil and air have to be developed. The environmental changes
affect also the h u m a n health. Only few chemical compounds present in the
h u m a n close surrounding may be considered as beneficial for health. The
majority of them act harmfully on humans, even in minimal doses. They occur in
our environmental media - air, water and soil and that is why we observe the
increasing efforts devoted to the h u m a n environmental protection. One of the
most important factors in this field are the possibilities and results of modern
chemical analyses of pollutants in biological fluids to maintain h u m a n health.
Water is one of the most important components of our environment.
Nowadays, the drinking water is becoming more and more scarce, but our
demand for water is becoming greater and greater. A very important problem is
concerned with the rising levels of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates in
the surface water. Their presence has caused a serious deterioration in the water
quality of many rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Therefore the attention has to be
given to the removal of nutrients originating from sewages and fertilizers by
adsorption methods, ion-exchange and relevant biotechnological techniques.
Phosphorous and its compounds dissolved in the ground waters are responsible
for the eutrophication in the closed water system, especially in lakes and highly
enclosed bays where water is stagnant. Slag media, wasted by - products from
steel industries, are effective adsorbents for phosphorous and its compounds.
The earth atmosphere along with water, is the main component of our
environment. One essential cause of pollution of the air is the tendency to
decrease the cost of manufacturing goods by the use of contaminated raw
materials without purifying or enriching them before their application. A
preliminary desulfurization of coal is still rare. When air is used as a source of
vi
oxygen, nitrogen in the air is a diluent which, after the oxygen consumption, is
discharged into the atmosphere together with other impurities. Dusts and smogs
are another group of air contaminants. The modern technologies should restrict
emissions of carbon dioxide to prevent from increasing the amount of heat being
dispersed into the atmosphere. This increase, leading to a change of climate, is
the greenhouse effect. The other fundamental problem is connected with the
removal of volatile organic chloride (VOC) compounds from ground water and
recovery of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are still used in refrigeration and
cooling systems. Emission control of ozone depletion by CFCs is very urgent.
The pressure on industry to decrease the emission of various pollutants into
the environment is increasing. A broad range of methods is available and
developed to control and remove both natural and anthropogenic, municipal,
agricultural and other pollutants. In relation to the price/performance, adsorption
technologies are the most important techniques to overcome the degradation of
environmental quality. They play a significant role both in environmental and
h u m a n health control and in prevention from global warming and ozone layer
depletion. The neccessity to reduce the ozone depletion gases like CFCs and the
demand for primary energy diversification in the air conditioning sector, are the
main reasons for the increasing interest in adsorption devices considered as
alternative to the traditional compressor heat pumps in the cooling systems.
Adsorption processes are the ,,heart" of several safety energy technologies which
can find suitable applications in the domestic sectors as reversible heat pumps,
and in the industrial sectors as refrigerating systems and heat trasnformers
using industrial waste heat as the primary energy source. They can also be used
for technologies to be applied in the transportation sectors, for automobile air
conditioning or for food preservation in trucks. The adsorption dessicant
dehumidification technology is also emerging as an alternative to vapour
compression systems for cooling and conditioning air for a space. Dessicant base
systems can improve indoor air quality and remove air pollutants due to their
coadsorption by the dessicant materials. Moreover, a number of microorganisms
are removed or killed by the dessicant. Other problems are production of drinking
water, removal of anthropogenic pollutants from air, soil and water as well as
removal of microorganisms from the indoor air and other important tasks to solve
in terms of adsorption technologies. Adsorption can also be expected to play a
significant role in the environmental control and life supporting systems or
planetary bases, where sorbents may be used to process the habitat air or to
recover useful substances from the local environments. Another environmental
dilemma deals with the removal of thermal SOx and NOx from hot combustion
gases. The above mentioned problems may be solved by advanced adsorption
techniques. Among them, the rapid pressure swing adsorption (PSA) methods are
very efficient for solving both global and local environmental issues. By the term
of global environmental problem is meant emission of ozone depletion gases like
CFCs, VOC and emission of green-house gases (CO2, CH4, N20, etc.), but the
term local environmental problem deals with flue gas recovery (SOx and NOx),
vii
solvent vapour fractionation and solvent vapour recovery, wastewater treatment
and drinking water production. Other environmental issues concern the
industrial solid aerosols, which are the incomplete combustion products. They are
harmful as precursors to the synthesis of strong toxins, carcinogenes and
mutagenes. Automobiles contribute substantially to man-made hydrocarbon
emissions. A new type of activated carbon filtres for the application in
Evaporative Loss Central Devices (ELCD) were developed by NORIT.
Automobiles had to pass the so-called SHED emission test, which was legislated
in Europe in 1992.
Adsorption of metals into living or dead cells has been termed biosorption.
Biosorption dealing with the metal - microbe interactions include both terrestrial
and marine environments. Biosorption by the sea bacteria plays a significant role
in detoxification of heavy metals in the aqueous systems. The literature on the
influence of biosorption in metal crystal formation is rather scant. The subject of
microbe participation in nucleation and halite crystal growth is important with
regard to the influence of cell surface layer (S-layer) components on the crystal
habit.
As follows from the above considerations, the subject of utility of modern
adsorption technologies has enormous environmental, economic and legal
importance and constitutes a serious challenge with the prospects for further
intense development. Likwise to volume I which contains the most important
industrial applications of adsorption, this volume includes the chapters written
by authoritative specialists on the broad spectrum of environmental topics to find
a way for intense anthropogenic activities to coexist with the natural
environment. Some of the topics presented in this volume were mentioned above.
However, I would like to highlight a wide spectrum of themes referring to the
environmental analysis and environmental control, molecular modelling of both
sorbents and adsorption environmentally friendly processes, new trends in
applications of colloidal science for protecting soil systems, purification and
production of drinking water, water and ground water treatment, new
environmental adsorbents for removal of pollutants from waste waters and
sewages, selective sorbents for hot combustion gases, some corrosion aspects and
ecological adsorption of heating and cooling pumps.
This book is divided into two volumes, consisting of chapters arranged in a
consistent order, though some chapters could be connected with the industrial
(volume I) or environmental (volume II) fields. In order to highlight for readers
all topics and considerations each volume of the monograph comprises the
complete contents and the complete list of authors, but ncludes its own subject
index only. It should be emphasized that all contributions were subjected to a
rigorous review process, with almost all papers receiving two reviews from a
panel of approximately fifty reviewers.
The presented chapters give not only brief current knowledge about the
studied problems, but are also a source of topical literature on it. Thus each
chapter constitutes an excellent literature guide for a given topic and encourages
viii
the potential reader to get to know a problem in detail and for further specialistic
studies. At the end of the volume the comprehensive bibliography on adsorptive
separations, environmental applications, PSA, parametric pumping, ion-exchange
and chromatography is presented which includes the period 1967-1997.All the
articles give both the scientific background of the phenomena discussed and
indicate practical aspects to a great extent. Consequently, this monograph is
addressed to a large group of research workers both in academic institutions and
industrial laboratories, whose professional activities are related to widely
understood surface environmental problems, including environmental analysis,
environmental catalysis and biocatalysis,modern adsorption ecologicallyfriendlly technologies, etc. This book is meant also for students of graduate and
postgraduate courses.
I am aware, that the panorama of the researches presented is incomplete.On
the other hand, I believe that this monograph is a substantial step presenting
the current trends and the state of the art. I would like to express my warmest
thanks to all the contributors for their efforts
to develop the topical
environmental fields of great importance. Finally, I wish acknowledge the great
help I had my wife, Mrs. Iwona D@rowska, during all stages of the growth of the
monograph.Her patience, encouragment and support made it possible to appear
this book in present form.
Lublin, September, 1998.
A.Dqbrowski (ed.)
Complete List of Authors
1.
A l e x a n d r a t o s S.D.
Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Knoxville,
TN 37996-1600, USA
2. A n d r u s h k o v a O.V.
Department of Total and Bioorganic Chemistry, Novosibirsk Medical
Institute, Krasny Prospekt 52, Novosibirsk 630091, Russia
3. Baldini F.
Instituto di Ricerca sulle Onde Elettromagnetiche ,,Nello Carrara", CNR,
Via Panciatichi 64, 50127 Firenze, Italy
4. B a n d o s z T.J.
Department of Chemistry, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031,
USA
5. Blom J.
Tauw Milieu P.O.Box 133, 7400 AC Deventer, The Netherlands
6. Bl~dek J.
Institute of Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Kaliskiego 2,
01-489 Warsaw, Poland
7. Boere J.A.
NORIT N.V., Research & Development, Nijverheidsweg - Noord 72,
P.O.Box 105, 3800 AC Amersfoort, The Netherlands
8. Bogillo V.I.
Institute of Surface Chemistry, National Academy of Sciences,
Prospekt Nauki 31, 252022 Kiev, Ukraine
9. B r a c c i S .
Centro di Studio sulle Cause di Deperimento e Metodi di Conservazione
Opere d'Arte, CNR, Via G.Capponi 9, 50121 Firenze, Italy
10. Billow M.
The BOC Group Gases Technical Center, 100 Mountain Ave., Murray Hill,
NJ 07974, USA
11. B u c z e k B.
Faculty of Fuels and Energy, University of Mining and Metallurgy,
30-059 Cracow, Poland
12. B u r k e M.
University of Arizona, Old Chemistry Bldg., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
13. Cacciola G.
National Council of Research, Institute for Research on Chemical Methods
and Processes for Energy Storage and Transformation, S.Lucia sopra
Contesse, 98126 Messina, Italy
14. Carey T.R.
Radian International, LLC, 8501 N.Mopac Blvd., Austin, TX 78759, USA
15. Cerofolini G.F.
SGS-THOMSON Microelectronics, 20041 Agrate MI, Italy
16. C h a n g R.
Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview Ave., Palo Alto,
CA 94403, USA
17. Chen J.
Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Atlanta, GA 30332-0512, USA
18. Chen S.
Illinois State Geological Survey, 615 E. Peabody Dr. Champaign,
IL 61820, USA
19. D a b o u X.
Chemical Process Engineering Laboratory, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and Chemical Process
Engineering Research Institute, PO Box 1520, Thessaloniki 54006, Greece
20. D a l l B a u m a n L.A.
NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058, USA
21. D ~ b r o w s k i A.
Faculty of Chemistry, M.Curie-Sktodowska University, 20031 Lublin,
Poland
22. Deka R.C.
India Catalysis Division, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune - 411008,
India
23. Deng S.G.
USA Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
24. D o b r o w o l s k i R.
Faculty of Chemistry, M.Curie-Sklodowska University, 20031 Lublin,
Poland
25. D o m i n g o - G a r c i a M.
Grupo de InvestigaciSn en Carbones, Dpto. de Quimica Inorganica,
Fac. de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
xi
26. D y b k o A.
Department of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology,
Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland
27. F a d o n i M.
Department of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, University of
Milan, Via Golgi 19, 20133 Milan, Italy
28. F e r n a n d e z - M o r a l e s I.
Grupo de InvestigaciSn en Carbones, Dpto. de Quimica Inorganica,
29. F i n n J.E.
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field CA, USA
30. F l e m i n g H.
Cochrane Inc., 800 3nd Avenue, King of Prussia, 19406 PA, USA
31. G h o s h T.K.
Particulate Systems Research Center, Nuclear Engineering Program,
E 2434 Engineering Building East, University of Missouri-Columbia,
Columbia, MO 65211, USA
32. G h z a o u i A.E1.
UM II LAMMI ESA 5079, Case 015, Place Eugene Bataillon,
34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
33. Golden T.C.
Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., 7201 Hamilton Boulevard, Allentown,
PA 18195-1501, USA
34. G r o s z e k A.J.
MICROSCAL LTD, 79 Southern Row, London W 10 5 AL, UK
35. H a u k k a S.
Microchemistry Ltd., P.O.Box 132, FIN-02631 Espoo, Finland
36. H e i j m a n S.G.J.
KIWA Research and Consultancy, P.O.Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein,
The Netherlands
37. Hines A.L.
Honda of America Mfg.Inc., 24 000 Honda Parkway, Marysville, OH 43040,
USA
38. H o p m a n R.
KIWA Research and Consultancy, P.O.Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein,
The Netherlands
39. H o r v a t h G.
University of Veszprem, H-8201 Veszprem, P.O.Box 158, Egyetem u.10,
Hungary
xii
40. H s i H-C.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
University of Illinois, Environmental Enegineering Program,

205 N.Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
H u b i c k i Z.
Poland
I s u p o v V.P.
Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Raw Mineral Processing
Kutateladze-18, 630128, Novosibirsk, Russia
I v e r s o n I.
Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
Izmailova V.N.
Moscow State University, Department Colloid Chemistry, Vorob'evy Gory,
119899 Moscow, Russia
J a k o w i c z A.
Poland
J a n u s z W.
Poland
Kalvoda R.
J.Heyrovsky Inst.Phys.Chem., Czech Acad. Scis, Dolejskova 3,
18223 Prague 8, Czech Republic
K a n e k o K.
Chiba University, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, 1-33 Yayoi,
Inage, Chiba 263, Japan
Kanellopoulos N.
Institute of Physical Chemistry NCSR ,,DEMOKRITOS", Aghia Paraskevi
Attikis, GR- 153 10, Athenes, Greece
K i k k i n i d e s E.S.
K i r i c h i e n k o O.A.
Institute of Solid State Chemistry, SB RAS, Kutateladze 18,
Novosibirsk 630128, Russia
Kleut D.v.d.
NORIT N.V., Research & Development, Nijverheidsweg - Noord 72,
P.O.Box 105, 3800 AC Amersfoort, The Netherlands
Kobal I.
Department of Physical and Environmental Chemistry, J.Stefan Institute,
61000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
xiii
54. Kotsupalo N.P.
Ekostar - Nautech Company, B.Chmielnitsky 2, 630075 Novosibirsk, Russia
55. Krebs K.-F.
Merck KGaA, LAB CHROM Synthese, D-64271 Darmstadt, Germany
56. Kubo M.
Department of Molecular Chemistry and Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-77, Japan
57. L a k o m a a E.-L.
Neste Oy, Technology Center, P.O.Box 310, FIN-06101 Porvoo, Finland
58. Lemcoff N.O.
The BOC Group, 100 Mountain Avenue, Murray Hill, NJ 07974, USA
59. Lin Y.S.
USA Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45221, USA
60. Liu Y.
Department of Chemical Engineering, Swearingen Engineering Center,
University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
61. Long R.
Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2136, USA
62. Lopez-Cortes A.
Center for Biological Research, P.O. Box 128, La Paz 23000, BCS, Mexico
63. Lopez-Garzon F.J.
Grupo de Investigaci6n en Carbones, Dpto. de Quimica Inorganica,
64. Lucarelli L.
ThermoQuest Italy S.p.A., Strada Rivoltana, 20090 Rodano (Milan), Italy
65. L u o R.G.
66.
67.
68.
69.
Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Environmental

Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark,
NJ 07102-1982, USA
Lutz W.
Holzmarktstrasse 73, D-10179 Berlin, Germany
Lodyga A.
Fertilizers Research Institute, 24110 Putawy, Poland
L u k a s z e w s k i Z.
Poznafl University of Technology, Institute of Chemistry and Technical
Electrochemistry, Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznafl, Poland
MacDowall J.D.
NORIT United Kingdom Ltd., Clydesmill Place, Cambuslang Industrial
Estate, Glasgow G32 8RF, Scotland
xiv
70. Matyska M.
Department of Chemistry, San Jose State University, San Jose,
CA 95192 USA
71. Matijevic E.
Center for Advanced Materials Processing, Clarkson University,
P.O.Box 5814, Potsdam, New York 13699-5814, USA
72. Meda L.
EniChem - Istituto Guido Donegani, 28100 Novara NO, Italy
73. Menzeres L.T.
Ekostar - Nautech Company, B.Chmielnitsky 2, 630075 Novosibirsk, Russia
74. Meyer K.
Bundesanstalt ffir Materialforschung und -prfifung (BAM), Zweiggelande
Adlershof, Rudower Chaussee 5, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
75. Mitropoulos A.Ch.
76. Miyamoto A.
77. M i z u k a m i K.
78. Moon H.
Department of Chemical Technology, Chonnam National University,
Kwangju 500-757, Korea
79. Moreno-Castilla C.
Grupo de Investigaci6n en Carbones, Dpto. de Quimica Inorganica,
80. Neffe S.
Institute of Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Kaliskiego 2,
81. N e m u d r y A.P.
Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Raw Mineral Processing,
Kutateladze-18, 630128, Novosibirsk, Russia
82. Nijdam D.
Tauw Milieu, P.O.Box 133, 7400 AC Deventer, The Netherlands
83. Ochoa J.L.
Center for Biological Research, P.O.Box 128, La Paz 23000, BCS, Mexico
84. P a n G.
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
XV
85. P a r t y k a S.
UM II LAMMI ESA 5079, Case 015, Place Eugene Bataillon,
34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
86. P a t e l D.C.
Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Environmental
Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark,
NJ 07102-1982, USA
87. P e s e k J.
Department of Chemistry, San Jose State University, San Jose,
CA 95192, USA
88. P o k r o v s k i y V.A.
Institute of Surface Chemistry, National Academy of Sciences,
Prospekt Nauki 31, 252022 Kiev, Ukraine
89. Raisglid M.
University of Arizona, Old Chemistry Bldg., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
90. R a m a r a o B.V.
Syracuse University, Faculty of Paper Science and Engineering and
Engineering, SUNY, College of Environmental Science and Forestry,
Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
91. R a o M.B.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.

PA 18195-1501, USA
Ray M.S.
Department of Chemical Engineering, Curtin University of Technology,
GPO Box U1987, Perth 6845, Western Australia
R e i m e r i n k W.M.T.M.
NORIT N.V., Research & Development, Nijverheidsweg - Noord 72, P.O.Box
105, 3800 Ac Amersfoort, The Netherlands
R e s t u c c i a G.
National Council of Research, Institute for Research on Chemical Methods
and Processes for Energy Storage and Transformation, S.Lucia sopra
Contesse, 98126 Messina, Italy
R i c h a r d s o n C.F.
Radian International, LLC, 8501 N.Mopac Blvd., Austin, TX 78759, USA
R i p p e r g e r K.P.
Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Knoxville,
TN 37996-1600, USA
R i t t e r J.A.
University of South Carolina, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Swearingen Engineering Center, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, USA
xvi
98. Robens E.
Institut ffir Anorganische Chemie und Analytische Chemie der
J.Gutenberg-Universitat D-55099 Mainz, Germany
99. R o d r i g u e s A.E.
Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering, University of Porto,
4099 Porto Codex, Portugal
100. Rood M.
University of Illinois, Environmental Engineering Program,
205 N.Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
101. R o s e n h o o v e r W.
CONSOL, 4000 Brownsville Rd., Library, PA 15129, USA
102. Rostam-Abadi M.
Illinois State Geological Survey, 615 E. Peabody Dr. Champaign, IL 61820,
USA
103. R u l e J.
College of Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529-0163, USA

104. Saba J.
Poland
105. Sakellaropoulos G.P.
Engineering Research Institute, PO Box 1520, Thessaloniki 54006, Greece
106. S a m a r a s P.
Engineering Research Institute, P.O. Box 1520, Thessaloniki 54006, Greece
107. S h i n t a n i H.
108.
109.
110.
111.
National Institute of Hygienic Sciences, 18-1 Kamiyoga 1-Chome,

Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158, Japan
Silva da F.A.
Silva J.A.C.
Sircar S.
PA 18195-1501, USA
S i v a s a n k e r S.
Catalysis Division, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune - 411008, India
xvii
112. Stubos A.K.
Institute of Nuclear Technology and Radiation Protection, NCSR
,,DEMOKRITOS", 15310 Aghia Paraskevi Attikis, GR-15310, Athenes,
Greece
113. S u b r a m a n i a n D.
University of South Carolina, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Swearingen Engineering Center, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, USA
114. Suckow M.
Fachhochschule Lausitz, Grossenhainer Strasse, D-01968 Senftenberg,
Germany
115. S u n t o l a T.
Microchemistry Ltd., P.O.Box 132, FIN-02631 Espoo, Finland
116. Suzuki M.
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, 7-221 Roppongi,
Minato-ku, Tokyo 106, Japan
117. Szczypa J.
Poland
118. S y k u t K.
Poland
119. Swi~ttkowski A.
Institute of Chemistry, Military Technical Academy, Kaliskiego 2,
120. T a k a b a H.
121. T a m - C h a n g S.-W.
Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
122. T a r a s e v i c h Yu.I.
Institute of Colloid Chemistry and Chemistry of Water, 42 Vernadsky
avenue, Kiev 252680, Ukraine
123. TSth J.
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Laboratory for Mining
Chemistry, 3515 Miskolc-Egyetemvaros, P.O. Box 2, Hungary
124. Tzevelekos K.P.
Attikis, GR-153 10, Athenes, Greece
125. Unger K.K.
Institut ffir Anorganische Chemic und Analytische Chemic der
J.Gutenberg-Universitat, D-55099 Mainz, Germany
xviii
126. U s h a k o v V.A.
Institute of Solid State Chemistry, SB RAS, Kutateladze 18,
Novosibirsk 630128, Russia
127. V a n s a n t E.F.
Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Antwerpen (U.I.A.),
Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
128. Vetrivel R.
129. V i g n e s w a r a n S.
University of Technology, Sydney, Faculty of Engineering, Building 2,
Level 5 P.O.Box 123 Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia
130. W a g h m o d e S.B.
131. W r 6 b l e w s k i W.
Department of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology,
Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland
132. Y a m p o l s k a y a G.P.
Moscow State University, Department Colloid Chemistry, Vorob'evy Gory,
119899 Moscow, Russia
133. Y a n g R.T.
Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Michigan,
134. Y i a c o u m i S.
Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Atlanta, GA 30332-0512, USA
xix
Contents of V o l u m e I
Preface
Complete List of A u t h o r s
v
IX
F u n d a m e n t a l s of A d s o r p t i o n
1. Adsorption - its development and applications for practical purposes
(A.D@rowski)
2. Industrial carbon adsorbents (A.Swi~tkowski)
3. Standarization of sorption measurements and reference materials for
dispersed and porous solids (E.Robens, K.-F.Krebs, K.Meyer, K.K.Unger)
4. Spectroscopic characterization of chemically modified oxide surfaces
(J.Pesek, M.Matyska)
5. Advances in characterisation of adsorbents by flow adsorption
microcalorimetry (A.J.Groszek)
6. Temperature programmed desorption, reduction, oxidation and flow
chemisorption for the characterisation of heterogeneous catalysts.
Theoretical aspects, instrumentation and applications (M.Fadoni,
L.Lucarelli)
7. Adsorption with soft adsorbents and adsorbates. Theory and practice
(G.F.Cerofolini, L.Meda, T.J.Bandosz)
3
69
95
117
143
177
227
A p p l i c a t i o n in I n d u s t r y
1. Advanced technical tools for the solution of high capacity adsorption
separation (G.Horvath, M.Suzuki)
2. The mutual transformation of hydrogen sulphide and carbonyl sulphide
and its role for gas desulphurization processes with zeolitic molecular
sieve sorbents (M.B(ilow, W.Lutz, M.Suckow)
3. Nitrogen separation from air by pressure swing adsorption (N.O.Lemcoff)
4. Methodology of gas adsorption process design. Separation of
propane/propylene and rgiso- paraffins mixtures (Jose A.C.Silva,
F.Avelino da Silva, Alirio E.Rodrigues)
5. Fractionation of air by zeolites (S.Sircar, M.B.Rao, T.C.Golden)
6. Production, characterization and applications of carbon molecular sieves
from a high ash Greek lignite (P.Samaras, X.Dabou, G.P.Sakellaropoulos)
7. Development of carbon-based adsorbents for removal of mercury
emissions from coal combustion flue gas (M.Rostam-Abadi, H-C.Hsi,
S.Chen, M.Rood, R.Chang, T.R.Carey, C.F.Richardson, W.Rosenhoover)
8. Sorption properties of gas/coal systems, degasification of coal seams
(J.TSth)
9. The influence of properties within particles of active carbons on selected
adsorption processes (B.Buczek)
275
301
347
371
395
425
459
485
507
Adsorption and its Applications in Industry and Environmental Protection

Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, Vol. 120
A. Dabrowski (Editor)
9 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Environmental pollutants and application of the adsorption

phenomena for their analyses
J. Btadek and S. Neffe
Institute of Chemistry, Military University of Technology, 00-908 Warsaw,
Kaliskiego St., 2, Poland
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
H u m a n activity is now altering the global environment on an unprecedented
scale and thus contributes to the environmental change affecting h u m a n health.
Only few of chemical compounds present in direct h u m a n surrounding may be
considered as beneficial for health; the majority of them act harmfully on
humans, even in minimal doses. They occur in all environmental media (air,
water and soil) and that is why we observe the increasing attention to the
environmental protection. One of the most important factors in this field are the
results of chemical analysis of pollutants. It is obvious that only reliable
analytical data obtained during monitoring can be a base for environmental
protection activities.
The term monitoring means systematic and planned collection of analytical
activities realised in any space to define the quality of air, water and soil. Volatile
organic compounds, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic
aromatic heterocycles, phenols, polychlorinated biphenyls, organotins, chemical
warfare agents and inorganic pollutants belong to the most important
environmental pollutants. The need of monitoring leads to the development of
independent branch of instrumental analysis - environmental analysis. It is
a discrete, and sophisticated branch of instrumental analysis which concerns the
treatment of environmental samples from their sampling to receiving the final
result of analysis. The fundamental requirement of environmental analysis is for
a fast, modern and reliable methodology, especially as the data produced are
increasingly drawn upon as the decisive basis for regulatory measures.
Consequently, specific conditions need to be fulfilled for the detection of
pollutants in trace and ultra-trace quantities, within a short time and with
a high degree of precision.
To define the analytical process, Skoog and co-workers [1] mention the
following steps: selecting method of sampling, obtaining representative samples,
preparing laboratory samples, defining replicate samples, dissolving samples,
eliminating interference and measuring features of analyses. The aims of these

activities are:
9 making the sample suitable physical parameters, removing interference and
transferring the analytes to matrix being compatible with analytical
technique; liquid, gas, solid phase and supercritical fluid extraction is usually
applied for transferring analytes directly from samples into media being
subjected to final instrumental analysis, as well as to liberate analytes trapped
on sorbents during preconcentration steps;
9 cleaning-up the analytical samples and analytes enrichment; liquid-liquid
partitioning, solid phase extraction, preparative column and thin layer
chromatography are usually applied as clean-up and preconcentration
techniques,
9 separation of sample components to obtain the chemical individuals; in
environmental analyses the partition of analysed mixtures is most often
realised by chromatographic methods,
9 detection, identification and quantitation; detectors which are parts of
chromatographic apparatus or can co-operate with them in on-line mode are
predominantly used.
There are many various methods of sampling, sample preparation and
analyses, which w a r r a n t correctness of obtained analytical results. Extraction,
chemisorption, absorption, adsorption, distillation or freezing are used in them
inter alia. Features and applications of these methods are presented in numerous
compilations and monographs. In this elaboration we present only these
techniques in which phenomena of adsorption are used. They are applied mainly
to the sampling of pollutants in fluid, sample preparation and such analytical
techniques, which w a r r a n t separation of components of analysed mixture (mainly
chromatographic techniques of analyses). In these processes compounds of
interest are selectively removed from the bulk sample matrix, preconcentrated,
cleaned-up~ separated into individual substances and analysed.
2. SHORT CHARACTERISTIC OF MONITORED S U B S T A N C E S

The term environmental pollution means any physical, chemical, or biological
change disturbing ecological equilibrium in the environment. It may be a result of
random, accidental events, emission of certain pollutants due to activity of nature
itself, or h u m a n activities. As a result of the activity of nature, natural pollutants
are emitted into atmosphere; h u m a n activity leads to the emission of pollutants
called anthropogenic pollutants. Natural and anthropogenic pollutants emitted
from a given source are called primary pollutants. A number of primary
pollutants can undergo some changes due to reactions with other pollutants, as
well as with some components of the environment. In this way, new compounds,
often of higher toxicity, can be formed. They are called secondary pollutants.
Primary as well as secondary pollutants occur in all of the environment media:
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and soil. The following groups of substances are

considered as the most important environmental pollutants:
9 Volatile organic c o m p o u n d s . Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), originating
from anthropogenic sources, are the monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the
volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons. Both groups of compounds are considered as
priority pollutants; they are present in all parts of the environment.
Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are mainly emitted by industrial processes
and combustion of fossil fuels, while chlorinated hydrocarbons are widely
applied as solvents for dry cleaning, as degreasing agents in metal industries
or as fumigants [2]. Due to their lipophilic properties, they can be taken up in
lipophilic matrices. Uptake of xenobiotic VOCs in plants used for h u m a n
nutrition (vegetables and fruits), results in an exposure of man through the
food chain, next to a direct exposure to air pollutants through inhalation.
VOCs are also the most frequently encountered contaminants at hazardous
waste sites.
9 Pesticides comprise a group of compounds that are given great attention in
environmental studies. They are introduced into environment due to wilful
h u m a n activity; economic production in the cultivation of vegetables and fruits,
as well as in agriculture, can not be achieved without pesticides. Pesticides
belong to different chemical groups of compounds; the most important of them
are: organophosphorous, organochloride, carbamate, triazine compounds and
chlorophenoxy acids. With respect to the biological activity they are classified
as insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Well known compounds such as
DDT, lindane or aldrin belong to the organochloride group which, in the past,
was widely used all over the world. Although their manufacture and
application are now largely prohibited, they can still, due to their persistence,
be found in the soil, in animals, plants and food products. Pesticides are
poisons; some of them or their degradation products also demonstrate
carcinogenic potential and teratogenic activity. They are present in all parts of
the environment.
9 Polycyclic a r o m a t i c h y d r o c a r b o n s (PAHs) are compounds whose molecules can
contain 2-13 aromatic rings arranged in linear, cluster, or angular shapes.
They may contain some number of alkyl substituents. PAHs arouse much
interest mainly due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. They are
widespread environmental contaminants emitted from a variety of sources,
including industrial combustion and discharge of fossil fuels, residential
heating, or motor vehicle exhaust. In processes of monitoring, PAHs have been
measured in a variety of environmental matrices including air, water, soil,
sediments and tissue samples.
9 Polycyclic a r o m a t i c heterocycles. In the environment, carbon atoms in PAHs
rings can be substituted with oxygen, sulphur, or nitrogen atoms. In this way
polycyclic aromatic heterocycles are formed, and they usually occur together
with PAHs. The most dangerous of these, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
and polychlorinated dibenzofurans, are by-products formed during the
manufacture of chlorophenols and related products; other sources include the

pulp and paper industry and accidental fires that release polychlorinated
biphenyls. Dibenzotiophene and some of its methyl-substituted compounds are
persistent residues in sea environment after oil accidents. In the natural
environment,
polychlorinated
thianthrenes
and
polychlorinated
dibenzothiophenes also exist. As with their oxygen analogues, they are
hazardous substances. Azaarenes, mainly benz(c)acridine and many of its
related compounds, have been shown to exhibit carcinogenic activity. Nitrorelated compounds are mutagenic and carcinogenic. Polycyclic aromatic
heterocycles are continually found in many natural and environmental
samples.
P h e n o l s form a group of aromatic compounds with one or more hydroxyl
groups. Phenols and substituted phenols are products of manufacturing
processes used in plastics, dyes, drugs, antioxidants, and pesticides industries.
They pose the serious danger to the environment, especially when they enter
the food chain as water pollutants. Even at very low concentration phenols
affect the taste and odour of fishes and drinking water. Because of this, many
phenol derivatives (mainly nitrophenols and chlorophenols, which are also
poisons) are considered as priority pollutants of the environment.
P o l y c h l o r i n a t e d b i p h e n y l s (PCBs) are a group of compounds derived from
biphenyl by substituting one to ten hydrogen atoms with chlorine. There are
209 possible PCB configurations. They have extensive application because of
high chemical and thermal stability, low or no flammability, low vapour
pressure at ambient temperature and high permeability. PCBs are utilised
alone or in mixtures as heat-transfer fluids, dielectrics for capacitors and
transformers, hydraulic fluids, lubricants, additives in plastics and dyes, etc.
PCBs are different in their physical and chemical properties as well as toxic
potencies; some of them are inducers of drug-metabolising enzymes also being
able to affect various physiological processes such as reproduction,
carcinogenesis or embryonic development.
O r g a n o t i n s . These compounds have been widely used as biocides incorporated
in antifouling paints, and are accumulated by the biota, especially by filtrating
organisms. The organotins are much more toxic than inorganic tin.
Contamination of the marine environment by organotins has been well
documented. Tributyltin is the most often used organotin compound, followed
by triphenyltin. In water these substances can be step-wise decomposed to less
substituted and down to inorganic tin, absorbed by lipid fraction of organisms
or adsorbed onto particulate matter.
C h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s . The need of the monitoring on the presence of these
substances in the environment results not only from the need of the
verification of the Chemical Weapon Convention [3] but also because certain
chemical warfare agents can be spread in the environment as the old or
abandoned chemical warfare agents. Out of this group of compounds
organophosphorous (O-ethyl S-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methyl phosphono-
thiolate, O-pinacolyl methylphosphono-fluoridate, etc.) and bis(2-chloroethyl)

sulfide ( m u s t a r d gas), tris(2-chloroethyl) amine (nitrogen gas), 10-chloro-5,10dihydrophenarsazine (adamsite) have importance due to their toxicity or
persistence in the environment.
9 E x p l o s i v e s . 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is known first of all as an explosive, but
it appears t h a t this compound and its degradation products have been found as
c o n t a m i n a n t s in w a t e r and soil. TNT and its degradation products have been
identified in the blood and urine of the explosives m a n u f a c t u r i n g plants
personnel. Because of the m u t a g e n i t y of these compounds, environmental
t r e a t m e n t of TNT and its degradation products (2- and 4-monoaminodinitrotoluenes as well as 2,4- and 2,6-diaminonitrotoluenes) is an i m p o r t a n t
issue.
9 I n o r g a n i c p o l l u t a n t s . Among inorganic environmental pollutants aerosols,
heavy metals, radionuclides and some anions are monitored. Aerosol or
particulate m a t t e r refer to any substance, except pure water, t h a t exists as a
liquid or solid in the atmosphere under normal conditions and is in microscopic
or submicroscopic size. Even non-toxic aerosols are harmful; they can cause eye
or t h r o a t irritation, bronchitis or lung damage. Heavy metals (mainly As, Cd,
Cr, Cu, Se, Ni, Mo, Hg and Pb) can pose serious t h r e a t s to the h u m a n health
even at very low concentrations in air and water. For instance, lead causes
damage of brain, mercury affects several areas of the brain, as well as the
kidneys and bowels, arsenic causes cancer etc. After pollution of soil they can
be incorporated into the food cycle via vegetables or, alternatively, be washed
towards surface or underground water. Farming, industrial and u r b a n
activities are most often mentioned as pollution sources of heavy metals. The
radioactivity in environment originates from both n a t u r a l sources and h u m a n
activities. The l a t t e r include operations concerned with the nuclear fuel cycles,
from mining to reprocessing, medical uses etc. Radionuclides cause cancer. The
common anions, such as cyanides (CN-), halides (Br-, CI-, F-) or the oxy-ions
(SO3-, 304-, NO2-or NO3-) are monitored mainly in w a t e r and wastewaters.
When listing the most i m p o r t a n t environmental pollutants it is impossible to
forget industrial gases such as SO2, NOx, CO2, etc., which are emitted in huge
quantities to the atmosphere. First two of t h e m cause respiratory illness and lung
damage. They also cause the acid rains which are responsible for corrosion of
metals, acidification of soil and surface waters, as well as degradation of forests.
NO2 and CO2 are, like as CH4, tropospheric 03 and chlorofluorocarbons,
greenhouse gases. These gases absorb in the spectral range where t h e r m a l
energy r a d i a t e d from the e a r t h is at a m a x i m u m . All of them, analogically as
above mentioned organic and non-organic pollutants m u s t be systematically
monitored.
3. A D S O R P T I O N IN S A M P L I N G A N D S A M P L E P R E P A R A T I O N
Basic feature which distinguishes environmental analysis is the need of
sampling and sample preparation of substances existing in matrix on trace levels.
Monitoring
of
polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins
and
polychlorinated
dibenzofurans can be a good example of such needs. Because of high toxicity the
level of quantitation of these substances equals
10 -~2 g/kg; it is also important
that these substances usually exist in natural environment in neighbourhood of
other organic chlorine compounds whose concentration can be twice or three
times higher. So to cope with the demands of environmental analyses such as
techniques of sampling, sample preparation and analyses, which have proper
ability to separation, high sensitivity, good selectivity, ability to generate reliable
identification data should be applied. Adsorption phenomena play an important,
if not decisive, role in many of these processes.
3.1. S a m p l i n g
The term sampling is used for the description of the process by which a
representative fraction of matrix is acquired. In environmental analyses various
sampling techniques (and equipment submitting them) are used; adsorption
phenomena are usually applied for the sampling of air, surface water and
wastewater; in these processes sampling is realised together with the enrichment
of analytes. Owing to the adsorption processes compounds of interest are
selectively removed from the bulk sample matrix and preconcentrated (an
enrichment factor of 103-107 can be usually obtained).
There are two main groups of sampling and preconcentration methods of air
samples: passive and aspirative (denudatic or dynamic) [4]. The idea of passive
method is diffusion or permeation of analytes to the trapped medium surface.
Analytes which are present in the nearest surrounding of the enriching device
(dosimeter) are transferred due to the molecular diffusion forces towards the
semipermeable membrane and are penetrating through it. Phenomena of
absorption, chemisorption and adsorption are used in aspirative methods. Passive
samplers are suitable for large scale measurements. As they do not require
pumping of air during sampling they can be employed at virtually every location.
Passive samplers can be sent by mail and stored before and after sampling for
periods of several months. On the other hand, passive samplers require at least
24-hour exposure and therefore cannot be used for short-term sampling.
Aspirative denudatic method of preconcentration consist in a junction of a
forced gas stream flow and diffusive transfer of analytes in the direction of
denuder wall which acts as an analyte trap. The advantage of denudating
techniques is the possibility of differentiation of so called physical speciation of
analytes, it means differentiation between gaseous and aerosol form of
preconcentrated substances. Aspirative dynamic enrichment is the oldest method
of air sampling. It allows to determine the time weighted average concentration
or short term exposure level. Absorption in liquid solutions, freezing out in
cryogenic traps and adsorption belongs to these methods. Adsorption aspirative

dynamic methods are used to separate the volatile and non-volatile organic
pollutants. The applied techniques differ from each other in volume of sample,
shape of sorbent container, and first of all in dissimilarity of used sorbents
(usually they are carbonaceous, inorganic or polymeric sorbents). The scheme of
the set for sampling and preconcentration of atmospheric air pollutants on
adsorbent is presented in Figure la. In Figure lb the crossection of adsorption
tube is shown.
8
r
Figure la. The set for collecting samples. 1-probe, 2- adsorption tube, 3- filter, 4-capillary
tubes 5-vacuum-gauge, 6-flow controller, 7-pressure reducing valve, 8-vacuum pump.
Reprinted from [4].
1 2 .~/3
#y5.
~_.#6#'L.~
8
Figure lb. Adsorption tube. 1-plastic caps, 2-fused ends of tube (they are broken before
using), 3-glass sorption tube, 4- spring, 5-glass wool, 6-adsorbent layer, 7-polyurethane plug,
8-adsorbent protective layer. Reprinted from [4].
Among carbon sorbents active carbons and carbon molecular sieves with
specific surface area between 600 and 1200 me/g, and relatively high adsorption
10
capacity for most organic compounds are used. For specific non-polar analytes
graphitized carbon blacks with a small specific surface area are used.
Disadvantage of carbon adsorbents is an irreversible adsorption of many analytes
and substantial variability of adsorption properties between different batches of
the same product. Detailed description of application of carbon adsorbents in
analyses of organic environmental pollutants is presented in work of Matiskowa
and Skrabakov~ [5].
Among the inorganic sorbents, silica is the most widely used. Chromatographic
silica is amorphous, porous solid which can be prepared in a wide range of surface
areas and average pore diameters. Variation of solution pH during the acid
gelation of sodium silicate yields silica with surface areas varying from about 200
m2/g (pH ~ 10) to 800 m2/g (pH < 4). Silica may be treated as a typical polar
adsorbent. The raw material for the production of chromatographic alumina
(aluminium oxides) are different aluminium hydroxides, e.g. hydrargillite. Like
silica, alumina can be regarded as a typical polar adsorbent, and sample
separation order on alumina and silica is generally similar. The presence of
carbon-carbon double bonds in a pollutant molecule generally increases
adsorption energy on alumina more than on silica. Aromatic hydrocarbons which
contain different numbers of aromatic carbon atoms are much better separated
on alumina t h a n on silica. Adsorption sites are used for the selective adsorption of
u n s a t u r a t e d or polar molecules onto a hydroxylated silica surface. Three distinct
site types can be recognised on the alumina surface: acidic or positive field sites,
basic or proton acceptor sites and electron acceptor (charge transfer) sites [6].
Each of these is important in the adsorption of certain samples on alumina.
Florisil is co-precipitate of silica and magnesia and this is why the retention and
separation on its surface is generally intermediate between alumina and silica.
Inorganic adsorbents have a high adsorption capability, even to polar and volatile
organic compounds. This property is limited in the case of moisture samples
(adsorption of water vapours cause the deactivation of adsorption centres and
lowers the retention of analytes).
Porous polymers and co-polymers are the most universal group of adsorbents
used for sampling of air; they are synthesised in the processes of the bead
polymerisation. A suitable selection of cross-linking polymers and other
polymerisation parameters allows to control polymerisation processes. Therefore
it is possible to obtain adsorbents with desirable specific surface area, porosity
and polarity (for example Tenax | Porapak | Chromosorb | or XAD|
Tenax is a
porous polymer based on 2,6-diphenyl-p-phenylene oxide. The high thermal
stability and its compatibility with alcohols, amines, amides, acids and bases
together with good recovery characteristics make Tenax very suitable as sorbent
medium in air and water analysis [7]. Porapak is a series of cross-linked porous
polymers, for example divinylbenzene/ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (Porapak
N). That sorbent is used for preconcentration of many substances [8]. Porapaks
have the following polarity: N>S>P>Q, T>R. Chromosorbs or XAD are produced
by copolymerising monofunctional monomers with bifunctional monomers. For
11
instance Chromosorb 102 is a styrene/divinylbenzene copolymer with specific
surface area in the range of 300-400 m2/g; the surface is non-polar. Chromosorb
108 is moderately polar acrylic ester resin with the specific surface area between
100 and 200 m2/g. They are also commonly used for air sampling and
preconcentration of analytes [9, 10]. Disadvantage of polymeric adsorbents is
their sensibility to oxidative action of ozone or chlorine.
Among the adsorption methods applied for isolating analytes from liquid
matrixes (mainly from water) and for their preconcentration, practical
importance has the solid phase extraction (SPE) technique. The idea of this
technique consists in retention of analytes from a large sample volume on a small
bed of adsorbent (placed in cartridge or shaped in the disk form), and following
elution of analytes, with a small volume of solvent. The selection of appropriate
parameters of adsorbents and solvents is the basic condition for successful
employment of this method. Details on the SPE are presented in chapter 23, vol.
2 of this book.
An alternative to the SPE, solvent-free sampling technique is a solid phase
microextraction [SPME]. Typically, a fused-silica fibre, which is coated with a
thin layer of polymeric stationary phase, is used to extract analytes from fluid
(for analysis the retained analytes are thermally desorbed). The application of the
SPME for sampling of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs] from aqueous
samples is presented in the work of Yu Liu et al. [11]. The porous layer coatings
were prepared by the use of silica particles (5 ~m diameter) bonded with phenyl,
Cs, and monomeric or polymeric Cls stationary phases. It was proved that several
factors affected the selectivity for extraction of PAHs, including functional group
in the bonded phase, and phase type (monomeric or polymeric). The distribution
coefficients of PAHs in the porous layer increased with an increasing number of
carbon atoms. A greater selectivity towards solute molecular size and shape were
obtained using a polymeric Cls porous layer. The effect of solution ionic strength
on recovery was also investigated.
There are many papers describing the testing of usefulness of various
adsorbents for fluid sampling [12, 13]. Adsorption capacity for the defined groups
of the analytes, breakthrough capacity and influence of adsorbent bed length, as
well as enrichment conditions on these parameters were investigated. The
recovery of analytes by their thermal or liquid desorption is an essential element
of such investigations.
3.2. Sample preparation

Only few analytical methods provide the possibility for examination of samples
in their original state, without preliminary preparation. In case of the
environmental analysis such examinations are in practice almost impossible.
Complexity of environmental samples is the reason why analytical processes are
very difficult and usually multistages. Analytes need to be determined at
extremely low concentrations over a wide polarity range, and frequently there is
little or no information about the analysed sample. This is why the sample
12
preparation is the most important and often the most difficult step of analysis in
environmental studies.
The experiment described by Falcon et al. [14] can be a very good example of
complications of sample preparation process. They developed the procedure for
trace enrichment of benzo(a)pyrene in extracts of smoked food products. All steps
of this analysis are presented in Figure 2. As it was mentioned above, the
Lyophilization
[
25/15/10 ml
hexane (lh)
Ultrasound
50 ml hexane extract
Centrifugation
Supernatant
Concentration to 5 ml
Silica purification
I
I
!
I
Elution
10 ml hexane
[
Extraction DMSO
[
15/10/5 ml
DMSO (5 min)
30 ml DMSO extract
I
75 ml
water
C- 18 purification
[
Elution
5 ml hexane
Hexane evaporation
I
1 ml
acetonitryle
Filtration
HPLC
I
[
Figure 2. Flow-chart summarising treatment sample prior to the HPLC analysis of

benzo(a)pyrene. Reprinted from [ 13].
13
transfer of analytes to matrix being compatible with analytical technique, usually
by means of liquid, gas or supercritical fluids extraction, is one of the steps of
sample preparation process. Unfortunately, in this process very undesirable
substances (interferences) penetrate to the matrix. This is why a cleaning-up of
analytical samples, connected usually with preconcetration of analytes, is a very
essential step of environmental analyses. Among the adsorption methods,
preparative column chromatography and thin layer chromatography are
commonly used. Aluminium oxide, cellulose powder or microcrystalline cellulose,
silica, diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr), polyamide and Florisil | are employed in
column or layer preparation.
Nowadays, a large variety of chemicaly bonded stationary phases are applied.
Such phases are prepared by anchoring specific organic moieties to inorganic
oxides (mainly silica), under defined reaction conditions. Organic moieties can be
attached to the silica by mono-, di-, or trifunctional silane reaction. After
derivatisation of the silica substrate to yield a bonded phase, a network of socalled structure elements can be distinguished at the silica surface. This includes
organic moieties bound to the surface, like cyano-, NH2-, phenyl-, octyl-, or
octadecyl groups. The residual silanols, approximately 50% of the originally
present silanols, have different properties as they consist of lone, vicinal and
geminal groups. Consequently, besides the attached organic ligands, also the
residual silanols play an important role in the final properties of the chemically
bonded stationary phases.
Carlsson and Ostman [15] presented a method for the isolation of polycyclic
aromatic nitrogen heterocyclic (PANHs) compounds from complex sample matrix.
They are known to be mutagenic and /or carcinogenic. PANHs with a single
endocyclic nitrogen heteroatoms can be divided into two classes: acridines
(containing a pyridine ring) and carbazoles (containing a pyrrole ring). They were
isolated and separated as carbazole and acridine type PANHs with an absolute
recovery in the range between 79-98%. The open column chromatography was
used as an initial step for isolating a PANH fraction. By applying a normal-phase
liquid chromatography using a dimethylaminopropyl silica stationary phase and
utilising back-flush technique it was possible to separate the PANHs fraction into
two fractions containing acridine type and carbazole type PANHs respectively.
The method applied on a sample of solvent refined coal heavy distillate; acridines
and carbazoles were identified by gas chromatography (GC).
Rimmer's and co-workers work [16] is a good example of application of highresolution gel permeation chromatographic clean-up technique (prior to GC). The
method for the determination of phenoxy acid herbicides in vegetable samples
was presented. Macerated samples were extracted with acetone, filtered and
acidified; the herbicides were then partitioned into dichloromethane, cleaned-up
using high-resolution gel permeation chromatography before undergoing rapid
and efficient methylation using trimethyl-silyldiazomethane. The resultant
methyl esters were than selectively and sensitively analysed by GC/MS
14
technique. The procedure has been applied for grass samples spiked with four
phenoxy acid herbicides: 2,4-D, dichlorprop, MCPA and mecroprop.
Environmental monitoring is often realised by using the non-direct methods; in
such investigations the results of contamination, e.g. presence of pollutants or
products of their transformation in food are determined. For example milk; being
at one of the highest levels of the tropic chain and due to its lipophilic nature,
milk has been usually studied as an indicator of the bioconcentration process of
environmentally persistent organic micropollutants. Di Muccio and co-workers
[17] developed a rapid procedure that allows a single step selective extraction and
clean-up of organophosphate pesticide residues from milk, dispersed on solid
matrix diatomaceous material into disposable cartridges by means of light
petroleum saturated with acetonitrile and ethanol. Recovery experiments were
carried out on homogenised commercial milk spiked with solutions of 24
pesticides. Bernal and co-workers [18] presented a method for determination of
vinclozolin (agrochemical fungicide) in honey and bee larvae. LL or SPE
extraction techniques were used and two clean-up procedures (chromatography
on Florisil or Cls column) were assayed after the solvent extraction. A clean-up
method for organochloride compounds in fatty samples based on normal-phase
liquid chromatography is described in work of van der Hoff et al. [19]. The use of
liquid chromatography column packed with silica enables complete
fat/organochloride pesticide separation in total fraction volume of 12 ml and
results in a fully automated clean-up procedure.
Adsorption phenomena in the soil sampling and sample preparation is rarely
applied; it is used mainly to the clean-up of extracts.
4.
TIIE C H R O M A T O G R A P H I C M E T H O D S
The detection and determination of pollutants in complex environmental

systems by conventional and biochemical methods is difficult and timeconsuming, and the results are often doubtful. These methods are now being
systematically replaced by instrumental analytical methods, among which
adsorption procedures play an imporatan role; crucial meaning have the
chromatographic methods.
The idea of all chromatographic methods is the partition of components of
analysed mixture between two phases. One of these phases is stationary; the
second is the mobile phase which moves along the stationary phase. Gas, liquid
or supercritical fluid can be the mobile phase; the separation techniques which
use these phases are called respectively: gas chromatography (GC), liquid
chromatography (LC) and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). A solid or
liquid can be the stationary phase; in the first case it is adsorption
chromatography (GSC), in the second one - partitioning chromatography (GLC).
If the stationary phase is in a column we call it column chromatography (GC or
High Performance Liquid Chromatography - HPLC). In the case when adsorbent
15
is spread on a solid carrier plate in the form of thin layer and attached to it we
call it thin-layer chromatography (TLC). In every case the separation is achieved
by repeating distribution of analytes between two phases of given
chromatographic system.
In the column chromatography the compounds are eluted with the mobile
phase to a detector (universal or selective), which produces a signal proportional
to the amount of a particular substance in this phase. The proper choice of
column, injection technique and temperature program will ensure the separation
of interesting substances from the background ones. Good separation efficiency is
one of the most critical parameters for reliable identification of pollutants by a
detector. Pollutants can be identified by means of the absolute or relative
retention times; a very useful parameter of identification is also retention index.
Quantitation can be realised by internal or external standards. In cases of
environmental analyses very frequently compounds cannot be separated from
each other. These problems can often be solved by chromatographic technique
utilising two or more columns. In multicolumn chromatography the columns may
have widely varying measurements and separation characteristics. The columns
may be connected either off-line or, nowadays much more often, on-line
technique.
Volatile or semi-volatile environmental pollutants which are the subject of
monitoring are usually analysed by GC. In this technique sensitive and selective
detectors such as the electron capture detector (ECD) or the mass spectrometer
(MS) are used. They enable identification and quantitation of trace components
in complex mixtures. HPLC has been recommended for the analyses of thermally
labile, non-volatile and highly polar compounds. Application of high performance
adsorbents in TLC and sophisticated equipment (apparatus for automatically
spotting and developing chromatograms, scanning densitometry) caused, that
present instrumental TLC can compete with the HPLC in terms of analytical
efficiency, sensitivity, and precision. Other chromatographic methods such as
SCFC and capillary electromigration have been currently developed but for the
time being their application in environmental analysis is limited.
The studies on applications of chromatographic methods for environmental
investigation can be classified on the criteria of goals of experiments. According to
this criterion they can be divided into three groups. These ones which refer to the
monitoring are represented the most frequently. The reports which can be
entitled "behaviour" are relatively numerous too. They refer to behaviour (in term
of resolution possibilities) of pollutants in various chromatographic systems. The
third group consists of the works in which physical and chemical properties of
pollutants, i.e. their mobility, bioaccumulation, biotransformation etc. are
examined.
4.1. High Performance Liquid Chromatography

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is a form of column liquid
chromatography. In this technique the mobile phase is pumped through the
15
packed column at high pressure and therefore HPLC is also called High Pressure
Liquid Chromatography. Columns are made of stainless steel tubes 10-, 20 cm
long and internal diameters (I.D.) of a few millimetres. Depending on the type of
interaction between stationary phase, mobile phase and a sample, following
separation mechanisms can take place: adsorption, partition, ion exchange, ionpair and size exclusion.
In adsorption liquid chromatography mainly silica and (rarely) aluminium
oxide, cellulose and polyamide are used as stationary phases. The separated
molecules are reversibly bonded to the solid surface by dipole-dipole interactions.
Because the strength of interaction is different for different molecules, residence
time at the stationary phase varies for different compounds; thus, separation can
be achieved. This technique is used mainly for resolution of polar, non-ionic
substances; in environmental analyses it is used occasionally.
In the case of liquid- liquid partition chromatography stationary phases
(liquids) can coat a support or can be chemically bonded to that support.
Distribution mechanism is called partitioning because separation is based on the
use of relative solubility differences of the sample in the two phases (in fact the
separation is also achieved through the adsorption by non-protected silanol
groups). In the normal phase (NP) liquid-liquid partition chromatography, the
stationary phase is more polar than the mobile phase, in the reversed phase (RP)
liquid-liquid partition chromatography, the mobile phase is more polar than
stationary phase. The NP liquid-liquid partition chromatography is used for
separation of very polar organic substances, while the RP chromatography
(nowadays more popular technique) is used for the non-polar or weakly polar
compounds.
An example of using the liquid-liquid partition chromatography for the
environmental analyses can be the above mentioned work of FalcSn et al. [14].
They used a HPLC-fluorescent detection method for the determination of
benzo[a]pyrene in the enriched extract of the smoked food products. It should be
stressed that the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by
HPLC requires separation columns of high selectivity and efficiency. Reupert and
co-workers [20] proposed a method for the separation of PAHs by the application
of PAH 16-Plus column under optimal operating conditions. A very good
separation of 16 PAHs was obtained (Figure 3).
Liquid-liquid partition chromatography is often employed in the analysis of
pesticides. The analysis of pesticide residues in the environment is of great
current interest due to the possible risks that may arise from the exposure of
humans and animals to such agents. From among the latest papers concerning
that problem the special issue of Journal of Chromatography "Chromatography
and Electrophoresis in Environmental Analysis: Pesticide Residues" is worthy to
notice [21]. A good example of taking advantage of liquid-liquid partition HPLC
can be the paper by Somsen and co-workers [22]. Precolumn packed with Cls
(Polygosil) material for the enrichment of herbicides was combined on-line with
the column liquid chromatography and Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry.
17
100
80-
9
6040
11
11213
20
O-
10
20
30
40
Time, min
Figure 3. HPLC chromatogram of 10 ~tl PAHs standard (EPA) in CH3CN; concentration of
individual substances 90 pg/~tl. Emission signals. Column- Bakerbond PAH 16-Plus;
mobile phase H20 - CH3CN (gradient elution). 1-naphthalene, 2-acenaphthene, 3-fluorene,
4-phenanthrene, 5-anthracene, 6-fluoranthene, 7-pyrene, 8-benzo[a] anthracene, 9-chrysene,
10-benzo[e]pyrene, 11-benzo[b]fluoranthene, 12-benzo[k]fluoranthene, 13-benzo[a]pyrene,
14-dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, 15-benzo[g,h,i] perylene, 16-indeno[ 1,2,3oc,d]pyrene. Reprinted
from [20].
The isocratic separation was carried out on a 200x2.1 mm I.D. C18 column (Rosil)
using acetonitrile-phosphate buffer (40:60) as eluent. The method was based on
post-column on-line liquid-liquid extraction and solvent elimination, followed by
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The feasibility of the complete system
was demonstrated by analysing river water spiked with triazines and
phenylureas at the ~g/1 level. Identifiable spectra were obtained for all analytes.
The authors showed that on-line trace enrichment in combination with column
liquid chromatography and Fourier-transform infrared detector offers a selective
method for the characterisation of moderately polar analytes such as phenylureas
and triazines in water samples.
In the analysis of pesticides the degradation products also have to be
determined because these products will often possess such activities as the parent
pesticides. One ought to emphasise that the analysis of pesticide degradation in
environmental samples is often difficult to perform due to the different polarities
and lower concentrations of the degradation products relative to the parent
compounds. Taking into account these difficulties Rollang, Beck-Westermeyer
and Hage [23] applied the RP liquid-liquid partition chromatography and the
high performance immunoaffinity chromatography for determining the
degradation products of the herbicide atrazine in water. A high performance
18
immunoaffinity chromatography column containing anti-triazine antibodies was
first used to extract the degradation products of interest from samples, followed
by the on-line separation of the retained components on C18 analytical column.
The
limits
of detection for hydroxyatriazine,
deethylatriazine
and
deisopropylatriazine were 20-30 ng/1. Usefulness of this method was
demonstrated in the analysis of both river water and groundwater samples.
Rapid methods for the isolation and determination of alkylphenols from crude
oils with the use of partitioning chromatography were described by Bennett et al.
[24]. Determinations were performed by RP liquid-liquid partition HPLC. The
authors have proved that the method affords rapid and accurate quantitation of
phenol, cresols, dimethylphenols and is suitable for screening large number of
samples. They illustrated the methods with two petroleum geochemical
examples: determination of the partition coefficients of alkylphenols in oil/brine
systems under high pressure and temperature conditions.
Leira, Botana and Cela [25] applied an effect of differences in the retention
capacity and selectivity of C18 and graphitized carbon column to resolve complex
mixtures of non-flavonoid polyphenols (Table 1). Separation of mixture
components was accomplished in a single switching operation by using mobile
phase of the same composition but a different eluting strength in both separation
steps. The elution conditions used in both columns were simplified by means of
simulation software in order to obtain multiple fractions. The potential of this
technique was realised by resolving a mixture of 38 very similar species (Figure
4).
2.5
@
2.0
--
1.5
--
1.0
--
AU
V 7
II
Ii.
I TM ,
jl !1
fl
iI A
it
II
II
t
I
Pl
Iii
II
[I
if
II
II
II
iI
II
iI
li
I
I
I
I
I
I-- -- -li
0.5
1
I
I
i
,A ,ll ,,!i, |
i
I
!AN_
vii
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'
~.~_ ~.
0.0
VI
10
15
20
Minutes
Figure 4. Chromatogram of 38 non-flavonoid polyphenols. Reprinted from [25].
'
19
Table 1
Listing of the non-flavonoid species studied; key numbers match the spectrum
labels in the figures, and heart-cut groups the labels in Figure 4
Key
Compound
Heart-cut
number
Group
3-Hydroxybenzoic acid
III
4-Hydroxybenzoic acid
II
2,4 Dihydroxybenzoic acid (~-resorcylic acid)
II
2,5 Dihydroxibenzoic acid (gentisic acid)
II
2,6 Dihydroxybenzoic acid (7-resorcylic acid)
I
6
3,4 Dihydroxybenzenzoic acid (protocatechuic acid)
I
7
3,3 Dihydroxybenzoic acid (a-resorcylic acid)
I
3,4,5-Trihydroxybenzoic acid (gallic acid)
8
4-Hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid (vanillic acid)
III
9
10
3-Hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid (isovanillic acid)
III
11
4-Hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzoic acid (syringic acid
IV
2,4 Dimethoxybenzoic acid
12
2,6 Dimethoxybenzoic acid
IV
13
14
3,4-Dimethoxybenzoic acid
V
15
3,5- Dimethoxybenzoic acid
VII
2-Hydroxycinnamic acid (o-coumaric acid)
VI
16
3-Hydroxycinnamic acid (o-coumaric acid)
V
17
18
4-Hydroxycinnamic acid (p-coumaric acid)
19
3,4-Dihydroxycinnamic acid (caffeic acid)
III
20
4-Hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid (ferulic acid)
V
21
3,5-Dimethoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (sinapic acid)
V
22
3,4,5-Trimethoxycinnamic acid
VII
23
2-Hydroxybenzaldehyde (salicyl aldehyde)
V
24
3- Hydroxybenzaldehyde
III
25
4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde
III
26
2,5-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde
III
27
3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde(protocatechialdehyde)
III
28
3,5-Dimethoxy-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde
29
2-Hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde (o-vanillin)
V
30
4-Hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde (vanillin)
IV
31
3-Hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (isovanillin)
IV
32
2,4-Dimethoxybenzaldehyde
33
3,4-Dimethoxybenzaldehyde (veratraldehyde)
V
34
3,5-Dimethoxybenzaldehyde
VII
35
3-Methoxybenzaldehyde (m.-anisaldehyde)
VI
4- Methoxybenzaldehyde (p-anisaldehyde)
VI
36
37
3,4,5-Trimethoxybenzaldehyde
VI
Chlorogenic acid
II
38
Reprinted from [25].
20
Ion-exchange chromatography is a separation procedure in which ions of

similar charges are separated by elution from a column packed with a finely
divided resin. The stationary phase consists of acidic or basic functional groups
bonded to the surface of the polymer matrix. Charged species present in the
mobile phase are attracted to appropriate functional groups in the ion exchanger
and separated. Mixtures of bases and acids can be separated by this technique.
The stationary phases used in ion-pair chromatography are the same as in RP
chromatography. Ionic organic compounds (e.g. C7H15803- - heptane sulfonic ion
for bases or Bu2N - tetrabutyl ammonium ion for acids), which form the ion-pair
with the analysed sample component of opposite charge, are added to the
mobile phase. This ion-pair is a salt, which behaves chromatographically like a
non-ionic organic molecule that can be separated by RP chromatography. These
methods found only limited application in environmental analysis. D. Krochmal
and A. Kalina [26] proved that coupling the ion-exchange chromatography with
active or passive sampling of air pollutants gives the possibility of simultaneous
determination of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Both gases can be
quantitatively absorbed in aqueous solution of triethanolamine and subsequently
determined with ion chromatography as sulphates and nitrates. Absorbing
solutions were analysed with a single column ion chromatograph equipped with a
packed column.
Size-exclusion chromatography is a powerful technique applicable for
separation of high-molecular-weight pollutants. Packing material for sizeexclusion chromatography consists of a small silica or polymer particles
containing network of uniform pores into which solute and solvent molecules can
diffuse. In the chromatographic process molecules are effectively trapped in pores
and removed by the flowing mobile phase. The compounds with higher molecular
weight cannot penetrate into the pores and are retained to a less extend t h a n
smaller ones. Some of size-exclusion packing materials are hydrophilic and are
used with aqueous mobile phase (gel filtration); others are hydrophobic and are
used with non-polar, organic solvents (gel permeation). In environmental
analyses size-exclusion chromatography is used for sample clean-up and
fractionation. For example, gel permeation chromatography is a standard
technique for the isolation of herbicides and fungicides from samples that contain
high-molecular-weight interferences, such as solid waste extract, oil or fats [16].
In the case of environmental analyses information about pollutants may be
obtained not only from environmental matrix. Kabzifiski [27] proposed a new
analytical method for the quantitative determination of metallothioneins protein
in h u m a n body fluids and tissues, in order to determine the level of
environmental and industrial exposition to heavy metals. For metallothioneins
isolation covalent affinity chromatography with thiol-disulfide interchange was
applied, which is a modern technique of separation of high affinity, good
repeatibly and reproducibility, allowing specific isolation of the thiolproteins and
metallothiolproteins. Fundamentals of indirect determination of the contents of
metallothioneins protein were worked out throughout estimation of the
21
quantities of metals bound with metallothionein protein and adsorbed on
covalent affinity chromatography gel as on the solid-phase extraction support
during a separating process.
4.2. Gas c h r o m a t o g r a p h y
The term gas chromatography (GC) is used to denote the chromatographic
techniques in which the mobile phase is a gas (the carrier gas, mostly N2, H2, Ar
or He). The stationary phase is placed in the column; it may be a porous solid
(GSC-gas solid chromatography, adsorption chromatography) or viscous liquid
(GLC-gas liquid chromatography, partition chromatography). In both cases the
transport of components of analysed mixtures (adsorbates, analytes) is realised
exclusively in the gas phase, separation - exclusively in the stationary phase. The
time of passing of particular analytes through the stationary phase and the
frequency of interactions of analytes with this phase are the decisive factors in
the separation process. In case of GSC separation occurs because of differences in
the adsorption equlibria between the gaseous components of the sample and the
solid surface of the stationary phase. In case of GLC, in contrast to HPLC, there
is no interaction between the mobile phase and the analyte.
Glass, metal (copper, aluminium, stainless steel) or Teflon tubes long 2-3 m
and I.D. 2-4 mm are used for making the packed columns to GC. Open tubular
columns (capillary columns) are of two basic types: wall coated open tubular
(WCOT) and support coated open tubular (SCOT). WCOT is the traditional
capillary column made of glass or stainless steel. The liquid phase is applied as a
continuous thin film on the inside walls of the tube. The newest WCOT are fused
silica open tubular columns (FSOT). This is a very small outer diameter thin wall
column that is inherently a straight tube but is flexible enough to be coiled to
diameters c.a. 20 cm. FSOT are drawn from specially purified silica that contains
minimal amounts of metal oxides. Compared to packed column these capillaries
show inert surfaces and higher reproducibility with at last equal separation
efficiencies. PLOT (porous layer open tubular) column is similar to a SCOT
except for the fact, t h a t the support material is responsible for the separation
through the adsorption process. In a PLOT columns there is no coating liquid
phases.
There are two basic types of packing materials employed in GC. The first type
is porous materials used in GSC. The second type are the support materials
which are covered with a layer of liquid phase used in GLC. The adsorption
properties and selectivity of adsorbents applied in GSC depend first of all on the
chemical composition and geometrical structure of their surface. There are
several kinds of attractive adsorbate-adsorbent interactions occurring during the
separation of mixturecomponents. The most important interactions are:
dispersion or London forces, electrostatic forces, induction forces and specific
interaction (mainly charge-transfer, which occur between one component with nbonding electrons and showing small ionisation energy and the second component
showing high electron affinity). Among dozens of different solids which have been
22
used in adsorption chromatography only few adsorbent types have wide
application today. Non-organic adsorbents such as silica, aluminium oxide or
Florisil and polymeric adsorbents type of Tenax, Chromosorb or Porapak belong
to the porous packings (which do not need to be coated with stationary phases).
They can directly be used for adsorption chromatography. The carbonaceous
adsorbents are today used in gas adsorption chromatography rather occasionally.
In case of GLC the stationary phase is a liquid (often rubber-like), it is
immobilised on the surface of a solid support by adsorption or by chemical
bonding. Liquid stationary phases are applied both in packed and capillary
columns. Packed columns are completely filled with a packing, liquid stationary
phases coating an inert support such as diatomite (Kieselguhr), rarely Teflon or
glass spheres. Capillary columns do not require a support because their inert
walls are coated with the stationary phases. The most important feature of liquid
stationary phase is its polarity. The very popular non-polar phases are Squalane
(hexamethyltetracosane) and Apolane-87 (24,14-diethyl-19,29-dioctadecylhaptatetracontane). Squalane is used as reference for determination of polarity of other
liquid phases in packed column.
Apolane-87 is high temperature standard phase used in capillary
chromatography. In environmental analyses semipolar phases are used most
often. That group of phases is mainly represented by Silicones. Depending on the
kind of substituent in oxosilanes chain (dimethyl-, phenyl-, trifluoropropyl-,
cyano- etc.), the weak-, medium- and strong polar phases can be prepared.
Polygethylenelycol is an example of strong-polar phase. Among specific liquid
phases a family of polysiloxane stationary phases (Chirasil), developed for the
separation of optical enantiomers, has a great practical importance. Chemicaly
bonded phases used in GLC are identical as twere used in HPLC.
Barrefors et al. [28] showed that furan and alkylfurans might be selectively
analysed on PLOT (aluminium oxide) columns, since other oxygen-containing
compounds are normally not eluted. Furan, 2-methylfuran, 3-methylfuran,
2,5-dimethylfuran and the five isomeric C6 alkylfurans, two C7 and three C6-C7
alkenylfurans were determined by adsorbent sampling and GC/MS technique.
Separation on PLOT column is presented on Figure 5. Furan elutes after isoprene
and cyclopentadiene in the same region as minor pentadienes and branched
hexanes. Several minor C6 and C7 furans appear.in the chromatographic range
before and after methylbenzene. The purpose of this study was to characterise
volatile furans in birdwood smoke which may be of interest with respect to
human exposure and as indoor and outdoor wood-smoke tracers in studies of air
pollutants.
An analytical method to determine highly volatile saturated aldehydes,
degradation products of lipid peroxidation, was developed for the capillary GC
[29]. The carbonyl compounds were derivatized quantitatively with
2-hydrazinobenzothiazole at room temperature to form their corresponding
water-insoluble hydrazones. The derivatives were extracted and detected with
high selectivity (Figure 6) by high-resolution GC with nitrogen-phosphorous
23
k
m
I~I
4~ min
-1
10
20
3O
L.|
v,
200~ isothermal
Figure 5. Gas chromatographic separation on aluminium oxide column of prominent furans,

alkadienes. Reprinted from [28].
1 - Methanal
2 - Ethanal
3 - Propanal
4 - Butanal
5 - Isopentanal
6 - Pentanal
7 - Hexanal
34
ISTD,
21
l0
15
Time (min)
Figure 6. Typical gas chromatogram of the 2-hydrazinobenzothiazole-derivative aldehydes.

ISTDinternal standard: 2,4 pentanedione-2-hydrazinobenzothiazole-derivative. Reprinted
from [29].
24
detection due to their high nitrogen content. Analyte concentration, pH and type
of extraction technique (LLE and SPE) were studied to determine optimal
recovery conditions. The method was applied to the analysis of the volatile
aldehydes generated during the t h e r m a l oxidation of olive oil at 220~
Begerov and co-workers [30] applied the screen method for the simultaneous
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of 28 volatile organic compounds in the indoor and outdoor air at
environmental concentrations. Using passive (sorption-diffusive) samplers, the
volatile organic compounds were adsorbed onto charcoal during a four-week
sampling period and subsequently desorbed with carbon disulphide. The eluate
was split via an Y-connector and led onto two capillary columns of different
polarity switched in parallel. This dual column configuration provides additional
information about the volatile organic compound components and can be obtained
for verification purpose. Detection was in both cases performed by connecting
each column with a non-destructive electron-capture detector and a flame
ionisation detector switched in series. The procedure has been successfully
applied in the context of a large field study to measure outdoor air concentration
in three areas with different traffic density (Figure 7). It is applicable to indoor
air m e a s u r e m e n t s in a similar manner.
a)
b)
7
0.345
0.275]--~
11
0.305
0.265
13
0.305
10
0.285
17 0.255
1
14
1516
/
0.245,,
,"
"
0.265
0.245
,,,
5
,, ,,,,,,,
10
15
, , ,
20
, ,,,,,
25
--"""
.-
18 . . - ' "
""
,, ,,,,,,,,,
30
35
, ,
40
Time (min)
Figure 7. Typical gas chromatograms of an indoor air sample obtained by flame ionisation
detection. (a) more polar column, (b) less polar column. Reprinted from [30].
Lobiafiski et al. [31] studied the potential of the microwave-induced p l a s m a
atomic emission detector for capillary GC (GC/AED) as a tool for the specification
of organotin compounds in environmental samples. The operational variables are
optimised for chromatographic resolution and detection limits. A comprehensive
25
method for the determination of mono-, di-, tri-, and some tetraalkylated
organotin compounds in water and sediments by GC/AED was developed. Ionic
organotin compounds were extracted as diethyl dithiocarbamates into pentane
and, after its evaporation, dissolved in a small volume of octane and derivatized
by pentylmagnesium bromide to give the solution suitable for gas
chromatography.
The phenoxy acids were first introduced as herbicides in the late 1940s. They
have found widespread usage in the post-emergence control of annual and
perennial broad leafed weeds cereals and grasses. Functioning as synthetic plant
growth regulators these herbicides accumulate in the roots and stems of the
plants. A method for the determination of phenoxy acid herbicides in vegetation
samples is described among other things in the work of Rimmer and co-workers
[32]. Macerated samples were extracted with acetone. After filtration and
acidification they were introduced into dichloromethane. The herbicides were
than cleaned-up using high-resolution gel permeation chromatography.
Analysis of PCB normally includes extensive sample clean-up and
preconcentration followed by high resolution capillary GC either with electron
capture or mass-selective detection. Although both techniques provide the high
sensitivity required for PCB investigations, quantitative analysis is complicated
by structural variations of detectors-response factors. The quantitative aspect of
GC with atomic emission detection (GC/AED) used for the analysis of PCB is
presented in work of Bjergaard et al. [33]. Since Cl-responses were almost
independent on the PCB structure, individual PCBs were quantitated with an
accuracy not better than 10% by utilising a Cl-calibration plot based on a single
randomly selected congener (universal calibration). In addition, within 5-10%
accuracy, GC/AED enabled estimation of total PCB residue levels and calculation
of the percentage by weight of chlorine in mixtures containig PCB. Thus PCB
detection limits were higher with GC/AED than GC/ECD. The GC/AED technique
was very attractive for PCB and enabled significant simplification of PCB
quantitation.
A fraction of polycyclic aromatic nitrogen heterocycles (PANHs) from the
environmental samples consists of a complex mixture of compounds, due to the
large number of isomers. This cause problems with co-eluting peaks when using
chromatographic separation technique. Thus, chemical analysis of PANHs
requires a group separation of acridine- and carbazole-type compounds in order to
facilitate identification, as well as quantitation. The method of solving this
problem is presented above [15]. Separated acridine and carbazole groups were
analysed by means of GC technique (Figure 8) with using nitrogen-phosphorous
detector (NPD). There was no overlap between the PAH and PANH fractions.
PAHs were detected with coupled LC/GC-flame ionisation detection.
Isomeric selectivity (for the separation of anthracene/phenanthrene) of new
monomeric and polymeric liquid crystalline stationary phases, as well as of
common non-polar and polar stationary phases in capilary gas chromatography
were compared in the work of Kraus and co-workers [34]. The high isomeric
26
"~N
13
15
17
19
Figure 8. GC/NPD chromatogram of acridine fraction from solvent refined coal heavy
distillate. Reprinted from [15].
selectivity of monomeric liquid crystalline phase [4,4'-biphenylene-bis-(4-n-butyloxybenxoate] was used for the separation of critical pairs of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. Liquid crystal stationary phases are characterized by their
chemical structure, as well as by the ordered structure of the mesophase type at
given temperature. This is why using liquid crystal stationary phase the solutes
retention does not only depend on their vapour pressure and their interaction
with the chemical structure of the stationary phase but also on their molecular
shape. The isomers having higher length to breadth ratio of the molecule and/or
planar molecular shape have an increased retention in the liquid crystalline
mesophase. The advantage of using liquid crystals as stationary phases in GC for
separation of isomeric PAHs was also demonstrated by Apfel at al. [35] and
Hahne [36].
4.3. Thin Layer Chromatography

TLC is one of the best known and thoroughly tested method of the analysis of
environmental pollutants [37]. The one-dimensional ascending or horizontal
techniques have usually been applied for the development of chromatograms in a
closed chamber. Multiple and two-dimensional development techniques have
seldom been used. Recent, instrumental techniques such as forced flow planar
layer chromatography (FFPC), automated multiple development (AMD) and
gradient development techniques are becoming more frequently used.
Multimodal TLC (TLC/GC, TLC/MS, etc.) have occasionally been applied. Details
concerning the new TLC techniques were described in the review of Jork [38].
27
The separation of environmental mixture samples is usually performed on
commercial chromatographic plates. The adsorbent is spread as a thin layer onto
a suitable solid support (e.g. glass plate, polyester or aluminium sheet). In TLC
the same adsorbents are used as in the HPLC technique. Most often separations
are performed with silica 60 (pore diameter = 6 nm). Other
commercial
adsorbents are Kieselguhr, aluminium oxide, cellulose, polyamide and ion
exchangers. At present the modified silica (amino -NH2 or cyano -CN and
reversed phases such as octyl RP-Cs, octadecyl RP-Cls,) are used. Impregnated
silica is mainly applied for analysis of PAHs and heavy metals.
H. Engelhardt and P. Engeld [39] showed the possibility of application of TLC
technique to the quantitative determination of hydrocarbons in waste water after
extraction with n-heptane by means of a micro separator. Chromatographic
development was carried out with n-heptane. Quantitation was done by IR
spectroscopy or after dyeing with acid violet reagent. Application of acid violet
reagent results in no difficulties relating to the proper selection of the
hydrocarbon standards in confrontation with IR quantitation technique, and the
standard TLC scanner could be used for quantitation.
As it was mentioned above, aminoarenes are a class of compounds usually
accompanying PAHs in environmental samples. Janoszka an co-workers [40]
applied semipreparative TLC to separate these substances from other polar
compounds present in sludge extract isolated by SPE technique. Chromatograms
were developed on A1203 plates with ternary mixture of organic solvents to
distance of 9 cm in DS chamber. The data obtained by using TLC were confirmed
by GC/MS analysis.
TLC has found frequent extreme application for environmental analysis of
pesticides. Rathore and Begun [41] refer to ca. 300 papers in their recapitulation
of TLC methods for pesticide residue analysis. Advances in the application of
TLC for separation, detection, and qualitative and quantitative determination of
pesticides, other agrochemicals, and related compounds are reviewed in Sherma's
article [42]. The author showed the possibility of application of TLC for pesticide
analysis in different matrices such as food and environmental samples, and for
analyses of residue pesticides of various types, including insecticides, herbicides,
and fungicides, belonging to different chemical classes. Bt~dek and co-workers
[43] proved the possibility of application of thin layer chromatography and SPE to
the analyses of pesticide residues in strongly contaminated samples of soil.
Modern TLC equipment was used in these investigations. Chromatograms were
developed in a normal-phase system by automated multiple development
gradient elution. Limitations of detectability by TLC were compensated for by the
application of relatively large volumes (by spray-on technique) of analysed
solutions on start lines. Quantitative assessment was achieved by UV absorption
measurement scanning of the chromatograms by a ,,zig-zag" technique (Figure 9)
Recovery and error of the method was estimated - the recovery level was 80% and
the R.S.D. was less than 9%.
28
0.4 '
0.3
0.20.]
0.0-0.1
'
25
5'0
75
X (mm)
Figure 9. A chromatogram of pesticide residues: tree scanning at wavelengths 220, 265

and 300 nm. S-absorbance, x-distance of bands. Peaks: 1-oxamyl, 2-pirimicarb, 3-carbaryl,
4-phosalone, 5-malathion, 6-fenitrtion, 7-tetradifon, 8-methoxychlor. Reprinted from [43].
Petrovi6 and co-workers [44] described a study on the retention behaviour of

series of thiosemicarbazide derivatives and their 1,2,4-triazoline-3-thiones by
normal- and reversed- phase TLC using silica gel, alumina, and C ls- modified
silica gel layers, as well as non-aqueous and aqueous eluents. Two types of
compounds were studied: thiosemicarbazide derivatives and 1,2,4-triazoline-3thione derivatives. Retention data were discussed in relation to the molecular
structure of the solute, and the nature of the stationary phase and eluent. The
study can be an example of application of TLC for cognitive purposes.
Substituted phenylureas (such as diuron, linuron, metoxuron etc.) are widely
used as selective herbicides. Lautie and Stankovic [45] applied an instrumental
TLC for determination of six phenylurea herbicides in food. The pesticides were
extracted with acetone and purified by SPE. Analysed and standard solutions
were spotted to the plates by means of spray-on technique. Chromatograms were
developed in 25 steps with the use of gradient elution. Quantitative analysis were
based on the measurements of UV (k = 245 nm) absorbance by using a scanner
densitometer.
The high selectivity, high detectability and reliability of analysis under fairly
simple conditions contribute to the effective use of TLC for the detection of
chemical warfare agents. It is proper to add that the problem connected with the
determination of substances classified as potential warfare agents lie also in the
non-military sphere of interest. This concerns, for instance, the uncontrolled
spread of toxic substances as a result of industrial break-down or agrotechnical
operations, and the generation of poisons, i.e. fluoroacetic acid in plants or
phosgene in the troposphere. Application of TLC for military purposes, including
analytical procedures for chemical warfare agents, has been recommended by
many workers. The review on application of chromatographic methods for
29
chemical warfare agents analysis has been done by Witkiewicz at al. [46]. The
same authors, testing a new instrument to the overpressured thin layer
chromatography, proved [47] that the instrument can be used (among many other
applications) to the analyses of organophosphorous chemical warfare agents
(Figure 10). Currently, due to the Chemical Weapon Convention requirements,
interest in the TLC technique is increasing; it can be used as "screening
method"[48].
OPLC
2.000
GB
~(3iA
VXl
OD
DFP
I. n
0.o00
oooo
Qo
OQ
oOo
oO
Figure. 10. Densitogram (A) and chromatogram (B) obtained from separation of
organophosphorous warfare agents by overpressured TLC: adsorbent- silica gel; mobile
phase - diisopropyl ether:benzene:tetrahydrofuran:n-hexane (10:7:5:11 v/v). VX1 and
VX2 isomers of VX; GA-tabun, GB-sarin, GD-soman and DFP. * indicate impurities.
-
Listing the application of adsorption TLC for military purposes, it is impossible

to forget about explosives. The most widely found explosives are trinitrotoluene,
hexogen, oktagen, tetryl and pentrit. Application of TLC for determination of
high explosive residues in water and soil samples is presented in work of Bt~dek
and co-workers [49]. In this group of compounds the most dangerous (because of
30
toxicity and wide application) is trinitrotoluene (TNT); in environment it can be
reduced by bacteria to aminodinitrotoluenes, dinitrotoluenes and both di- and
trinitrobenzenes. The most dangerous are aminodinitrotoluenes; they show
severe toxicity and mutagenity [50].
TLC has been also used to solve a variety of analytical problems relating to the
identification, separation and determination of inorganic compounds in
environmental samples (mainly heavy metals). The review by Mohammad [51]
summarises the application of TLC in the analysis of environmental samples for
harmful and toxic metals (inorganic and organic substances containing Ag, A1,
As, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Sb, Sn, and Zn). In most cases,
extraction of analytes from the matrix, clean-up of the extracts and concentration
of the analytes precede TLC analysis. The author showed that
spectrophotometry, titrimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, densitometry,
fluorimetry and solvent extraction techniques have been combined with TLC for
sensitive identification, quantification, and selective separation of toxic heavy
metals present in rivers and sea water, waste water, sludge, aquatic plants,
cosmic dust, air and airborne dust.
4.4. Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) combines some characteristics of
both gas and liquid chromatography. In recent years the interest in the use of
SFC as a separation technique has been increasing rapidly because of the unique
properties of supercritical fluid; its higher diffusivity and lower viscosity enable
analysis to be 3-10 times faster than HPLC. On the other hand, it has relatively
similar density to liquid and viscosity comparable to gas, so SFC can be used to
analyse a wide range of compounds, particularly those that are thermally labile,
non-volatile and of high molecular mass, that cannot be satisfactorily analysed by
GC. The most widely used supercritical fluid is CO2, however, for analyses of
polar and high-molecular-mass solutes, polar modifiers such as methanol must be
incorporated to increase the solvent polarity. Supercritical CO2 is an ideal solvent
for preparing samples for GC, LC, SFC and other analyses. CO2 has easily
accessible critical point and its solvating power can be controlled to match a wide
range of hazardous organic solvents. Yet even as it assumes liquid-like solvent
properties, supercritical CO2 retains gas-like viscosity and penetrates solid
samples quickly.
E. Pocurull and co-workers [52] studied the possibility of application of SFC
with diode array detection system to determine phenol and nitrophenol in water.
Several columns and the influence of chromatographic conditions (temperature,
pressure, flow-rate and adding methanol in the mobile phase) were studied in
order to separate the compounds. To decrease the detection limits of the method,
SPE on-line coupled to SFC was tested. Tetrabutylammonium bromide was used
as ion-pair reagent in the extraction process to increase the breakthrough
volumes. The separation of five phenolic compounds, in the time period less than
31
6 min., with good resolution for all compounds was achieved. The performance of
the method was checked for tap and river water samples.
5. MISCELLANEOUS METHODS
In recent years, capillary electrophoresis (CE) has developed into an versatile
and powerful technique. It was applied for separation of a wide variety of
compounds, ranging in size from small ions to large biomolecules. The main
separation modes of CE are: capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), capillary gel
electrophoresis (CGE), micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MECC),
capillary electrochromatography (CEC), capillary isoelectric focusing (CIEF) and
capillary isotachophoresis (CITP). Various modes of separation, high resolving
power and small sample requirement (CE is know as a nanoscale technique) have
made possible a wide range of applications.
CE is an analytical tool, possessing some typical features of chromatographic
techniques and some features of traditional slab gel electrophoresis [53]. For
example, micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography couples both the
electrophoresis and chromatographic partitioning element for simultaneous
separation of charged and neutral compounds. In Figure 11 the versatility and
6 7
0.015
0.010
23
0.005
0.000
10
J
0
'
'
'
12
Time (min)
Figure 11. MECC separation of eleven herbicides in distilled water at the mg/l level.
1-tribenuron, 2-chlorsulfuron, 3-metsulfuron, 4-paraquat, 5-simazine, 6-atrazine,
7-1inuron, 8-terbuthylazine, 9-alachlor, 10-metolachlor, 11-trifluralin. Reprinted from [53].
32
the efficiency of CE in the separation of herbicides is shown (conditions of
experiment: herbicide concentration range 1-2 mg/1, capillary 500 mm x 7,5 mm
I.D.; operating voltage 25 kV at 30~ UV detection at 214 nm; separation buffer:
30 mM sodium borate and 30 mM sodium dodecyl sulphate, pH 8.0).
During application of CE for monitoring analyses and environmental studies of
pollutants, particular attention has to be devoted to the optimisation of the
separation process in order to obtain the best selectivity in a complex matrix,
where many potential compounds may interfere. In order to optimise CE
separation, several parameters have to be taken into account, such as electrolyte
buffer composition, capillary dimensions, capillary temperature, applied voltage
and mode of injection and detection. J un Liu et al.. [54] employed in CE a
palladium particle-modified carbon microdisk electrode for the simultaneous
detection of hydrazine, methylhydrazine and isoniazid. Analytes were separated
by CZE and MECC techniques with the Pd-modified microdisk electrode; it had
high catalytic activity for hydrazine and exhibited good reproducibility and
stability.
Quantitative
determination
of
total
molecular
concentration
of
bioaccumulatable organic micropollutants in water, using Cls empore disk is
presented in van Loon and co-workers paper [55]. Chemical group parameters
such as dissolved organic carbon, absorbable organohalogen and chemical oxygen
demand determination are routinely used for water quality monitoring. These
parameters gave information about the degree of anthropogenic contamination
and potential aquatic toxicity of water systems. A new, highly sensitive and
quantitative group parameter to determine total molar concentrations of organic
micropollutants that can bioaccumulate in the lipid phase of aquatic organisms
from effluents, surface water and drinking water has been developed in this
work. Cls empore disk was used as a surrogate lipid phase. The partition between
water and Cls empore disk was employed to simulate the bioaccumulation
process. After partition extraction of the water sample, the empore disk was
extracted with cyclohexane and total molar concentration of organic
micropollutants was determined. Vapour pressure osmometry and GC/MS were
used in these investigations.
Measurements of pesticides mobility in soil by application of TLC are
presented in work of Camazano et al. [56]. The effect of soil improvement by
using urban compost, agricultural organic amendments and surfactants on the
mobility of two sparingly-soluble pesticides (diazinon and linuron) was studied.
The modifications in Rf values due to the addition of the amendments were
similar for both pesticides. No significant correlation was found between the Rf
values and the content of total organic carbon in the amended soils. Authors
demonstrated that not only the organic carbon content of amended soils but also
the amendment nature, especially their contents in a soluble fraction play a very
important role in the pesticide mobility. The surfactants gave rise to important
alterations in pesticide mobility. The mobility of pesticides changed from being
immobile in the soil sample modified with tetradecyltrimethylammonium
33
bromide to being slightly mobile in natural soil and to being mobile in the soil
sample amended with sodium dodecyl sulphate.
In recent years repid development of small, simple and portable devices for
detection and quantitative determination of pollutants in air, water, soil and
biological materials is observed. These devices are composed of detecting system
and electronic part with displaying possibilities. Adsorption of analytes at the
detector surface results in changing of its physical, chemical or biological
properties which can be easily converted to the changes of electric signals. In
o p t i c a l s e n s o r s a change of the factor of light refraction or effect of fluorescent
quenching because of adsorption of analytes are usually applied. E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l
s e n s o r s are based on the changes of cell electromotance due to adsorption of
analytes at the surface of ion selective electrodes. In the construction of
piezoelectric sensors quartz resonators are used. They are called quartz
microbalances or adsorption detectors because changes of crystal frequencies are
caused due the adsorption of analysed pollutants. To increase the sensitivity and
selectivity of such sensors, special liquid coating materials are used. Piezoelectric
sensors for SO2, NH3, H2S, Hg, nitrocompounds, chlorinated hydrocarbons and
other environmental pollutants are commonly used. The principle of s u r f a c e
a c o u s t i c w a v e s e n s o r s action is similar.
CONCLUSIONS
Environmental analysis is a broad branch of analytical chemistry in which
different analytical techniques are applied. Besides chromatographic methods
described above, the spectrophotometric, spectrometric and electrochemical
methods are of great importance. In this work we focused our attention only on
processes and methods in which the adsorption phenomena play an important
role. Quoted examples of application of adsorption phenomena in sampling,
preconcentration, clean-up and analyses processes are a small part of the huge
collection of works devoted to the discussed problems. These examples confirm
that adsorption phenomena present one of the most important and promising
tools for characterisation, identification and determination of trace pollutants in
various environmental samples.
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37
F u n d a m e n t a l s of s o l i d p h a s e e x t r a c t i o n a n d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to
environmental analyses
M. E. Raisglid and M. F. Burke
Department of Chemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
1. S A M P L E P R E P A R A T I O N O V E R V I E W
It has been the convention to extract an analyte as a means of sample

preparation using a liquid-liquid extraction technique. In liquid-liquid extraction,
the analytes are partitioned between to immiscible solvents. The partitioning is
based on a difference in solubility of the analyte in each of the phases, and is a
very non-selective process. Efficient separation is dependent on obtaining
intimate contact between the two immiscible phases. One limitation of the liquidliquid extraction method is that for intimate contact to be achieved, the phases
must be shaken vigorously, which often results in an emulsion that can be
difficult to break. An additional limitation is that large sample and extraction
volumes are required. After the extraction step, further concentration of the
extraction solvent is often necessary in order to obtain detectable levels of the
analyte. LLE can be a very time consuming process. The type of manipulations
that are required to perform a liquid-liquid extractions lend this technique to
being a serial and largely manual process.
A different approach to sample preparation is to exploit the interactions at the
liquid - solid interface. This has come to be known as solid phase extraction, or
SPE. This technique has found its roots in liquid-solid extraction (LSE) which
was classically carried out by adding the sorbent to a vessel containing the
analytes in a liquid phase, and shaking for a controlled length of time. After the
distribution of the analytes reached equilibrium, the phases were separated by
either filtering or decantation. The analytes could then be desorbed using a
suitable solvent [1].
2. SOLID P H A S E E X T R A C T I O N O V E R V I E W
There are a wide variety of applications for solid phase extraction as a sample
preparation technique, including many environmental applications such as the
determination of pesticides and other contaminants in drinking water, waste
water, soils and sludge.
SPE can be defined as the separation or removal of an analyte or analytes from
a mixture of compounds by selectively partitioning the compounds between a
38
stationary solid phase (sorbent) and a mobile liquid phase (solvent). This process
is dependent first on our ability to extract the analytes from their matrix and
retain them on a solid surface. Once the analyte is extracted from the matrix, it
can be eluted from the sorbent using a selective solvent.
In solid phase extraction, a "liquid" phase is immobilized onto a solid surface.
The analyte is partitioned between the liquid phase (sample matrix) and the
modified solid surface. There are a variety of species that can be immobilized on
the solid surface, ranging from hydrophobic, to polar, to ionizable species, and a
particular solid phase can be chosen to retain analytes having a specific
functional group. Recoveries are often improved using solid phase extraction
versus LLE. In a review article, Chladek and Marano compared a solid phase
extraction procedure with the standard EPA method 625 liquid -liquid extraction
and obtained an average recovery with C8 that was 20% higher t h a n that
obtained with the standard method [2]. The emulsion problem which often
plagues liquid-liquid extractions is eliminated, since the extraction no longer
requires the mixing of two liquid phases. Intimate contact is obtained between
the two phases by utilization of a solid phase that is made up of small particles
packed into a bed. Typically the solid phase consists of particles that are
nominally 50 microns in diameter. The particles are very porous, which provides
the large surface area. A sample containing the analytes of interest is then
passed through the packed bed of particles. The small packed bed provides an
inherent concentration step since the sorbent has a relatively small void volume
(-1.2 mL/g). The solvent volume required to elute the analytes from the solid
phase is correspondingly small (typically two bed volumes), and so the
concentration step which is often required for liquid-liquid extractions is
eliminated or greatly reduced for solid phase extractions. Solid phase extraction,
unlike liquid-liquid extraction is also very amenable to batch processing and to
automation.
One of the important functions that solid phase extraction can serve is the
isolation and purification of an analyte. Analytes are often present in a matrix
that contains a significant number of interfering species. If a sample is analyzed
directly (without an extraction step), the interfering species may generate a
background that makes it difficult to quantify the analyte of interest (Figure 1).
Since SPE is a selective process, the interfering species can be either passed
through the column during the loading step while the analyte of interest is
retained, removed during a rinse step, or retained on the column during the
elution of the analyte.
Another important function that SPE can serve is the trace enrichment of an
analyte. Often the limiting factor in quantifying a compound is that the species is
at or below the detection limit. Using solid phase extraction, the analyte can be
extracted from a large volume onto a small sorbent mass, and eluted using a
small volume of solvent. Concentration factors as great as 500 to 1000 fold can be
achieved.
In solid phase extraction, both the extraction and elution steps are impacted
by interactions between the analytes and the sorbent, the analytes and the
39
, >
_
'-.._ [
Figure 1. Removal of background interferences using SPE.
matrix, and finally the matrix and the sorbent. Therefore, the three components
to a solid phase extraction that need to be considered are the sample matrix, the
analyte and the sorbent. In order to retain the analytes efficiently, it is necessary
to optimize the interactions between the analytes and the sorbent while
minimizing the interaction between the analytes and the matrix, as well as the
sorbent and the matrix. During elution, it is important to optimize interactions
between the matrix and sorbent, and matrix and analyte, while minimizing
interactions between the sorbent and analyte.
It is instructive to compare solid phase extraction to elution chromatography.
In liquid chromatography, the volume of solvent required for the elution of a
species (Vr), is equal to the volume of the mobile phase plus the product of a
constant and the volume of the stationery phase (Vr = V m + KVs). Under the
conditions of elution chromatography, it is desirable for the constant, K, to be
greater than 0.2 so that separation between species can be obtained, but less
than 200, so that the species are eluted within a reasonable amount of time. In
extraction chromatography (SPE), ideally the species would behave digitally,
stopping at the top of the column upon being loaded (K> 1000), and traveling with
the solvent front during the elution (K<0.001). Typically the analyte is eluted
within 10 bed volumes (void volume of the sorbent).
2.1. P h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o r b e n t
One of the challenges in investigating interactions at the liquid-solid interface
is in characterizing the surface of the sorbent. Figure 2a shows a sample of silica
material that was analyzed using an electron microscope. The particle sizes can
be seen to be very uniform at a magnification of x60. At the greater magnification
(x600) shown in Figure 2b, the particles can be seen to be very irregularly
shaped, which helps with the chromatography.
40
Figure 2a. 50 p silica magnified x60.
Figure 2b. 50 ~t silica magnified x600.
On a n a n o m e t e r scale, the silica is found to have a very porous structure,

which increases the effective surface area of the material (Figure 3). If the
surface area of the silica particles is calculated strictly based on the diameter of
an average particle, for 50 micron particles, the result would be 0.1 meters 2 per
gram. Due to the porosity of the silica, the effective surface area is 400 to 550
meters 2 per gram.
The porous n a t u r e of silica used in solid phase extraction plays an
i m p o r t a n t role in the extraction as well as in the elution of analytes. The porosity
of the silica provides the analyte with sufficient surface area to interact with the
sorbent during analyte retention. The pores must be of adequate size as to be
accessible to the bonding agent, solute, and analyte. It has been shown t h a t as
the pore size increases, analyte retention increases, until the pore size gets
sufficiently large as to diminish the available surface area [3].
j
i J
:~
Figure 3. Porous nature of silica sorbent.
41
2.2. C h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o r b e n t
On an unmodified silica surface, the sorbent is very heterogeneous in nature.
Some of the variations on the surface include the presence of free silanols,
geminal silanols, siloxanes, bound and reactive silanols, and water absorbed onto
the surface (Figure 4). Under various conditions of pH, silanols may be largely
protonated, protonated and ionized to approximately an equal extent, or be
largely ionized.
9---S i'--O
Free SUanol
/H
/OH
"----]i--OH .... O\H
/Si\oH
Adsorbed Water
Geminal Silanol
--~Si\
%,o
-'~Ii
--"~P'-O k
I
Dehydrated Oxide
or Siloxa ne
,,H
--SilO\
Bound and
Reactive Silanols
Figure 4. Heterogeneous nature of silica surface.
Silica may be chemically modified to create a covalently bonded surface

capable of offering interactions to a wide variety of analytes (Figure 5).
Depending on the bonding chemistry used, the modification of the surface may
be monomeric or polymeric. In monomeric type bonding (Figure 6), a compound
with the general formula R~SiC1 (such as octadecyldimethylchlorosilane) is
reacted with the silica surface, and HC1 is eliminated. This modified surface now
has hydrophobic character, and can retain species that are hydrophobic in
~/
Figure 5. Chemically modified silica surface.
42
R
R~I IR
OH
R 3SiCI
OH
,,Si x ,,Si x
O
o
I
/Six
---O
OH
I
/Si~
O
Figure 6. Monomeric bonding chemistry on silica surface.
nature. Since geometry will not allow every silanol to be modified, a significant
number of the silanol surface variations mentioned earlier will still be present,
and so the surface is still heterogeneous in nature. In the polymeric modification
of the silica surface, a compound having the formula RSiC13, such as
octadecyltrichlorosilane, is reacted in the presence of a trace amount of water.
The chlorine group is hydrolyzed, allowing the product to polymerize. The
polymer is then brought into contact with the silica surface, forming covalent
bonds (Figure 7). This results in a surface having a greater coverage of the
modifying species than in the monomeric phase, although once again, all of the
variations discussed earlier are still present [3,4]. To further deactivate silanol
groups on the silica, the surface may be "endcapped". Endcapping is done as a
final step using trimethylchlorosilane, which results in "capping off' some of the
remaining silanol groups with a trimethylsilyl group. This process reduces, but
does not eliminate, all of the silanols on the silica surface.
There is a wide variety of different sorbents that are manufactured using these
chemistries, including hydrophobic phases ranging from C2 to C18, carboxylic
acid (CBA), propylamino (NH2), propylsulfonic acid (SCX), quaternary amine
(SAX), propylcyano (CN) and diol (2OH) [9]. The most hydrophobic of the
sorbents that are available, and one that is not silica based, is polystyrene
divinylbenzene (Figure 8). This material is made by cross-linking oligomers of
styrene with divinylbenzene. The sorbent has a very high capacity, with an
effective surface area of approximately 1100 m 2 per gram. It is subsequently
hydroxylated to provide a water wettable surface.
RSiCl3
H20 ~
RSi(OH)3
-~
JOH
~H
I
I
--O---~i--O---Si--O---
HO--Si--O--Si--O--Si---OH
/ H ~/
I
.O
u OH .O
I
/
I
Si
$1
$1
?. ?. ?.
Si
=
o/
\0 /
Si
Si
"0 /
o/ " o / " o / " o
Figure 7. Polymeric bonding chemistry on silica surface.
"0
43
OH
{~ ~~~~--OH
pH
~O
H~~
"Ct'I, Ct.I2
C~..c~(C=/'/,e OH--~~ O// C,~..c~.CH.CH2.
OH
C-CH2 CH'CH2"CH-GH2"
C C"H2. CH-CH2"
HO
Figure 8. Chemical structure of polystyrene divinylbenzene.
2.3. Sorbentselection
The sorbent chosen for the extraction is dependent on the types of interactions
that can be exploited to remove an analyte from a particular matrix. If an analyte
has sufficient hydrophobic character, a sorbent that has been modified to have a
hydrophobic surface can be utilized. Examples of such sorbents are C18, C8, C6,
C4, C2, CH (cyclohexane) and PH (phenyl). For analytes with limited
hydrophobic character, the polystyrene divinylbenzene is most likely the best
choice. In addition to hydrophobic interactions, it is possible to capitalize on ionic
interactions between an analyte and the sorbent in an aqueous matrix. If the
analyte is ionized, a sorbent that is modified with an ion exchanger can be
utilized. These ion exchangers may be permanently charged (commonly referred
to as a strong ion exchanger or ionizable (weak ion exchanger). Examples of some
of these are sorbents are.
Cation exchangers:
Propyl sulfonic (PRS)
S03 with propyl linkage
Benzyl sulfonic (SCX)
SO3 with benzyl linkage
Carboxylic acid (CBA)
Carboxylic acid group

with propyl linkage
P e r m a n e n t negative
charge
P e r m a n e n t negative
charge
pKa approximately 4.8
44
Anion exchangers:
Q u a t e r n a r y amine
(SAX)
Amino propyl (NH2)
NH(CH3)3 group with

propyl linkage
NH2 group with propyl
linkage
P e r m a n e n t positive
charge
pKa approximately 7.8
Although the primary interaction between an analyte and the surface may be
either polar, ionic or hydrophobic, it has been demonstrated that most analytes
are retained through multiple interactions, and that retention mechanisms may
be largely dependent on pH. As an example, aniline at a pH of six may be
retained on a C8 column through ionic interactions with the silica surface, as well
as secondary hydrophobic interactions with immobilized C8. Although polar
interactions are exploited in normal phase chromatography (non-aqueous
matrix), they may also contribute as secondary interactions in reverse phase
(aqueous matrix).
Even among the hydrophobic phases, there are significant differences in
polarity and retention characteristics. For example, the C2 surface is quite polar.
It has been shown that there is a significant amount of water associated with a
C2 surface. Since C2 chains are short, water has easy access to the surface. A
phenyl phase is slightly more hydrophobic than C2, but the surface can still be
easily accessed by water molecules. Although there is still some water associated
with a C8 surface, it is much less polar than a C2 surface. The least polar of the
modified silica hydrophobic phases is C18, where the long C18 chains effectively
serve to water-proof the surface. In an aqueous solution containing organic
solvent, much more of the organic solvent the will associate with the C18 chains.
2.4. S P E f o r m a t
The most common format in which the solid phase extraction sorbent is
utilized is a polypropylene cartridge with a lure tip, containing sorbent particles
packed into a bed. The sorbent bed is retained on the top and bottom by porous
polyethylene frits (Figure 9).
Reservoir
Sorbent Bed
Frits
Luer Tip
Figure 9. Cartridge format for solid phase extraction.
45
Typical column sizes range from 1 to 6 mL in volume, although barrel sizes up
to 70 mL are available. Commonly used sorbent bed masses range from 100 to
1000 mg, however there in an increasing trend toward minimizing bed size, and
1 mL columns containing 10, 25 and 50 mg of sorbent are now being used.
A second format for SPE is known as the disk, where Teflon or glass fiber is
i m p r e g n a t e d with small silica particles (- 8 microns). The disks range in depth
from 0.8-2 mm, and in diameter from 0.5 to 90 mm. The smaller disks are
retained in a syringe barrel, while the larger disks are use in conjunction with a
vacuum filtering setup. The disk format generally has a lower capacity, and
requires larger solvent volumes for the elution.
2.5. Basic steps of an SPE p r o c e d u r e

A typical SPE procedure involves six steps, and there are a variety of factors
t h a t can have an impact on analyte recovery in each one of these steps. These
steps are as follows, and are described in detail in the following sections.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sample P r e - t r e a t m e n t
Column Solvation
Column Equilibration
Sample Loading
Interference Removal
Analyte Elution
2.5.1. S a m p l e p r e - t r e a t m e n t
The first step in an SPE procedure is p r e - t r e a t m e n t of the sample. Samples are
p r e t r e a t e d in order to maximize the interactions between the analyte and the
sorbent, while minimizing the interactions between the analyte and the matrix.
One example of sample p r e - t r e a t m e n t is the addition of an organic solvent to
an aqueous sample. In order for analytes to be extracted effectively from a
sample, they m u s t be free and available in solution, and able to diffuse into the
pores of the sorbent. Since the pores are nominally 60 a n g s t r o m s in diameter,
any analytes t h a t are agglomerated or associated with a particles larger t h a n 60
angstroms will be unable to diffuse into the pores, and the effective surface area
is decreased from 500 to 0.1 meters 2. Such is also the case when analytes are
bound to proteins or colloidal particles. The addition of an organic solvent to the
sample helps to disrupt the interactions between the analyte and other particles,
rendering t h e m available to interact with the sorbent. In this manner, the
addition of organic solvent serves to minimize inter-analyte interactions,
minimize interactions between the analyte and vessel walls, and minimize
interactions between particulate m a t t e r and other matrix components. It should
be noted t h a t a concentration of solvent t h a t is too high will enhance the
matrix ~ analyte interactions, and retention of the analyte on the surface will be
reduced.
46
Additional sample pre-treatment can include adding chemicals to remove
interfering species, such as the addition of sodium sulfite or sodium thiosulfate to
reduce residual chlorine from drinking water.
The pH of a sample is often adjusted during sample pre-treatment to insure
that the analytes are either ionized or not, depending on the requirements for the
extraction. If the extraction is dependent on hydrophobic interactions for
retention of the analyte, it will most likely be desirable to adjust the pH
conditions so that the analyte, if ionizable, is largely in a neutral form. In this
manner, the interactions between the analyte and matrix are minimized, and
those between the analyte and bonded phase are optimized. To ensure
quantitative retention and elution, an appropriate pH needs to be selected. We
know from the acid-base approximation that:
[A-]
pH = pK a + log [HA]
If the pH is equal to the pKa, there will be equal concentrations of the acidic and
basic forms, which leads to inefficient chromatography. Therefore, a pH of about
two units away from the pKa should be selected to achieve quantitative retention
and elution of the analyte. As an example, if the analyte has an acidic function, it
would be necessary to raise the pH to a value roughly two pH units above the
pKa, where approximately 99% of the species present will be ionized.
Alternatively, if the analyte is basic, it would be necessary to lower the pH to
roughly two pH units below the pKa for the base to be ionized, or two units above
the pKa if it necessary for the base to be neutralized.
The pH of the sample must also be considered with respect to its impact on the
sorbent, since this too may impact analyte retention. The silanol surface has a
pKa of approximately four to six (Figure 10). At a pH of seven, the surface is
O-
QH
'Si~
'.O.j o,
Protonated
Figure 10. Impact of pH on the charge of silica surface.
47
largely ionized, and negatively charged. At a pH of three, the surface is largely
protonated and neutral. This will have a dramatic effect on those analytes that
are ionizable species, where the mechanism for retention is ion exchange. Even
when a hydrophobic phase is being used, the analyte may be retained through
polar or ionic secondary interactions with the surface, and so the pH needs to be
considered [5].
In section 2.3, ion exchangers were described as being either strong or weak,
depending on whether the charge was permanent or could be controlled by pH.
For weak ion-exchangers, the pH of the sample must be adjusted to ensure that a
charge on the ion exchanger is maintained. For example, since an amino propyl
(NH2) column has a pKa of 9.8, the sample pH must adjust to no greater than 7.8.
Since the weak cation exchanger, CBA, has a pKa of 4.8, the sample pH should be
no lower t h a n 6.8.
Ions in the sample can compete for ion exchange sites on the sorbent, resulting
in low analyte recoveries. When the pH of the sample is adjusted, a buffer is
selected such that the ionic strength of the adjusted sample does not exceed
50 mM. In addition, the type of buffer used should be such that the anions or
cations are not more strongly retained t h a n the analyte itself.
The following series lists cations on the left that will displace those on the
right:
Ba+>Ag+>Ca+2>Zn+2>K+>NH4+>H+>Li
The following series lists anions on the right that will displace those on the
left:
O H > acetate> formate> HPO4>HCO~>CI-> HS03> Citrate
2.5.2.
Column solvation
After sample pre-treatment, the next step in an SPE procedure is to
solvate (condition or wet) the sorbent. It has been demonstrated that the modified
surface must be conditioned in order for it to be active and available to the
analyte [6]. If the surface has been modified with a hydrophobic species such as
octadecylchlorosilane (C18), and then is placed in an aqueous environment, the
long hydrophobic chains will collapse upon themselves. The surface can be
conditioned with an organic solvent, such as methanol. This will result in
solvation of the hydrophobic chains, allowing the chains to become extended, and
hence available to interact with the analyte (Figure 11). When sample volume
Unconditioned
Conditioned
Figure 11. Impact of conditioning modified silica surface.
48
exceed 100 mL, it is often pretreated with methanol, which is added as a "wetting
agent" to keep the chains extend during the extraction process. Methanol is a
good choice for the solvent since the hydrophobic end of the molecule can interact
with the hydrocarbon chains, while the polar end can interact with the surface
silanols. If no wetting agent is present in the sample, there will be a tendency for
large volume aqueous samples to drag the conditioning solvent away from the
surface of the sorbent, allowing the chains to collapse. With an adequate
concentration of wetting agent present, the organic solvent can remain in a
steady state concentration around the immobilized chains. The concentration of
the wetting agent needs to be high enough to maintain a conditioned surface, and
is typically added at a concentration of 0.5 to 1%.
2.5.3.
Column equilibration
The third step in a solid phase extraction procedure is typically column

equilibration. Here, excess organic solvent is removed from the sorbent so that
that analyte retention is not hindered. If conditioning solvent is present during
sample loading, analytes may remain in a highly organic mobile phase, and pass
through the column.
In addition to removing excess conditioning solvent, the equilibration step
serves to set the conditions of the column, such as pH and ionic strength. These
parameters are normally adjusted to the conditions of the pre-treated sample,
since the same considerations need to be made with respect to the charge on the
analyte and sorbent surface. Equilibrating the surface is necessary to ensure that
analytes reaching the sorbent during the early part of sample loading are
extracted under the same conditions as those loaded at the end of the extraction.
2.5.4.
Sample loading
In step four of the solid phase extraction procedure, the sample is loaded onto
the column. The loading rate necessary may vary significantly depending on the
nature of the analytes, and on which type of interactions are being relied to
extract them. For compounds having a strong affinity for the sorbent, sorption
can take place in a small segment of the sorbent bed, allowing large volumes to
be handled at high sampling speeds [7].
The important aspect of sample loading in solid phase extraction is the amount
of contact time that an analyte is allowed with the serbent. A sufficient amount of
time is required for an interaction to occur. At high flow rates, non-equilibrium
conditions may exist, resulting in lower partition coefficients [8]. This will result
in analyte breakthrough and consequently reduced recoveries (Figure 12).
For analytes that are retained primarily through hydrophobic interactions,
significantly higher loading rates are possible as compared to analytes retained
through an ion exchange mechanism. Sample loading rates for the retention of
hydrophobic species as high as 120 mL per minute have yielded quantitative
recoveries on a 6 mL extraction cartridge [9]. It is recommended that a loading
rate of five to ten mL per minute not be exceeded for a 1 mL, 100 mg sorbent
bed [6]. Five mL per minute represents a linear velocity of 0.42 cm/sec, and a
49
100
% Recovery
50
Increasing Flow Rate

Figure 12. Impact of loading rate.
residence time of 1.9 seconds. For a 100 mg column, having a bed height of eight
millimeters, there is an estimated residence time of 0.19 seconds.
For ionic species, the analytes can be surrounded by a solvent sphere,
hindering the interaction of analytes with the sorbent surface. Therefore, for
analytes that are retained by ion exchange, the linear velocity for sample loading
should be to the order of five cm per minute (one mL per minute on a one mL
extraction cartridge) [6].
2.5.5. I n t e r f e r e n c e r e m o v a l
An interference removal step generally follows sample loading. The extraction
cartridge is treated to remove species that could interfere with the analytical
determination. This usually involves rinsing the cartridge with a suitable solvent
(one that will remove interferences without loss of the analyte). Appropriate
retention conditions, such as pH and ionic strength, should be maintained to
avoid loss of analyte. The equilibration solvent is commonly used in the
interference removal step. If the analytes are well retained, a fraction of organic
solvent can be added to the equilibration solvent to remove additional
interferences.
Drying the sorbent under vacuum or with a gas such as nitrogen or carbon
dioxide may be required to remove water. Water may interfere with the elution of
analytes from the sorbent if water immiscible solvents are used. Alternatively,
interferences may be removed by selecting a solvent that is able to elute analytes
from the sorbent, while interferences are retained on the column.
Removal of water is critical if the analytical determination is gravimetric.
Water that remains on the column can be eluted with the analyte and contribute
to the final weight.
2.5.6. Analyte e l u t i o n
The final step of the SPE procedure is elution of the analytes from the sorbent.
A suitable solvent will preferably have a low viscosity, be readily available in a
50
pure form and have low flammability and toxicity. Important properties are
strength and selectivity [9]. The solvent should be one that can to some degree
solubilize the analyte.
An appropriate solvent must be chosen to enhance the matrix~-~sorbent, and
matrix~-~analyte interactions, while minimizing s o r b e n t ~ a n a l y t e interactions.
The strength of the elution solvent is related to the mechanism by which the
analyte is being retained. Table 1 shows the relationship between solvent
strength and type of mechanism by which an analyte is being retained.
Table 1
Mechanism versus solvent strength
Mechanism
Increasing Solvent Strength
Non-polar
Water =v Methanol r Hexane
Polar
Hexane ~ Methanol =~ Water

Methanol or water r Methanol and water
Multiple interaction
Since an analyte may be retained through multiple interactions on a

heterogeneous surface, a mixed elution solvent is often most effective.
An important consideration when choosing an elution solvent is the final
analysis. If the analyte concentration is to be determined by HPLC, the mobile
phase can often be used to elute the analyte. If the elution solvent must be
evaporated to dryness and reconstituted, then a volatile solvent should be
selected.
Appropriate elution conditions, such as pH and ionic strength, should be
considered. It may be necessary to adjust the pH of the elution solvent to
neutralize the analyte or surface of the sorbent. Ionic species are typically eluted
by adjusting the ionic strength of the elution solvent to 0.1 molar for monovalent
analytes and 0.2 molar for divalent analytes. It may be useful to elute the analyte
with a buffer containing counter ions that are better retained on the surface than
the analyte. Refer to section 2.5.1 for ion selectivities.
In addition to selecting an appropriate solvent, there should be sufficient
contact time between the sorbent and solvent to ensure quantitative removal of
the analyte from the surface. In section 2.1, the porous nature of the sorbent was
described. During the loading step, analytes can diffuse deeply into the pores.
When possible, the elution should be preformed using two aliquots of solvent, and
allowing a 1-2 minute soak step between the two elutions. This allows sufficient
time analytes to diffuse back out of the pores. In addition, the inclusion of a soak
step allows the analyte to be eluted using minimal solvent volumes, which
maximizes trace enrichment.
51
3. IMPACT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON SOLID P H A S E EXTRACTION

In the previous section, each of the steps involved in an SPE procedure was
described. There are a variety of factors that can have an impact on the
selectivity and efficiency of the extraction. Some of these factors include the
sample loading and elution rates, choice of sorbent materials, as well as selection
and volume of conditioning, equilibration, rinse and elution solvents. The
influence of sample pH and the choice of solvents added to samples prior to
loading on to the SPE column can have a significant impact on analyte recovery.
Failure to consider these various aspects in solid phase extraction procedures can
result in non-robust methods, lengthy development times and excessive costs.
3.1. I m p a c t of v a r i o u s b o n d e d p h a s e c h a i n l e n g t h s on a n a l y t e s e l e c t i v i t y
It is known that C18 is the most hydrophobic phase of the bonded silicas, while
C2 is the most polar of the hydrophobic phases [6]. It is instructive to look at the
impact of a variety of bonded phases on analyte selectivity. By understanding the
extent of these interactions, analyte recoveries can be optimized.
The impact of bonded phase chain length can be examined by utilizing the
EPA Method 525.1 analytes as probes [9]. Samples loaded on ISOLUTE | bonded
silica modified with hydrophobic phases C2, phenyl, C8 and C18 were used to
generate the data in Table 2. The behavior of these analytes varied with respect
to the differences in their structures (size and degree of hydrophobicity), and the
type of sorbent selected. For the purposes of analyzing the data, this discussion
will characterize the analytes by grouping together those compounds that tended
to behave similarly. Those compounds that were eluted early in the gas
chromatographic run are grouped together. These compounds were generally
small and/or fairly polar. The compounds eluted in the middle of the run were
also grouped together, and then again, the late eluting compounds. The late
eluting compounds tended to be fairly large and hydrophobic in character.
Table 2
Impact of sorbent type on recovery of EPA 525.1 analytes
COMPOUND
CI8(EC) CI8(EC)
89
lg
1 Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
62
66
2 Dimethylphthalate
92
100
3 Acenaphthalene
94
92
4 Acenaphthene-dl0
i n t e r n a 1 st
5 2-chlorobiphenyl
87
85
6 Diethylphthalate
100
100
7 Fluorene
89
88
8 2,3-dichlorobiphenyl
79
77
9 Hexachlorobenzene
66
64
10 Simazine
78
69
PH
lg
41
8
27
andard
80
58
61
78
64
10
C2
lg
27
1
8
26
10
22
54
53
0
52
Table 2 (continued)
I m p a c t of sorbent type on recovery of EPA 525.1 analytes
COMPOUND
C18(EC)
CI8(EC)
89
lg
11 Atrazine
60
33
12 Pentachlorophenol
13 Lindane
99
96
internal
14 P h e n a n t h r e n e - d l 0
15 P h e n a n t h r e n e
83
82
16 Anthracene
76
75
17 2,4,5-trichlorobiphenyl
70
66
100
97
18 Alachlor
76
72
19 Heptachlor
95
93
20 di-n-butylphthalate
21 2,2', 4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl
74
71
22 Aldrin
70
63
23 Heptachlor epoxide
88
85
24 2,2', 3',4,6-pentachlorobiphenyl
72
70
25 G a m m a - c h l o r d a n e
78
74
76
74
26 Pyrene
79
74
27 alpha-chlordane
76
72
28 t r a n s nonachlor
29 2,2', 4,4', 5,6'-hexachlorobiphenyl
67
69
62
67
30 Endrin
31 B u t y l b e n z y l p h t h a l a t e
83
78
83
92
32 di(2 -ethylhexyl)adipate
70
71
33 benz[a] a n t h r a c e n e
internal
34 Chrysene d-12
76
78
35 Chrysene
77
78
36 2,2'3,3',4,4',6-heptachlorobiphenyl
83
83
37 Methoxychlor
76
79
38 2,2',3,3',4,5',6,6'-octachlorobenzene
78
79
39 di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
72
71
40 benzo[b]fluoranthene
68
70
41 benzo [k]fluoranthene
58
60
42 benzo[a]pyrene
83
85
43 perylene-d12
57
58
44 indeno[1,2,3,c,d]pyrene
58
58
45 dibenz [a,h] a n t h r a c e n e
61
61
46 Benzo[g,h,i]perylene
Avg:
77
76
early eluting:
mid eluting:
late eluting:
87
78
65
89
75
66
PH
lg
1
24
st andard
80
75
66
94
72
97
73
67
87
74
78
80
79
76
78
56
90
82
75
st andard
82
78
89
76
100
78
79
72
99
71
75
79
69
46
72
79
C2
lg
0
3
38
40
61
16
66
95
70
66
52
73
78
68
78
78
74
32
100
86
74
77
70
100
68
100
80
78
75
100
81
87
82
58
16
61
83
53
For those compounds that were eluted early in the chromatographic run, there
was a significant reduction in recoveries as the chain length of the bonded phase
decreased. Recoveries for these earlier eluting compounds averaged 89% when
extracted onto one gram of C18 material, dropping to 46% when extracted using a
phenyl phase, and down to 16% when extracted onto C2. This suggests that the
earlier eluting compounds require a sorbent having long hydrophobic chains in
order to be extracted from a very polar matrix, since the extraction is based
primarily on non-polar interactions. As the hydrocarbon chains on the sorbent get
shorter, the silanols on the surface become more accessible causing the surface to
become more polar in nature, and the recoveries of the earlier eluting compounds
dropped off.
For those compounds that were eluted in the middle group of the gas
chromatographic run, there was not a significant difference in the recoveries from
the phenyl, C8 and C18 phases, ranging from 72 to 78%. There was a drop in
recoveries on the C2 phase, averaging 61%. The decline in the recoveries for these
somewhat larger and less polar compounds was not as dramatic as that for the
earlier eluting compounds, suggesting that the choice of bonded phase for
analytes of intermediate polarity is less critical.
It can be seen from the data that for the later eluting compounds, the best
recoveries were obtained when the extraction was performed using bonded
phases with modified with shorter hydrocarbon chains. In contrast to the earlier
eluting compounds, as the hydroca,'bon chain length of the bonded phase
increased, the recovery of these analytes dropped. For these later eluting
compounds, it is energetically less favorable to remain in an aqueous matrix as
compared to the earlier eluting compounds. Since this group of compounds tends
to be large and quite hydrophobic, they are retained very strongly to a C18
surface during sample loading. This strong interaction between the analytes and
sorbent also makes it difficult to remove these compounds from the surface
during the elution step. In the case of the EPA Method 525.1 analytes, where a
broad range of compounds present, it is possible to select a "compromise phase"
such as C8. In this case, the chain length of the bonded phases is sufficiently long
to provide a reasonable amount of hydrophobic interaction with the earlier
eluting compounds, while having a surface that is sufficiently polar to allow for
the elution of the later eluting compounds.
3.2. I m p a c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e on a n a l y t e r e c o v e r y
The EPA Method 525.1 compounds were extracted at room temperature (20~
as well as at 4~ An improvement in recoveries can be observed for analytes
extracted at a lewer temperature. For analytes extracted using an ISOLUTE |
C18 phase, average overall recoveries improved from 75% when extracted at
20~
to 85% when extracted at 4~
The impact of temperature was less
dramatic for analytes extracted on ISOLUTE | C8, where the extraction at 20~
gave an average recovery of 85% versus 90% when extracted at 4~
The impact of analyte solubility was considered when examining the
phenomenon of improved recoveries at lower loading temperatures. It is likely
54
t h a t the analytes are less soluble at lower t e m p e r a t u r e s , and could therefore be
more easily extracted from an aqueous matrix. However, when samples were
extracted on cartridges stacked in series at the elevated t e m p e r a t u r e , there was
no evidence of analyte breakthrough. Since lower recoveries can not be a t t r i b u t e d
to analyte breakthrough, this implies t h a t lower t e m p e r a t u r e s do not improve
analyte retention, and the i m p r o v e m e n t in recoveries m u s t therefore be
a t t r i b u t e d to an i m p r o v e m e n t in analyte elution. An alternative explanation
would be to consider the impact of t e m p e r a t u r e on the diffusion r a t e of analytes.
It is known t h a t at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s , the rate of diffusion of most molecules
increases. T h a t the diffusion rate of a molecule is a function of t e m p e r a t u r e and
is described by Fick's Law, where it is proportional to the square root of
t e m p e r a t u r e . Calculating the difference in diffusion rate at 20~ versus 4~
gives the following: D293=k x (294) 2
D277=k x (277) 2
D293 / D277 = 1.13 It
can be therefore estimated t h a t there is an increase in diffusion rate by 13%. For
those samples extracted at a higher t e m p e r a t u r e , as the rate of diffusion of the
molecules increases, analytes can diffuse more deeply into the pores of the silica.
The more deeply the analytes are retained in the pores, the more time t h a t is
required to allow the molecules to diffuse back out of the pores (Figure 13). This
is consistent with experiments described in the section 3.4, addressing the
inclusion of a soak step during analyte elution.
Figure 13. Diffusion into pores of silica.
55
3.3. I m p a c t o f e l u t i o n s o l v e n t
The broad range of analyte characteristics of the EPA Method 525.1 analytes
m a k e t h e m suitable to illustrate the impact of the elution solvent on analyte
recovery. A variety of solvents were tested, both as pure and as mixed solvents as
shown in Table 3. Two elutions per column were performed. It can be seen from
the data t h a t the average recovery for elution solvents one through four in
Table 3 is 69%. In each case, the elution was performed using a pure solvent for
both elution steps, although the solvent wasn't necessarily the same for each
step. Elutions 5-13 were done with mixed solvents, with the average recovery
being 79% and a s t a n d a r d deviation of 5%. From these results it can be seen t h a t
the highest recoveries were obtained when mixed solvents were used, as
compared to pure solvents. This is consistent with our picture of the mechanisms
by which analytes are r e t a i n e d on the surface of the silica. Since compounds may
be retained through multiple interactions, analyte elution can be optimized by
i n t e r r u p t i n g those interactions with a solvent system t h a t can solvate the analyte
using multiple interactions. If a very polar elution solvent is used, analytes can
be retained through hydrophobic interactions with the bonded phase. If a nonpolar solvent is used, analytes can be retained through interactions with silanol
groups on the silica surface.
Solvents five, seven and eight in Table 3 were mixtures of ethyl acetate and
acetone in ratios of three to one, one to one, and one to three, respectively. The
average recovery for each was 86, 86 and 79 percent, with a relative s t a n d a r d
deviation of 5%. Therefore it can be noted t h a t relative concentrations of the
mixed solvents is not critical for this solvent combination. For achieving lower
detection limits, however, the fraction of w a t e r miscible solvent should be
considered with respect to the limit to which the solvent can be concentrated. If it
is necessary to concentrate the extract after elution, there m u s t be a sufficient
volume of w a t e r miscible solvent present to prevent phase separation if traces of
water are eluted along with the analytes.
3.4. I m p a c t o f e l u t i o n s o a k step on a n a l y t e r e c o v e r y
Silica gels are an agglomeration of particles resulting in a very porous in
structure. The structure of the silica varies with respect to pore size and surface
area. The presence and dimensions of pores has a significant impact on the
surface area t h a t is available with which an analyte can interact, dramatically
improving the efficiency of the extraction. Commercially available silica used in
solid phase extraction typically have a nominal pore size of fifty to sixty
angstroms. This section addresses the impact t h a t the pores have on analyte
recoveries, due to the diffusion of molecules into and out of the pores.
A series of experiments were devised to study the impact t h a t including a soak
step between elution volumes would have on analyte recoveries [9]. It can be seen
from the d a t a in Table 4 t h a t for equal volumes of elution solvent, there are an
improvements in recoverieswhen the elution is performed using two separate
elution volumes with a two minute soak step between elutions, versus eluting the
56
oo
o
0
,--.I
9
.,-i
oo
c)
9
OO
9
.,-i
o
o
o
(D
o,-~
l~l
, ~
~,
o - ~ Oe~z'~O0oOl~-~. I ~ l ' ~ r ~ ~ 1 7 6
~'~
r
~o c x l ~ D o o ~ ' ~
o
o
,_o
.;,.~
9
o
OO
"'~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~..
~ ~ 0 ~ o 0 0 ~
~.o
~- o ~
~ o o ~
o
~ o ~
~ o
~ ~ ~
dH
o
0~
n~
5"7
58
Table 4
% Rec. of EPA 525.1 analytes from ISOLUTE | C18 with and without 2 min soak
step
Two aliquots
One Aliquot
3 + 2 mL
2 + 2 mL 1 . 5 + 1 . 5 m L
3 mL
4 mL
5 mL
82
77
80
74
72
74
columns with a single solvent volume. The average recovery for analytes eluted
in a single step is shown to be 72%. When the elution was performed in two steps,
which included a two minute soak step, the average recovery increased to 78%.
The data suggests t h a t for analytes t h a t have diffused more deeply into the pores
of the silica, the addition of a soak step allows more time for the analytes to
diffuse back out of the pores, and recoveries are improved. This indicates a
dependence on time required for the analytes to diffuse out of the pores of the
silica.
Simply increasing the elution volume did not have a significant impact on
recoveries, as seen for the three mL versus five mL elution, where the recoveries
were 73 and 72 percent respectively. An additional experiment was performed to
determine the impact of elution rate on analyte recovery. Analytes were eluted
using flow rates from five to forty mL per minute. Recoveries at five mL per
minute average 79% while those at forty mL per minute averaged 77%, S t a n d a r d
deviations are four to five percent, and so the difference in recoveries between
five and forty mL per minute are statistically insignificant. The most i m p o r t a n t
aspect of the elution is the contact time t h a t the elution solvent has with the
surface of the silica. For samples eluted with a total volume of five mL, the
difference between an elution rate of five versus forty mL per m i n u t e is only a
difference in contact time of 60 seconds versus eight seconds. Both of these
contact times are less t h a n half of the total contact time allowed when a two
minute soak step is included between elution volumes, and so the benefit of
reducing the elution rate is insignificant when a soak step is included.
It has been shown t h a t the porous n a t u r e of silica used in solid phase
extraction plays and i m p o r t a n t role in the extraction as well as in the elution of
analytes. It is known t h a t the porosity of the silica provides the analyte with
sufficient surface area to interact with the sorbent during analyte retention.
During the extraction step, molecules can diffuse deeply into the pores of the
silica. As a result, t h a t sufficient contact time m u s t be allowed between the
solvent and sorbent during the elution step to provide analyte molecules to
diffuse back out of the pores. It has been shown t h a t when samples are loaded at
a reduced t e m p e r a t u r e , decreasing the diffusion rate of the analytes, the depth to
which analytes p e n e t r a t e into the pores is reduced, and recoveries are improved.
It has also been shown t h a t including a soak step between elution volumes can
improve recoveries by allowing analytes sufficient time to diffuse back out of the
pores.
59
3.5. I m p a c t o f c h a i n l e n g t h o n t h e r e t e n t i o n o f w a t e r
In section 3.1, the impact of the chain length on the bonded phase on the
retention of analytes was discussed. This section will address the impact that the
hydrocarbon chain length has on the water retention characteristics of the
sorbent. Earlier in this chapter, it was described that the silanol groups on a C2
surface are well exposed, and there is a significant amount of water associated
with this surface. On a C8 surface, the hydrocarbon chains are longer. Access to
the surface is somewhat restricted, but the chain lengths are still short relative
to the distance between the chains. The silanol groups are still exposed, and the
surface is still somewhat polar. On a C18 surface, the long chains, which can
reach each other across silanol groups, serve to "water proof' the surface.
Although it is still possible for water to reach the surface of the silica, the
hydrocarbon chains are mostly associated with organic solvent molecules.
Nitrogen Drying of Bonded Phases

20 PSIG at AutoTrace (4.2 L/min)
W 1.6
C 12 (WP)
1.4
T 1.2
E
R, 1
C 2 (UC)
c 8 (uc)
0.8
G 0.6
C 12 (UC)
R
A 0.4
c 18 (uc)
M 0.2
S
10
15
20
25
30
C 18 (EC)
Time, min
Figure 14. Comparison of drying times for various ISOLUTE| phases.
Various phases were tested with respect the time required to dry the sorbent
to constant weight (Figure 14). It has been demonstrated by Fung Kee Fung
using differential scanning calorimetry that the silica surface can organize water
in the near surface region, imparting an "ice-like" structure [11]. Since silanol
groups are more easily accessed by water on sorbents modified with shorter
hydrocarbon chains, it is expected that the surface would have a greater impact
on structuring the water in the near surface region than those surfaces modified
with longer hydrocarbons. It can be seen from the graph in Figure 14 that the
bonded phase having the shortest chains required longer drying times, while
those with longer hydrophobic chains (C8, C18) required increasingly shorter
drying times.
60
Surface Coverage, ~tM2/m
Hydrocarbon
Volume, mL/t
Void Volume,
mL/g: 0.67
2.3
1.6
0.08
0.20
Void Volu~
mL/g: 0.55
Figure 15. Comparison of void volumes for C2 versus C 18.
Figure 15 illustrates the difference in pore volumes for a C2 versus a C18

bonded silica. The pore void volume is decreased for a C18 phase, corresponding
to the increase in volume of hydrocarbon present. There is only a 20% difference
in volume between the two phases, which is insufficient to account for the two to
three fold differences in drying times. For each of the curves in Figure 14, there
are two distinct regions. The region having the greatest slope for time versus
grams of water removed represent water that is being removed form between
sorbent particles, and from the pores of the silica. The less steep region of each of
the curves represents water removed form the near surface region. The slope of
each line decreases with decreasing hydrocarbon chain length, indicating that it
becomes more difficult to remove more highly structured water from the near
surface region. The y-intercept gives an indication of the amount of water that is
associated with the surface after the bulk (water between particles and in the
pores) water is removed. Using these volumes, the depth of the water in the near
surface region may be calculated from the known surface areas of the material
(approximately 550 m2). The endcapped material dried slightly more quickly than
the uncapped material, which would be expected, since there are fewer silanol
groups on the endcapped material, reducing the ability to structure water in the
near surface region.
3.6. I m p a c t o f p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s on d r y i n g t i m e s
In the previous section, the difference in water retention characteristics on
various phases was examined. The differences observed were due to differences
in surface chemistry. In this section, an experiment is described that examines
the difference in the retention of water due to physical differences in the
particles, specifically, the impact of the distribution of particle sizes. Sorbent beds
61
versus
versus
Figure 16. Flow characteristics through columns cotaining fines versus fines-free.
should ideally contain material that has a narrow particle size distribution
(nominally fifty microns), with very few fines present (particle size less than 20
microns). When fines are present in the bulk silica, there is a tendency for the
smaller particles to agglomerate. When this material is packed into a cartridge,
agglomerations of large and small particles can result in poor flow characteristics
(channeling of flow through the bed) as shown in Figure 16. When the sorbent is
being dried, channeling results in areas of the bed where there is the least
resistance to flow. This results in those areas having contact with the greatest
volume of gas, and so drying occurs quickly. In regions of the bed where there is a
greater pressure drop (where smaller particles have agglomerated), there is
exposure to a smaller volume of gas, and drying times are greatly extended. The
drying data for silica from different manufactures is consistent with the data
obtained for particle size distribution. The presence of fines could have the same
impact on liquid flow as well as on gas flow, resulting in increased volume or soak
requirements for conditioning and elution steps, and channeling during loading
steps.
3.7. I m p a c t o f w a t e r o n a n a l y t e r e c o v e r y
The importance of removing water from the sorbent bed varies, depending on
the type of analysis being performed. If water is present in the elution solvent,
additional steps may be required to remove water from the elution solvent, such
as passing the extract through sodium sulfate. This can contribute to loss of
analytes, as well as being a source of contamination. For samples that require
evaporating to dryness, the presence of water can greatly extend the drying time.
In addition, the presence of water may greatly limit the ability to use
derivatization chemistry. Adequate drying time for the extraction cartridge is
essential after an aqueous sample has been loaded, if the sorbent is to
subsequently be eluted with a water immiscible solvent. Insufficient drying of the
cartridge can result in inadequate contact between the elution solvent and the
sorbent (Figure 17), as well as partitioning of the analytes between phases.
62
Methylene chloride
=,-,===~jWm~
H
/%
/%
..
o /
/ON
,2
/0
?H RH
/S{'o
N A
L~I
H\
H/O
Si~"
,s,.,
\ 0 S{"O"Si
Six
l"
Figure 17. Water as an interference to analyte elution.
The sorbent is often dried with a gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide. An
a l t e r n a t i v e to e x h a u s t i v e l y drying the sorbent with a gas is to use a watermiscible solvent, such as acetone, as a component of an elution solvent mixture. A
solvent such as acetone is able to bridge the properties b e t w e e n two immiscible
solvents, such as w a t e r a n d m e t h y l e n e chloride. W h e n such a solvent s y s t e m is
utilized, the r e s u l t is to chemically dry the sorbent, removing w a t e r from the
pores, a n d a w a y from the surface region of the sorbent. In this m a n n e r , good
contact is achieved b e t w e e n the solvent a n d a n a l y t e s (Figure 18).
An e x p e r i m e n t was p e r f o r m e d to d e t e r m i n e if there was an i m p a c t on the
r e s u l t s w h e n the cartridge drying time was reduced from ten m i n u t e s to 0.5
m i n u t e s prior to an elution with a w a t e r miscible solvent (acetone/ethyl a c e t a t e
/%
\
\
----
H\
E.-'~
Ac
---s~-~ x . ~ ~
,,O OH
i
~H -'~k
H/O
-~~-o~
Si'o'S 'o'Si'o-s, P'~

P""o "'i'" o ,s,
9
/\
\
six
Figure 18. Water miscible solvent chemically drying surface and eluting analytes.
53
75:25) [9]. A half m i n u t e was shown to be sufficient to displace bulk w a t e r from
the silica bed. There was no significant difference between the two sets of data,
each having an average 82% recovery, with a five percent s t a n d a r d deviation.
It h a s been shown t h a t the drying times for bonded phases vary significantly,
depending on the chain length of the hydrocarbon phase used for bonding, and
the type of silica used. For m a t e r i a l t h a t has been bonded with short hydrocarbon
chains (e.g., C2), drying times are significantly longer t h a n those for silica bonded
with long hydrocarbon chains (e.g., C18). These results are consistent with the
idea t h a t a surface such as C2 is very polar clue to easily accessible silanol
groups, and t h a t the impact from this more polar surface is to i m p a r t a higher
degree of s t r u c t u r e on the w a t e r in the near surface region. The silanol groups on
a C18 surface are buried under the long hydrocarbon chains, which makes this
bonded phase the least polar of the modified silicas, having the least ability to
organize w a t e r in the n e a r surface region.
3.8. Impact of wetting agent

A series of experiments were performed to study the impact on analyte
retention of increasing the concentration of wetting agent in an aqueous sample
[9]. It was shown t h a t the results obtained for EPA Method 525.1 analytes vary
for different types of compounds as the concentration of wetting agent is
increased. For smaller and more polar compounds, such as dimethylphthalate,
diethylphthalate, simazine and atrazine, the recoveries decreased significantly as
the concentration of wetting agent increased, averaging 93% recovery at 0.5%
isopropanol, and dropping to an average of 12% recovery at a concentration of
20% isopropanol. This behavior is consistent with w h a t would be predicted, since
as the m a t r i x becomes more organic, it competes with the surface for analytes
t h a t are strongly dependent on hydrophobic interactions for retention, as the
m a t r i x - a n a l y t e interactions are enhanced.
For compounds t h a t are eluted in the middle of the chromatographic run,
which tend to be of moderate size and/or polar character, there was very little
impact on recoveries as the concentration of organic solvent was increased from
0.5 to 20%. The average recovery for this group of compounds over the range of
concentrations tested was 79%, with a s t a n d a r d deviation of 3%.
In the case of the later eluting compounds, which are the larger and more
hydrophobic analytes, recoveries improved as the concentration of organic solvent
was increased in the sample matrix, the average recovery for the compounds such
as di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate to benzo[g,h,i]perylene increased from 73% at a
concentration of 0.5% IPA to 82% at a concentration of 20% IPA. The fact t h a t the
recoveries improved for the more hydrophobic analytes at higher concentrations
of solvent could not be a t t r i b u t e d strictly to m a i n t a i n i n g an active silica surface,
since 0.5% m e t h a n o l is adequate for this purpose [12]. It would be expected t h a t
analytes with more hydrophobic character would be well retained on a C18
surface w h e n extracted from an aqueous, or even partially aqueous matrix. As
the concentration of organic solvent is increased in the sample, the analytes
themselves are better solvated, and can be more easily eluted from a C18 surface.
64
The experiment of increasing the concentration of organic solvent in the
sample was repeated, using polychlorinated biphenyls as the probe set and
200 mg of polystyrene divinylbenzene as the sorbent. Polystyrene divinylbenzene
differs from bonded silica, in that the surface does not need to be conditioned
with an organic solvent to remain active. Therefore, any effect from the addition
of organic solvent to the sample must be due to an impact on the analytes rather
than on the sorbent. The average recovery of polychlorinated biphenyls from
water at a concentration of 2.0 PPB was 88%. A second set of samples was spiked
to a concentration of 10.0 PPB. As the samples were extracted, the effluent water
was collected and subsequently re-extracted using methylene chloride in a liquidliquid extraction procedure. For the earlier eluting compounds (2-chlorobiphenyl,
2,3-dichlorobiphenyl and 2,4,5-trichlorobiphenyl), the average breakthrough was
eleven percent. For the later eluting compounds (2,2',4,4',5,6-hexachlorobiphenyl,
2 ,2', 3, 3', 4, 4', 6-heptachlorobiphenyl and 2,2',3,3',4,5,6,6'-octachlorobiphenyl), the
average breakthrough was fifty two percent. It was demonstrated that as the
analytes become larger and more hydrophobic in character, the tendency for
breaking through the extraction cartridge increased. The PCB solid phase
extraction at 10 PPB was repeated using increasing concentrations of isopropyl
alcohol as the wetting agent. The phenomenon that was observed was the same
as that seen with the EPA Method 525.1 analytes, where the recoveries of more
hydrophobic analytes improved as the concentration of IPA was increased. The
improvement in recoveries for these analytes was observed for IPA
concentrations as high as 30%, where the average recovery was 97%, dropping to
66% at an IPA concentration of 40%. The experiment was repeated using
methanol as the wetting agent. It was shown that recoveries for higher molecular
weight compounds do not decrease until the concentration of methanol is
increased to from 50% to 70%, where the average recovery dropped to from 97%
to 55%.
As the concentration of less water-soluble compounds is increased, there is a
tendency for the analytes to agglomerate. This behavior becomes more apparent
for the later eluting analytes, since these are also the compounds that are less
soluble in water. The earliest eluter, 2-chlorobiphenyl, has a solubility of 5.9 PPM
[4]. A compound such as 2,2',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl, which elutes at an
intermediate time, has a solubility of 0.068 PPM, while octachlorobiphenyls have
solubilities below 0.001 PPM [5]. The efficiency of solid phase extraction is
dependent on the availability of a large surface area of the sorbent, which is
provided by very porous material. When the size of an agglomerated analyte
exceeds the size of the pores that are available, the agglomeration can no longer
diffuse into the pores. Retention is greatly reduced, since the effective surface
area is significantly reduced (from 1100 square meters to approximately 0.1
square meters). When an organic solvent is added, the compounds become better
solvated, and the formation of agglomerations is reduced. The molecular
compounds are then able to diffuse into the pores, and the effective surface area
is increased.
55
4. THE A P P L I C A T I O N OF S P E TO E N V I R O N M E N T A L A N A L Y S E S
The use of solid phase extraction (SPE) for environmental analyses is a rapidly
growing area in analytical chemistry. The challenge in developing SPE
procedures is to selectively concentrate the analytes of interest, maximize their
recovery and minimize interferences. For the analysis of a broad range of
analytes, conditions must be selected to optimize the recoveries of compounds
that are quite varied in properties.
4.1. S e l e c t i v e e l u t i o n o f a n a l y t e s for e n v i r o n m e n t a l a p p l i c a t i o n
In the previous sections, the impact of the bonded phase on the retention and
elution of a broad range of analytes was examined. In the current section,
experiments are described in which advantage is taken of the heterogeneous
nature of bonded phases to retain analytes of differing hydrophobicity, and elute
them selectively based on differences in functional groups. In this section,
different sorbents types are layered for the purpose of extending the capacity to
retain polar compounds during an elution with a non-polar solvent. The
phenomenon being exploited is the selective elution of particular types of
analytes. The analytes used are limited to one compound for which the retention
mechanism is purely hydrophobic, and one capable of hydrophobic interaction as
well as containing a functional group capable of polar interaction (hydrogen
bonding with surface silanols). The analytes are the standards suggested by the
EPA for the determination of Oil and Grease in Method 1664, which are
hexadecane and stearic acid.
Total Oil and Grease is operationally defined by EPA Method 1664 as those
compounds that can be extracted from a sample of water using hexane as the
extraction solvent (identified as hexane extractable material, or HEM). A subfraction of that material is further defined as silica gel treated hexane
extractable material, or SGT-HEM. This fraction is the non-polar material, and is
represented in the standard by hexadecane. The polar fraction is represented by
stearic acid. The EPA method describes a liquid-liquid extraction, where one liter
of sample is shaken vigorously with several portions of hexane, totaling about one
hundred mL. Residual water is removed from the extract by passing it over solid
sodium sulfate. The solvent is then evaporated, the residue is purged with air
and then weighed to determine Total Oil & Grease. The residue is then redissolved in hexane, treated with three grams of silica gel to remove polar
components, re-evaporated, purged again, and re-weighed. This residue is
designated as the SGT-HEM fraction, also referred to as the Total Petroleum
Hydrocarbons, or TPH fraction.
If the selectivity of the modified silica surface can be exploited, the solid phase
extraction can be used as an alternative to the liquid-liquid extraction procedure.
Step one in the six-step SPE procedure involves pre-treating the sample. In the
case of Oil and Grease, the sample is acidified to a pH between 1.9 and 2.1 to
protonate the acid functions of the fatty acid. Methanol was added as a wetting
agent at a concentration of 1%. Although isopropyl alcohol can be used in
66
pesticide work, it can not be used for Oil and Grease, since Oil and Grease is
determined using a gravimetric finish. IPA has a higher boiling point t h a n
methanol, and adds to the final weight of residue. For the same reason, the
cartridge is conditioned with methanol.
The equilibration step is performed with reagent water, acidified to the same
pH as the sample. The sample is then loaded at rates ranging form 30 to 100 mL
per minute. It was found that analytes did not break through the extraction
cartridge at this loading rate, which was consistent with earlier work with
pesticides [2]. After loading the sample, the cartridge is rinsed with water
acidified to pH-2, to remove interferences such as inorganic salts.
When extracted on a C18 phase, hexadecane is retained by hydrophobic
interactions, and stearic acid is retained by both hydrophobic and polar
interactions (Figure 19). In solid phase extraction, advantage can be taken of our
~ S j ~
II ' "
"1
I ~_ _
./
~S~
o.j
\
o.
u
Si
/_...0 ~
s,\
o
i~o
Figure ]9. iLnalytes held by multiple versus single retention mechanisms.
ability selectively choose the characteristics of the bonded phase and elution
solvents to retain and elute analytes based on differences in functional groups.
The analytes can then be selectively eluted from the sorbent by first using
hexane to interrupt the hydrophobic interactions to elute the hexadecane. During
the hexane elution, the stearic acid continues to be retained in the sorbent
through polar interactions between silanol groups on the surface of the silica, and
the -OH group on the acid. Then a mixture of hexane and THF (1:1) can be used
to elute the stearic acid fraction, where the THF serves to interrupt the polar
interactions, and the hexane disrupts the hydrophobic interactions. Each of these
fractions can be quantitatively eluted from the sorbent and collected separately.
Ninety-six and one hundred thirteen percent recoveries were obtained for the
non-polar and polar fractions respectively, from a 20 PPM spike of one liter of
sample.
In subsequent experiments, the concentration of the spike was increased, but
several problems were encountered. Stearic acid began eluting with hexadecane
67
during the hexane extraction. It appeared t h a t the capacity of the sorbent for
retaining polar compounds was being exceeded at spikes greater t h a n 40 PPM.
Additionally, stearic acid, which is a waxy substance, has a tendency to
precipitate from solution as it is spiked into reagent water. W h e n the samples
were extracted using an a u t o m a t e d system (Tekmar AutoTrace), the sample lines
became plugged coated with insoluble particles of stearic acid.
Some samples were extracted m a n u a l l y by attaching a Teflon cap to the
sample bottle, to which an extraction cartridge could be fitted. The cartridge was
held in a lure tip syringe in a rubber stopper. A -27 inch v a c u u m drew the sample
from the sample bottle into a vacuum flask (Figure 20). When the samples were
extracted manually, plugging of the extraction cartridge occurred. Recoveries for
both fractions, polar and non-polar, were low. At a concentration of forty
mg/liter, Total Oil and Grease recovery from the AutoTrace dropped to 79%. A
spike of 120 P P M gave a recovery of 64%. A new cartridge was designed for the
<
<
Loosenedcap
Extractioncartridge
Stopcock to adjust flow rate
To Vacuum
Syringe needle
Figure 20. Manual extraction of large volume samples.
58
manual extraction that would prevent the precipitated stearic acid from plugging
the bed. A depth filter made from a polyester web material was placed into the
cartridge on top of the sorbent bed to collect suspended material. A layer of
unmodified silica was placed under the C18 sorbent to increase the capacity of
the sorbent bed for retaining polar compounds. A layer of 200 pm C18 particles
was placed above the standard 50 pm C18 layer to help prevent plugging as
molecular stearic acid is extracted on top of itself. Reagent water spiked with
standards ranging in concentrations from 12 to 120 PPM averaged from ninety
four to ninety eight percent recovery.
The experiment was automated using the AutoTrace. To prevent stearic acid
from plugging sample lines, the depth filter was placed at the bottom of the
suction line going into the sample bottle instead of stacking it on top of the
extraction cartridge. Prior to the drying and elution steps, the depth filter was
removed from the suction line, placed under the plunger and attached to the
extraction cartridge through a Teflon adapter. With this setup, both the depth
filter and the extraction cartridge could be dried and then eluted simultaneously.
When a depth filter was included in the automated extraction process, recoveries
from a 120 PPM spike of hexadecane and stearic acid (1:1) were 89% and 103%
respectively. When the method was automated, using t h e T e k m a r AutoTrace,
recoveries of 90% or better were obtained.
4.2. I m p a c t o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r on solid p h a s e e x t r a c t i o n
One of the challenges in solid phase extraction is in sample preparation of
those samples that are heavily laden with particulate matter. Such samples are
often found in natural water and wastewater systems. Particles can hinder
sample extraction due to the tendency towards plugging the cartridge. Cartridge
plugging is a phenomenon that has been observed industry wide when
performing solid phase extraction on environmental samples. When plugging
occurs, sample loading is significantly slowed, or flow may become completely
stopped. In order to better understand the problem of cartridge plugging,
experiments were designed to determine where the plugging was occurring.
The sorbent in an extraction cartridge is held in place by two porous frits, one
on the top and one on the bottom of the bed. It would be possible that plugging
occurs above the top frit, within the frit itself, or within the sorbent bed. To help
make this determination, five, eight and fifteen micrometer particles were loaded
onto six mL, 200 milligram polystyrene divinylbenzene sorbent beds. The five
micron particles passed right through the bed, and the effluent appeared cloudy.
The eight micron particles plugged the flow after loading 500 mL. The fifteen
micron particles piled up on top of the frit, while the sample flow remained
steady. Although this experiment gave an indication of what size particles
contributed to plugging, it still remained to be determined where in the cartridge
the plugging was occurring. The experiment was repeated, but the eight micron
particles were loaded onto just frits alone. In this manner, it could be determined
whether plugging was occurring in the bed or in the frit. When the bed was not
59
present, no plugging occurred, indicating that plugging was in fact occurring in
the sorbent bed itself.
The next experiment was designed to determine if the particle size of the
sorbent bed would have an impact on plugging. Five micrometer particles were
loaded on both the polystyrene divinylbenzene and silica phases, which have
nominal sorbent particle sizes of 70 and 50 microns, respectively. As in the
previous experiment, when the five micron particles were loaded onto the
polystyrene divinylbenzene cartridge, the particle passed right through the bed,
and no plugging occurred. When the particles were loaded onto the silica
cartridge, the bed became plugged. If a hexagonal close-packed arrangement of
particle is assumed, it can be calculated that the diameter of a sphere that could
fit between 70 micron particles in the sorbent bed is approximately thirteen
microns, where the size that would fit between 50 micron particles is
approximately eight microns. It must be considered that although the beds
contain particles that are nominally 50 and 70 microns, there is a distribution of
particle sizes. In addition, sorbent particles are not truly spherical. Despite these
limitations, is can be seen from the approximations that it would be much more
likely for nominally five micron particles to pass through a bed where the
distance between particles is thirteen versus eight microns. It has therefore been
demonstrated that the particle size of the sorbent can have a significant impact
on the ease with which the extraction bed is plugged.
In an earlier experiment it was demonstrated that larger particles would not
plug the extraction bed if they could be retained above the frit. Such was the case
for the fifteen micron particles that were held above a standard frit (20 micron) of
a polystyrene divinylbenzene bed. The standard frits were replaced with ten
micron frits. With this new configuration, the eight micron particles which had
plugged the sorbent bed in earlier experiments, piled up on top of the new frit,
and plugging did not occur. This experiment demonstrates that when small
particles are prevented from becoming lodged in the spaces between larger
particles, plugging can be avoided.
An additional experiment was performed using five micron particles on a ten
micron frit, and plugging did occur.
A series of experiments were devised to investigate cartridge plugging by
samples containing soil having a natural distribution of particle sizes. Soil
samples of the Pima County Flood Plain were obtained which had been
characterized with respect to their particle size distribution. Five hundred
milligrams of soil were loaded onto cartridges containing 200 mg of the
polystyrene divinylbenzene, and having 20 and 10 micron frits. Plugging occurred
in each cartridge after 600 and 700 mL, respectively. A mechanism was needed
through which the particles in the sample could be prevented from piling up on
themselves during loading. A polyester web type depth filter had been used
successfully to distribute oil and grease in previous the previous section.
Experiments were designed to apply the same technology to distribute
particulate m a t t e r above the sorbent bed to prevent plugging. Samples were
loaded onto cartridges containing an integral depth filter above the sorbent bed.
70
These samples could be loaded in approximately a half an hour (averaging 30 mL
per minute), rather than plugging the bed after 600 mL with no depth filter. The
particles of soil could be seen to be distributed throughout the depth filter.
Since a typical environmental analysis involves the determination of analytes
which may be present in samples laden with particulates, it was desired to
determine the impact that particulate matter would have on analyte recovery.
Samples were spiked with 500 mg of Pima County Flood Plain Soil, and then
with polyaromatic hydrocarbons at a concentration of two ppb. A set of five
replicate samples were extracted on polystyrene divinylbenzene as described in
the experimental section. Recoveries averaged 98%, with an eight percent
relative standard deviation.
4.3. Utilization of layered phases for environmental analyses

Layered phases can be used for environmental analyses to serve two different
purposes. In one case, they can be used to extend the range of analytes that are
extracted from the sample. Other use is to improve the selectivity for the
analytes of interest.
4.3.1.
Layered columns for extending the range of analytes
The limitation of using a compromise phase such as C8 (as discussed in

Section 3.1) is that although the overall recovery for the entire set of analytes is
improved, the recoveries for individual components is not optimized. A subset of
the EPA 525.1 analytes (the organochlorines) were utilized to determine the
impact of layering bonded phases into a single extraction cartridge for the
purpose of optimizing the recovery of both the polar and hydrophobic species. In
the previous section, a limitation to optimizing analyte recoveries was described
as being a two-fold problem. When extracting a broad range of compounds, the
small, polar compounds yielded low recoveries on silica modified with short
hydrocarbon chains. In the case of large, hydrophobic species, recoveries were low
on ISOLUTE|
due to poor elution of large compounds from a very
hydrophobic surface. From this data it was hypothesized that a C2 phase could be
layered over a C18 phase, allowing the larger compounds to be retained on C2,
while the more polar compounds which passed through the C2 phase would be
retained on the C18. If the larger compounds are sufficiently solvated, they could
pass through the C18 phase during the elution step (Figure 21). Initial
experiments were designed to determine to what extent a range of non-ionizable
compounds would be stopped on each of two phases. The ISOLUTE | C2 phase
was stacked in a six mL cartridge above the ISOLUTE | C18 phase. Each
cartridge contained one half gram of bonded silica. The cartridges were connected
using a Teflon adapter. Samples containing a mixture of organochlorine
compounds were extracted. After the samples were loaded onto stacked columns,
the cartridges were pulled apart and eluted separately. This allowed the
selectivity for individual compounds by each phase to be determined. The
recoveries from each of the phases are shown in Table 5.
71
Loading Layered Phases

BroadRangeofAnalytes
Eluting Layered Phases

StrongSolvent
02
C18
C2
C18 y
Figure 21. Loading and eluting layered phases.
Table 5
Recoveries of Organochlorines from ISOLUTE | C18 (EC) - 1 P P B spike
C18
Std
(EC)
a l p h a - BHC
0.943
0.929
b e t a - BHC
0.895
0.961
g a m m a - BHC
0.957
0.967
d e l t a - BHC
1.021
0.970
heptachlor
0.993
0.825
*aldrin
0.987
0.745
heptachlor epoxide
1.002
0.963
endosulfan I
1.019
0.925
*4,4' DDE
1.016
0.705
dieldrin
0.999
0.941
*endrin
0.993
0.673
*4,4" DDD
1.007
0.811
endosulfan II
0.997
0.974
endrin aldehyde
1.005
1.121
*4,4" DDT
0.973
0.796
endosulfan sulfate
0.950
0.885
methoxychlor
0.958
1.532
Average % Recovery:
98
92
*Recoveries below 80%
It can be seen t h a t some of the analytes were well retained on ISOLUTE | C2,
while others broke through the ISOLUTE | C2 cartridge and were stopped on the
72
ISOLUTE | C18 sorbent. Subsequently, the analytes were loaded onto a single
cartridge containing the two phases layered, with ISOLUTE | C2 on top of
ISOLUTE | C18, which could then be eluted simultaneously. For comparison,
data was also obtained for analytes extracted from a single phase (Table 6). As
was the case for the EPA Method 525.1 analytes in the previous section, 525.1
analytes in the previous section, several of the compounds were strongly r e t a i n e d
on an ISOLUTE | C18 surface. For these analytes, recoveries improve on average
from 75 to 84% when the extraction is performed on an ISOLUTE | C8 bonded
phase. These results can be compared to the data obtained from stacked phases.
While the average recovery for those analytes retained on ISOLUTE | C2 was
54%, and t h a t for the others which broke through the ISOLUTE | C2 cartridge
and were stopped on the ISOLUTE | C18 sorbent was 43%, the combined recovery
was 97%. This represents a 13% improvement in the overall recovery for these
analytes extracted from the ISOLUTE | C8 "compromise" phase. W h e n the
analytes were eluted from the C2/C18 layered phases, the average recovery was
still quite high (97%).
Table 6
Recoveries of organochlorines from
Top Cartridge:
Bottom Cartridge:
Std
a l p h a - BHC
1.006
b e t a - BHC
1.009
g a m m a - BHC
1.010
d e l t a - BHC
0.985
heptachlor
0.995
*aldrin
1.006
heptachlor epoxide
1.024
endosulfan I
1.016
*4,4" DDE
0.998
dieldrin
1.010
*endrin
0.994
*4,4" DDD
1.001
endosulfan II
1.036
endrin aldehyde
1.016
*4,4" DDT
1.018
endosulfan sulfate
0.973
methoxychlor
1.007
AVG % Recovery:
101
stacked and layered columns (1 PPB spike)

C2 layered over
C2
C18(EC)
C18(EC)
top
bottom Sum
0.998
0.971
1.011
1.011
0.990
0.972
1.011
1.011
0.974
0.952
1.000
1.000
0.909
0.945
0.969
0.969
0.985
0.940
0.851
0.073
0.924
0.861
0.877
0.846
0.846
1.005
1.009
0.574
0.469
1.043
1.077
1.149
0.652
0.417
1.069
0.842
0.886
0.856
0.046
0.902
1.004
1.015
0.801
0.207
1.008
1.111
1.098
0.669
0.340
1.009
0.942
0.966
0.898
0.061
0.959
0.866
1.073
0.648
0.372
1.020
0.858
0.932
0.111
0.837
0.948
0.985
0.933
0.849
0.849
0.817
0.882
0.292
0.575
0.867
1.019
1.027
1.115
1.115
96
98
54
43
97
The d a t a provides a solution for optimizing recoveries for a mixture of polar

and hydrophobic analytes being extracted from an aqueous matrix. For
compounds t h a t are difficult to elute from a very hydrophobic surface, they can be
73
extracted onto a sorbent from which they can be eluted
layered over a more hydrophobic phase. These compounds
the more hydrophobic phase once they are in a
tetrahydrofuran), since they are well solvated, and it
favorable for t h e m to r e m a i n in the solvent.
4.3.2.
more easily, which is

are not extracted onto
strong solvent (e.g.,
is energetically more
Layered columns for improving selectivity
Samples containing analytes and interferences with differing properties can be

retained on different layered phases. As an example, a sorbent can be selected to
specifically r e t a i n the interferences on the top layer, while the analytes are
retained on the bottom layer. Elution conditions are then selected such t h a t the
interferences continue to be retained while the analytes are eluted (Figure 22).
Elution
Loading
Analyte (~
Interferences
Figure 22. Interference removal.
One of the p r i m a r y interferences in the analysis of e n v i r o n m e n t a l samples

are humic substances. If a single phase is used for the extraction of a particular
class of pesticides, the humic substances will be extracted and eluted along with
the analytes of interest. The acidic character of humic substances can be
exploited to r e t a i n these interferences, while the analytes are retained and eluted
through hydrophobic interactions. An example of such a column is aminopropyl
(NH2) layered on to of C18. The humic substances are retained on the NH2
phase, while the analytes, such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons or organochlorines,
are retained on the non-polar phase. During the elution step using an organic
solvent, the humics continue to be retained on the top phase, while the analytes
of interest are eluted.
74
5. C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
This chapter has provided a discussion of the basic principles of solid phase
extraction, some of the physical and chemical properties of solid phase extraction
sorbents, and a detailed description of a typical solid phase extraction procedure.
The six steps of an SPE procedure included sample pre-treatment, column
solvation, column equilibration, sample loading, interference elution, and analyte
elution. In addition, a variety of factors that influence the efficiency and
selectivity of an SPE procedure were presented.
The silica surface has been shown to be quite heterogeneous in nature,
resulting in species that may be retained through multiple interactions. It was
shown that elution solvents could be selected to improve recoveries of analytes
that are retained through multiple interactions when the composition of the
elution solvent was mixed, rather than using pure solvents for the elution.
The porous nature of the sorbent has been shown to have an influence on
analyte recovery. It was seen that conditions such as sample temperature and
residence time of the elution solvent have an impact on analyte recovery. The
former can have an influence the distance to which analytes migrate into the
pores, while the later dictates whether the analytes have sufficient time to
migrate back out of the pores.
Another important factor in solid phase extraction includes the chain length of
the bonded phase and its influence on selectivity. As the chain length of the
bonded phase increased, the retention of smaller, more polar compounds
improved. It was also noted that the elution of larger, more hydrophobic
compounds became more difficult with increasing chain length.
A second impact of chain length was seen in the propensity for the sorbent to
retain water. A sorbent that had been modified with a long chain such as C18
was effectively "water proofed", and could be dried quickly (10 minutes for a one
gram bed). The C2 phase, having a significant number of easily accessible silanol
groups and less hydrocarbon in the pores required significantly longer drying
times (25 to 30 minutes). The presence of water and the impact on recoveries was
seen to be most significant when the elution is performed with a water
immiscible solvent. In this case, water in the pores of the sorbent formed a
barrier between the analytes and the elution solvent. When the elution solvent is
switched to one that is water miscible, the surface is essentially "chemically"
dried, and analyte recoveries are improved.
One of the physical parameters of the sorbent that has an influence each step
of the solid phase extraction procedure was shown to be particle size distribution.
A wide distribution of particle sizes and the presence of fines result in poor flow
characteristics through the column. This leads to an increase in drying times,
broader retention bands and an increase in required solvent volumes for
conditioning, equilibration, interference elution and analyte elution.
The addition of a wetting agent was seen to serve two purposes. An organic
solvent such as methanol is necessary when loading large volume samples onto a
hydrophobic phase to ensure that the conditioned chains remain extended and
75
available for interaction with the analyte. It has also been shown that a wetting
agent help to keep the analyte from agglomerating, which prevent migration into
the pores. When the pores are unavailable, the surface area of the sorbent is
reduced from 550 to 0.1 meters 2.
SPE has been shown to have very useful applications to environmental
analyses. It has been used as an alternative to liquid-liquid extraction for Oil and
Grease determination. Polar and non-polar fractions can be selectively eluted by
judicious choice of elution solvent.
Solid phase extraction can also be use to elute a broad range of analytes by
using a medium chain length non-polar phase such as C8, or layered phases such
as C2/C18. The C8 phase resulted in recoveries that were improved overall, but
not optimized for each component. The layered column improved recoveries for
both the small, polar and large, non-polar species.
The application of a depth filter for the extraction of environmental sample
was found to be useful in the prevention of column plugging. Loading times were
significantly reduced, and analyte recoveries were not negatively impacted.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank International Sorbent Technology (IST)
for their financial and technical support.
REFERENCES
1. L.A. Berrueta, B. Gallo and F. Vicente, Chromatographia, 40 (1995) 474.
2. E. Chladek and R.S. Marano, J. Chromatogr. Sci., 22 (1984) 313.
3. C.F. Simpson, Techniques in Liquid Chromatography, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1982.
4. S.A. Wise and W. E. May, Anal Chem., 55 (1983) 1479.
5. I. Liska, J. Krupcik and P. A. Leclercq, J. High Resolution Chromatogr.,
12 (1989) 577.
6. K.C. Van Horne, Sorbent Extraction Technology, Analytichem International,
Harbor City, CA 1985.
7. R.W. Frei and U. A. Th. Brinkman, Trends in Analytical Chemistry,
1 (1991) 45.
8. IBID.
9. M.E. Raisglid, Factors Affecting the Selectivity and Efficiency of Solid Phase
Extraction, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Chemistry, University of
Arizona (1997).
10. K. G. Furton and J. Rein, Anal. Chim. Acta, 236 (1990) 99.
11. C. A. Fung Kee Fung, The Behavior of Water at the Modified Silica Interface,
Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Chemistry, University of Arizona (1992).
12. EPA Document #600/4-88/039, Methods for the Determination of Organic
Compounds in Drinking Water by Liquid-Solid Extraction and Capillary
Column Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Revision 2.2 (1988).
Adsorption and its Applications in Industryand EnvironmentalProtection

Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis,Vol. 120
9 1998Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
77
S e l e c t i v e r e t e n t i o n , r e m o v a l a n d e l u t i o n for a n a l y s i s of h a z a r d o u s
c o m p o u n d s i n b i o l o g i c a l f l u i d s to m a i n t a i n h u m a n h e a l t h
H. Shintani
National Institute of Health Sciences, Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan,
1-chome, 18-1, Kamiyoga, Setagaya, Tokyo, J a p a n 158
SUMMARY
Selective analysis of compound of interest in complicated matrix such as body
fluids is extremely difficult. This is because unexpected interference admixtures
with almost identical retention time may co-elute with overlapping. It is essential
to remove admixtures by appropriate pretreatment for selective analysis. For
pretreatment methods, there are several methods, i.e. solid phase extraction
(SPE) using column or membrane, dialysis, filtration, ultrafiltration, super fluid
critical extraction (SFE) or adsorption using charcoal or other appropriate
adsorbent to remove admixtures as well as toxins in case of t r e a t m e n t for h u m a n
body. Some of them mentioned above were carried out using a packed column or
membrane. In general, membrane type has more capacity t h a n packed column
type. At a hospital, artificial dialysis and filtration are used for replacement of
part of kidney function (artificial kidney) and several adsorbents are used for
replacement of part of liver function (artificial liver). H u m a n liver function is very
complicated, so in the current medical treatment status only removal function in
liver function can be anyhow attained. These pretreatment methods are also
useful for analytical procedure. There have been reported several pretreatment
methods for acidic, basic and neutral compounds in biological fluids. The column
injectable directly the body fluids is also available in the market, however this
column has restriction of concentration of organic solvent in the eluent, thus
resulting in poor or no elution of strongly hydrophobic compounds. Artifact
formation must also be considered during pretreatment methods, especially when
using liquid-liquid extraction because of long period contact with solvent and the
compound of interest. Artifact formation may cause lower recovery rate of the
compound of interest and also may cause misunderstanding to the researcher,
which he/she extracts unexpected highly toxic compound extraction. According to
the recent advancement of analytical column fabrication technology, several new
columns based on individual idea are now available in the market. Some of them
diminish completely residual silanol effect, thus no common ion addition for
strong basic or acidic compounds or no ion-pair method was required. Ion-pair
78
method is so popular, but it often causes to shorten column life by retaining and
deteriorating with ion paring reagent. These columns are also described by
comparing conventional columns in this chapter.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Solid phase extraction (SPE) using packed columns combined with high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for analysis of several toxic
compounds in blood was described. SPE and liquid-liquid extraction were also
compared in terms of recovery efficiency, solvent consumption, handling time,
artifact formation and so on. Membrane type SPE for large scale extraction,
especially applicable for environmental analysis, will also be described.
Membrane type SPE was not successfully applicable to biological fluids
pretreatment. This is mostly due to stacking of membrane pore, therefore it was
so often restricted to environmental analysis treatment in such a case of
analyzing trace residue of pesticide in water.
In this chapter, the author will describe major three substances from his
recent papers including unpublished results. They are 4,4'methylenedianiline
(MDA) from irradiated polyurethane (PU) for sterilization purpose, residue of
several toxic compounds including newly identified compounds from dental
materials and blood urea and uric acid.
The first toxic, carcinogenic and basic compound is MDA [1-7]. As a medical
PU, thermosetting PU was mostly used. For example, potting material for
connecting dialysis fibers with outer vessel in artificial dialysis equipment was
made from thermosetting PU. In fabrication of thermosetting PU, polyol,
methylenediisocyanate (MDI) and butanediol were mixed and terminated
polymerization with addition of butanol to obtain appropriate molecular weight of
thermosetting PU. Residual MDI changed to MDA by hydrolysis. MDA also
produced by cleavage at urethane linkage by irradiation for sterilization [1-7].
MDA in blood was analyzed to assess h u m a n risk contacted with degradated
thermosetting PU medical devices during artificial dialysis treatment to patients
[1-7]. The thermosetting PU medical devices may have a possibility to be
degradated upon gamma-ray irradiation for sterilization. MDA was determined
by reverse-phase HPLC using an eluent of a mixed solution of ammonium acetate
and acetonitrile at a ratio of 713 (v/v) [8-13]. MDA was reported to be unstable
upon heating and converted to MDI, therefore HPLC is considered to be superior
to gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) for MDA determination. At that time when
the author reported MDA determination in 1989 to 1991 [8,11], only conventional
endocapped C-18 column was available in the market, thus that kind of column
was used for the study. Conventional endcapping procedure remained many
untreated residual silanol (around 80%), thus indicating as a result an
incomplete endocapping. Detection was by an electrochemical detector (ECD,
amperometry detector from Toadenpa Co. in Tokyo) as well as ultraviolet (UV)
detector. ECD is around ten times more sensitive and selective than UV
79
detection, however ECD detection was restricted to the compounds with
relatively lower oxidation-reduction potential (less than 1000 mV) such as
aromatic amine, OH, SH or aliphatic SH or OH such as cystine or sugar,
respectively. Baseline of UV detection was fluctuated due to impurities in the
eluent, however ECD detection indicated flat baseline (Figure 1) [11]. Detection
limit of MDA by UV at 250 nm and by ECD at 900 mV was 150 and 3 ng/ml,
respectively [11 ].
25
20
15
10
min
Figure 1. HPLC chromatogram of MDA detected by UV at 250 nm for upper and ECD at 900
mV for lower.
Concerning pretreatment of compounds in body fluid, several methods were

compared in terms of their efficiency, recovery and other factors. Liquid-liquid
extraction was troublesome due to deproteinization followed by centrifugation
and condensation. During condensation there may be a possibility of recovery loss
due to evaporation. In this sense, SPE was thought to be superior. Manual type
SPE and an automated SPE were also compared in terms of reproducibility of
recovery rate. Furthermore, artifact formation described lather in detail must
also be considered when using liquid-liquid extraction. Blood MDA was
satisfactory recovered using C-18, Phenyl and Cyclohexyl SPE columns Figure 2
indicating major retention mechanism may be van der Waals binding as well as
~-~ binding.
The recovery of serum MDA from C-l, C-2, C-8 and Silica columns was
unsatisfactory (Table 1). Elution was carried out using methanol containing 1 M
NH4OH. In the preliminary SPE experiment based on the theoretical
consideration, conventional technique and reported procedure for basic
compounds in case of SPE treatment was that acidified methanol (methanol
containing 1 M HC1) as an eluent was thought to be superior, however the
80
00
of.
~:~
X
9
r..)
r~
(~
O']
.r,,4
.v..4
r,.)
0
0
Figure 2. HPLC chromatograms of blood MDA after C 18, C 8, Phenyl and Cyclohexyl
column solid phase extraction treatment.
Table 1
Addition-recovery experiment of serum M D A by SPE using silica and reverse
p h a s e columns
Resin
Added M D A (pg)
Found MDA (lag)
Recovery (pg)
Silica
0.12
12
C-1
0.56
56
C-2
O.75
75
C-8
0.90
90
C-18
1.00
100
Cyclohexyl
1.00
100
Phenyl
1.00
100
Strong
1.00
100
Cation exchange
Fifty pl of 21 pg/ml MDA spiked to one ml serum to prepare one ~g/ml serum MDA.
This was applied to the conditioned resins. The following procedure was the same as in
the text. The amount is the average of 5 specimens and the C.V. was less than 1.4% in
every case.
81
e x p e r i m e n t a l result done by the a u t h o r obtained the opposite result in t e r m s of
recovery r a t e (Figure 3). The speculated explanation for the m e c h a n i s m will be
described in the text. The result suggested the i m p o r t a n c e to consider
simultaneously the silanol effect and chemical s t a t u s of compound of interest.
SPE was superior to a liquid-liquid extraction due to an u n n e c e s s a r y of
,-.
0
0
,,-;
0
~
C',l
0
0
oO
,,<,
0
o
r,_)
.=
0=~
9 -
ib
~
=
.,-
o~
b
0
-~0
o~
--
Figure 3. HPLC chromatograms of MDA treated with different eluents in SPE using C 18
column. HPLC conditions: C 18 column, eluent: methanol and an aqueous solution of 10 mM
ammonium acetate at a ratio of 1/1, flow rate: 1.2 ml/min, detection: 254 nm. MDA peak has
a retention time of 6.95 min.
(1) 105 ng/10 ~tl MDA standard solution, 10 ~tl applied to HPLC,
(2) 100 ~tl of 105 ng/10 gl MDA solution applied to C18 resin with !00 mg and 120 gl,
respectively, resin weight and void volume, and eluted with 250 gl of methanol, 200 pl
collected and 10 pl applied to HPLC. When 100% is recovered, the theoretical
concentration of MDA would be 52.5 ng/10 ~tl.
(3) The same procedure as above except for the elution, 250 gl of a mixed aqueous solution of
10 mM ammonium acetate and methanol at a ratio of 1/1 (v/v).
(4) The same procedure as above except for the elution, 250 pl of methanol containing 1M
NH4OH.
(5) 50 ~1 of 21 ~tg/ml MDA was added to 1 ml serum to prepare one/ag/ml serum. This was
applied to C 18 resin, eluted with 250/al of methanol containing 1M NHaOH. 200 gl
collected. Ten gl applied to HPLC. If 100% is recovered, the theoretical concentration
would be 50.0 ng/gl.
(6) The same procedure as above but omitting MDA, the serum blank.
82
C1, 2, 8, 18, Phenyl, Cyclohexyl and Silica (100 mg resin weight, 120 ~1 void
volume)
2 ml methanol
2 ml water
appl 0.1 - 10 ppm MDA in serum
eluted with 250 pl MeOH/1M NH40H
collected 200 pl
u
10 ~1 appl to HPLC
Satisfactory recovery rate obtained by the use of C18, phenyl and cyclohexyl
columns
Figure 4. SPE procedure for blood MDA.
deproteinization,
centrifugation,
condensation,
greater
recovery,
less
consumption of organic solvent, less experimental time and less possibility of
artifact formation. SPE procedure of blood MDA was described in Figure 4.
The second toxic compounds were those from polymethyl methacylate (PMMA)
dental material [14-18]. PMMA is widely used as the composite resin for the
dental plate. In accordance with the current PMMA fabrication, benzoylperoxide
(BPO) and N,N-dimethyl p-toluidine (DMPT) were added as the initiator and the
stimulator, respectively, for methyl methacrylate (MMA) polymerization. If
insufficiently polymerized, MMA monomer, starting compounds of DMPT and
BPO exhibit a residue potential. Especially residue of MMA was significant at
around 1-2%. When considering 1-2% of toxic compound of MMA will be eluted
into patients during dental treatment, this residue should be diminished for
patient's sake. As one proposed method was rinsed with hot water as MMA is
hydrophilic. Rinsing with organic solvent such as with methanol must be avoided
as MMA dental plate was discolored and deformed.
As an additional information, newly found compounds, which have not been
reported so far, were identified using HPLC-mass spectrometry (MS)-MS. One of
newly found toxic compounds was epoxide compound of DMPT. Epoxide
compound was quite reactive to DNA, so most probably mutagen and carcinogen
as is ethylene oxide. BPO was converted to benzoic acid (BA) in a few seconds
when contacting with DMPT or body fluids such as blood or saliva, therefore BA
analysis has an identical meaning to BPO determination in body fluids. BA was
not originally used for PMMA fabrication, indicating BA is a sort of artifact from
BPO when contacting with body fluids. BPO is quite reactive compound and both
83
BPO and BA are cytotoxic [17]. For determining cytotoxicity, s e r u m was added in
cell culture medium, therefore BPO transformed to BA immediately, which was
at first confirmed by the author. From this result, cytotoxicity data reported as
BPO is confirmed not the exact cytotoxicity data of BPO, but the data of BA. The
cytotoxicity data of I C 5 0 (~g/ml) of BA and BPO using Balb 3T3 cell was 28.7
and 22, indicating both are almost identical because BPO data was originally
from BA.
In order to evaluate the risk factor to the recipient exposed to these compounds
from dental material, the authors quantitatively analyzed residual a m o u n t in
composite resin using blood serum extraction [16-17]. MMA and BPO are
unstable upon heating, therefore HPLC is considered to be superior to GLC.
Determination was carried out by HPLC combined with SPE using C-18 columns
in both columns. The comparison of eluents of these compounds from C-18 SPE
column was discussed. The comparison of SPE and liquid-liquid extraction in
terms of recovery efficiency was also discussed.
The third toxic compound is blood urea and uric acid. Urea is a major uremic
toxin, however urea accumulation is a trigger or result of u r e m i a is not well
clarified yet. This m e a n s whichever blood urea m a y cause u r e m i a or blood urea
may accumulate after u r e m i a promotes is currently uncertain. In h e a l t h y person,
protein t e r m i n a l l y metabolites to urea as a final product through urea cycle and
exclude urea to urine through kidney exclude function. U r e m i a patients can't
successfully exclude urea to urine as kidney function of the patients damages,
therefore urea accumulates back to blood. Urea is a final compound in urea cycle,
so accumulation of final product will cause feedback inhibition, thus leading to
irregular protein metabolism. There are two types of urea. One is free from
protein and the other is bound to protein type. It was reported around 3% of total
urea will bind to albumin. Free urea plays an i m p o r t a n t role for promoting
uremia syndrome, therefore accurate as well as differential analysis of bound
from free urea in blood are i m p o r t a n t to a t t a i n precious diagnosis. Current
clinical urea analysis is carried out using an a m m o n i u m selective electrode
attached immobilized urease onto the electrode to determine a m m o n i u m as urea,
which is so-called blood urea nitrogen, BUN. The alternative method for clinical
test carried out at the hospital is autoanalyzer to use Indophenol colorimetry.
When using these methods, differential analysis of endogenous a m m o n i u m and
urea was not attained. Additionally, differential analysis of free from bound urea
can't also be attained.
Autoanalyzer used in the hospital as a routine analysis determines total urea
as BUN by converting urea to a m m o n i u m with urease and react with Indophenol
reagent to detect colorimetry with visible detection. Amount of endogenous blood
a m m o n i u m can be neglected due to around 1% of total blood urea, which will be
within analytical error, however t h a t of urine a m m o n i u m can't be neglected due
to more t h a n 10% of urine urea. There have been reported so far several methods
for blood urea analysis [19-22]. Urea analysis using capillary electrophoresis (CE)
(mostly using micellar electrokinetic chromatography, MECC or MEKC) was also
84
reported [23-24], but separation of urea from blood admixtures was not
satisfactory as urea was migrated at around void volume overlapped with
hydrophilic blood admixtures, which was identical to urea analysis using C-18
HPLC column [19-22]. Blood urea was poorer retained on C-18 column and also
eluted at around void volume overlapped with blood hydrophilic admixtures as
being reported already and blood uric acid retained on successfully, but not
separated well from blood admixtures of mostly blood proteins [19-22]. That's
why simultaneous blood urea analysis with other blood compounds was so
difficult by HPLC or CE. Single urea analysis in blood can be satisfactory
attained using capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE). However, for simultaneous
analysis of urea together with other compounds such as uric acid in complicated
matrix such as blood will require complicated equipment system as previously
done by the author using post-column Indophenol colorimetry method or
precolumn method combined with column switching and immobilized urease
column [20-22]. This is the reason severe selection of appropriate column for
HPLC analysis is required. The separation mechanism of reverse phase HPLC
column and that of MECG is almost identical [19-24]. To be free urea from blood
admixtures is the major purpose of blood pretreatment. This is for selective
analysis of blood urea free from blood admixtures, thus the author describes
mainly for blood urea analysis as follows: what analytical condition (selection of
sort of analytical columns) and what kind of pretreatment methods will be most
appropriate for attaining selective analysis of blood urea as well as differential
analysis of endogenous blood urea from endogenous ammonium.
Direct blood injection is applicable to CE and to HPLC, however there always
associates a possibility of deterioration of column and detector cell with blood
protein or hydrophobic lipid as well as overlapping of compound of interest with
blood admixtures [23], therefore it is more appropriate to avoid direct blood
injection. Direct blood injectable HPLC column can be currently available in the
market, however this column has a restriction of less than 18% of acetonitrile as
an eluent, otherwise deproteinization will occur in the column and this may
deteriorate column and make shorten column life. This kind of restriction of
organic solvent concentration in the eluent indicates highly hydrophobic
compounds can't be successfully eluted. When handling body fluids (blood or
saliva), it is recommended to remove and isolate admixtures by p r e t r e a t m e n t to
attain significant baseline separation free from body fluid admixtures,
reproducible chromatograms and prolonged life of analytical column and
detection cell.
As p r e t r e a t m e n t methods, traditional liquid-liquid extraction, SPE, dialysis,
ultrafiltration or supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) were compared in terms of
recovery efficiency and separation efficiency. The obtained result was not always
restricted to blood urea analysis, but also applied to blood hydrophilic compound
analysis. There have not been published papers so far on blood urea analysis
using SPE combined with HPLC because author's paper was the first on this
subject. In past, only one paper have been published on urea analysis in food
85
using SPE combined with HPLG by Fujiwara et al. [25]. After tracing the
reported method, it can be found out that the satisfactory recovery rate can't be
attained using their method (less than 80% recovery).
It must be recognized that some researcher may satisfy with 80% recovery, but
problem is that it is not certain 80% recovery will be reproducible or not when
concentration of the compound of interest in matrix will differ. It should be kept
in mind that reproducibility is essential and recovery rate may so often differ
depending on concentration. That's why the author required 100% recovery using
different sample concentration. Other reason is an artifact formation, which will
be discussed later in detail. The reason to be considered for the major difference
of recovery rate between the author's experiment and that of Fujiwara's
experiment might result in different matrix of blood or food, respectively [25].
Therefore, the author studied for pretreatment method to attain 100% recovery
for blood urea analysis.
Differential analysis of free from bound blood urea can also be attained using
ultrafiltration or dialysis for native blood. The amount of bound urea was not
significant at around 3% that of total blood urea. When using denatured blood,
total urea amount can be determined in ultrafiltrate after ultrafiltration at
around 13,000 g for 40-60 minutes. Denaturation was attained by acidification of
blood to make bound urea free from protein. Endogenous ammonium in blood and
urine was around 1% and 10% of total urea, respectively, therefore the former
was within an analytical error. As the latter is beyond the analytical error,
determination of endogenous urine ammonium will be required for differential
analysis of endogenous urine urea.
S E L E C T I V E R E T E N T I O N , REMOVAL AND E L U T I O N F O R
ANALYSIS OF TOXIC C O M P O U N D S TO HUMAN H E A L T H
Blood and saliva used are sampled from the author. The saliva was sampled
before breakfast from the author. Most of chemicals excepting compounds
synthesized by the author in this chapter were available in the market with
several grade.
Pretreatment method described in the following text is applicable to analytical
procedure as well as clinical treatment for h u m a n health as being mentioned in
summary. In this paper, solid phase microextraction was omitted as the
hardware of the equipment has still inferiority to be innovated and remained to
be improved for attaining reproducible recovery rate.
2.1. B l o o d M D A
2.1.1. A n a l y t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of M D A
AS mentioned in advance MDA is unstable upon heating, therefore HPLC was
adopted for analysis combined with ECD detection. The eluent is a mixture of an
aqueous solution (3 parts) containing 50 mM ammonium acetate for common ion
effect as well as increasing ECD sensitivity and acetonitrile (1 part) by volume
86
ratio. This method was found to improve ECD detection sensitivity, prevent MDA
tailing and accelerate MDA elution [8-13]. At that time when this experiment
was carried out in 1989 to 1992, no columns completely diminished silanol effect
was available. In the current market, innovated and completely diminished
silanol effect columns are easily available in the market, so using t h a t kind of
column above mentioned experiment was carried out again for detection
efficiency comparison as being mentioned later. An addition of ionic compound at
around 50 mM is essential for ECD detection even if newly innovated columns
free from silanol effect are used. This is not for attaining conventional common
ion effect, but for improving ECD detection. If no salt contained in the eluent, no
successful ECD detection was done. ECD requires at least 50 mM salt in the
eluent for electricity delivery in the eluent. ECD sensitivity increased increasing
applied voltage, but simultaneously decreasing selectivity, indicating less t h a n
1000 mV will be most appropriate (Figure 5) [12].
J
I
200
250
UV spectrum of MDA
300 nm
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
Applied voltage vs Ag/AgC1 (V)
Figure 5. UV spectrum of MDA in the upper and the relationship between applied voltage of
ECD and response in MDA detection.
Thus, there are two reasons to add 50 mM to eluent. One is for common ion
effect [8-13] and the other is to improve ECD detection sensitivity of aromatic
amine. When using insufficiently endocapped ODS columns such as Zorbax | ODS
or ODS columns from Merck Co. or Toso Co. were used, at least 50 mM addition
will be required for common ion effect and simultaneously for the benefit of ECD
detection sensitivity. MDA was detected with ECD at 900 mV as well as UV at
250 nm. The latter is for benzene ring absorption in MDA. As mentioned in
advance ECD detection was more selective and sensitive. When a m m o n i u m
acetate in the eluent contained impurities, the baseline by UV detection was
fluctuated, however no fluctuation was observed by ECD, indicating quite
selective for detection (Figure 1) [12]. Consequently, ECD was superior to UV
detection. The detection limit of MDA by UV and ECD was 150 and 3 ppb
87
(S/N = 3 at the peak height) [12], respectively, indicating the greater sensitivity
by ECD detection. ECD detection has inferiority that it can detect only for the
compounds with relatively lower (mostly less t h a n 1000 mV) oxidation-reduction
voltage potential as mentioned in the introduction. Greater voltage application
may cause any damage to the electrode in short period. The conventional
endocapped column was treated with methyl, however residual silanol was not
completely diminished. It was reported around 80% of silanol still remained after
endocapping treatment. This is mostly due to remaining silanol existing in the
interior of the pore of silica.
As mentioned in advance, due to recent column technology advancement,
residual silanol effect have been completely diminished by employing a silicone
coating to eliminate the residual silanol effect (e.g., Capcel Pak | from Siseido Co.
in Tokyo) or free silanol diminishment technology for column fabrication at high
temperature such as L column | from Chemical Inspection Co. (Tokyo) to prevent
a residual silanol effect as far as possible. The latter column, therefore, due to its
complicated fabrication technology at high temperature, no large scale column is
available as it is too expensive. These columns of Capcel Pak | and L column | are
completely free from residual silanol and heavy metal impurities in silica. The
study of detection limit using these columns indicated at least 10 times lower
than that by insufficiently endocapped ODS columns used in previous study due
to narrower peak shape and higher peak height. The reason to be considered is
due to no residual silanol, no residual heavy metals and even particle size of
round silica at around 2 or 3 ~m diameter. This resulted in prevention of basic
compound tailing without any addition of common ions for elution as is required
in the conventionally endocapped [14-18]. The elution of strong basic compound,
N,N-dimethyl-p-toluidine (DMPT), can be successfully eluted without common ion
addition [14-16].
2.1.2. R e s u l t o f l i q u i d - l i q u i d e x t r a c t i o n vs. S P E for b l o o d M D A
Liquid-liquid extraction procedures have been reported describing the repeated
extraction with n-heptane-isoamyl alcohol (99:1, v/v), diethyl ether or benzene
from alkalized serum in order to prevent MDA dissociation, however the reported
recovery rate was unsatisfactory (from 70 to 80%) [26-28]. The author can admit
this recovery rate even if it is lower as far as the recovery rate has
reproducibility, but it will not be certain for reproducible recovery rate in any
case as mentioned in advance. That's why the author mentioned unsatisfactory
recovery rate. This is not always for lower figures of recovery rate. Moreover,
repeated procedure requires time-consuming, loss of recovery, troublesome
handling, copious consumption of organic solvents, hazardous to the handling
person or condensation resulting in lower recovery rate due to entrapping loss.
In the author's preliminary procedure for liquid-liquid extraction, one part of
alkalized serum was extracted twice with seven parts of a mixture of chloroform
and methanol at a ratio of 3/1 (v/v) and a satisfactory recovery of blood serum
MDA was attained (98% in average, n=3) [11]. This procedure was often used for
88
lipid extraction in biochemistry, but this indicated troublesome procedure. Next,
the author innovated a more efficient method, in which only two to three parts of
acetonitrile was added to one part of blood serum at a volume ratio for
deproteinization and MDA extraction. This procedure required only single
extraction and showed a satisfactory recovery of blood MDA (99% in average,
n=5) (Figure 6) [8-10]. The reason why acetonitrile was thought to be satisfactory
is because acetonitrile is an efficient deproteinization reagent as well as an
efficient solvent of MDA. Most liquid-liquid extraction procedures for blood were
required centrifugation after deproteinization, supernatant condensation of
excessive organic solvent and the repeated extraction. The condensation by
vacuum evaporation was undesirable due to MDA instability upon heating and
loss of recovery [12-13], therefore SPE for blood MDA was studied as an
alternative and more reliable pretreatment method.
Serum p r e t r e a t m e n t using l i q u i d - liquid extraction method

One volume serum
add three volumes CH3CN
shaking for 60 min
centrifuge at 4000 rpm for 20 min
The supernatant collected
vacuum evaporation at 50~

redissolved in one ml MeOH
20 ~1 applied to HPLC
Figure 6. Liquid- liquid extraction method for blood MDA.
In general, SPE is easy to handle, to prepare for an automated system and

requires less solvent consumption, deproteinization, centrifugation, and
condensation are usually unnecessary. It is more important to keep in mind that
one cycle t r e a t m e n t with SPE will be almost identical to several tens of
thousands of liquid-liquid extraction treatment. Therefore, SPE t r e a t m e n t of
blood MDA was speculated to be superior to liquid-liquid extraction method. The
comparison of the eluent selection of several SPE columns was examined [8-9]. It
is important that so often condensation procedure is unnecessary as far as the
89
eluent volume was less than the added volume to SPE column. Eluent volume
should be at least two to three times more than void volume of SPE column,
otherwise no successful elution attained. For example, 100 mg of Bond Elut | C18
SPE resin from Varian Co. (Harbor City, CA) has 120 pl, thus at least 240 to
360 ~1 as an eluent volume will be required for successful elution.
In the elution of blood MDA, SPE columns examined were Bond Elut | C-l,
C-2, C-8, C-18, Phenyl, Cyclohexyl, Silica, and strong cation-exchange (SCX) for
recovery of blood MDA (Table 1) [8-9]. Reverse phase columns (C-l, C-2, G-8,
G-18, Phenyl and Cyclohexyl) with a resin weight and void volume of 100 mg and
120 ~1, respectively, were used. These columns were conditioned with 2 ml of
methanol and rinsed with 2 ml of water. Thereafter, one ml of serum was applied
to the conditioned columns and rinsed with water. The columns MDA retained
were eluted with 250 pl of methanol containing 1 M NH4OH. The drain was
trapped and 10 pl were applied to HPLC (Figure 4). Conditioning, rinsing and
elution were carried out by a vacuum system using Iwaki Co. vacuum pump from
Tokyo [8-9].
C-l, C-2, C-8 and Silica columns indicated lower MDA recovery rates, whereas
C-18, Phenyl and Cyclohexyl columns produced satisfactory recovery rates
(Table 1). The lower recovery rates by C-1, C-2, C-8 and Silica columns and
higher recovery rates by C-18, Phenyl and Cyclohexyl columns were speculated
that the van der Waals binding and x-x interactions between benzene rings would
be major factors for retention of MDA to SPE columns, while the binding of MDA
to free silanol was not major due to lower recovery rate by Silica column (12%
recovery, Table 1). This was thought to be due to water in serum interfering the
combination of MDA to silanol. Recovery rate among C-l, C-2 and C-8 columns
increased with increasing hydrophobicity of the columns (56% recovery for C-l,
75% for C-2 and 90% for C-8), which was thought to be due to increase of van der
Waals binding capacity [8-9].
The cation exchange column produced a sufficiently recovery rate (Table 1),
but requires a more complicated conditioning procedure t h a n a reverse phase
column. The inferiorities are acidification of blood to charge MDA positively and
centrifugation prior to SPE t r e a t m e n t [8-9].
MDA bound to the reversed phase column was not sufficiently eluted by
methanol alone or HPLC eluent (a mixture of 3 parts of 50 mM ammonium
acetate solution and 1 part of acetonitrile by volume ratio), but was almost
completely eluted by a strongly alkalized methanol solution (a mixture of
methanol and 1 M ammonium hydroxide) (Figure 3) [8-9]. The basic MDA bound
to the reversed-phase column was normally speculated to elute more favorably
after MDA was acidified to charge positively MDA. Based on this speculation, the
author initially carried out an elution experiment using an acidified methanol.
However, the results were opposite to the speculated intention, indicating the
recovery rate was lower than alkalized methanol (recovery rate for methanol
alone was 6.8%, acidified methanol was 10.2% and alkalized methanol was 100%,
Figure 3).
90
The precise reason why the alkalized methanol was superior to the acidified
methanol was not yet well clarified, which was the major subject in this chapter
to consider, the author's speculation based on experimental result are:
alkalization will depress MDA charge and stimulate silanol dissociation and
acidification will be opposite. From this, of which amine charge in MDA or silanol
charge will play more essential role for elution. According to the recovery result of
the silica column (12% recovery), binding of MDA to silanol will not be
significant. Acidified MDA promotes charging amine of MDA, but this does not
result in favorable recovery (recovery rate of 10.2%). Therefore, it will be
concluded that both amine and silanol will not be essential factors to be
considered.
Finally, the author considers the satisfactory result by alkalized methanol may
be due to common ion effect. If so, elution mechanism is quite simple t h a n ever
been speculated, however initial speculation method, which is opposite to
common ion effect, was so often reported for recommendable SPE eluents.
F u r t h e r speculation is that acidification was insufficient to reduce blood pH due
to blood buffer function at pH 7.4, positively charged MDA may partly bind to
dissociated residual silanol in SPE column (this was not completely confirmed
and this was from lower recovery by acidification) or positively charged MDA may
not be sufficiently dissolved in hydrophobic eluent. If the last reason will be
correct, why favorable result by alkalized methanol was attained successful
result can be clarified. That's the undissociated MDA will be more favorably
dissolved in hydrophobic eluent. Thus, the author considers two major reasons for
favorable result using alkalized MDA. One is for favorable dissolution to the
organic solvent (methanol) eluent of MDA and the other is for common ion effect.
These speculation might not be correct, but the experimental result has a
significant reproducibility, therefore nobody can deny the importance of the
author's finding from the reproducible experimental result.
From this speculation when determining optimum elution condition, we should
simultaneously take into consideration the following factors: chemical charge
situation in the eluent for the compound of interest, chemical and physical
properties of the eluent and SPE column characteristics and the behavior of
residual silanol. The above indicates many factors must be simultaneously
considered for favorable retention and elution.
2.2. Residual toxic c o m p o u n d s in blood from PMMA dental m a t e r i a l s

2.2.1. Analytical c o n d i t i o n s
2.2.1.1. MMA, DMPT and BPO analysis
The column for MMA, DMPT and BPO analysis was Capcell Pak | C-18 SG-120
from Siseido Co. in Tokyo. This column was completely endocapped with silicone
coating as being mentioned in advance. The eluent was a mixed solution of water
and acetonitrile at a ratio of 1/1 (v/v). No common ion was added. The flow rate
was 1.2 ml/min. Detection was UV at 235 nm [14-17].
91
2.2.1.2.BA analysis
BA analysis was as follows: a Capcell Pak | C-18 AG-120 column was used with
an eluent of a mixture of acidified aqueous solution of water and acetonitrile at a
ratio of 4/1 (v/v) adjusted to pH 3 with acetic acid. Acidification is for BA
depression, otherwise BA will be eluted before void volume. Detection was by UV
at 235 nm. The rest of the procedure was identical to MMA, DMPT and BPO
analysis.
2.2.1.3. Newly found toxic compound analysis

Methanol extract of dental material fabricated at room temperature of
Yunifast | from GC Co., Tokyo, was used for unidentified compound analysis.
Using the gradient elution of HPLC shown later in this section, many compounds
including MMA, DMPT and BPO were eluted (Figure 9). Total peaks eluted were
not completely identified, but identified compounds were shown as follows:
aniline, N-methyl p-toluidine, p-toluidine, BA, 3-carboxy 4N-methyl amino
toluene, 2-carboxy 4-N-methyl amino toluene, 2-carboxy 4-amino toluene
(3-amino 6-methylbenzoic acid), 3-carboxy 4-amino toluene
(2-amino
5-methylbenzoic acid), 2-hydroxy DMPT, 3-hydroxy DMPT, 2,3-epoxy DMPT, and
o and p-N-methyl amino benzoic acid were identified (Figure 10).
In this chapter, hydroxy DMPT and epoxy DPMT was discussed in detail for
reproducible determination.
The hydroxide derivatives of DMPT were synthesized by the author as follows:
Each five gram of 2-amino- 5 methyl-phenol or 3-amino- 6 methyl phenol,
10 gram of methyl iodide (methylating reagent) and 5 gram of potassium
hydroxide were refluxed for 120 hours with stirring in 100 ml of
anhydromethylethyl ketone. After cooling of the reaction mixture, 300 ml of
water was added for dissolution and neutralized, thereafter 300 ml of
diethylether was added to extract the hydrophobic compounds. Ether layer was
separated and evaporated. The residue after evaporation was distilled at vacuum
condition. Thus,
3-hydroxy-4-dimethylamino toluene
and
2-hydroxy-4dimethylamino toluene, both of which are DMPT hydroxide compounds, were
successfully prepared. No methoxy or benzene- methylated compounds were
synthesized in this procedure. In place of methyl iodide, the use of
dimethylsulphonic acid was one candidate for methylation reagent. As the
methylation ability of the latter reagent was so strong that not only amino group,
but also aromatic hydroxy group (phenolic OH) was also methylated, therefore
methyl iodide was used for selective methylation reaction.
Additionally, the 3-carboxy 4-N-methyl amino toluene and 2-carboxy 4-Nmethyl amino toluene were prepared as follows: Each five gram of 3-carboxy
4-amino toluene (2-amino 5-methylbenzoic acid) or 2-carboxy 4-amino toluene
(3-amino 6-methylbenzoic acid), five gram of methyl iodide and five gram of
potassium hydroxide were refluxed for 120 hours with stirring in 100 ml of
anhydrous methylethylketone. Thus, 3-carboxy-4-N-dimethyl amino toluene,
2-carboxy-4-N-dimethyl amino toluene, 2-carboxy 4-N-methylamino toluene and
92
3-carboxy 4-N-methylamino toluene were prepared without production of
methoxy compounds. After cooling of reaction mixtures, 300 ml of water was
added for dissolution and neutralized, thereafter the mixture was extracted with
300 ml of diethylether. The residue after evaporation was distilled at vacuum
condition. Most of 3-carboxy-4-N-dimethyl amino toluene and 2-carboxy-4-Ndimethyl amino toluene were remained in aqueous layer and 2-carboxy 4-Nmethylamino toluene and 3-carboxy 4-N-methylamino toluene were mostly
extracted with diethytether.
The 3-carboxy-4-N-dimethyl amino toluene and 2-carboxy-4-N-dimethyl amino
toluene were eluted later in Capcell Pak | C 18 SG-120 HPLC than 2-carboxy
4-N-methylamino toluene and 3-carboxy 4-N-methylamino toluene. They were
chromatographically separated and collected individually using collection scale
C-18 column (50x250 mm, linear velocity was identical to that of analytical
column). MS fragmentation spectra and HPLC retention time of these
synthesized compounds coincide with unknown compounds, therefore the
chemical structure of unidentified compounds can be successfully identified.
As these compounds have two opposite functional groups of aromatic amine
and carboxyl, therefore appropriate SPE procedure is still under research and the
reproducible result will be reported in future.
The linear gradient elution was carried out using a mixture of 10 mM
ammonium acetate/acetonitrile combined with HPLC column of Capcel Pak | C 18
UG 120A (4.6mmx250mm). For 40 min, ratio of 10 mM ammonium
acetate/acetonitrile was changed from 9/1 to 1/9. In order to increase sensitivity
by MS detection, ammonium acetate was added to the eluent, therefore the
addition of ammonium acetate was not for common ion effect, but for increasing
MS detection sensitivity. Flow rate was 1 ml/min, detection was by UV at 235 nm
and 10 pl of methanol extract of Yunifast | was injected to HPLC of HP 1050 |
from Hulett Packard Co. and HPLC was connected with MS of TSQ 7000 | from
Finniganmat Co. at atmosphere pressure chemical ionization mode (APCI). The
information of mother ion molecular weight and MS fragmentation by HPLC-MSMS mode was obtained and based on these information, chemical structure was
successfully identified.
2.2.1.4. Identification of chemical structure of newly found toxic

compounds
Reproducible separation of hydrophilic compounds was attained from BA to
MMA using linear gradient elution. Using this separation method, chemical
structure of unidentified compounds eluted from BA to MMA was identified.
Using HPLC-MS at APCI mode, only information of mother molecular weight
was obtained, therefore HPLC-MS-MS mode was essential to identify chemical
structure from chemical fragmentation information. Inferiority of HPLC-MS at
APCI mode was that hydrophobic compounds were not sufficiently detected,
however unidentified compounds in this case were DMPT derivatives, therefore
93
as they have aromatic
successfully detected.
amine
in their chemical structure,
so they were
2.2.1.5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of u n i d e n t i f i e d c o m p o u n d in saliva
Each three sheet of 3215
cm of Yunifast | was immersed in 10 ml of saliva
and the a m o u n t eluted to saliva was determined. P r e t r e a t m e n t of newly
identified DMPT derivatives was carried out using SPE C-18 column with an
identical m a n n e r to DMPT p r e t r e a t m e n t procedure.
2.2.1.6. SPE p r o c e d u r e of MMA, DMPT and h y d r o x y DMPT in saliva

In saliva, BPO was not existed as it is and immediately transformed to BA,
therefore BPO in saliva was determined as BA in the following section.
There have not been reported on SPE with a satisfactory recovery of MMA,
DMPT, BA from BPO and hydroxy DMPT in saliva. Epoxy DMPT was also
immediately transformed to hydroxy DMPT in saliva. SPE column used was
Bond Elut | C-18 with a void volume and resin weight of 120 ~1 and 1 100 mg,
respectively.
SPE t r e a t m e n t of MMA, DMPT and hydroxy DMPT was as follows: the C-18
column was conditioned with 2 ml of acetonitrile and 2 ml of 50 mM phosphate
buffer at pH 7.5. Thereafter, one ml of saliva was applied to the conditioned
column, vacuumed, rinsed with 0.5 ml of 50 mM phosphate buffer at pH 7.5 and
eluted with one ml of an alkalized acetonitrile with 50 mM phosphate buffer at
pH 8. The drain was trapped and 20 pl were applied to HPLC. Conditioning,
rinsing and elution were carried out by a vacuum system identical to the system
described in 2.1.2.
2.2.1.7. SPE p r o c e d u r e of BA in saliva

As mentioned above, BPO was stable in methanol, but when contacting with
saliva or DMPT, BPO was immediately transformed to BA, therefore even though
BA was not originally utilized in PMMA fabrication, but BA was existed as a sort
of artifact from BPO.
SPE procedure of BA in saliva was as follows: depression of ionization of BA
was necessary to r e t a i n in reverse-phase columns. Thus, an acetic acid aqueous
solution at pH 3 was added to the sample solution at a volume ration of 1/1 and
mixed well prior to SPE application and carried out as follows: Bond Elut | C-18
column was conditioned with 2 ml of acetonitrile and 2 ml of acetic acid aqueous
solution at pH 3. One ml of saliva was applied to the conditioned column. Saliva
was two-fold diluted with an acetic acid aqueous solution at pH 3 prior to the
conditioned column application. Thereafter, they were vacuumed, rinsed with
0.5 ml of acetic acid aqueous solution at pH 3 and eluted with one ml of
acetonitrile acidified with acetic acid at pH 2.5. The drain was trapped and 20 pl
were applied to HPLC. Conditioning, rinsing and elution were carried out by a
vacuum system identical to the system described in 2.1.2.
94
2.2.2. R e s u l t o f l i q u i d - l i q u i d e x t r a c t i o n vs. S P E of MMA, DMPT, B P O a n d

BA in b l o o d
Liquid-liquid extraction was carried out by adding an identical volume of
acetonitrile to serum for deproteinization and extraction of MMA and DMPT. The
MMA peak showed an insufficient separation from serum a d m i x t u r e s in HPLC
and insufficient recoveries of MMA and DMPT (84% and 62% for MMA and
DMPT, respectively, n=3) [9,17]. Therefore, an alternative method, SPE, was
studied.
There have not been reported on SPE with a satisfactory recovery of blood
MMA, DMPT or BA. SPE column used was Bond Elut | C-18 with a void volume
and resin weight of 120 ~1 and 100 mg, respectively. SPE t r e a t m e n t of blood
MMA, DMPT and BPO was already mentioned in analytical section of 2.2.1.6
[17]. The reason of the use of phosphate buffer at pH 7.5 was to depress
ionization of DMPT, strong basic compound, but at pH 7.5 ionization of DMPT
was incompletely depressed. However, due to characteristics of silica dissolution
over pH 8, eluent pH over 8 was not selected. As mentioned in 2.2.1.1, DMPT
analysis was successfully a t t a i n e d without using phosphate buffer eluent. This is
mostly due to the use of newly innovated column of Capcell P a k | which is
completely endocapped.
SPE of blood BA from BPO was also already mentioned in analytical section of
2.2.1.7 [17].
Concerning the SPE eluent of BA, acetonitrile, alkalized acetonitrile
containing 50 mM sodium hydroxide or acidified acetonitrile adjusted to pH 2.5
with acetic acid were compared for eluting from SPE column. Acetonitrile alone
showed an insufficient recovery (80%). Alkalized acetonitrile and acidified
acetonitrile indicated 85% or 100% recovery, respectively, therefore acidified
acetonitrile was superior to alkalized acetonitrile (Figure 7) [17]. The successful
reason using an alkalized eluent for BA elution was mostly due to an identical
reason mentioned in SPE for MDA elution. These are favorable dissolution to the
SPE eluent and common ion effect. F u r t h e r speculation was t h a t acidified
solution was used during conditioning, so alkalinity m a y be suppressed due to
acidified circumstances. As being confirmed in Figure 7, no BA detection was in
native blood. BPO in blood was also no detection in native blood [9].
In SPE of blood MMA, DMPT and BPO, 50 mM phosphate buffer at pH 7.5
was used for column conditioning. The use of water or more t h a n 50 mM
phosphate buffer resulted in a lower recovery [17]. This is because an insufficient
depression of DMPT ionization by w a t e r alone and excessive buffer ions at more
t h a n 50 mM m a y interfere with DMPT retention on the column. In DMPT
elution, alkalized acetonitrile (phosphate buffer at pH 8) was more effective t h a n
acetonitrile or acidified acetonitrile due to the identical reason mentioned in SPE
for MDA or BA elution. These are favorable dissolution to the eluent and common
ion effect (Figure 8). F u r t h e r speculation was t h a t alkalized solution was used
during conditioning, so acidity m a y be suppressed due to alkalized circumstances.
95
(a)
(b)
Serum blank
BA from BPO (2.2 ppm)

in serum
min
min
Figure 7. SPE of BA from BPO in serum using SPE C18 column: (a) 11 mg of BPO was
added to 50 ml of a mixed aqueous solution of water and acetonitrile at a ratio of 20/1.100 gl
added to 1900 ~tl of serum to obtain 1 l ppm (~g/ml) serum solution. This was 5-fold diluted
with an acetic acid aqueous solution at pH 3. One ml applied to the conditioned c l 8 SPE
column with 100% recovery of BA from BPO. SPE and HPLC conditions refer to the text; (b)
one ml of 5-fold diluted native serum with an acetic acid aqueous solution at pH 3 was treated
and recovered. This applied to HPLC. The result indicates no interference by serum
admixtures with the elution of BA.
MDPT
(11 ppm)
,
MMA
(a) standard
MDPT
(b) serum
(c) serum blank
Figure 8. SPE of MDA and DMPT from SPE C18 column: (a) 1 lmg of MMA and DMPT
were added to 50ml of a mixed aqueous solution of water and acetonitrile at a ratio of 20/1.
100~tl added to 1900~tl of water to obtain 1 l ppm (pg/ml) solution. One ml applied to the
conditioned SPE C 18 column with 100% recovery. SPE and HPLC condition refer to the text;
(b) identical to (a) excepting that 100~tl of solution were added to 19001.d of serum in place of
water to obtain 1 l ppm (lag/ml) serum solution. One ml applied to the conditioned C18 SPE
column with 100% recovery; (c) one ml of a native serum was treated, recovered and applied
to HPLC. The result indicated no interference by serum admixtures with the elution of MMA
and DMPT.
95
As being confirmed in Figure 8, no detection of MMA and DMPT was in native
blood.
Acetonitrile also produced a satisfactory recovery for MMA (neutral
compound), but not so much for DMPT (strong basic compound), which will be
reasonably understood [17]. The favorable recovery reason for DMPT was due to
identical reason for SPE eluention of MDA or BA. As MMA is a neutral
compound, so it will not be effected by eluent pH.
As being mentioned previously in SPE eluent for basic compound of MDA, it
was thought to elute more favorably by treating MDA with an acidic solvent by
charging positively the retained MDA for easily removal from the solid resin.
However, the experimental result was opposite to the initially speculated result,
indicating that the recovery rate with acidified methanol was lower t h a n
alkalized methanol. As mentioned in advance, similar phenomena have been
observed in SPE elution of DMPT and BA in PMMA dental materials [17].
Favorable results have been produced, both when acidic acetonitrile was used for
elution of acidic compound of BA and when alkalized acetonitrile was used for
elution of basic compound of DMPT [17].
These results were different from already reported results for the choice of SPE
eluent, however it is important that these experimental data have
reproducibility, thus it has any sound scientific rationale as being speculated in
advance. Sound reason to be considered is common ion effect and favorable
dissolution of the compounds of interest to the SPE eluent. This speculation may
not be correct, however it is certain that reproducible experimental results were
obtained using these SPE elution, which was most important in scientific study.
The author considers that any experimental results with reproducibility will be
much superior to only speculation without any experimental proof or computer
simulation because speculation is speculation and simulation is simulation.
Computer simulation cannot predict any interference peak elution with
undefined retention time and it will not be useful when determining the
compound of interest in complicated matrix such as blood or dirty environmental
matters.
2.2.3. R e s u l t of d e n t a l m a t e r i a l a n a l y s i s
Figure 9 shows MS MH (one protonated mother ion) chromatogram (upper)
and HPLC gradient chromatogram (lower) of methanol extract detected by UV
(235 nm). Figure 10 shows the chemical structure of identified compounds.
Concerning SPE procedure, if compounds have carboxy group, they were
treated with identical m a n n e r to BA treatment. If the compound of interest has
no carboxy group in the chemical structure, identical SPE m a n n e r to MMA,
DMPT and BPO will be utilized.
When both carboxyl and amine groups exist in the chemical structure as is the
case of newly identified compound, further study will be required far appropriate
SPE procedure.
97
100
8O
6o
40
20
0
100 -
E+07
1.188
+Q1MS
,,
- _
....
elL_
1.0 AU
UV (23 5nm)
8060-
20 2
0
40
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Scan number
Figure 9. HPLC-MS MH + chromatogram BA: scan number of 130. Compounds of g): scan
numbers of around 200 and 300, compounds of f): scan numbers of 340 and 460, compounds
of e): scan numbers of around 520 and around 630 and compounds of a): scan numbers of
around 580 and 590. Compound of b): scan number of 620. DMPT: scan number of around
810. MMA: scan number of around 610. 2,3-epoxy DMPT: scan number of around 340. One
scan number corresponds to retention time of 2 seconds.
H3C\ /CH 3
H\ /CH 3
~H2
COOHl
@@
a)
CH3
b)
HXN/C H3
CH3
~ H2
c)
d)
HXN/C H3
@]-1COOH~~~--COO~t~~--COOH
CH3
e) CH3
g)
Figure 10. Chemical structure of compounds of a) to g). Compounds a) 2-hydroxy 4dimethylamino toluene; b) N-methyl p-toluidine; c) aniline; d) BA; e) 3-carboxy 4-N-methyl
amino toluene and 2-carboxy 4-N-methyl amino toluene; f) 2-carboxy 4-amino toluene (3amino 6-methylbenzoic acid); g) o- and p-N-methyl amino benzoic acids.
98
Neutral compound of MMA and BPO was not affected to pH of eluent, so MMA
and BPO elution were used identical procedure to DMPT procedure. The hydroxy
DMPT has phenolic OH, but this acidity is weak, therefore this functional group
was not effected so much for elution. The SPE procedure of epoxy DMPT will be
identical to that of original DMPT.
2.2.3.1. Result of newly identified compounds

The newly identified compounds of hydroxy DMPT were recognized to elute
from BA to MMA elution. BA elution was confirmed by MH- (mother ion minus
one proton). On the contrary, MMA and BPO, which were neutral compound,
were hot detected by MS (MH and MH-) at APCI mode due to less vaporization
characteristic. The elution of newly found compounds of hydroxy DMPT was
confirmed by MS (MH+), HPLC with UV detection and also confirmed by
coincidence of elution time with standard compounds synthesized.
Unidentified hydrophilic compounds were determined their chemical structure
as hydroxylated derivative of DMPT, 2,3 epoxy DMPT and carboxylated DMPT
derivatives from their molecular weight and MS fragmentation pattern as well as
coincidence of elution time of standard compounds. The molecular weight of 2 or 3
hydroxylated DMPT and 2,3 epoxy DMPT were 151,151 and 149 daltons and
their retention time was 6.7 min, 10 min and 11.5 min, respectively. The
retention time of BA, MMA and DMPT was 4.3 min, 20.3 min and 27 min,
respectively.
The elution of N-methyl-p-toluidine, which was not reported so far, was also
confirmed to be eluted just after MMA elution. The retention time of this
compound was 20.7 min and that of MMA was 20.3 min. The elution of this
compound was confirmed from its fragmentation by MS. These compounds were
confirmed from methanol extract of Yunifast | as well as the mixed solution of
DMPT and BPO. This possibility indicates that unidentified compounds may be
produced from the reaction of DMPT and BPO during PMIViA fabrication. This
compound was also treated with identical SPE manner to DMPT t r e a t m e n t of
SPE.
The 2,3 epoxy DMPT was stable in methanol solution, but when contacted
with saliva, the epoxy compound changed immediately to 2 or 3 hydroxy DMPT.
It was recognized that BPO was immediately converted to BA when BPO was
contacted with saliva or DMPT. As 2,3 epoxy DMPT and BPO were highly
reactive, therefore these were speculated to indicate high toxicity.
The degree of toxicity was not always parallel to the eluted amount. For
example, serum extraction of MMA, DMPT and BA from Yunifast | was
32.04 }~g/g, 66.44 pg/g and 2.3 pg/g, however the cytotoxicity data of IC50 (pg/ml)
of MMA, DMPT, BA and BPO using Balb 3T3 cell was 4400,1500, 28.7 and 22,
indicating elution amount was not always parallel to cytotoxicity result. It is a
problem that epoxide compound is thought to indicate the greatest toxicity, but
as this compound will be transformed to hydroxy compound immediately when
99
contacting with saliva or blood, therefore the cytotoxicity test of epoxide
compound was not successfully attained.
The hydroxy DMPT compounds found in saliva were the total of originally
existed in saliva plus those from 2,3 epoxy DMPT, but the differentiation of origin
of these compounds in saliva was extremely difficult and the effort for
differentiation was meaningless. The eluted amount of 2 hydroxy DMPT and
3 hydroxy DMPT into saliva in successive three days was 10.7 pg/g and 15.8 ~g/g
(n=3), respectively. The amount of epoxy DMPT in saliva was not attained due to
transformation to hydroxy DMPT immediately when contacting with saliva. The
elution of successive three days will be minimum due to putrefaction of saliva for
further period immersion, thus real elution amount will be much greater due to
much longer period contact with dental material with saliva or blood through
teeth.
The BPO in saliva was determined as BA at 3.5 ~g/g.
2.3. B l o o d u r e a - p r e t r e a t m e n t a n d a n a l y t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s
2.3.1. U l t r a f i l t r a t i o n
Author's blood was sampled for blood urea analysis. Native blood and
denatured blood with acid were centrifuged for ultrafiltration at 13,000 rpm
(10,000 g) for 40 to 60 minutes and the s u p e r n a t a n t was applied to p r e t r e a t m e n t
method. Ultrafiltrator used was Kokusan Co. H-1300 | in Tokyo. Membrane of
ultrafiltration is Centrifree | from Amicon Co. made of cellulose with cut-off
molecular weight of 10,000 daltons. Native blood and denatured blood are for
analysis of free and total urea, respectively.
2.3.2. A u t o m a t e d S P E
For p r e t r e a t m e n t method, an automated SPE and a dialysis were compared.
SPE of blood was as follows: S u p e r n a t a n t after ultrafiltration was applied to
the conventional strong cation exchange column (H type) of Bond Elut | SCX
(500 mg of resin weight and 0.6 ml of void volume). The SCX column was
conditioned with 3 ml of methanol followed by 3 ml of water at a flow rate of
3 ml/min. One ml of blood was applied to the conditioned SCX column at a flow
rate of 0.3 ml/min and rinsed with 1 m! of water at a flow rate of 3 ml/min. The
retained urea to the SCX column was eluted with 4 ml of 5% phosphoric acid at
the flow rate of 1 ml/min. These procedures were carried out using the automated
SPE equipment of BenchMate | from Zymark Co. (Hopkinton, MA) controlled SPE
procedures with computer [29]. Automated SPE was much superior to manual
type SPE in terms of pressure control, which will significantly affect to variation
of recovery rate.
2.3.3. A u t o m a t e d d i a l y s i s
Automated dialysis was carried out as follows: The ASTED | and the trace
enrichment column (TEC | from Gilson Co. (Villers-le-Bel, France) were used. A
polymer-based strong cation-exchange resin column (Na type) was used for TEC |
100
which served for condensing dialysate. The resin weight was 20 mg. The column
was conditioned with 1.5 ml of 1 M sulfuric acid followed by 0.9 ml of water at a
flow rate of 2 ml/min. The other conditions were as follows: dilutor 1, 0.01%
TritonX 100; dilutor 2, 5 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.4). The cut-off molecular
weight for dialysis membrane made of cellulose was 15,000 daltons [29].
2.3.4. H P L C c o n d i t i o n
Urea analysis by conventional strong cation exchange resin column (H type)
was carried out as follows: After pretreatment, sample solution was applied to
the conventional strong cation exchange resin column of MCI GEL CK 08S | from
Toso Co., 4.6
mm, 11-14 pm particle diameter. Other conditions were as
follows: eluent, 1 mM HCI solution; flow rate, 1 ml/min; detection, 200 nm,
application volume, 20 pl; column temperature, 35~ HPLC equipment and UV
detector used were PU-980 | and PU-970 | respectively, from Nihonbunko Co. in
Tokyo.
The comparison of separation efficiency between ion chromatography use
column with smaller capacity and conventional strong cation exchange resin
column with greater capacity was studied and the result will be described later
[30].
2.3.5. MECC c o n d i t i o n of b l o o d u r e a a n a l y s i s
MECC analysis was carried out as follows: running buffer constitute, 75 mM
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS),10 mM hydrogenphosphate, 6 mM tetraborate, pH
9.2; voltage: 25 kV, current: 70 ~1; effective capillary length: 68 cm, inner
diameter 75 ~m. MECC equipment is CAPI-3100 | with photodiodearray detector
from Otsuka Electronics Co. (Osaka, Japan).
2.3.6. S u p e r c r i t i c a l fluid e x t r a c t i o n of b l o o d u r e a a n a l y s i s
As other pretreatment method, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) will be
available [32]. However, this method has a restriction mostly to vaporizable
hydrophobic compound extraction. As urea is hydrophilic, so current SFE
technique is not effective for urea extraction. If this restriction will be conquered,
this pretreatment method for isolation as well as purification will be more
appropriate as extract is liquid gas, therefore it is unnecessary for evaporation
and condensation.
2.3.7. R e s u l t of a u t o m a t e d S P E of b l o o d u r e a
Blood is a complicated matrix, indicating that blood contains many compounds
to interfere urea analysis. In order to attain satisfactory separation with
sufficient resolution free from blood admixtures, blood urea must be pretreated.
The recovery of blood urea from SPE cation exchange column was almost 100%.
No or quite lass recovery of urea was attained when using reversed-phase column
such as C-18 column [20-22]. This means urea did not retain sufficiently on the
reverse phase columns because urea was highly hydrophilic compound. In case of
101
C-18 column, urea was eluted at around void volume without separation from
blood hydrophilic admixtures. That's why the author used complicated column
switching method combined with urease immobilized column for post column
Indophenol colorimetry in his previous study [22]. This method itself at that time
was valuable with new information, however it has originally inferiority that the
method was not easily applicable to routine analysis due to its complexity, which
was a weak point of the author's previous method [22]. At t h a t time when this
paper [22] or precolumn method paper [21] were published in 1985-1986, column
switching method was carried out manually by calculating the switching time.
Recently an automated column switching equipment is available in the market,
therefore by applying this innovated automated column switching equipment to
the author's previous set-up method, previous manual method will be more easily
applicable for routine analysis of urenic toxin determination.
SPE procedure for blood urea was carried out by acidified condition as SCX
column was used. In order to elute urea successfully, stronger acidity eluent will
be appropriate for both benefit of successful elution and transforming to N type of
SCX column. In SPE t r e a t m e n t of blood urea, p r e t r e a t m e n t mechanism and
column differed from MDA, BA and DMPT used. P r e t r e a t m e n t mechanism and
column used for MDA, BA and DMPT procedure were partition mechanism and
reverse phase columns. Those for urea are ion exchange mechanism and cation
exchange column. This is because acidic eluent was successful for weekly basic
compound of urea. As being mentioned in advance, urea can't be successfully
treated with reverse phase columns because urea did not retain on them
successfully [20-22].
Differential analysis of free from bound urea can be attained by ultrafiltration.
Far differential analysis of bound from free urea, ultrafiltration using
centrifugation is one method. The alternative method is dialysis.
2.3.8. R e s u l t o f a u t o m a t e d
d i a l y s i s m e t h o d for b l o o d u r e a
Ultrafiltration can be replaceable to dialysis. Using the automated dialysis of

ASTED | dialyzate was condensed on the condensed column (TEC | enrichment
column). The compounds accumulated on the condensed column (TEC | column,
strong cation exchange column with Na type) were eluted with 1 mM H C1 of
HPLC eluent, which is identical to SPE t r e a t m e n t based on same reason [29].
HPLC chromatograms after strong cation exchange automated SPE and the
automated dialysis were presented in Figures 11 and 12, respectively [29].
Urea was determined using standard addition method (Figure 13) [29]. The
cross point to horizontal line (x line) is the endogenous urea amount determined.
When compared SPE and dialysis chromatograms (Figures 11,12), urea peak
was separated with baseline separation from blood admixtures in both cases. If
mentioning in detail, in the chromatogram after SPE t r e a t m e n t (Figure 11) only
urea was eluted with sufficient separation from other blood admixtures eluted in
void volume, indicating no compounds interfered blood urea analysis. However, in
102
~.
o~.
Ca)
o
"~176 k_.___A
O
;> -1.20
(b)
e,i
-1.20
O~ - 1.60 ~
-1.60
lake_-
-2.00
__
.~
.....
0.00
-2.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
0.00
Time (min)
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
Time (min)
Figure 11. HPLC chromatogram after automated SPE treatment (a) blank blood, (b) spiked
urea to blood at the concentration of 0.1 mg/ml.
100.00
80.00
60.00 -
40.00 -
20.00 -
O. O0
- ~
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
'
5.00
6.00
Time (min)
Figure 12. HPLC chromatogram of blood after pretreatment with automated dialysis.
case of dialysis (Figure 12), urea can be separated anyhow with baseline
separation from blood admixtures, therefore if blood sample, column capacity,
column lot, urea a m o u n t or any other factors will differ, there is a possibility t h a t
baseline separation in urea analysis m a y not be attained.
Inferior point of dialysis was a lower recovery rate of blood urea at around 10%
mostly depending on TEC | capacity r a t h e r t h a n dialysis system, so by improving
TEC | capacity, this problem will be resolved. However, it will r e m a i n the
problem as follows: if TEC | capacity m a y differ, separation efficiency has a
possibility to be diminished and peak broadening m a y be more significant,
103
250000
200000
o
150000
o
100000
50000
400
800
1200
1600
2000
Concentration (~tg/ml)
Figure 13. Calibration curve of spiked urea after dialysis treatment with ASTED |
thus separation efficiency of chromatogram after dialysis will be required to be
improved because dialysis chromatogram of Figure 12 indicated a sufficient base
line separation from admixtures, but an insufficient separation of urea from blood
admixtures may occur if TEC | capacity may change [29]. Reverse elution is an
alternative approach to resolve successfully without diminishing separation
efficiency.
Automated dialysis and automated SPE equipments, ASTED | and ASTEC |
from Gilson Co., respectively, can be connectable to HPLC for on-line analysis.
Additionally if an autosampler will be installed to them, the automated
pretreatment system can be attained successfully. The hyphenated and
automated set-up system with autosampler-automated SPE or automated
dialysis and HPLC in combination will currently be available in the market.
For the author it is additionally desirable to obtain the on-line autocentrifugation (ultrafiltration) system for differentiation of free from bound type
compounds in blood. However, this kind of equipment is not available in the
current market. This hyphenated technique will be desirable for routine analysis
in clinical analysis.
2.3.9. Result of u r e a a n a l y s i s w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l s t r o n g c a t i o n e x c h a n g e
resin c o l u m n
As reported in the cited literatures from 19 to 22 as well as already mentioned
in the text in advance, simultaneous uremic toxin analysis of urea, uric acid,
creatinine and methylguanidine was carried out with reverse phase column
combined with complicated column switching method and online immobilized
urease column for post column method with Indophenol colorimetry for urea
analysis [19-22]. Among these uremic toxins, only urea did not significantly
104
retain on the reversed-phase HPLC columns [22]. This indicates reverse phase
columns are ineffective for pretreatment of blood urea.
P r e t r e a t m e n t method of blood urea with sufficient recovery has not been
reported so far, so the author considered the appropriate p r e t r e a t m e n t method of
blood urea.
In the preliminary experiment, the author carried out the experiment using an
ion chromatography column with a smaller ion exchange capacity, however the
separation of blood urea from admixtures was not satisfactory [30]. For the
alternative method, the author considered the use of the conventional strong
cation exchange column (H type) with a greater ion exchange capacity far the
differential analysis of blood urea from endogenous ammonium. Endogenous
blood urea eluted faster than endogenous ammonium in strong cation exchange
chromatogram. Urea was detected at 200-210 nm [30]. By using this procedure, a
simpler procedure for differential analysis of urea and endogenous ammonium
can be attained. Urea can be successfully separated from blood admixtures using
the conventional strong cation exchange column (H type).
2.3.10. R e m a i n e d p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the use of s t r o n g c a t i o n

e x c h a n g e resin c o l u m n
As mentioned in 2.3.9, separation of endogenous blood urea from endogenous
ammonium and admixtures can be successfully attained using a conventional
strong cation exchange resin column. The problem unresolved yet was that the
retention time of urea was unstable even though completely conditioned with
strong acid to H type for suitably prolonged period [30]. Retention time of urea
gradually increased (however, not always constantly), speculating gradually
changing to H type in the column. This will be due to existing SOaH functional
groups in the interior of pore of silica support. If any deterioration to the column
with blood may occur, shorter elution wilt be observed due to a smaller ion
exchange capacity. As being mentioned in advance, speculated reason of gradual
increase of retention time may be due to a gradual change to H type of the
interior functional group in silica pore.
This problem was observed in both cases in MCI | gel from Mitsubishi Co. and
TSK | gel from Toso Co. This phenomena were not be well reasonably clarified
and explained yet. Therefore, if the reader will determine from the peak height of
urea, this phenomena may cause a trouble to attain reliable data. When
determining from peak area using computer calculation, this problem will be
somewhat diminished, but still remains the problem how to set base-line of urea
peak. Depending on base line setting, peak area will be significantly differed,
especially if the peak indicates significant tailing, which is so often observed in
ion exchange column chromatogram for basic compound analysis.
Up to here urea analysis using HPLC has been described. In the next section,
urea analysis using capillary electrophoresis will be described.
105
2.3.11. S e p a r a t i o n
efficiency
of MECC analysis for blood urea and uric
acid
In MECC using SDS as a micellar compound over critical concentration, blood
urea migrated at around void volume overlapped with blood admixtures by direct
blood injection Figure 14, indicating undesirable separation, there other mode
such as CZE will be required. As being mentioned in advance, single urea
analysis in any matrix, urea analysis will be attained by CZE, but simultaneous
analysis of urea and other hydrophobic compounds such as uric acid will be
required MECC mode. MECC mode is identical to reverse phase HPLC mode,
therefore failure of urea analysis by MECC is identical to HPLC with C-18
column.
Furthermore, blood uric acid analysis by MECC indicated insufficient
separation of uric acid peak from blood admixtures mostly blood proteins
(Figure 14), indicating inferior to the reversed-phase HPLC (C-18 column HPLC)
0.1
0.08 -
t
U
0.06
0.04
0.02
Uric acid aqueous solution

-0.02
-0.04
I
2.2
I
2.4
I
2.6
I
2.8
I
3
I
3.2
I
3.4
I
3.6
I
3.8
Time (min)
Figure 14. MECC electropherogram of human blood serum U: urea, UA" uric acid.
Upper: human serum; lower: standard uric acid aqueous solution.
105
[19-22, 24]. This result was identical to the published paper by Schmutz and
Thormann [23]. HPLC can separate blood compounds successfully by changing
sort of columns, so in terms of blood urea analysis, HPLC was thought to be
superior to MECC for selective blood urea and uric acid analysis.
Concerning blood urea analysis, HPLC is thought to be superior to capillary
electrophoresis (CE) in terms of appropriate selection from several sort of
separation mechanisms. However, CE technology is advancing day by day,
therefore this status is not always unchanged. In case of only blood urea analysis
as being mentioned in advance, not for the simultaneous analysis of blood urea
and uric acid, CZE mode will be thought to be more appropriate [24]. CZE will be
superior to conventional isotachophoresis in terms of ion analysis.
Inferior points of CE is that capillary column utilized is only bare or coated
silica column with or without addition of critical concentration of micelle
compound for MECC for the former, indicating less selection of separation
mechanisms compared with separation mechanisms applicable to HPLC [24].
Separation time by CE was much shortened due to a greater theoretical plate
number. Sample volume of CE was much less than the conventional HPLC
excepting capillary HPLC [24]. This will be desirable for clinical analysis because
tiny sample volume is much favorable to patients. The most inferior point of CE
to be improved is less reproducibility of injection volume, migration time, peak
height and other factors affecting to the accurate determination. Less
reproducible data will not be well evaluated. When this inferiority will be
conquered by improvement with innovated and advanced technology, CE will
become a desirable analytical equipment in clinical analysis.
SPE vs. LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION AND THE FORMATION OF

ARTIFACT WITH SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Liquid-liquid extraction was a conventional pretreatment method for isolation

and purification of the compound of interest in complicated matrix. The inferior
points of this method were copious consumption of organic solvent for extraction,
requiring further condensation, which may result in loss of recovery during
evaporation condensation, time consuming due to repeated extraction or artifact
formation from compound of interest during contact with extraction solvent
[31-33].
An example of artifact formation during liquid-liquid extraction was as follows:
in case of amine compound extraction with methanol or ethylacetate,
formaldehyde from methanol causes Mannich reaction with methylol linkage to
produce amine oligomers artifact, which is more carcinogen [15-17]. They are
artifact and produce lower recovery rate of compound of interest in complicated
matrix. Formation of artifacts was prevented by replacing extraction solvent of
methanol with ethanol. Liquid-liquid extraction process required vacuum
evaporation/condensation and prolonged contact with the extraction solvent, thus
it had more possibilities to produce artifact compounds.
107
During a vacuum evaporation/condensation process, compounds of interest
were so often vaporized without being successfully trapped and may cause a
reduction of recovery rate and thermal decomposition [31-33]. Liquid-liquid
extraction required a greater amount of consumption of organic solvents, which
was hazardous to chemists. The recovery rate of single t r e a t m e n t of liquid-liquid
extraction was less t h a n recovery rate of SPE. Because single t r e a t m e n t of liquidliquid extraction was almost identical to SPE column with one theoretical plate.
In general SPE procedure did not require condensation and could be condensed
using less amount of eluent t h a n applied sample volume.
Concerning artifact formation, when ethyl acetate was used as an extraction
solvent, compounds with hydroxyl or an amino group was acetylated, which
causes a reduction of recovery rate. Artifact of acetylated compound was
generally more mutagenic and toxic, thus this may lead to misunderstanding to
the researcher that he/she may consider to extract strongly toxic compounds and
of course this will cause lower recovery rate. Analytical chemists should keep in
mind well about artifact formation during solvent extraction by reacting solvent
with the compound of interest, otherwise he/she may have misunderstanding to
extract high toxic compounds in their experiment. In that meaning almost 100%
recovery rate with reproducibility is most desirable to avoid misunderstanding,
otherwise less recovery may indicate a possibility of artifact formation during
extraction.
In order to avoid artifact formation, one approach is to replace to appropriate
extraction solvent. The other is to use SPE in place of liquid-liquid extraction.
SPE will be superior to conventional liquid-liquid extraction in terms of less
organic solvent consumption, mostly unnecessary for condensation, less
possibility of artifact formation due to shorter contact period with extraction
solvent and other benefit already mentioned. Inferiority of SPE is that if SPE
procedure is carried out manually, vacuum pressure control was very difficult,
which results in less reproducibility of recovery rate. In that meaning, automated
SPE such as BenchMate | ASPEC | or RapidTrace | will be recommendable
because these SPE equipment procedure are controlled by computer, thus
pressure control reproducibility is much superior to manually controlled SPE.
Among them, RapidTrace | from Varian Co. will be most recommendable because
it is cheapest and handy type with 10 samples t r e a t m e n t automatically in
successive run.
4.
CONCLUSIONS
Artifact formation during solvent extraction including SPE is problematic, but

this phenomena was so often overlooked. In order to avoid artifact formation to
improve recovery rate, appropriate selection of the extraction solvent, which will
be inert to the compound of interest, will be essential. In that meaning,
conventional liquid-liquid extraction has several inferiority compared with SPE,
108
therefore SPE pretreatment should be seriously considered because SPE was
superior to liquid-liquid extraction in terms of lass possibility of artifact
formation, less consumption of solvents, less experimental time, greater recovery
rate, fewer necessity of condensation, etc.
Eluent of reverse phase columns for basic or acidic compounds was different
from conventionally reported results for SPE elution. Suitable experimental
result of eluent constitute was opposite from the initially speculated eluent. It is
more important to recognize that the experimental result has reproducibility.
Reproducible result is essential as this indicates any truth in science.
Explanation of the experimental result was most probably due to common ion
effect, favorable dissolution to the eluent and other speculated reasons mentioned
in the text.
Pretreatment with several kind of procedures is identical to the treatment
done in the hospital. These are artificial dialysis, artificial filtration,
ultrafiltration or artificial adsorption. Artificial dialysis supports kidney function
and artificial adsorption supports tiny part of liver function, toxin removal. For
example, the artificial toxin removal, i.e. birillubin removal with charcoal
adsorption or with strong anion exchange resin in patient's blood for treatment, is
for applicable to pretreatment of analysis as well as maintaining h u m a n health.
When considering these, readers will recognize that adsorption, recovery,
isolation or separation were not always for analytical chemistry, but also for
clinical treatment for patient's treatment.
As newly identified toxic artifacts were found to be produced during PMMA
fabrication. These were successfully identified using HPLC-MS-MS at APCI
mode. These were derivatives of starting compounds, mostly DMPT and BPO.
During reaction of DMPT and BPO, most of newly identified compounds were
produced. Epoxy derivative compound of DMPT was further converted to other
compounds when contacting with saliva. Some artifact derivative compounds are
toxic and they have both aromatic amine and carboxyl functional groups in their
chemical structure, therefore appropriate SPE procedure must be further studied.
Eluent of reverse phase columns for basic or acidic compounds was different
from reported results by other researchers for SPE elution. The author's
experimental result indicated opposite from the initially speculated procedure,
which was identical to the already reported procedure by other researchers. More
important is to recognize that the experimental result has good reproducibility or
not. The reproducible experimental results indicate any truth of science which
the researcher may overlook in consideration. Explanation of the author's
experimental result was mostly due to common ion effect and favorable
dissolution to the eluent. This explanation may or may not be true, however
experimental result with reproducibility is true and nobody can deny the
experimental result. This is the importance of the experimental science. Due to
computer advancement, so often experiment has a tendency to be neglected, but
experimental result has an important meaning in that sense.
109
REFERENCES
I. H. Shintani, J. Biomater. Appl.,10 (1995) 23.

2. H. Shintani, J. Radiation Steril., 1 (1992) 1 I.
3. H. Shintani in L.E. Elfer (ed.), Ohio Science Workbook: POLYMERS,
The
Ohio Academy of Science, Ohio,1993, 84.
4. H. Shintani, Radiat. Phys. Chem., 47 (1996) 139.
5. H. Shintani, Polym. Degradation Stabil., 32 (1991) 17.
6. H. Shintani and N. Hirata, Radiat. Phys. Chem., 46 (1995) 377.
7. Shintani, Biomed. Instrument. Technol., 29 (1995) 513.
8. H. Shintani, J. Anal. Toxicol., 15 (1991) 198.
9. H. Shintani, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 15 (1992) 1315.
I0. H. Shintani, J. Chromatogr., 600 (1992) 93.
II. H. Shintani and A. Nakamura, Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., 333 (1989) 637.
12. H. Shintani and A. Nakamura, J. Anal. Toxicol., 13 (1989) 354.
13. H. Shintani and A. Nakamura, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 25 (1991) 1275.
14. H. Shintani, Japan J. Medical Instrumentation, 65 (1995) 249.
16. H. Shintani~ J. Liquid Chromatogr. Clin. Anal., 18 (1995) 613.
17. H. Shintani, T. Tsuchiya and A. Nakamura, J. Anal. Toxicol., 17 (1993) 73.
19. H. Shintani, A.B. Wojcik, R. Tawa and S. Uchiyama, in: S. Lain and
G. Malikin (eds.), Analytical Applications of Immobilized Enzyme Reactors,
Blackie Academic & Professional, Glasgow, UK, 1994, 13 I.
20. Shintani and H. Suzuki, in: D.L Wise (ed.), Bioinstrumentation and
Biosensors, Marcel Dekker, New York, 199 I, 18 I.
21. H. Shintani and S. Ube, J. Chromatogr., 344 (1985) 145.
22. H. Shintani, J. Chromatogr., 378 (1986) 95.
23. A. Sehmutz and W. Thormann, Electrophoresis, 15 (1994) 51.
24. H. Shintani, in: H. Shintani and J. Polonsky (eds.), Handbook of Capillary
Electrophoresis Application, Blackie Academic & Professional, London, UK,
1996, 499.
25. S. Fujiwara, H. Todoroki, H. Ohhashi, J. Toda and M. Terasaki, J. Food. Sci.,
55 (1990) 1018.
26. M. Tortoreto, P. Catalani, M. Bianchi, C. Blonda, C. Pantarotto and
S. Paglialunga, J. Chromatogr., 262 (1983) 367.
27. J. Cocker, L.C. Brown, H.K. Wilson and K. Rollins, J. Anal. Toxicol., 12
(i 988) 9.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
M.C. Bowman, J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem., 61 (1978) 1253.

H. Shintani, J. Chromatogr. Sci., 34 (1996) 92.
H. Shintani, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 17 (1994) 1737.
H. Shintani, J. Liquid Chromatogr. Clin. Anal., 18 (1995) 2167.
H. Shintani and G. Inoue, Bunseki Kagaku, 43 (1994) 805.
H. Shintani, Japan J. Medical Instrumentation, 66 (1996) 414.

Adsorption in polarographic/voltammetric
environmental
111
analysis
R. Kalvoda
UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry,
J. Heyrovsky Institute of Physical Chemistry,
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Dolejskova 3, 182 23 Praha,
Czech Republic
The aim of this paper is to show that adsorption of surface active substances
from the solution to the electrode surface doesn't mean always only complications
in electroanalysis but in contrary, adsorption can yield advantages in realization
of height sensitive electroanalytical methods for determination of inorganic and
organic compounds of environmental and biological significance.
Emphasis is given on application of polarography and voltammetry as well as
procedures derived from them in environmental analysis.
1.
PREFACE
- ADSORPTION
PHENOMENA
IN ELECTROANALYSIS
Many chemical compounds mostly of organic origin exhibit surface activity,

reflected in electrochemistry by adsorption at the solution-electrode interface.
The particles of the dissolved substance may be bound to the surface of the
electrode by physical, chemical or electrical forces. Capillary forces that cause
adsorption in solution are regarded as physical forces, if the dissolved substance
exhibits specific affinity for the surface, these forces may acquire the character of
a chemical bond. Electrical forces are involved when the surface is charged. At a
given temperature the quantity of adsorbed substance depends on concentration
and the concentration dependence is given by an adsorption isotherm [1]. The
rate of the formation of the adsorbed layer is affected both by the rate of the
actual adsorption of the compound from the solution layer in close contact with
the electrode and also by the rate of transport - mostly governed by diffusion - of
this compound from the bulk of the solution to the electrode surface. The slower
of these processes is the rate controlling step in the formation of the adsorbate.
These adsorption process affects thus the properties of the electrode double layer
in a measurable manner, which can form the basis for electrochemical analysis of
adsorbable surface active substances (SAS) present in the solution. A number of
electrochemical techniques can be used for such measurements - many of them
112
are derived from the Heyrovky's polarography. But it should be also mentioned
that some components of the solution adsorbed at the electrode surface influence
frequently the electrode process which takes places at polarogarphic/
voltammetric measurements in such a way that they shift, deform, split or even
eliminate the polarographic wave or voltammetric peak of the analyzed
compound. Similarly adsorption can influence improperly or even can act
detrimental to measurements - mainly long term ones - with amperometric or
potentiometric sensors (e.g. ISEs).
The aim of this article is to show that adsorption of surface active compounds
from solution to the electrode surface doesn't mean in electroanalysis always a
complicating factor but in contrary that adsorption can serve as a mean for very
sensitive electrochemical analysis of inorganic and organic compounds.
From various methods based on electrochemical adsorption should be
mentioned from the historical point of view on the first place the suppression of
the polarographic maxima observed by Heyrovsky at his very first applications of
polarography in studies of SAS in water - termed polarographic adsorption
analysis. Electrocapillary measurements which used Heyrovsky at his
fundamental experiments leading to the invention of polarography can be
mentioned on this place. Similarly it is with tensammetry developed from
polarography or measurements of differential capacity of the electrode double
layer. But from the practical point of view - with respect to recent voltammetric
methods - it is necessary to emphasize procedures based on adsorptive
accumulation of the analyte on the electrode surface: after an preset
accumulation period the whole adsorbate is analyzed by voltammetry
("Adsorptive stripping voltammetry - AdSV") or potentiometry ("Adsorptive
stripping potentiometry - PSA (according to IUPAC terminology this method
should be called "chronopotentiometry"). At present these stripping methods
represent the most frequently used electrochemical methods in environmental
microanalysis as well as in analysis of physiologically active compounds mainly
in pharmacy, agrochemistry and biochemistry. Thus in the following paragraphs
first the stripping methods shall be discussed in more details followed by other
electroanalytical methods frequently used in adsorption environmental analysis.
ADSORPTIVE ACCUMULATION OF SUBSTANCES AT

ELECTRODES (VOLTAMMETRIC ADSORPTIVE STRIPPING
METHODS)
2.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
Most applications of chemical analysis to environmental protection involve
trace determinations, often at a part-per-billion level or lower. Among methods
that can satisfy this demand belongs without doubt polarography/voltammetry.
But to attain its today's microanalytical quality the original Heyrovsky method
had to pass through different improvements and modifications, mainly in the
direction of a substantial increase of its sensitivity.
113
In addition to electronic methods which attempted to eliminate the unwonted
charging current (but for the charging the electrode to the desired voltage
necessary) and thus improve the signal to noise ratio, methods were developed to
ensure the lowest detection limit: These are based on accumulation of the analyte
on the electrode surface, followed by voltammetric determination of the
previously accumulated compound. In this sense the most popular m e t h o d perhaps now regarded as "classic" - is anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) used
mainly in trace analysis of heavy toxic metals. For trace analysis of organic
compounds and metal chelates in the ppb and sub ppb concentration region
serves another stripping method - adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV)
which in contrast to the previous ASV method which makes use of electrolytic
accumulation of the metal at the electrode surface, is based this time on
adsorptive accumulation of the species on the electrode. As mentioned earlier the
amount of substance adsorbed at the electrode is dependent among other
parameters on its concentration in solution. Important role plays here not only
the rate of the adsorption but also the rate of the diffusion transport of the
substance from the solution to the electrode. For AdSV there is interesting only
the diffusion controlled adsorption, for which is valid the Koryta [2] equation (1)
Fm = 7 . 3 6 . 1 0 - 4 cDlff2t ~
(1)
where C is the concentration of the surface active substance with diffusion

coefficient D, t is the time required for complete electrode coverage and Fm is the
maximum value of the surface excess in mol'cm -2 of the adsorbed substance for
complete coverage of the electrode. The voltammetric peak current is thus
roughly proportional to the product of C and t m, when neither of these values is
too large. The parameter t is now considered as the duration of the accumulation
the accumulation time tacc. If the amount of substance adsorbed on the electrode
surface is controlled by the rate of adsorption which is smaller than the diffusion
rate, it can be assumed that the concentration of the SAS at the electrode surface
equals to its concentration in the solution. Similar conditions are valid for weak
adsorption. Neither of these cases can be exploited in AdSV.
The problem of adsorptive accumulation was tackled in the Heyrovsky
Institute just in the early fiftieths during our studies connected with alternating
current oscillographic polarography [1] when we observed that such an
accumulation of a depolarizer (like elemental sulphur [ 3 ] , mercurous
thiosulphate, poorly soluble inorganic substances, etc.[4]) on a mercury electrode
leads to a thousandfold increase in sensitivity of this oscillographic method.
Practical applications of voltammetric analysis with adsorptive accumulation of
substances at the electrode started only at the ends of the eighties as improved
types of hanging mercury drop electrodes become commercially available. (More
historical details on AdSV are given in [5]).
114
2.2.
Experimental a r r a n g e m e n t and working conditions
Concerning instrumentation, it should be emphasized that AdSV can be

performed, like other voltammetric stripping methods, using a conventional
polarograph equipped with a suitable electrode with a constant surface. Most
commercially available instruments can be employed both for classical
polarographic method - sc. DC polarography and also for pulse methods,
especially differential pulse voltammetry and square wave voltammetry. In the
choice of a suitable voltammetric method for recording of the curves, it should be
mentioned that the measurement of the peak height can be often complicated by
unfavorable supporting electrolyte background curves especially at more positive
potentials and that in such cases the DC method is preferable. Apparatus with
automatic timing of the individual operations is useful for controlling the
individual steps in AdSV measurements like accumulation time, solution stirring,
duration of rest period, initiation of polarization. A computerized instrument is
useful for this purpose.
The stripping process can be also controlled by potentiometry: in this case the
potential changes caused by reoxidation (or reduction) of the adsorbate by the
oxidant present (like 02 or Hg 2 in the solution or by imposed constant current is
measured. This potentiometric stripping analysis (correctly chronopotentiometric
stripping) is mostly used for trace metal analysis. This method, in principle
similar to the just mentioned Heyrovsky-Forejt oscillopolarography, is out of
scope of this article - for information see e.g. [6] and [7] or [8].
Most types of electrodes used in voltammetry can be employed in AdSV
provided that a constant, completely reproducible surface can be ensured
throughout the whole measurement cycle or better, during a series of
measurements. The above requirements on reproducibility can be best satisfied
by a hanging mercury drop electrode. The carbon paste electrodes or platinum
electrodes are mostly used for measurements, where the adsorbed compound is
during the voltammetric scan oxidized, because they can be polarized to more
positive potentials than mercury. AdSV can be carried out also with chemically
modified electrodes which consist of an electrode material to the surface of which
are bound by chemisorption or covalently substances or functional groups that
alter their properties mainly in improving the sensitivity and selectivity. The
modifier can also be used as a filter preventing passage of interferents to the
electrode surface (more on application of chemically modified electrodes in AdSV
see in [9]). For such purposes mostly carbon paste electrode containing different
resins, ion exchanger, complexing agents, etc. are used. From many examples can
be mentioned paper [10] which deals with the determination of Ni 2 traces at a
dimethylglyoxime modified carbon paste electrode. Several publications, e.g. [11]
describe analysis of organic compounds using clays, resins, silicone, etc. as
modifier. However the use of modified electrodes in routine analysis can be often
complicated due to difficulties mostly in the reproduction of the electrode surface
and in addition, the accumulation process at these electrodes is far more complex
than the reversible adsorption at a mercury electrode. Also the analyte may not
115
be necessarily stripped off from the electrode during the voltammetric record and
thus a regeneration step for the electrode is often required. Nevertheless in some
cases they can contribute to improvement in selectivity (e.g. by using
phospholipid covered electrodes [12]) or perform preconcentration of large
hydrophobic cations at polyester-sulfonic acid film coated electrodes: in fact this
is a type of ion exchange v o l t a m m e t r y [13]. It should be noted when using paste
electrodes t h a t the substance can be also accumulated as a result of solution
penetration into the binder during the accumulation period: this may be a
combined adsorption-extraction effect or a purely extraction procedure [14].
It is relatively simple to decide w h e t h e r a substance can be determined by
using AdSV at a mercury electrode (an analogous procedure is used with other
types of electrodes as mentioned below). First the voltammetric behavior of the
compound (at a concentration of about 10 .6 mol-1-1) is examined at a hanging
mercury drop electrode in different supporting electrolytes using the differential
pulse or square wave method for recording the curve. In the found optimum
supporting electrolyte, the initial potential is then set to 0 V or -0.1 V vs. SCE, a
new mercury drop is formed and the voltage scan towards negative potentials at
an applied scan rate of 20 mV" s 1 is immediately started. After the voltammetric
curve has been recorded, a new mercury drop is again formed and the same
initial potential applied but this time for a period of 60 s in stirred solution. After
this accumulation period (tacc), stirring is stopped and the voltage scan r u n as
previously after a quiescent period of 10 s. If the surface activity of the examined
compound leads to its accumulation, a substantial increase in the peak current is
obtained as not only the substance transported to the electrode by diffusion but
also the whole a m o u n t of compound adsorbed on the electrode surface is reduced
during the voltage scan (Fig. 1.).
For oxidizable organic compounds a solid type of working electrode is used in a
similar way: the accumulation is studied at 0 V or with an "open circuit" and then
the voltammetric curve is recorded toward more positive potentials. With solid
electrodes the accumulation step often occurs simply on i m m e r s i n g the electrode
in a stirred solution containing the examined compound for a certain tacc. The
electrode is then rinsed, cleaned and transferred to a "pure" supporting
electrolyte (and connected to the instrument), where the actual voltammetric
determination is carried out. This procedure has a certain a d v a n t a g e because the
effect of accompanying substances in the sample (e.g. not adsorbable compounds
yielding a peak at the same potential as the compound to be analyzed) on the
recorded voltammetric curve can be eliminated. However interfering substances
can still be adsorbed from the sample during the accumulation period and can
sometimes greatly influence the AdSV determination.
Interferences can be sometimes avoided by proper choice of accumulation
potential and of the supporting electrolyte or changing only its pH value. The
same holds for simultaneous determination of two compounds present in the
sample.
116
L/
' V'
0.3
0.5
0.7
-E (V v. SCE)
Figure 1. The effect of preliminary adsorptive accumulation on the peak height in differential
pulse voltammetry of the pesticide Dinobutone (5.10 -8 mol'1-1) in B-R buffer, pH 6.1.
Dependence on tacc: Curves (1) 0 s, (2) 60 s, (3) 120 s, (4) 180 s.
Eacc -0.3 V. (Reprinted from Ref.[28] by courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.
After these preliminary investigations, the most suitable accumulation

potential Eacc is found by examining the dependence of the peak current Ip on Eacc
while gradually changing Eacc from an original value o f - 0 . 2 V towards more
negative values until a m e a s u r a b l e peak begins to appear. If chemisorption
participates in the adsorption process, a more positive Eacc value m u s t often be
employed, e.g. +0.1 V. In analytical applications it is sometimes useful to employ
a more positive Eacc value so t h a t traces of heavy metals are not deposited on the
electrode - these substances m a y be present as impurities in the solution. The
optimal accumulation time m u s t be also found. The peak high increases linearly
with increasing tacc up to a certain value corresponding to a complete coverage of
the electrode by adsorbate or to the m o m e n t of a t t a i n e d equilibrium between the
compound adsorbed on the electrode surface and present in the bulk of the
solution. Complete coverage is a t t a i n e d after shorter tacc in stirred solutions t h a n
in unstirred ones. The tacc value at which the limiting Ip value is a t t a i n e d depends
also on the sample concentration.
The dependence of Ip on the analyte concentration should be linear over a
reasonable wide range. (e.g. from 5"10 .7 mol.1-1 to 1"10 .9 mol.l-1). The method of
s t a n d a r d additions can be used for quantitative m e a s u r e m e n t s . Three additions
of a s t a n d a r d solution are recommended to ensure t h a t the m e a s u r e d Ip values
117
correspond to the linear part of the calibration curve. When the Ip value does not
increase linearly during the s t a n d a r d additions, the sample solution m u s t be
diluted or a shorter accumulation time employed. Sometimes helps to perform the
accumulation in u n s t i r r e d solutions (Fig. 2.)
2
1
03
0.5
0.7
0.9
-E (v v. SCE)
Figure 2. Voltammograms of 2.10 -8 M GeO2 in 0.1 M H2SO4 + 0.15 M pyrocatechol after

adsorptive accumulation in unstirred solution. Accumulation time : Curve (1) 0, (2) 360 s,
(3) 720 S, (4) 1480 s. Scan rate 20 mV. s-1, pulse amplitude 12.5 mV. (Reprinted from
Ref. [16] with kind permission of Elsevier Science).
It is recommended t h a t a blank accumulation experiment be carried out in the

pure supporting electrolyte, especially for longer tacc values, because surface
active impurities in the solution can also be adsorbed on the electrode (and can
yield a parasite peak) or can even affect the accumulation process of the
substance of interest even due competitive adsorption. Inhibitive effects from
such competitive action can be avoided by using shorter tacc times (e.g. from 15 to
30 s).
2.3.
A p p l i c a t i o n s in e n v i r o n m e n t a l analysis
As mentioned, environmental analysis is in fact mostly applied trace analysis and for trace analysis is from electroanalytical methods ideally suited AdSV as
their detection limit for electroactive compounds is in the range of 10 -l~ mol'1-1
concentration. However this value can be only achieved under ideal conditions,
118
which in practice are very rare. The m a i n factor limiting the sensitivity and in
m a n y cases even the application of this method is the competitive adsorption of
certain other surface active substances t h a t m a y be present in the solution to be
analyzed. In such cases a decrease in peak height can occur or mainly at high
concentrations of interfering substances the peak can be even eliminated. Thus in
respect from the practical point of view the detection limit can be expected to be
in the concentration range from 1-10 -s to 1"10 .9 mol.1-1.
The scope of application of AdSV ranges from metal trace analysis to analysis
of organic compounds and in general to environmental, biochemical, medical,
pharmaceutical, toxicological and m a n y others applications.
2.3.1. T r a c e m e t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s
Most published papers on this method are devoted to the metal trace analysis,
exploiting the fact t h a t m a n y metal complexes with organic chelating ligands are
adsorbable at the electrode. This property can be utilized in adsorptive
accumulation of metal chelates on an electrode after which the reduction of the
adsorbed compound is performed w h a t is manifested with a peak formation on
the voltammetric curve. This procedure permits sensitive d e t e r m i n a t i o n of metal
ions t h a t cannot be determined by anodic stripping v o l t a m m e t r y or which are
very difficult or even impossible to determine by conventional polarographic or
voltammetric methods. Such examples of the last mentioned category are e.g. A1,
Be, Sr, Ba, Ca, Mg, Ge, Si, B, - to mention only few of them, e.g. (Fig. 2.) The
most applications of metal ions determination deal with analysis of waters,
mainly sea water. Competition between the added ligand and n a t u r a l l y occurring
complexing m a t e r i a l provides a means of evaluating the complexing ability of sea
w a t e r [15]. In general stripping methods are frequently used for metal speciation
in waters. Sometimes AdSV can be used to determine a n u m b e r of cations [16]
(such as Cu2+), where the positive potential at which adsorption accumulation is
carried out prevents the deposition of some ions (e.g. Pb2 t h a t would interfere
in anodic stripping voltammetry. The sensitivity in AdSV is often greater as the
metal is not dissolved in mercury like in anodic stripping v o l t a m m e t r y , but
r a t h e r a monomolecular complex layer is formed on the electrode surface.
The most extensively method used in practice is the nickel ion d e t e r m i n a t i o n
at a mercury electrode as Ni-dimethylglyoximate. The AdSV d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
nickel can be carried out in various materials such as water, biological materials,
foodstuffs, etc. [17] as well as in lipid fractions of biomaterials [18]. The
d e t e r m i n a t i o n limit in w a t e r is 1 ~g'1-1 Ni 2 In toxicological studies it has been
found useful to determine nickel (and also lead, cadmium, and m a n y others) in
fingernails [19], where the concentration in contaminated persons is about one
order of m a g n i t u d e greater t h a n in urine or blood. Also a glassy carbon electrode
covered with a mercury film [20] has been used e.g. for determinations of Ni in
biological materials, atmospheric dust in various regions, air-borne ash and rain
water. With the same complex forming agent can be determined cobalt.
119
U r a n i u m can be determined in water at concentrations from 0.5 ~tg/1 to
0.2 mg/1 by employing a method based on the adsorptive accumulation of its
pyrocatechol complex [21, 22]. M a n y papers are devoted to AdSV determination
of a l u m i n i u m and beryllium - for both the conventional polarographic method
fails. Thus a l u m i n i u m determination in the concentration range from 1-10-5mo1"1-~
to 1-10 .7 mol'l -~ can be determined after binding A1 into an adsorbable complex
with alizarin violet N [23] or cupferron [24]. This method was used mostly for
determination of a l u m i n i u m in waters. For determination of beryllium in waters
in the concentration range from 1-10 .6 mol'1-1 to 1"10 -s can be used AdSV after
binding Be into an adsorbable complex with Beryllon II [25] or Berylon III [26].
A detail extensive review on metal determination using AdSV is published in
[26].
2.3.2. Determination of organic compounds

As a great percentage of organic substances is characterized by their surface
activity (increased often by proper choice of the supporting electrolyte), AdSV
permits a relative simple study of their electrochemical behavior and enables
their d e t e r m i n a t i o n in the concentration range from 1"10 -6 to 1.10 .9 mol-1-1
(Nevertheless even lower detection limits were found like e.g. 2.5"10 1~ mol'l ~ for
the pesticide DNOC (2-methyl-4,6- dinitrophenole) [28]). Some examples of basic
p a r a m e t e r s for AdSV determination of environmentally i m p o r t a n t organic
compounds are given in Tab. 1.
The AdSV method can be employed in trace analysis of a variety of organic
compounds which exhibit surface active properties. If the given compound
contains an electrochemically reducible or oxidable group, the peak current on
the voltammetric curve recorded after completion of the accumulation process
corresponds to the reduction (or oxidation) of the total q u a n t i t y of the species
accumulated at the electrode (and transported to the electrode during the scan).
Though chemical analysis or microanalysis is the m a i n object of AdSV, the
investigation of electron transfer processes of biologically i m p o r t a n t molecules
are the second, not less i m p o r t a n t field in study of physico-chemical interactions
in the environment and h u m a n body. As m a n y organic compounds are hazardous
ones AdSV enables not only their monitoring in different moieties of the biota,
but supports ecotoxicological research in the clarification of their fate, behavior,
metabolism and questions connected with their detoxification/liquidation.
AdSV helps in the elucidation of the p a t h w a y of the pollutant from the source
to m a n or other object of interest and also in clarification of further
transformations into other substances along this pathway, e.g. as a result of the
interaction among various pollutants, or as a result of metabolism etc. It is also a
m e a n for evaluation of the effectiveness of various processes t h a t prevent the
formation of pollutants, or t h a t remove those already formed.
120
Table 1
Basic parameters for AdSV of some environmentally interesting organic
substances at a mercury electrode
Compound
Supporting
electrolyte
Nitrobenzene
2-nitrophenol
4-nitrophenol
2,4-dinitrophenol
B-R,
B-R,
B-R,
B-R,
7
5
5
5
1,8- dinitronapthalene
4,8- dinitronapthalene
B-R, pH 8
B-R, pH 8
2,4-dinitro-l-naphtophenol
0.2 M NaOH
pH
pH
pH
pH
EaccN
E p/V
Ref.
-0.20
0.00
-0.55
-0.25
30
31
-0.20
0.00
31
31
-0.20
-0.20
-0.33
-0.20
-0.35
-0.42
-0.36
-0.50
-0.72
30
30
-0.46
30
-0,77
DNOC
B-R, pH 6.1
-0.20
-0.31
28
-0.44
Dinobuton
Prometryne
Ametryn
B-R, pH 6.1
B-R, pH 3.5
B-R, pH 3.5
Paraquat
Atrazin
Ac, pH 4.6
B-R, pH 2.5
Terbutryn
B-R, pH 4
Metamitron
Fenchlorazol-ethyl
Chlorhexidin
NH 3, pH 9.7
-0.30
-0.70
-0.70
-0.60
-0.46
-1.05
-1.02
-1.13
-0.80
-0,75
-0.83
-0.94
-1.06
B-R, pH 2.5
-0,25
-0.41
32
0.1 M NaOH
-0.10
0.00
-0.50
-1.53
-0.98
33
34
28
28
28
29
32
32
Neutral red
B-R, pH 9.2
Ac, pH 4.7
0.00
0.00
-0.75
-0.22
36
Azobenzene
Lauryl sulphonate*
Dodecylbenzene-sulphonate*
1 M NaOH
1 M NaOH
-0.70
-0.70
-1.20
-1.20
16
16
Trichlorobiphenyl*
B-R, pH 6.8
-0.40
-1.05
37
Oil products* and crude oil*
1 M NaOH
-0.70
-1.20
38
35
121
To the group of environmentally important and interesting organic compounds
belong agrochemicals like pesticides (Fig. 1), herbicides, insecticides, growth
stimulators etc., which with their improving food yield serve like good slaves but
with their toxic side effect are bad masters. Thus we are interested in the
analysis of their residues in waters, soil, foodstuffs, crop, etc. More details can be
found in [39].
Another group of harmful compounds consists in general of chemical
carcinogens. Here again not only their chemical analysis in various matrices is
important but also the correlation of their electrochemical behavior with their
genotoxic properties, the study of the mechanism of their interaction with living
cells and their general fate in the environment. Among such substances belong
derivatives of azobenzene, aminoazobenzene, phenylmethyltriazene, benzidine,
acridine and m a n y others - often serving as coloring matters [39,40].
A n u m b e r of substances that cannot be reduced polarographically can be
sometimes determined after their derivatization by introduction of a reducible
group such as nitroso-, nitro-, etc. An example of derivative formation is the
determination of morphine [41], estrone, estradiol and estriol after nitrosation
[42]. Another method based on determination of nitrite makes use of diazotation
of aniline and coupling of the resulting diazonium salt with azulene (also 1naphthol as coupling agent, nevertheless with longer coupling time, can be used).
Aniline and other aromatic amines can be determined at a similar way [43,44].
Another environmentally important compound formaldehyde - after conversion to
an ionic derivative with Girard's reagent T - can be accumulated by adsorption on
a Nation coated mercury film electrode followed by voltammetric determination
in aqueous solution [45]. Caprolactam in waste and n a t u r a l waters can be
determined after its condensation with an azobenzyl chloride compound: the
product of this condensation which undergoes adsorption on the electrode, was
separated from excess reagent and other interfering species by using TLC [46].
Adsorptive accumulation has been used in interaction studies like the binding
of one compound to another one adsorbed on the electrode. As example serves the
binding of a n t i t u m o r antibiotics with DNA [48] or the interaction of nucleic acids
with enzymes [48] or genotoxic substances [49] or damage caused in vitro to DNA
by carcinogenic and mutagenic chemicals [50]. This method was thus devised for
screening of chemicals with possible mutagenic action. For environmental
screening are recommended also DNA modified electrodes mainly for detection of
toxic aromatic amines and potentially for elucidating interactions between
intercalating pollutants with DNA [51]. Examples of interactions of biomolecules
immobilized at the electrode surface with substances from the solution are given
also in [47,48 and 52]. In general for toxicological purposes it would be
interesting to perform a detailed study of formation of DNA adducts with toxic
compounds.
From the toxicological point of view interactions occurring in solution such as
antigen - antibody reactions can be studied. From such i m m u n o a s s a y s may be
mentioned the reactions of h u m a n serum albumin with a n t i h u m a n serum
122
albumin [53], lymphocytic leukemia cells with monoclonial antibodies raised
against them [54]. In these cases the peak current of the compound gradually
decreases after addition of the other compound into the solution due to binding of
both compounds (in fact it means that a new compound is formed and thus the
peak current vs. concentration slope changes.) Nevertheless caution is necessary
for to exclude the effect of competitive adsorption - as shall be mentioned also
later.
Electroinactive compounds (it means compounds that are neither reduced nor
oxidized at the electrode) yield in contrary to the previous ones only
adsorption/desorption peaks in case they are surface active and accumulate on
the electrode. The height of these peaks on the voltammetric curve can be
measured by means of differential pulse voltammetry (Fig. 3). These
m e a s u r e m e n t s are termed adsorptive stripping t e n s a m m e t r y - AdST. (The
method of t e n s a m m e t r y is discussed in more details in the next paragraph, where
also some examples of AdST m e a s u r e m e n t s are mentioned). The height of
tensammetric peaks obtained in AdST are partly dependent on p a r a m e t e r s
similar to those governing electrolytic stripping voltammetry, and partly
dependent on the surface active properties - mainly the adsorption p a r a m e t e r s of
the particular compound. The stronger adsorption, the higher and narrower are
the peaks. The adsorption can be influenced by increasing the concentration of
the supporting electrolyte, where sometimes salting-out effects of the compound
contribute to an increase in the capacitive phenomena. (This is in contradiction to
AdSV of electroactive compounds, where the dilution of the supporting electrolyte
0.2V
I
/",u
L/
J
- E (V)
Figure 3. AdST peaks of Diesel oil in 5 M KF. Concentration in mg'l-1 9Curve (1) 0, (2) 0.07,
(3) 0.20, (4) 0.33, (5) 0.46. Pulse amplitude 50 mV. Accumulated at open circuit for 120 s.
Curves recorded from-1.10 V (vs. SCE). Reprinted from [90] with kind permission of the
copyright owner.
123
often leads to an increase of the signal). The adsorptive stripping method can be
used only in cases where the compound yields a well developed tensammetric
peak already without previous accumulation at concentration of 10 .5 to 10-6mo1"1-1.
Such compounds have usually an adsorption coefficient of about 10 .3 mol'l -~ or
higher in the respective supporting electrolyte and corresponds roughly to the
inverse value of the concentration for a 50 percent coverage of the electrode by
the adsorbed substance.
This AdST measurements are finding most applications in determination of
surface active substances in water like undefined surface active substances,
detergents, tensides, polyethylene glycols and petroleum components (Fig. 3) - in
Tab. 1 see such compounds labeled with *. Some examples are mentioned e.g. in
[5, 36, 55, 89, 90].
In general the scope of compounds which can be determined or studied by
AdSV is very broad ranging from the just above mentioned groups of compounds
to cancerostatics, vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, pharmaceuticals, food additive
dyes, biochemicals, DNA, detergents, crude or motor oils and emulsions. Some
representatives from the endless list of compounds which can be analyzed by
AdSV are given in Tab. 1.
2.3.3. AdSV m e a s u r e m e n t s in f l o w i n g s y s t e m s
,,Modern analytical chemistry makes wide use of measurements in flowing
liquids and the importance of this techniques is steadily increasing" ...is stated in
[56]. The combination of the effect of adsorption of the analyte on the electrode
surface with the medium exchange principle led to the application of AdSV in
flow through systems. Here accumulation at a given potential is carried out
during the interval when the carrier solution with the injected sample flows
through the detector. This interval thus defines the tacc value. When the sample
plug leaves the detector, the stripping process is started either without
interrupting the flow or after stopping the flow. The later is usually necessary
when a peristaltic pump is used, because the pulses in the carrier stream produce
large current oscillations. The use of an isocratic pump, on the other hand,
permits the m e a s u r e m e n t of the stripping curve without stopping the flow, as a
constant flow is ensured under these conditions. The detectors used are mostly
commercial ones like mercury, mercury film, carbon or carbon paste electrodes,
that are often employed for electrochemical detection in HPLC. Concerning the
flow rate - if this is slow (below 0.5 ml min -1) and the sample volume is small (less
than 1 ml), dispersion of the sample plug is limited. The passage of fresh, sample
free carrier solution through the detector unit during the reduction or oxidation
step ensures electrochemical stripping of the analyte into pure electrolyte with no
electrochemical interfering compounds. The application of AdSV in flow through
systems improves the selectivity and sensitivity of the determination, simplifies
the analytical procedure and increases the sample throughput. Stripping analysis
can be on line combined also with inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission
spectrometry (ICP-AES) and with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
124
(ICP-MS), mainly for enhancement of sensitivity (e.g. some radioactive isotopes
present in the environment at ppt levels), elimination of detrimental matrix
effects, speciation of elements and multielement determinations [57].
Some examples of application of AdSV in flowing systems are given in [58]. In
paper [59] an automated system for on-line monitoring of traces of uranium is
described, the same arrangement can be used for measurements of other metal
ions.
2.4. C r i t i c a l a s s e s s m e n t of t h e A d S V m e t h o d
The most important feature of the adsorptive stripping method is its
sensitivity. Frequently it is stated that the detection limit for the determination
of organic compounds is in the range of 10 1~ mol'1-1 concentration (in the case of
metal chelates the DL is about at 10 .9 mol-1-1 and electroinactive compounds is the
DL at values of 10 -s mol'l-1). However this values can be obtained mostly only
under ideal conditions.
One of the most serious complication in the use of AdSV and AdST is mostly
the presence of other surface active compounds in the solution examined:
competitive adsorption usually occurs, decreasing the height of the peak or even
at higher concentrations suppressing the signal. Such undesirable surfactants
present in the sample can contribute to full coverage of the electrode surface
when using long accumulation and can thus hinder or prevent the application of
the method. For instance the detection limit for the pesticide DNOC was found in
B-R buffer of pH 6.1 be equal to 5-10 -1~ mol'1-1 [28]. If this supporting electrolyte
was mixed in the ratio 1:1 with mountains river water (from a rivulet serving as
very good drinking water source), this limit was at the concentration of
8.10 .9 mol'1-1, in case the supporting electrolyte was mixed with polluted river
water (Vltava river, near Charles Bridge, Prague), the detection limit dropped to
a value of 1"10s mol'1-1. Similar example was described with the pesticide
Ametryne in the Rhine water [60]. Interfering effects depend also on the nature
of both the analyzed and interfering substance and on their concentration ratio
as it was shown in paper [30].
In general, the inhibitive effect of accompanying adsorbable substances can be
suppressed by using short tacc values (this holds mainly for weekly adsorbable
compounds which need longer accumulation). On the other hand, interferences
can be separated e.g. by gel chromatography on Sephadex (Pharmacia Uppsala)
[30], by ultrafiltration [61] or different types of extraction methods. Among the
most used separation techniques (mainly for isolation of organic compounds from
different body fluids) extraction with diethylether, can be mentioned. More
details see in [62].
In connection with the determination of metals bound to chelates, it should be
mentioned that interferences from surface active compounds and other organic
compounds can be prevented (or better said must be prevented) by prior
destruction of them by irradiation of the sample with UV in presence of hydrogen
peroxide. Only after this operation the ligand solution should be added to the
125
sample. Serious complications in metal determination can occur also due to
competitive adsorption of the ligand, the concentration of which must be in
excess. Such difficulties arise mainly if the peak potential of the ligand is very
close to the peak potential of the metal chelate. Often the conditions are not so
ideal as in the mentioned example of nickel determination with
dimethylglyoxime.
Concluding the AdSV method leads to a great improvement in sensitivity of
polarography/voltammetry for determination of surface active organic
compounds. As many organic substances possess such properties AdSV has found
extensive applications. The method can be employed for concentrations of
1-200 ~g'1-1 (and sometimes from 0.1 ~g'l-1). This sensitivity in determination of
organic compounds is similar to that found for metal ions by the anodic stripping
method and thus corresponds to a considerable extension of voltammetry in
organic trace analysis. This mode of analysis is extended also to many metals
which form with complexing agents adsorbable complexes. AdSV thus permits
sensitive determination mainly of ions of metals that are difficult or impossible to
determine by ASV.
It can be concluded, that in general the ASV and the here described AdSV
represent at present the most used modes of polarographic/voltammetric
analysis.
MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROANALYTICAL METHODS FOR

D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF S U R F A C E ACTIVE S U B S T A N C E S
Beside the just in detail discussed adsorptive stripping method some other
electroanalytical methods are used for determination of SAS in aqueous
solutions. These compounds, which represent a large part of dissolved organic
matter in natural waters have to be monitored both in production of potable and
treatment of sewage waters as the presence of SAS in waters is or can be harmful
for living organism. Time-consuming two-phase titration procedures and direct
photometric determination are the most widely used methods, nevertheless some
electrochemical procedures can be more simple in use [63].
Among procedures enabling the study of the concentration dependent surface
activity of compounds present at the solution/mercury electrode interface
methods derived from polarography play an important role. One of such
polarographic procedures is based on the fact that SAS suppress the
polarographic maxima [1] or give rise to adsorption/desorption peaks - sc.
tensammetric peaks - on the polarographic curve [64]. On the other hand SAS
can influence in some respect the polarographic base line of the "pure "
supporting electrolyte (and thus the course or changes of the charging current)
[65 and 66]. Among methods for recording the interface activity belong also
electrocapillary measurements [67] as will be shown in the chapter 3.3 of this
article. All these measurements are important in environmental chemistry.
126
3.1. S u p p r e s s i o n of the p o l a r o g r a p h i c m a x i m a
J u s t at the very beginning of polarography at some m e a s u r e m e n t s an
abnormal increase of the polarographic current on the rising portion of the
polarographic curve to values several times greater t h a n the usual limiting
current followed by a discontinuously fall to the normal current value was
observed: thus a sharp current peak - the sc. polarographic m a x i m u m on the
curve is formed (Fig. 4). Two types of polarographic m a x i m a exist: the m a x i m u m
described in the above lines is of the sc. first kind and is mostly observed in
solutions of low ionic strength. M a x i m a of the sc. second kind a p p e a r in the
limiting current region, are usually rounded and do not fall discontinuously to the
normal value of the limiting current. Both types of m a x i m a are caused by
increased t r a n s p o r t of the analyte by s t r e a m i n g of the solution around the drop of
the dropping mercury electrode and they decrease in presence of SAS in the
solution. The detection limit for m a x i m a corresponds to about 0.01 mg'1-1, the
m a x i m a of the second kind are often one order of m a g n i t u d e more
-E
Figure 4. Polarographic maxima at water quality examination: To 5 ml of 0.01 M KC1 added:
curve (1) 5 ml of distilled water, curve (2) 5 ml of tap water. Dropping mercury electrode, on
air. Curves recorded from 0 V. Reprinted from [88] with kind permission of the copyright
owner.
sensitive. Problems are encountered in the practical utilization of these m a x i m a

because of their lack of specificity and dependence on a great m a n y p a r a m e t e r s
such as the composition of the supporting electrolyte, p a r a m e t e r s of the mercury
dropping electrode, etc. Due the mentioned unspecificity the m a x i m a give mostly
only a general picture of surface activity of the sample w h a t is i m p o r t a n t from
the e n v i r o n m e n t a l point of view. The most applications are in the field of control
of w a t e r purity on SAS (Fig. 4). They are based on the suppression of the
127
polarographic maximum of oxygen or the Hg 2 ion [68-70], e.g. sea water
containing SAS is evaluated by comparison with the calibration curve for a
"synthetic" sample of sea water containing Triton X-100 as standard : suitable
dilution of the sea water sample (polluted by industrial or city wastes, crude oil
products) by distilled water yields the surface activity equivalent to Triton X-100.
(Experiments performed in the vicinity of the shore of the Adriatic Sea had a
surface activity equivalent to 0.2 to 5 mg-1-1 Triton X-100). The degree of
suppression of the polarographic maximum thus corresponds basically to the
overall content of SAS in the water sample [71]. The method has been used also
for determination of uncharged tensides and anionic tensides in waste waters
[72] (e.g. from large laundry facilities). Improved method for the determination of
surfactants in fresh potable waters based on suppression of polarographic oxygen
maximum is given in paper [73]. According the author this method should be
useful in the studies of natural waters and their pretreatment as well as in
protection of deep-well waters from pollution e.g. with crude oil or bitumens. The
method can be applied in the concentration range from 0.01 to l m g of
surfactants in 1 1 of water.
Maxima of the second kind has been used for determination of pyrogenes
(dead microorganisms and product of microbial metabolism) in distilled water
[74]. This method can serve also for monitoring of SAS in the preparation of
pyrrogene free water.
3.2. T e n s a m m e t r y
The influence of SAS on the shape of the polarographic curve has been already
described by Heyrovsky. Namely the capacity of the electrode double layer and
thus the charging current necessary to charge the electrode to the desired
potential depends on the character of substances present in the solution. At
adsorption of SAS on the electrode surface the capacity of the electrode double
layer mostly decreases and thus also the charging current (Fig. 5). The capacity
of the electrode double layer depends also on the electrode potential - in such case
we are speaking about the "differential capacity" which decreases in the potential
region where the given compound is adsorbed. At the adsorption and desorption
potentials is thus a sudden change in the differential capacity reflected in sharp
maxima on the curve of the potential dependence of the differential capacity or of
a parameter which is a function of it e.g. the charging current. In addition to
impedance bridge measurements which is the most accurate mean for
estimations of differential capacity value of the electrode double layer, various
methods derived from polarography can be used for measurements of parameters
(like the peak current of the tensammetric peak) which are only proportional to
the mentioned differential capacity. To those methods belongs also differential
pulse polarography/voltammetry. Such measurements are termed tensammetry.
128
-0.01
-1.52
E (V v.SCE)
Figure 5. Tensammetric curve of 2.10 l M cyclohexanol in acetate buffer pH 5.4. a - denotes

the curve of the pure base electrolyte. Recorded by means of AC polarography. (Reprinted
from Ref. [66] with kind permission from Elsevier Science).
It should be mentioned t h a t the peak height in t e n s a m m e t r y depends on the

concentration only over a range of one or one and half order of concentrations
reaching at higher concentrations a limiting value. The curve depicting the
dependence of the peak height on the concentration corresponds roughly to the
shape of the adsorption isotherm. The potential of this peak also depends on the
concentration of the substance in solution. The height and shape of the
t e n s a m m e t r i c peaks can be affected by traces of some other SAS present in
solution.
Competitive adsorption causes mostly difficulties in the analysis of mixtures
of surface active substances and seldom a different peak for each component is
obtained : quantitative evaluation becomes difficult or impossible in such cases
and some separation procedures are then necessary. In adsorptive stripping
t e n s a m m e t r y such possibility brings often the proper choice of the accumulation
potential [75]. Another possibility yield chemometric methods like the
combination of the method of calibration area with the s t a n d a r d addition method
[76]. T e n s a m m e t r i c methods are mostly used for evaluation of waters on the
presence of SAS. Such a method for the determination of undefined surface active
substances in distilled, potable and u n t r e a t e d waters is described in ref [77]: in
stirred solutions the SAS is first accumulated at the surface of the HMDE (at a
potential o f - 0 . 6 V). The ratio of the decrease of the charging current recorded
after this accumulation to the current value obtained in only "pure" solutions is
t h e n proportional to the concentration of the SAS (in the range from 10 to 300
micrograms per liter - Triton X-100 or Na-dodecylsulphate serves as model or
129
standard
SAS for comparative
measurements).
Waters
with higher
concentrations of SAS can be analyzed without previous accumulation on the
electrode. (Prior to analysis water samples should be acidified with perchloric
acid to a concentration of 0.1 mol'll). The determination of polyethylenglycols in
river water is described in [78]. In the same paper a method for determination of
polyethylene glycols in mixtures of metabolic products of the biodegradation of
non-ionic surfactants in the control of aquatic environments is discussed.
From the theoretical point of view t e n s a m m e t r y and mainly t e n s a m m e t r y with
accumulation (AdST) is suitable for studies of adsorption phenomena, adsorption
characteristics, diffusion conditions, and can be combined also with
electrocapillary studies as shown in [79]. Structural studies of tensides as well as
stability studies of their adsorbed layers at the electrode surface are described in
papers [80,81]. Compression of the electrode/solution interface resulting in an
accumulation of surfactants in the interface with oversaturation of the surface by
the adsorbed species, questions of reorientation of the adsorbate ev. followed by
breaking up of the adsorbed layer are mentioned in [82], describing in detail a
new method of s. c. Compression Accumulation Techniques.
The change of the peak current value with concentration - reflected in the Ip/C
slope - can be exploited for studies of structural changes of biomolecules and
changes occurring in mixtures of compounds as it was demonstrated for mineral
oils in aqueous solutions [38]. Such slope changes can be employed in
chemometric evaluation of mixtures.
A detailed critical assessment of t e n s a m m e t r y "in day to day routine analysis"
can be found in [60].
3.3.
Electrocapillary measurements
Measurement of electrocapillarity is one of the oldest methods for studying

surface activity of substances in solution. The adsorption of SAS on mercury
changes its surface tension and this change is reflected in a characteristic
m a n n e r in the shape of the electrocapillary curve, which shows the effect of the
surface tension of mercury on its potential (Fig. 6) [1,67]. Under conditions of
adsorption equilibrium, the decrease in electrocapillarity at constant potential or
charge is a function of the concentration of the SAS in solution. The set of
electrocapillary curves yields the adsorption p a r a m e t e r s that can be used to
evaluate the interfacial and electrochemical properties of the system. A great
deal of information can be obtained directly from these curves, such as the
adsorption and desorption potential values, zero charge potential, the potential of
maximum adsorption. A shift in the zero charge potential to negative or positive
values indicates the presence of SAS with cationic or anionic character,
respectively, in the supporting electrolyte solution. Electrocapillary data can be
obtained e.g. by measuring the drop time of a dropping mercury electrode present
in the examined solution. Common electrocapillary m e a s u r e m e n t s permit the
study of SAS at concentrations down to levels of 10 .5 mol'1-1 [83]. For
measurements at lower concentrations of SAS methods were developed where it
130
is worked in stirred solutions using a dropping mercury electrode with an

extremely long drop time, at which the test substance is accumulated [84]. Under
such conditions the detection limit is shifted to a concentration of 10 .7 to
10 -s mol-1 1. On these principles determinations of various SAS such as
t e t r a a l k y l a m m o n i u m , dextran and crude oil products in w a t e r are based
[84,85,89,90]. The detection limit lies in the concentration range from 10 to 100
micrograms per liter.
94
_
,N
/z
90
84
I
0.6
1.0
- E (V v.SCE)
Figure 6. Electrocapillary curves of petroleum standard (0.22 g.m -3) in 0.l M KC1. Curve (1)
only base electrolyte, (2) after addition of petroleum, without convective adsorptive
accumulation, (3) as (2) but with convective adsorptive accumulation. Reprinted from [89]
with kind permission of the copyright owner.
The surface tension has a hyperbolic dependence on concentration and is linear

at a sufficiently low concentration range. Electrocapillary m e a s u r e m e n t s can
quantitatively express the electrosorption activity in solution in t e r m s of an
expression for the change of the surface tension indicating the overall effect of the
presence of SAS in solution [89].
131
3.4. O t h e r e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l m e t h o d s
For completeness should be added that in electrochemical analysis of surface
active compounds also some other methods like potentiometry, conductometry
and various amperometric techniques are employed, and eventually used in
titrimetric methods. Information in this respect can be found in the article
"Electrochemistry and the environment" in [86 and 87]. It should be emphasized
that in theoretical electrochemical studies measurements of differential capacity
are frequently used.
4.
CONCLUSION
In this article adsorption from two points of view is discussed: in the first one
adsorption is regarded as a tool for attaining substantially increased sensitivity
in voltammetry based on previous adsorptive accumulation of the analyte at the
electrode. This ultratrace analytical method belongs today among the most
frequently used and cited electroanalytical methods. On the other hand the
second aspect followed in this article is the discussion of possibilities for
determination of SAS in environmental
chemistry using electroanalytical
methods. However it is necessary to be aware that methods discussed in previous
chapters are subjects for interferences by other compounds able to be adsorbed on
the electrode and are thus unspecific: therefore these methods in routine analysis
should be used only with care.
As an exhaustive treatment of the problem "adsorption phenomena
in
electroanalysis" can not be given, only some of the principal possibilities of
adsorptive phenomena
in electrochemistry to the achievement of a cleaner
environment are listed. It should be emphasized that electrochemistry has its
place not only in solving analytical problems - mainly in monitoring the polluted
environment - but also in repairing some of the unfavorable consequences of
industrial and other activities - that means in removal or destruction of
pollutants. Here the combination of electrochemistry with adsorption has again
its important position like in environmental monitoring.
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Adsorption and its Applications in Industry and EnvironmentalProtection

A. Dabrowski(Editor)
135
Resolved and unresolved questions of analysis of surfactants in the

aquatic environment
Z.Lukaszewski
Institute of Chemistry, Technical University of Poznan, ul Piotrowo 3, PL-60-965
Poznan, Poland
1. A B S T R A C T
214 references concerning the analysis of surfactants in the aquatic

environment have been reviewed. Methods for the analysis of anionic and cationic
surfactants are critically discussed, but closest attention is paid to non-ionic
surfactants, as this type of surfactant gives rise to the most serious unresolved
questions of analysis. Typical levels of concentration of ionic and non-ionic
surfactants in raw and treated sewage, surface water and river sediments are
given. Recently developed tensammetric techniques, useful for the analysis of
non-ionic surfactants and their metabolites, are broadly described. The following
unresolved questions related to anionic surfactants are emphasised: specific
determination
of different classes of anionic surfactants (alkyl sulphates,
alkylether sulphates), analysis of metabolites
of anionic and non-ionic
surfactants, and the problem of 'pseudosurfactants'. In the case of cationic
surfactants, the question of inconclusive results of measurements
of aquatic
environment samples is selected as the most serious problem. The need to
develop analytical tools for the investigation of interactions between cationic and
anionic surfactants in the aquatic environment is also emphasised. The following
unresolved questions are distinguished for non-ionic surfactants: selection of
method for determining the total concentration of non-ionic surfactants capable of
approval in interlaboratory tests, selection of the s t a n d a r d surfactant
representative for the mixture of non-ionic surfactants in the aquatic
environment, and the development of methods for determining non-ionic
surfactants having less t h a n 5 oxyethylene subunits, as well as those having
more t h a n 30 subunits. The development of methods for the specific
determination of such classes of ethoxylates as oxyethylated amines,
oxyethylated fatty acids, as well as methods for the specific determination of
newly introduced non-ethoxylate non-ionic surfactants
such as alkyl
polyglucosides and metabolites of non-ionic surfactants is suggested. Methods for
the trace analysis of non-ionic surfactants also require development as do
methods suitable for controlling biodegradation at a realistic level of
concentration. The necessity for the future development of detectors for HPLC
136
and FIA of oxyethylated alcohols and in the automation of the analysis of nonionic and cationic surfactants is emphasised.
Because of their surface active properties surfactants are widely used in

detergent formulations as well as in wetting agents, emulsifiers and dispersants.
They are also frequently used as chemical reagents [1]. However, the m a i n
application which may have an influence on the aquatic environment, is in the
m a n u f a c t u r e of laundry detergents and cleaning agents. Basically, the mass of
surfactants used in laundering and cleaning is directed to sewage, and then to
sewage t r e a t m e n t plants or, simply directly to the aquatic environment. This
creates a massive s t r e a m of synthetic organic carbon directed to surface w a t e r
and may be the largest s t r e a m of synthetic organic carbon charging the aquatic
environment [2]. Only efficient biodegradation of surfactants m a y reduce their
influence on the environment to an acceptable minimum. Therefore, the total
concentration of every type of surfactant and their major metabolites should be
efficiently controlled in both raw and treated sewage as well as in surface and
aquifer water. Deposition of surfactants and their metabolites in river sediments
should also be kept under control. The other task of surfactant analysis is the
development of efficient methods of control during biodegradation tests. This
work aims to show which problems of control are resolved and which r e m a i n
unresolved. Unfortunately, the list of unresolved problems in the analytical
control of surfactants in the aquatic environment is much longer t h a n the list of
resolved ones. The reasons for the unsatisfactory state of analysis are the
complexity of w a t e r matrices, the supermulticomponent character of the analysed
mixture and the strong surface active properties of surfactants. Humic and fulvic
acids, as well as carboxylic acids, may occur in surface w a t e r as its n a t u r a l
components along with antropogenic phenols, lignin-sulphonates and petroleum
products [3].
The mixture of surfactants is also extremely complex. Four m a i n types of
surfactants may be distinguished: anionic, cationic, non-ionic and amphoteric
once. In terms of output the leading type is anionic surfactants, which constitute
59% [4] or 51% [5] of the total output of surfactants. The non-ionic surfactant
share was e s t i m a t e d at 33% [4] or 37% [5] and the output of cationic surfactants
at 7% [4] or 10% [5], with amphoteric one, at 1% [4] or 2% [5]. The ratio of output
of different types and classes of surfactants may serve as a highly approximate
m e a s u r e of the ratio of these surfactants in raw sewage and surface w a t e r if the
analytical data is not available. However, this ratio may change due to the
differing biodegradability of different classes of surfactants. The aquatic
environment should be rich in barely biodegradable surfactants, while the
concentration of easily biodegraded surfactants should be lower t h a n it might be,
based on the level of output of these classes. Non-ionic surfactants represent a
much higher level of complexity t h a n other types of surfactants. Several h u n d r e d
137
of individual substances m a y occur in a mixture of non-ionic surfactants. The
main reason for such a high n u m b e r of individual compounds in the mixture is
the polidispersity of ethoxylates. This complexity makes the analysis of non-ionic
surfactants much more difficult t h a n in other types of surfactants. This is why
much more attention is paid in this study to non-ionic surfactant analysis t h a n to
ionic surfactants. The new t e n s a m m e t r i c techniques in the analysis of non-ionic
surfactants, developed in the author's laboratory, are broadly described in
contrast to the other techniques and methods.
3. INITIAL S T E P S OF SURFACTANT ANALYSIS

3.1. P r o b l e m s related to the strong a d s o r p t i v e ability of s u r f a c t a n t s
Apart from general problems connected with the initial steps of analysis,
surfactants provide several additional problems related to their strong adsorptive
ability and generally fast biodegradability. The strong adsorptive accumulation of
surfactants on the liquid-air surface should be t a k e n into account. A sample of
surface w a t e r or sewage collected from the water surface or sewage is much more
concentrated t h a n the bulk of the liquid. Thus, the sample m u s t be t a k e n from
below the w a t e r or sewage surface (usually at a depth of 1 m).
An adsorptive preconcentration of surfactants will take a place on the surface
of sampling vessels or containers used for storage samples. 55% of Triton X-100
from 100 gg spike was lost on the polyethylene container during storage, and 33%
on the glass container [6]. Generally, this loss is governed by the adsorption
isotherm of the surfactant on the container material and should be negligible for
the high concentration range of surfactants (sewage) but very significant for the
lower concentration range (surface water). To prevent this adsorptive loss of
surfactants on the surface of the container, it should be conditioned with an
additional portion of sampled water before filling. Another problem related to the
adsorption of surfactants on the surface of vessels is the 'memory' of the vessel.
Surfactants adsorbed on the surface of the vessel in one m e a s u r e m e n t may be
released during the next m e a s u r e m e n t (if a new concentration is lower t h a n the
previous one). To prevent this effect, vessels should be carefully cleaned between
m e a s u r e m e n t s ; methanol may be recommended for this purpose. A very serious
error may be the use of surfactant-containing detergents for cleaning the vessels.
Despite residual surfactants, polymer containers may contain plasticiser, which
may be washed out by the sample and be a hindrance in the further stages of the
analysis.
P a r t of the total a m o u n t of surfactants contained in the sample occurs in the
form of adsorbed on solid particles of sewage or surface water. Though the
problem will be further considered in detail, it is necessary to stress t h a t the total
flux of surfactants in a river or in sewage consists of two components: soluble and
adsorbed on particles [7,8]. In order to separate soluble surfactants from those
adsorbed on particles, the filtration of samples is frequently used. However, the
138
filter used may also exhibit a certain adsorptive ability, which can not be ignored.
This ability is governed by adsorptive equilibrium and kinetic factors. The initial
volume of the filtrate has a diminished concentration due to the adsorptive loss.
This volume depends on the concentration of surfactants in the sample, the
adsorptive ability of the filter and the filtration rate. These factors decide how
much volume of the filtrate should be discarded. In the case of sewage the first
10 - 20 ml should be discarded, and the first 200 ml in the case of surface water.
The adsorption of surfactants also takes place on the polymer tubings which
may be used at different stages of the analysis. The consequence of this effect is
the loss of surfactants when the first sample is processed, and the 'memory' of the
tubing during the use of subsequent solutions. The effect strongly limits the
application of polymer tubings in the analysis and is also a serious barrier to the
application of the flow injection analysis for surfactants.
3.2. P r e s e r v a t i o n of s a m p l e s
Many surfactants in the aquatic environment undergo relatively fast
biodegradation. This especially concerns samples rich in microfauna such as raw
and biologically treated sewage as well as surface water. Even a period of several
hours may cause a serious drop in surfactant concentration [9]. Therefore,
immediate and effective preservation of the aquatic environment samples is
necessary. Usually 1% formaline is successfully used [9,10]. Other preservants
were found to be ineffective (chloroform) or only effective for several days storage
(mercury(II) and copper(II) [9]). Refrigerating the samples as an isolated measure
against biogegradation was also ineffective. Some barely biodegradable
surfactants such as oxyethylated alkylphenols may be more easily preserved [10].
Even samples preserved with 1% formaline may exhibit a loss of surfactant when
stored for more than one year [11]. Surfactants contained in the samples may be
stored over a period of several years in the form of dry ethyl acetate extracts
containing chloroform.
Because the surfactant concentration in sewage may vary throughout the day,
samples over the 24-hour period are taken to give the average value for a specific
day. However, the biodegradation of surfactants in the collection tank is still in
process and the sample may contain less surfactants. In the opinion of the
author, this problem should be carefully analysed.
4. SEPARATION OF SURFACTANTS AND THEIR METABOLITES
None of the methods used for the determination of surfactants in the aquatic
environment samples is used without the preliminary separation and
preconcentration of surfactants. In the majority of cases, a complex multistage
separation scheme is required prior to the determination itself. Liquid-liquid
extraction is a frequently used separation technique. Anionic surfactants are
separated by extraction with chloroform in the form of ion-pairs with cationic
methylene blue [12-16]. Similarly, cationic surfactants are extracted with
139
chloroform as the ion-pair with anionic disulphine blue [17-22]. Non-ionic
surfactants are separated from the water matrices by extraction with ethyl
acetate. Only ethoxylates having less than 30 oxyethylene subunits are separated
this way [6]. Sequential extraction with ethyl acetate and chloroform is used for
the simultaneous separation and determination of non-ionic surfactants
ethoxylates, having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits and poly(ethylene
glycols) (PEG) [24-26].
A specific form of extraction technique is the gas-stripping of surfactants,
where the surfactants are transferred to the ethyl acetate layer [27]. Non-ionic
surfactants [27], anionic [28] and even cationic surfactants [18] may be separated
this way. Gas-stripping was also applied for the separation of linear alkylbenzene
sulphonate (LAS) from sea water [29]. Though a nitrogen stream is used in this
technique to transport surfactants from the water phase to the organic phase,
equilibrium between the water and organic phases must 'govern' the system i.e.
the same factor as in liquid-liquid extraction. Thus the same degree of separation
should be achieved both in gas-stripping and liquid-liquid extraction, using the
same solvent and ratio of phases. Certainly, these two techniques may differ in
the kinetics of extraction. It is worth mentioning that the gas-stripping technique
is very convenient for processing large volumes of the water sample. The longchain ethoxylates are lost in both gas-stripping and liquid-liquid extraction with
ethyl acetate [6,30]. It is surprising that some surfactants are located on the
boundary of phases during gas-stripping separation, and they disappear from
both the water and organic phases [6]. This effect, negative from the point of view
of successful separation, seems to be a consequence of the surfactant structure. A
very interesting extractive technique is the combination of the exhaustive steam
distillation and solvent extraction developed by Giger and Ahel [31] for the
separation of metabolites of oxyethylated alkylphenols. Recently, supercritical
fluid extraction was applied for the separation of cationic surfactants from dried
activated sludge [32].
Ion-exchange resins are usually used for clean-up procedures as an
intermediate stage in the procedural chain. Strong anion-exchange resin, applied
as a solid-phase extraction cartridge SAX, is used as an intermediate stage in the
determination of LAS by gas-chromatography or HPLC [29,33-39]. Strong anionexchange resins are also used in the analysis of surfactants to split ion-pairs of
cationic surfactants-to-be-determined with LAS added at the initial stage of
analysis [19,20,40]. Cationic surfactants are freed at this stage. The mixed-bad
ion-exchange column is used to clean up the sample containing non-ionic
surfactants-to-be-determined in order to stop interference of ionic surfactants
[10,41].
Solid-phase extraction is used in separation schemes for the specific
determination of LAS or, the determination of non-ionic surfactants. A C18 or C8
reverse phase cartridge [29,38,42] or graphitised carbon black cartridge [43,44] is
used for the preconcentration of LAS. Macroreticular adsorbent Amberlite XAD-8
was also used for the extreme preconcentration of anionic surfactants [45]. An
140
adsorption of non-ionic surfactants on macroreticular XAD-2 is recommended at
the initial stage for the CTAS procedure, or for the specific determination of
oxyethylated
alkylphenols
or oxyethylated alcohols
[10,23].
Effective
preconcentration of non-ionic surfactants in Teflon tubes is worth further study
[46].
5. I O N I C S U R F A C T A N T S
5.1.
Anionic surfactants
Anionic surfactants are a leading group of surfactants in terms of

manufacture. 59% of the total production of surfactants are surfactants of this
type [4]. LAS, alkyloxyethyleneether sulphates (alkylether sulphates) and alkyl
sulphates belong to the major classes of anionic surfactants. The ratio of these
classes is approximately 7.5 : 4 : 3. [47], although substantial regional differences
may occur in the use of different classes [4,5,47,48]. The vast majority of LAS and
alkyl sulphates is used in laundry detergents while alkylether sulphates are
mostly used in shampoo and foaming detergent formulations [49].
5.1.1. N o n - s p e c i f i c m e t h o d s of a n a l y s i s
5.1.1.1. The MBAS m e t h o d
The main tool for the determination of the total concentration of anionic
surfactants in the environmental
samples is the Methylene
Blue Active
Substances method [12,13]. The results of this non-specific determination are
known as the MBAS
concentration, and the principle of the procedure is the
formation of ion-pairs between anionic surfactants and cationic methylene blue.
This ion-pair is extracted with chloroform and the concentration is validated
spectrophotometrically
()~= 650 nm). The detection limit of the method was
evaluated at 20 gg l-I [36]. Humic substances, phenols and inorganic chlorides,
nitrates and thiocyanates were identified as giving positive errors while
quaternary ammonium
salts and fatty amines gave negative errors in the MBAS
analysis [14]. Where
the concentration of anionic surfactants is below the
capacity of the simple extraction procedure, a gas-stripping preconcentration to
ethyl acetate in a stream of nitrogen is recommended
[28]. In such a case the
water phase should contain a high concentration of sodium chloride. XAD-8
macroreticular resin was also used for the extreme preconcentration [45]. The
MBAS
procedure is commonly used for the determination of anionic surfactants
in surface water, raw sewage, processing liquors, effluents of sewage treatment
plants as well as in biodegradation
studies, and is an internationally
recommended
method [14,15,16]. New methods combining the extraction with
spectrophotometry
are in the process of development
[50-54], but none have
found a wide application.
Several attempts at achieving a spectrophotometric determination of anionic
surfactants in the flow-injection systems are worth mentioning [55-58]. The first
141
attempt was based on liquid-liquid extraction realised in the flow-injection
system [55], but more recent works [56-58] used solvatochromism i.e. a spectrum
shift caused by anionic surfactants. Despite a very high rate of measurements of
the order of one sample per minute, the recent applicability of these methods to
the environmental samples is limited, due to the too high a range of
concentration measured by these methods.
5.1.1.2. T i t r a t i o n m e t h o d s
The two-phase titration[59-68] and potentiometric titration [69-82] methods
have a degree of potential for the determination of anionic surfactants in the
environmental samples, although the optimal range of their application
corresponds to a higher range of concentration more characteristic of detergent
formulations than the environmental samples. Both methods work within a
similar range of concentration and in some recent studies they are used
alternatively [68]. Both methods are based on the formation of ion-pairs of
anionic and cationic surfactants. The two-phase titration method, also called
titration, by Epton [59], is performed in a heterogeneous water/chloroform
mixture in the presence of cationic dye. Initially, the coloured ion-pair of anionic
surfactant(s) and dye is dissolved in the chloroform layer. Colourless strong
cationic surfactant is used as a titrant. The end point of the titration is
determined visually. At this point the dye replaced by the cationic titrant passes
to the water layer. The cationic surfactant Hyamine 1622 (p-tert-octylphenoxyethoxydimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride) is frequently used as a
titrant but cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, lauryltrimethylammonium
bromide, lauryldimethylalkyl(C12_14)ammonium chloride and tetraphenylphosphonium chloride were also applied. Though many coloured cationic dyes,
including methylene blue, may be used as indicators, the mixed indicator
consisting of cationic dimidium bromide and anionic disulphine blue VN is
recommended [60-62]. The lowest concentration using two-phase titration was
reported by Tsubouchi et al [63-65]. Using tetraphenylphosphonium chloride
titrant and a tetrabromophtalein ethyl ester indicator they detected 12.5 pg in
the sample.
In the potentiometrically indicated precipitation titration a cationic titrant
forms a precipitate with the determined anionic surfactant-to-be-determined. An
excess portion of the titrant causes a jump in potential of an ion-selective
electrode indicated as an end point on the titration curve. Usually a liquid
membrane or a coated wire electrode was used as well as Hyamine,
cetyltrimethyl
ammonium
bromide,
cetylpiridinium
bromide
or
cetyldibenzylammonium chloride as titrants [68-82]. The range of hundreds of pg
and a single mg in the sample is the most suitable for titration [69,70]. On the
other hand, the linear response range for direct potentiometric measurements
was determined as 1 .7 - l
[70]. The range of concentration of the twophase and potentiometric titration used shows that these methods may be useful
in monitoring raw sewage and in biodegradation tests but hardly useful for
142
monitoring effluents of sewage treatment plants and surface water. Nowadays,
the MBAS or LAS specific HPLC methods are usually used for these purposes.
5.1.2. Specific m e t h o d s of analysis
Linear alkylbenzene sulphonates and their metabolites sulphophenyl
carboxylates are the only specifically determined anionic surfactants. This is due
to LAS being the main anionic surfactant as well as the availability of analytical
methods. LAS constitutes 50-60% of the total production of anionic surfactants
and approximately 25% of the total production of surfactants in Western Europe
[5,47,49]. In contrast to the other anionic surfactants, LAS contains the phenyl
ring which makes chromatographic detection easier.
Worth mentioning is the gas-chromatography method for the specific
determination of aklyether sulphates developed by Neubecker [83] and the
determination of the fraction of organic sulphates (alkyl sulphates and alkylether
sulphates) developed by Oba et al [84], though not widely used. The detection and
specific determination of sodium dodecyl sulphate, LAS and branched-chain
alkylbenzene sulphonate may be done using carbon-13 nuclear magnetic
resonance spectrometry [45]. However, a three hundred litre water sample is
required for processing prior to the determination itself.
5.1.2.1. Specific determination of linear alkylbenzene sulphonate

LAS are determined in different environmental samples using gas
chromatography(GC) or high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Most
of the GC schemes required desulphonation of LAS [33,85-95]. This was usually
done by hydrolysis of LAS in acidic aqueous solution. The corresponding mixture
of alkybenzenes which was produced was separated (e.g. by liquid-liquid
extraction to heptane [95]) and determined by GC. Orthophosphoric acid for
hydrolysis and a flame-ionisation detector were often used [92-94]. The
derivatization of preliminary separated LAS is another option [96,97]. The LAS
ion pair formed with tetrabutylammonium cation transforms into its butyl esters
in the injection port of the chromatograph (300 ~
A hyphened GC-MS
technique was also successfully applied [98-100].
Since the mid-eighties HPLC rather than GC has been used for the
determination of LAS [29,33-39,42-44,101-105]. The determination requires
several separation stages, although the first paper concerning the subject by
Nakae et al [101], predicted no pretreatment. A C18 or Cs reverse phase solid
phase extraction cartridge was often used for initial separation [29,38,39,42].
However, preconcentration by evaporation of a water sample was also utilised
[33,36]. Gas stripping separation of LAS from sea water samples to ethyl acetate
constituted another preconcentration approach [29]. Ion exchange separation is
usually used as a subsequent stage [29,33-39], as well as the second adsorption
into the C18 or C8 reverse phase cartridge for the final cleaning of the sample.
Preconcentration and cleaning may be achieved in a single stage using a
graphitized carbon black cartridge [43,44]. Specific homologues and isomers of
143
LAS, s e p a r a t e d on a C18 or Cs reverse phase chromatographic column are
detected using a fluorimetric detector (excitation at ~.= 230 or 225 nm and
emission at ~.= 290 or 295 nm) [33,34,36,43,44,101] or UV detector (k= 225 nm)
[39]. Different versions of HPLC procedures show a detection limit of the order of
10 pg 11 [34,36] or 0.3 ~g in the sample [39] i.e. considerably better t h a n GC
procedures. The possibility of recording changes of homologue distribution of LAS
is an i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e of the HPLC procedures.
Apart from LAS, its main biodegradation intermediates, sulphophenyl
carboxylates, m a y also be determined by the HPLC [106].
5.1.3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in the a q u a t i c e n v i r o n m e n t
Concentration of anionic surfactants in components of the aquatic environment
may be expressed both as the total concentration determined by the MBAS
procedure, and the concentration of LAS, which is the m a i n anionic surfactant.
The LAS results are equivalent to 55-93% of the MBAS results, in the case of raw
sewage, 18-53%, in the case of biologically treated sewage, 11-50% in the case of
river water and 2-38%, in the case of river sediment [33].
Raw sewage concentration of certain surfactants depends mainly on their use
and the consumption of w a t e r by the population. The concentration of anionic
surfactants (as determined by MBAS) in raw sewage depends very much on the
country. In the USA, C a n a d a and Switzerland the concentration of anionic
surfactants in raw sewage was estimated at 2 - 5 mg 1-1 [107-109] while in
Germany, UK and Spain, at 4 - 21 mg 1-1 [107,108,110,111]. The concentration of
LAS in the final effluents of numerous sewage t r e a t m e n t plants using activated
sludge was d e t e r m i n e d at 0.02 - 1.0 mg 11, but typically at 0.05 - 0.10 mg 1-1 [107].
Higher results were observed in Spain (0.04 - 0.40 mg 1-1, typically approximately
0.15 mg 1-1 [111]) and in the UK (0.1-0.3 mg 1-1 [94]), which corresponds to a
usually higher concentration of anionic surfactants in the raw sewage of these
countries [94,111]. Concentration of LAS adsorbed on activated sludge was
determined at 0.09 - 0.86 g kg -1 dry m a t t e r [107]. Apart from LAS, sulphophenyl
carboxylates, being the main soluble metabolite of LAS biodegradation [112] were
monitored in the raw sewage and in the effluent of a lagoon t r e a t m e n t plant
[113]. A concentration of sulphophenyl carboxylates in the order of 1 mg 11 was
found both in the raw and in the t r e a t e d sewage. It is necessary to stress t h a t the
concentration of sulphophenyl carboxylates in the effluent is twice higher than
the residual concentration of LAS.
The most detailed published data for the concentration of anionic surfactants
in surface w a t e r concerns four rivers in west Germany: Rhine, Ruhr, Main and
Neckar [114-118]. Very well documented MBAS based monitoring clearly shows
long term tendencies and seasonal variations in the concentration of anionic
surfactants. The level of 400-600 ~g 1-1 , characteristic for the period before 1964,
dropped to a level basically below 100 ~g 1-1 in the eighties and still exhibits a
slight tendency to go lower [116]. The main reason for such a radically improving
situation in relation to anionic surfactants was the production ban of barely
144
biodegradable tetrapropylene derived alkylbenzene sulphonate and its
replacement with the more environmentally friendly LAS. The concentration of
LAS in these rivers was determined at 9 - 35 ~g 1-1 which constitutes of 28% of the
MBAS result. In the UK, the average concentration in 1982 as determined by the
MBAS method from 35 measuring points was 150 ~g 1-1 , and the LAS
concentration was 26% of the MBAS result [94]. Several American rivers showed
a level of LAS concentration of 10-40 ~g 11 [118]. The Warta River in Poznan
(Poland), monitored over 7 years using the MBAS procedure, showed a relatively
stable level of approximately 200 ~g 1-1 [120]. Another tendency in the monitoring
results of anionic surfactants is a distinctly higher winter level t h a n s u m m e r
level [119,120].
The results concerning anionic surfactants in sea water were rarely published
and only concerned the LAS concentration. This is due to a better detection limit
of the HPLC method for LAS t h a n the MBAS. The concentration of LAS found in
Tokyo Bay ranged from 0.8 to 30 ~g 11 [121] while in the North Sea, in the
Scheldt River estuary on the Dutch coast, concentration of LAS ranged from 0.5
to 9.4 ~g 11 , showing a gradual decrease towards the open sea [29]. Ground
water from 500 m and 3000 m wells located in the vicinity of sewage infiltration
ponds contained 0.4 - 2.5 mg 1-1 of anionic surfactants as determined by the
MBAS [45]. Most of these surfactants were identified as branched-chain
alkylbenzene sulphonates. A report concerning tap water at an unspecified
location in J a p a n showed a concentration of LAS of 71 ~g 1-1 [121]. Wickbold [122]
however, by applying a preconcentration from 10 litres of tap water in Dfisseldorf,
G e r m a n y did not detect either LAS nor its metabolites.
The degree of biodegradation of anionic surfactants in sewage t r e a t m e n t
plants using activated sludge was estimated at 93-98%, while LAS was
biodegraded in 95 - 99.5% [107]. In sewage t r e a t m e n t plants using biological
filters the degree of biodegradation of anionic surfactants is lower and was
estimated as a 85-88% reduction in concentration of anionic surfactants
(determined by the MBAS method) or a 73-91% reduction in LAS concentration.
It is necessary to add that under model conditions, anionic surfactants
determined using the MBAS method were reduced 89-100%.
5.1.4. U n r e s o l v e d questions in the analysis of anionic surfactants

Four main unresolved questions may be specified:
i. the specific determination of different classes of anionic surfactants (alkyl
sulphates, alkylether sulphates),
ii. the analysis of metabolites of anionic surfactants
iii. partially biodegraded non-ionic surfactants of anionic nature
iv. 'pseudosurfactants'
At least two additional classes of anionic surfactants should be monitored in
the aquatic environment: alkyl sulphates and alkylether sulphates. Though LAS
remains the main surfactant in terms of output at approximately half of the
demand for anionic surfactants and a quarter of total surfactant demand, the two
145
classes also represent a significant participation in the total consumption of
surfactants; alkylether sulphates constitute approximately 20 - 25% and alkyl
sulphates, 10-20% [5,47]. Rapidly increasing consumption of these classes of
surfactants, especially of alkyl sulphates, is the novel tendency and therefore
their percentage will be increasing [48]. On the other hand, only LAS has been
monitored in the aquatic environment. The major reason for this is the
availability of established methods for the analysis of LAS and a complete lack of
methods for the specific determination of the other classes of anionic surfactants.
Because of this the development of methods for the determination of alkyl
sulphates and alkylether sulphates in the aquatic environment is a great
challenge for analysts.
An even more difficult unresolved problem is the analysis of major metabolites
of anionic surfactants in the aquatic environment. Sulphophenyl carboxylates
being the main metabolite of LAS, are already, though rarely monitored. An
alternative method for their determination is needed as well as more monitored
sewage treatment plants and other components of the aquatic environment. The
adaptation and introduction of monitoring methods for the determination of fatty
alcohols (the major product of linear alkyl sulphates biodegradation and one of
metabolites of biodegradation of alkylether sulphates) is required as well as
methods for the determination of oxyethylated fatty alcohols having a very short
oxyethylene chain (1-3 oxyethylene subunits). The latter are possible metabolites
of alkylether sulphates. Both fatty alcohols and oxyethylated fatty alcohols
having very short oxyethylene chains may also be metabolites of non-ionic
oxyethylated fatty alcohols.
Surfactants of anionic nature may be formed from non-ionic surfactants as a
result of their biodegradation. The alkyl chain of non-ionic surfactants may
undergo enzymatic co-oxidation:
C H3-CH 2-(CH2),- CH 2-(O- C H 2-CH2)m-OH
5
HOOC-CH2-(CH2)n-CH2-(O-CH2-CH2)m-OH
Thus non-ionic surfactants become anionic.
Enzymatic co-oxidation of the oxyethylene chain also leads to the formation of
compounds of anionic nature:
CH3-CH2-(CH2)~-CH2-(O-CH2-CH2)(m_I)- O-CH2-CH2-OH
5
CH3-CH2-(CH2)n-CH2-(O-CH2-CH2)(m_I)-O-CH2-COOH
These metabolites, having an anionic nature should behave similarly to anionic
surfactants in separation schemes. They may interfere with the nonspecific
determination of anionic surfactants. The method for their separation and
146
determination seems, to some extent, to be similar to those for anionic
surfactants. The development of methods for the analysis of the metabolites is a
serious analytical challenge.
The total concentration of anionic surfactants as determined by the MBAS
method may be overestimated due to the presence of 'pseudosurfactants' i.e.
natural substances giving analytical signals in the MBAS method [114]. Humic
substances, phenols and inorganic chlorides, nitrates and thiocyanates were
identified as giving positive results in the MBAS analysis [14]. However,
according to Osburn [95] many unidentified substances remain, particularly in
river water and in the final effluents of sewage treatment plants. Although this
opinion was expressed ten years ago, it still seems to be valid. The hypothesis
concerning the existence of 'pseudosurfactants' was formulated on the basis of a
comparison of the MBAS results and a specific determination of LAS results
[33,114,123]. The LAS/MBAS ratio was found to be high for raw sewage (55 - 95%
acc. to [33] or 71% acc. to [125]) and roughly reflected the value expected on the
basis of the consumption of anionic surfactants. On the other hand the
LAS/MBAS ratio in biologically treated sewage and in river water was much
lower than expected. In the biologically treated sewage, the ratio was estimated
at 18 - 53% [33] or 12 - 25% [125]. The most piecemeal data of the LAS/MBAS
ratio was obtained for river water. 11-50% was estimated by Matthhijs and
De Henau[33], 24-30%, by Waters and Garrigan [123] and an average 28% by
Gerike et al [125]. Very detailed investigation of the River Rhine and its main
tributaries in 1979 showed that the LAS/MBAS ratio was 43-70% in the upper
part of the river and gradually decreased to 15% at the Dutch border [114]. An
additional aspect in the discussion concerning 'pseudosurfactants' may be the fact
that the MBAS procedure used together with the gas-stripping separation stage
gave lower results than the simple MBAS version [126]. The lower the
concentration level of anionic surfactants, the higher the difference between the
results of the simple version of the MBAS and the MBAS combined with the gasstripping separation. This difference may partially correspond to the
concentration of 'pseudosurfactants'. All these considerations concerning the
'pseudosurfactants' question did not take the role of alkylether sulphates and
alkyl sulphates in the MBAS result into account. A more precise consideration of
the problem should be based on a comparison of the total concentration of LAS,
alkylether sulphates and alkyl sulphates with the MBAS result. Therefore the
development of methods for the specific determination of alkylether sulphates
and alkyl sulphates is such an important and challenging task for the analyst.
Anionic metabolites of non-ionic surfactants may also be one of the components of
'pseudosurfactants'.
5.2. C a t i o n i c s u r f a c t a n t s
Only 7% of the total production of surfactants is cationic surfactants [4]. Due
to their textile softening, antistatic and bacteriostatic properties they are used
broadly as fabric rinse conditioners. Quaternary ammonium salts are used
147
mainly though alkylpyridinium salts also play some role.
Dihardenedtallowdimethylammonium chloride has been the major cationic
surfactant [40]. Hardenedtallow is the name of a complex alkylchain which is
represented by a Cls - alkylchain in 65% and by a C16 - alkyl chain in 30%.
Undoubtedly, the main chemical species of dihardenedtallowdimethylammonium
chloride is distearyldimethyl ammonium chloride.
5.2.1. N o n - s p e c i f i c m e t h o d s of d e t e r m i n a t i o n
5.2.1.1. The D B A S m e t h o d
Nowadays, the Disulphine Blue Active Substances method is the main tool for
the determination of cationic surfactants [19]. The results of this determination
are known as the DBAS concentration. The principle of the method is based on
the formation of a coloured ion-pair comprising a surfactant-to-be-determined
and the anionic dye disulphine blue VN150 (also called Acid Blue 1')[17]. The ionpair is extracted with chloroform and the concentration is validated
spectrophotometrically ()~ = 628 or 625 nm). In these terms the DBAS method is
very similar to the MBSA method. However, contrary to the MBAS method, the
DBAS requires a relatively sophisticated separation procedure prior to the
determination itself [19]. The main stages consist in the evaporation of the
analysed sample, extraction of ion-pairs from the residue with methanol and ionexchange removal of anionic surfactants. An excess of anionic surfactants in the
initial sample is required. The method shows a recovery of 93-97% [19]. A slightly
modified version of the method published by Osburn [20]. Kunkel [18] proposed
the gas-stripping separation of cationic surfactants in the presence of an excess of
anionic surfactants prior to the further stages of DBAS. Before disulphine blue
has been introduced into the analytical routine, the other anionic dyes such as
Orange II [127] or picric acid [128] were used.
5.2.1.2. O t h e r m e t h o d s
Similarly as in the case of anionic surfactants, the two-phase titration and
potentiometric titration have some potential for the analysis of environmental
samples, especially those having a relatively high concentration of cationic
surfactants such as sewage, processing liquors and solutions in biodegradation
studies. The principles of these methods were described in paragraph '5.1.1.2.
Titration methods'. The titrant usually used is sodium tetraphenylborate
[64,69,82,129-133] although lauryl sulphate [134,135], tetradecyl sulphate [134]
and picric acid [136,137] were also used. In the two-phase titration the same
indicators as in the titration of anionic surfactants such as the mixed indicator
consisting of dimidium bromide and disulphine blue VN [60,61] or
tetrabromophenolophtalein ethyl ester [64] were recommended. In the latter case
[64] the amount of cationic surfactants to of the order of 10 gg in the sample may
be determined. However, the presence of anionic surfactants interferes with the
determination. In the potentiometric titration, liquid membrane ion selective
electrodes [82,129,131,133,135-137] were used. They frequently contained the
148
tetraphenylborate anion in the membrane [129,131,133]. Coated wire electrodes
were also used for this purpose [69,130]. The physico-chemical limitation of the
potentiometric titration is the relatively high solubility of the ion-par precipitates
formed during titration.
5.2.2. Specific m e t h o d s of analysis

5.2.2.1. Specific determination of d i s t e a r y l d i m e t h y l a m m o n i u m cation
Distearyldimethylammonium cation is the main objective of the specific
determination of cationic surfactants, as it is the main manufactured surfactant
of the cationic type. Previously thin-layer chromatography was used for this
purpose [20,138-141], but more recently, HPLC determination combined with an
adequate separation scheme predominates [142-145]. Osburn [20] developed the
separation scheme using the final solution as used for the DBAS determination.
The ion-pair of cationic surfactants with disulphine blue (previously used for the
DBAS determination) is split on the cation exchange resin and cationic
surfactants are eluted with hydrochloric methanol and separated and visualised
on the silica gel G plate. A spot of distearyldimethylammonium cation is used for
indication and semiquantitative determination.
The HPLC procedure for the determination of distearyldimethylammonium
cation basically uses the same separation scheme as the DBAS method [40]. The
water or sewage sample is evaporated and the residue is washed with
hydrochloric methanol solution. After methanol evaporation the residue is
treated with LAS anion to form an ion-pair and is extracted with chloroform. This
residue after chloroform evaporation is transferred into the anion exchange resin
column to remove LAS and other anionic surfactants. Cationic surfactants
contained in the methanol effluent of the column are put in the HPLC apparatus
after evaporation and liquid/liquid back extraction from chloroform. The HPLC
peak of distearyldimethylammonium cation may be recorded using the
amino/cyano bounded silica column and detection by conductometry. The mixture
of chloroform, methanol and glacial acetic acid is used as the mobile phase. A
very similar scheme may be used for the determination of distearyldimethylammonium cation in environmental solid samples such as dried sludge
[40]. The detection limit of the procedure was estimated at 2.5 gg 1-1 or 0.5 gg g-1
of solid matrix.
Supercritical fluid extraction may be used as the first stage of the above
described separation scheme for the analysis of dried sewage sludge [32]. It is
worth mentioning research which demonstrates the possibility of analysing
cationic
and
anionic
surfactants
simultaneously
by
utilising
field
desorption/collisionally
activated
dissociation
mass
spectrometry
with
simultaneous ion detection [146]. Only 5 pg of sample is required; however, only
model samples were measured.
149
5.2.3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in the a q u a t i c e n v i r o n m e n t
The available data is r a t h e r piecemeal and concerns the USA, UK, Germany
and the Benelux countries [20,40,140,141,149]. The total concentration of cationic
surfactants as determined by the DBAS method in raw sewage varied from 0.7 to
2.4 mg 1-~ [20,40,141] while in the final effluents of sewage t r e a t m e n t plants, from
0.03 to 0,27 mg 1-1. The DBAS concentration in river water was reported to vary
from 4 gg 1-1 to 42 gg 1-1 [20,141,147,148] and the influence of the effluent of
sewage t r e a t m e n t plant on the level of the DBAS concentration in river water
was clearly shown [141]. Wasted dry activated sludge is reported to contain 0.4 0.5 gg g-~ [20] or 3.3 - 3.7 gg g-1 [40,141] while in river water sediments, from 0.02
to 0.14 gg g-1 [20,40,149]. Cationic surfactants are removed 72 to 98% in
activated sludge t r e a t m e n t in sewage t r e a t m e n t plants [141].
Distearyldimethylammonium chloride consisted of 74% of the DBAS result in
raw sewage [141], from 34% to 86% in final effluents [40,141], from 43% to 63%
in river water, 60% in river sediments [40] and 81% in wasted sludge [141]. It is
significant that the ratio of the MBAS (anionic surfactants) to DBAS was
estimated as roughly equal 2.5 : 1 [149].
5.2.4. U n r e s o l v e d q u e s t i o n s in the a n a l y s i s of c a t i o n i c s u r f a c t a n t s
The following unresolved questions may be specified:
i. the inconlusive results of m e a s u r e m e n t s of aquatic environment
samples,
ii. the development of an analytical tool for the investigation of
interactions between cationic and anionic surfactants in the aquatic
environment,
iii. the automation of measurements.
One of the main problems is to build up a more conclusive pattern of
concentration levels in the components of the aquatic environment. The available
results are not numerous and are very divergent. The reason may either be very
divergent levels of concentration in the analysed samples or imperfections in the
analytical methods. Generally, more data is needed. Interlaboratory tests would
be useful in checking the analytical methods and the performance level of
laboratories which analyse cationic surfactants.
Precipitation of cationic surfactants by anionic surfactants is relatively well
investigated under the model conditions characteristic for titration. However, the
aquatic environment is much more complicated. It characterises both the excess
of man-made anionic surfactants as well as numerous n a t u r a l substances of
anionic nature, such as fulvic and humic acids or fatty acids. The precipitation of
cationic surfactants under such complicated conditions may differ strongly from
the model conditions. The analytical tools for the investigation of such kinds of
complex systems are needed.
A sophisticated separation scheme requires either the DBAS method or the
specific determination of distearyldimethylammonium cation by the HPLC
making the automation of m e a s u r e m e n t s impossible. The most troublesome stage
150
of these procedures in terms of the possibility of automation is the evaporation of
the sample and the leaching of the residue with methanol. Alternative methods
for the separation of cationic surfactants from water samples should be developed
to make automation possible.
6. NON-IONIC S U R F A C T A N T S
Non-ionic surfactants come second in terms of output after anionic surfactants.
The yearly output of non-ionic surfactants is slightly above the half yearly output
of anionic surfactants [4,5]. However, non-ionic surfactants display a greater
variety of chemical structures and number of chemical compounds.
Approximately one thousand individual chemical substances may be found in a
mixture of non-ionic surfactant in the aquatic environment. The vast majority of
non-ionic surfactants are ethoxylates i.e. products of the reaction of oxyethylene
oxide with a reagent having a hydrophobic part and active hydrogen such as fatty
alcohols, fatty acids, fatty amines, alkylphenols etc. An oxyethylene chain is
formed and is the hydrophilic part of the molecule. The length of an oxyethylene
chain may be controlled and in this way the ratio of the hydrophobic and
hydrophilic part of the molecule may be tailored. A great variety of surfactants
having different a hydrophobic-liophobic balance may also be easily tailored. On
the other hand, the oxyethylation process leads to polydispersal products.
Therefore, in reality, every commercial ethoxylate is a mixture consisting of
several dozens of chemical substances.
The analytical control of non-ionic surfactants is much more difficult than
anionic or cationic surfactants [150-152]. Gas chromatography is usually applied
for the determination of homologue distribution in commercial products. This
distribution is one of the fundamental characteristics of non-ionic surfactants.
Conventional methods are still used to determine the concentration non-ionic
surfactants in commercial formulations such as extraction with chloroform,
evaporation of organic solvent and gravimetric determination of dissolved nonionic surfactants [153]. Recently, titration of non-ionic surfactants by sodium
tetraphenylborate in the presence of barium (II) ions with endpoint detection by
ion-selective electrode is being introduced [154-159]. The methods for the
determination of non-ionic surfactants in aquatic environment components
(sewage, surface water) are usually very complex and complicated.
6.1. N o n s p e c i f i c m e t h o d s for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of n o n - i o n i c s u r f a c t a n t s
6.1.1. The c h o i c e of s t a n d a r d error
The general problem of nonspecific methods for the determination of non-ionic
surfactants is the choice of standard. The background of this problem is the
extremely high number of individual substances which may constitute the
mixture of non-ionic surfactants. Approximately one thousand individual
chemical substances may be present in the mixture, due mainly to the
151
r/l
concentration
Figure 1A. Surfactant calibration graphs
with large dispersion
concentration
Figure lB. Surfactant calibration graphs

with narrow dispersion
polidispersity of ethoxylates. Even if the composition of this mixture were known,

the reasonable choice of a standard would be a difficult task. Unfortunately, this
composition is unknown and only speculations made on the basis of the
manufacture of different classes of non-ionic surfactants may be done. Each
component of the mixture characterises its own calibration graph. The bunch of
calibration graphs of the mixture components may be less or more focused (see
Figure 1A and 1B). The arbitrary choice of one standard substance gives rise to
the error called the 'choice of standard error' [6]. If the calibration graph of the
selected standard has a slope lower than the surfactant-to-be-determined (see
Figure 2A), the value determined on the basis of the analytical signal and the
calibration graph of standard is overestimated. The error of underestimation will
be made if the calibration graph of the standard has a slope higher than the
calibration graph of a surfactant-to-be-determined (see Figure 2B). In the case of
the mixture, the best opportunity is the selection of a standard with the
calibration graph in the middle of the bunch of calibration graphs of the mixture
components, where errors compensate each other.
However, such a choice requires that components of the mixture and their ratio
be known. This is not yet a realistic task for the case of the mixture of non-ionic
surfactants in the aquatic environment. However, the choice of standard error
may be minimised by the use of the analytical method which characterises a
more focused bunch of calibration graphs of particular non-ionic surfactants.
152
true
concentration
determined
concentration
st
on
~0
o~.,~
r
op,,~
o~..~
e~
concentration
Figure 2A. The standard choice error:
overestimation un- unknown surfactant-tobe-determined
concentration
Figure 2B. As 2A: underestimation error
st - chosen arbitrary standard
6.1.2. The BiAS m e t h o d

The Bismuth Active Substances method (BIAS) is recommended in Europe for
the determination of non-ionic surfactants in aquatic environment components
[27,41,148]. This method is also known as the Wickbold method or the method
with modified Dragendorff reagent. A selective step of the BIAS method is the
precipitation of the orange coloured compound of ethoxylates with Dragendorff
reagent in the presence of barium(II) ions. A pseudocation is formed between
ethoxylates and barium(II) ion. This pseudocation reacts with the anionic
complex of bismuth(III) and iodides (called Dragendorff reagent). Only
ethoxylates having more than 4 oxyethylene subunits form the precipitate. The
first semiquantitative method using this reaction was developed by B~irger [161].
The concentration of non-ionic surfactants was evaluated on the basis of the
height of the precipitate layer in special tubes with capillaries in the lowest part.
The present version of the BiAS method was developed by Wickbold [27]. A gasstripping separation of non-ionic surfactants from a water matrix to an ethyl
acetate layer was introduced prior to the determination itself, both for an
effective preconcentration as well as for the separation of non-ionic surfactants
from impurities in the water matrix. Evaporation of the organic solvent was
followed by the precipitation of ethoxylates with modified Dragendorff reagent.
The concentration of non-ionic surfactants is indirectly determined by the
determination of bismuth(III) in the precipitate. Basically, the gas-stripping
technique in this particular case is a special extraction technique adopted for
extraction of large volumes of samples. However, the partition coefficient of
153
surfactant still 'governs' the water/ethyl acetate system as in the case of the
liquid/liquid extraction. The water sample is processed in a special column with a
frit bottom. Prior to processing the sample should be filtered. Sodium chloride
and sodium hydrogencarbonate are added to the sample to adjust ionic power and
pH and a nitrogen stream is passed through it during the separation. Gasstripping separation is repeated twice [27] or four times [41] in order to achieve a
satisfactory degree of separation. The time-consuming stage of the procedure is
the evaporation of ethyl acetate i.e. 400 - 800 ml. The residue is dissolved in
methanol and treated with barium(II) and Dragendorff reagent. Bismuth(III) is
determined
in
the
precipitate
by potentiometric
titration
[27] or
spectrophotometrically by measurement of the absorbance of bismuth(III)-EDTA
complex in UV range [41]. A non-filtered water sample should be treated
according to Waters, and an additional step of cleaning the sample in order to
remove ionic surfactants is necessary. The difference in Wickbold's approach
(a filtered water sample) and Waters (a non-filtered sample) comes down to the
amount of non-ionic surfactants adsorbed on particles of surface water [8].
The BiAS method is considered as a method for the determination of the total
concentration of non-ionic surfactants. In reality only ethoxylates having
5 - 30 oxyethylene subunits are determined by the method. Non-ionic surfactants
of non-ethoxylate structure (alkylamides, alkylpolyglucosides, etc.) are not
determined by this method. Moreover, ethoxylates having 1-4 oxyethylene
subunits are not precipitated by the modified Dragendorff reagent. Ethoxylates
having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits are lost during gas-stripping
separation. The BiAS procedure is recommended for the analysis of samples
containing 100 to 1000 ~g. This range corresponds to the amount of non-ionic
surfactants in raw and treated sewage as well as in samples used in
biodegradation tests. If there are less than 100 ~g of non-ionic surfactants in the
sample the BiAS method does not work properly. Interlaboratory experiments
with the participation of prominent laboratories in Germany, UK and Belgium
showed satisfactory results for samples of raw sewage, but totally unsatisfactory
results for biologically treated sewage [162]. For example, the results for one of
these samples were scattered over the range of 70 - 390 ~g 1-1.
Additional problems concern the determination of non-ionic surfactants in
river water by the BiAS procedure. In relatively non-polluted river water the
concentration of non-ionic surfactants is below 100 ~g 11. Therefore several litres
of water must by processed by gas-stripping in order to obtain a sample
containing more t h a n 100 ~g 1-1. This large volume of water sample generates
further problems. Filtration of such a sample, especially if it contains high
concentrations of particles is a cumbersome task. 800 ml of ethyl acetate must be
used during gas-stripping separation which then needs to be evaporated.
The main reason for the poor detection level, and unsatisfactory results of
interlaboratory experiments was the loss of the surfactant-to-be-determined
during washing of the precipitate containing surfactants with glacial acetic
acid [163]. This stage of the classical BiAS procedure is necessary in order to
154
remove excessive bismuth(III) from the precipitate and the filter, though
simultaneously a part of the precipitate is lost. Because the washing is performed
on the filter, the loss is kinetic dependent and the duration of washing may be an
important factor. This may well be the main reason for the poor interlaboratory
tests results.
A serious problem in the BiAS procedure is calibration. The total concentration
of non-ionic surfactants should be calculated using a single standard and an error
connected with this selection (the standard choice error) was discussed elsewhere.
6.1.3. T h e CTAS method
The Cobalt Thiocyanate Active Substances method (CTAS) is recommended in
the USA [14] for the determination of non-ionic surfactants in environmental
samples. CTAS is considered as equivalent to the BiAS method and is an
extraction-spectrophotometric method. Ethoxylates having more than 5
oxyethylene subunits form coloured compounds with an anionic complex of
cobalt(II) and thiocyanates. This coloured compound is extracted to
dichloromethane and spectrophotometric measurement is performed. To
eliminate interferences, a relatively complicated separation procedure is
recommended [23]. This consists of adsorption of non-ionic surfactants from
water or sewage samples on the macroreticular resin Amberlite XAD-2, a
removal of fatty material with petroleum ether, elution of adsorbed non-ionic
surfactants by an ethyl ether/methanol mixture, evaporation of solvents,
extraction of non-ionic surfactants to ethyl acetate, evaporation of solvent again
and treatment of the residue dissolved in methanol on an ion exchange resin
column with the mixed bed. After methanol evaporation, the residue is processed
according to the CTAS extraction-spectrophotometric procedure, briefly described
above. More recently, the gas-stripping separation procedure is recommended,
performed just as in the BiAS method, instead of the sophisticated separation
scheme described above [14]. The 'spectrum' of ethoxylates determined by the
CTAS method is roughly the same as that of the BiAS method i.e. those having
5 - 30 oxyethylene subunits. The detection limit of the CTAS is about 50 ~g 1-1
[36].
6.1.4. The GC-hydrogen bromide cleavage method

This is based on the cleavage of the ethoxylene chain with hydrogen bromide
and gas-chromatographic determination of dibromoethane, the product of the
cleavage [164-168]. The final version of the method, developed by Wee [169] and
recommended by Matthijs and Hennes [36] is preceded by a relatively
complicated separation scheme. Surfactants are separated from a water matrix
by gas-stripping to ethyl acetate or by liquid-liquid extraction to chloroform. After
evaporation of the organic solvent the residue is dissolved in methanol and
passed through an ion-exchange resin column. The eluent is evaporated, the
residue dissolved in chloroform and passed through a silica gel column. The
eluent is washed with methanol, after evaporation, and is treated with hydrogen
155
bromide and the dibromoethane formed is determined by GC. The detection limit
of the method is evaluated at 10 ~g 11 [36].
6.1.5. Other m e t h o d s
An extraction-spectrophotometric method similar to the CTAS has been
developed by Favretto et al [170]. Pseudocation is formed between ethoxylates
and potassium(I) cation which forms the ion-pair with picrate anion. The ion-pair
is extracted to dichloromethane and its absorbance is measured by
spectrophotometry at k = 378 nm. Another alternative is the precipitation of
ethoxylates with phosphorous-molibdic acid in the presence of barium(II).
Pseudocation of ethoxylates and barium (II) forms a precipitate with
phosphorous-molibdic anion. The non-precipitated excess of molybdenum is
determined by atomic absorption spectrometry [171,172]. Gas-stripping
separation is used for initial separation and preconcentration. A similar method
has been developed Winkler and Buhl [173,174], where removal of albumenic
substances from the water matrix was applied instead of gas-stripping and three
alternative techniques for the determination of molybdenum: X-ray fluorimetry,
atomic absorption spectrometry and polarography, were used. All three gave
similar results.
6.1.6. T e n s a m m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s
6.1.6.1. The adsorptive stripping t e n s a m m e t r y

The role of tensammetric techniques in the determination of non-ionic
surfactants in the aquatic environment is growing. The most frequently used
tensammetric technique is alternating current voltammetry. However, the first
method developed which took into account the complexity of aquatic environment
samples, was the Kalousek Commutator technique [175]. Earlier works did not
consider the problem of matrix effects and therefore they may be classified as
very interesting heuristic models. A very important factor in the development of
the recent version of t e n s a m m e t r y has been the introduction of the hanging
mercury drop electrode (HMDE). Adsorptive preconcentration of surfactants on
the surface of HMDE has enabled the determination of concentrations of
surfactants to two orders of magnitude lower than previously [176-181]. This
technique is called the adsorptive stripping t e n s a m m e t r y (AdST). The additional
advantage of the use of HMDE is the ability to differentiate the adsorption of
different substances by a change in the preconcentration potential. The main
disadvantage of the AdST is the complex behaviour of mixtures of surfactants
[182-184]. This factor makes direct application of the AdST to aquatic
environment samples very difficult [182-184]. However, the AdST may be very
useful in those systems where a single surfactant predominates. The sources of
error of the classical BiAS procedure were clearly shown by the use of the AdST
and Triton X-100 as the model surfactant [163]. In this way the further
successful modification of this procedure was achieved. Strong adsorption of nonionic surfactants on different materials was shown by the use of the AdST as a
156
tool [185,186]. The AdST has been shown to be a useful auxiliary tool in
biodegradation studies [187].
6.1.6.2. The i n d i r e c t t e n s a m m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e and i n d i r e c t t e n s a m m e t r i c
method
The indirect tensammetric technique (ITT) is the technique specified for the
determination of non-ionic surfactants in the aquatic environment samples and is
therefore much better adapted to this task than the majority of other
tensammetric techniques: The lowering of the tensammetric peak of a monitoring
substance due to competitive adsorption of surfactants-to-be-determined is the
analytical signal in the ITT (see Fig. 3). The monitoring substance must be a
weaker surfactant than the surfactants-to-be-determined. Usually ethyl acetate
is used as the monitor [188]; it is a weaker surfactant than non-ionic surfactants,
but stronger than anionic. Therefore, anionic surfactants do not interfere with
the determination of non-ionic surfactants by the ITT, with ethyl acetate as the
monitor [189]. Another important advantage of the ITT is the approximate
additivity of the analytical signals of particular mixture components [190].
The ITT combined with a simple extraction procedure is called the indirect
tensammetric method (ITM). The only separation stages are filtration and
extraction of non-ionic surfactants to ethyl acetate [188]. An aliquot of ethyl
acetate phase may be introduced into the measuring cell, dissolved in the base
electrolyte and the tensammetric measurement performed. In the case of a lower
concentration of non-ionic surfactants an all ethyl acetate phase may be
- --analytical signa7 - - I
il
potential
Figure 3A. Tensammetric peak of
the monitoring substance alone.
'
potential
Figure 3B. Tensammetric peak of the
monitoring substance in the presence of
the surfactant-to-be-determined.
157
evaporated and the residue dissolved in 1.5 ml of ethyl acetate, the optimal
a m o u n t needed as the monitor for performance of the ITT m e a s u r e m e n t . The ITT
m a y be used for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of non-ionic surfactants in sewage, effluents of
sewage t r e a t m e n t plants and surface w a t e r [191]. The detection limit of the ITM
was determined at 1.5 pg in the sample i.e. almost two orders of magnitude
better t h a n in the classical BiAS method [191]. Ethoxylates having 1 - 30
oxyethylene subunits m a y be determined by the ITM i.e. the broader 'spectrum'
t h a n in the BiAS or CTAS, which are only able to determine ethoxylates having
5 - 30 oxyethylene subunits. However, the other substances extracted by ethyl
acetate are d e t e r m i n e d using the ITM e.g. free fatty alcohols [188]. Fortunately,
no substantial differences were evidenced when river w a t e r or sewage samples
were determined simultaneously by the ITM and classical BiAS [191]. Due to a
much better detection limit t h a n the classical BiAS or CTAS, the ITM requires a
substantially lower volume of w a t e r sample to be processed. Usually 100 - 200 ml
is extracted by 50 ml of ethyl acetate used in two portions. There is no need for
time-consuming gas-stripping with large volumes of w a t e r and ethyl acetate. This
advantage is especially seen in the case of samples with low concentrations of
non-ionic surfactants. An additional advantage of the ITM in comparison to the
classical BiAS or CTAS is a considerably narrower dispersion of slopes of
calibration graphs of different non-ionic surfactants. Therefore the ITM is
substantially less sensitive to the error of choice of s t a n d a r d (see section 6.1.1.)
and d e m o n s t r a t e s an a d v a n t a g e in the case of the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a non-ionic
surfactant mixture of u n k n o w n composition [6]. The disadvantage of the ITM is
interference of chlorophyll extracted from water plants [6]. This drawback may be
overcome by the filtration of the sample prior to extraction. Monitoring of nonionic surfactants in the River W a r t a in Poznan was established in 1990 on the
basis of the ITM m e a s u r e m e n t s [120]. Seven years experience in the use of the
ITM for this purpose d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t this method m a y be recommended for the
routine control of non-ionic surfactants in river w a t e r [191].
6.1.6.3. The m e t h o d combining BiAS separation procedure with the

indirect t e n s a m m e t r i c technique (BiAS-ITT)
The BiAS-ITT is more selective t h a n the ITM due to the additional step of
selective precipitation of ethoxylates with modified Dragendorff reagent
[192,193]. Chlorophyll interference can be removed this way. Non-ionic
surfactants are determined in the final stage of the BiAS-ITT method instead of
bismuth(III) as in the classical version of the BIAS. Washing with glacial acetic
acid is omitted in the BiAS-ITT, compared with the classical version, because it is
at this stage t h a t serious loss occurs. The washing m a y be omitted because nonionic surfactants are determined instead of bismuth(III) and its excess in the
precipitate does not hinder the determination. The detection limit of the BIASITT was determined as equivalent to 1.5 ~g in the sample i.e. equivalent to the
ITM, though the BiAS-ITT is more complicated and required more labour. Only
ethoxylates having 4 - 30 oxyethylene subunits can be determined by the method
158
i.e. similar to the classical BIAS. The BiAS-ITT appeared to be the method
capable of competing with the ITM. Several problems unresolvable by the other
methods, including the ITM, were resolved using the BiAS-ITT. Two methods for
the determination of non-ionic surfactants adsorbed on particles of river water
were developed [194]. A total flux of non-ionic surfactants in river water can be
determined this way as well as its components: soluble non-ionic surfactants and
those adsorbed on particles. The method for the determination of non-ionic
surfactants adsorbed on activated sludge in a dynamic biodegradation test
according to the OECD Confirmatory Test was developed [195]. A slightly
modified version of the BiAS-ITT was developed for the determination of nonionic surfactants in the presence of hydrocarbons [196]. Hydrocarbons adsorbed
on the precipitate formed by ethoxylates with modified Dragendorff reagent can
be removed by washing with iso-octane. This step does not cause a loss of
surfactant. On the other hand, unremoved hydrocarbons extract ethoxylates
causing a negative error. The BiAS-ITT can be successfully applied to the
determination of primary biodegradation in the OECD Confirmatory Test [197].
The ITM causes very serious errors under these conditions due to the presence of
free fatty alcohol being the metabolite of biodegradation.
6.2. Specific m e t h o d s for the determination of non-ionic surfactants

In contrast to the general meaning of this term, where a 'specific signal'
usually means the signal of a single chemical species, in surfactant analysis,
because of the complexity of subject the specific determination may mean the
determination supplying more information than the 'total concentration' e.g. a
concentration of specific group of surfactants.
6.2.1. Oxyethylated alkylphenols
Most attention has been paid to the determination of this class of non-ionic
surfactants because of their poor biodegradability. Additionally, due to the
presence of the phenyl ring in the molecules, it was an easier task t h a n in the
case of other classes of non-ionic surfactants. The presence of the phenyl ring
facilitated the use of UV-spectrophotometric or fluorimetric detection. Only
oxyethylated alkylphenols among non-ionic surfactants posses this property. Ahel
and Giger [198] developed an HPLC method with UV detection for the specific
determination of oxyethylated alkylphenols. Gas-stripping separation of non-ionic
surfactants according to Wickbold [27] was the first stage of separation and an
aluminium oxide column for additional cleaning of the sample was used. The
method was used for the determination of oxyethylated alkylphenols in different
environmental samples [199,200]. Application of fluorimetric instead of UVspectrophotometric detection substantially improved the detection limit of the
method [10,201-203]. Kubeck and Naylor [10] applied another separation scheme
to the HPLC determination of oxyethylated alkylphenols. The sample was
cleaned on the ion-exchange column with the mixed bed, and in the solid phase
extraction column with a Cls reverse phase. Hot methanol was used to wash the
159
determined oxyethylated alkylphenols from the column, prior to the separation
on the HPLC column.
6.2.2. O x y e t h y l a t e d a l c o h o l s
The success of the specific determination of oxyethylated alkylphenols
stimulated attempts to develop a similar specific method for the determination of
oxyethylated alcohols, which are the main group of non-ionic surfactants in terms
of output [5,47]. In order to solve the detection problem, Allen and Linder [204]
derivatized oxyethylated alcohols with phenylisocyanate, converting them to the
form detectable in UV-spectrophotometry. The preliminary separation scheme
was partially adapted from the previous schemes concerning oxyethylated
alkylphenols. The sequential application of gas-stripping, ion exchange resin and
aluminium oxide columns comprises one of the versions of the separation scheme.
Another scheme developed by Schmitt et al [23] proposes a sequential application
of the column with macroreticular adsorbent Ameberlite XAD-2, liquid-liquid
extraction with ethyl acetate and ion-exchange treatment prior to the
derivatization with phenylisocyanate. HPLC separation with the normal phase
(~Bond-apakNHD leads to a separation of the treated mixture in accord with the
length of the oxyethylene chain while separatien on the reverse phase column
(~Bond-apak Cas), accords with the length of alkyl chain [23]. The method applied
for calculation of the results requires a presumption of the length of the
oxyethylene chain. The results obtained by using the HPLC method with
derivatization are much lower than those for the same samples obtained by the
CTAS [124] or the classical BiAS [162] methods. On the basis of these results and
taking into account that oxyethylated alcohols are the main class of non-ionic
surfactants in terms of output, the opinion was expressed that the CTAS or BiAS
methods lead to a serious overestimation of non-ionic surfactants [124,162].
Other authors suggest that the considered HPLC method leads to considerably
lower results for complex environmental samples [206]. It is worth mentioning
that the results of the CTAS [205] and classical BIAS [191] methods yield similar
results to ITM and BiAS-ITT. Hence, the HPLC method with derivatization using
phenylisocyanate in its current version seems to be erroneous.
6.2.3. Specific d e t e r m i n a t i o n of non-ionic s u r f a c t a n t s h a v i n g m o r e than
30 o x y e t h y l e n e s u b u n i t s and o x y e t h y l a t e d a l c o h o l s h a v i n g the
C16-1s alkyl c h a i n with m u l t i - m o n i t o r i n d i r e c t t e n s a m m e t r i c
technique
Recently, two tensammetric methods for the specific determination of specific
groups of non-ionic surfactants have been developed using the so called multimonitor indirect tensammetric technique[25,26,207]. There is the method for the
determination of non-ionic surfactants having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits
[25]. This group was not determined either by CTAS or by the BiAS procedures.
The ITM and BiAS-ITT methods were also unable to determine this group of nonionic surfactants. Therefore these surfactants, including the important barely
160
biodegradable oxyethylene-oxypropylene block copolymers, were thoroughly
uncontrolled. The developed method combines an adequate separation scheme
with the newly developed tensammetric technique which improves the specific
detection of surfactants. Non-ionic surfactants having less than 30 oxyethylene
subunits, which hinder the determination, are first separated from the water or
sewage sample by extraction w{th ethyl acetate. The sequential extraction of the
same sample with chloroform gives the fraction containing poly(ethylene glycols)
(PEG) and non-ionic surfactants having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits. To
remove the influence of anionic surfactants, which also hinder the determination,
ethoxylates and PEG of the chloroform fraction are precipitated with the modified
Dragendorff reagent. The 'total concentration' of surfactants of the 'chloroform
fraction' is determined using the ITT with an ethyl acetate monitor, while the
concentration of non-ionic surfactants having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits
is determined using the second monitor tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB)
[25]. The adsorptive ability of TBAB is weaker than non-ionic surfactants having
more than 30 oxyethylene subunits but stronger than PEG. Therefore, only nonionic surfactants having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits can replace the
TBAB monitor molecules on the electrode surface, which is apparent from the
lowering of the TBAB tensammetric peak.
The multi-monitor indirect tensammetric technique is also useful in the
specific determination of oxyethylated alcohols having the C16-18 alkyl chain
[26,207]. No special separation scheme is required. The same separation scheme
is used as in the BiAS-ITT. The final stage of the BiAS-ITT is the determination
of the total concentration of non-ionic surfactants, using the first monitor, ethyl
acetate. Simply the introduction of the second monitor, TBAB and performance of
the next tensammetric measurement creates the signal useful for the
determination of oxyethylated alcohols having the C16-18 alkyl chain. These
surfactants exhibit the strongest adsorptive ability among non-ionic surfactants
separated by extraction with ethyl acetate. Oxyethylated alcohols having the
C16-18 alkyl chain are a stronger surfactant than TBAB, while the other
oxyethylated alcohols, oxyethylated alkylphenols, oxyethylated amines, etc. are
weaker. Therefore oxyethylated alcohols having the C16-18 alkyl chain replace
TBAB monitor molecules on the electrode surface, creating a decrease of the
TBAB tensammetric peak, while the other non-ionic surfactants in the ethyl
acetate fraction, do not.
6.2.4. M e t a b o l i t e s
Extensive model studies were performed for every class of surfactants to
investigate the degree of biodegradation and the optional pathways of this
process [150]. However, metabolites are rarely monitored in the aquatic
environment components. The reason may be the more complex composition of
the aquatic environment samples than the samples from the biodegradation
tests.
161
6.2.4.1. Alkyphenol, short chain alkylphenol polyethoxylates and their

carboxylated biotransformation products
Free alkylphenol and short chain alkylphenol polyethoxylates having 1 or 2
oxyethylene subunits are considered as the main metabolites of the
biodegradation of oxyethylated alkylphenols. They are formed as a result of the
enzymatic hydrolysis of the oxyethylene chain pathway [150] according to
reaction:.
enzyme
CH3-CH2-(CH2)n-CH2--CGH4-O-CH2-CH2-(O-CH2-CH2)m-(O-CH2-CH2)-OH
CH3-CH2-(CH2)n-CH2--C6H4-O-CH2-CH2-(O-CH2-CH2)m-OH + HO-CH2-CH2-OH
The gradual shortening of the oxyethylene chain finally leads to the formation of
alkylphenol monoethoxylate and alkylphenol diethoxylate. At this stage the
biodegradation is slowed, causing the accumulation of these compounds. Further
biotransformation leads to the formation of carboxylated compounds such as
alkyphenol acetic acid and alkylphenolethoxy acetic acid [208,209].
Ahel and Giger developed the HPLC method for the determination of free
alkylphenol and alkylphenol monoethoxylate and alkylphenol diethoxylate with
an adequate separation scheme [31]. An exhaustive steam distilation/solvent
extraction procedure was used to preconcentrate and separate the determined
compounds. Quantitative determination was performed by the normal phase
aminosilica column, using UV-spectrophotometric detection (k = 277 nm). The
detection limit was evaluated as equivalent to 0.5 ~g 1-1. The further
improvement of the method [208] was connected with the application of
spectrofluorimetric detection (excitation at ~.= 277 nm and emission at
~.= 300 nm), which resulted in a better detection limit (10 ng l-l). The method was
applied to aquatic environment samples [2,199,200] and is widely accepted.
Alkylphenoxy carboxylic acids were separated by extraction with chloroform
from acidified water samples [208]. The metabolites contained in the residue
after evaporation of solvent were derivatized in the form of corresponding methyl
esthers. HPLC determination with a spectrofluorimetric detection was applied
(excitation at ~.= 277 nm, emission at ~.= 300 nm) and the detection limit was
estimated as eqivalent to 100 ng 1-1. The solid phase extraction scheme for
nonylphenoxycarboxylic acids was also proposed [209].
6.2.4.2. P o l y ( e t h y l e n e glycols)
Poly(ethylene glycols) (PEG) are the main products of the biodegradation of
ethoxylates following the central fission pathway [150]. The reaction of
oxyethylated alcohol may be an example of this pathway:
162
enzyme
5
CH3-CH2-(CH2)n-CH2- O-CH2-CH2-(O-CH2-CH2)m-OH
5
CH~-CH2-(CHDn-CH2-OH + HO-CH2-CH2-(O-CH2-CHDm-OH
The other product of the biodegradation of ethoxylates, according to this
pathway, is fatty alcohol. Oxyethylated alcohols having n-alkyl moiety frequently
undergo this pathway. It is worth mentioning that this class predominates in the
output of non-ionic surfactants [5,47]. Recently, two tensammetric methods for
the determination of PEG have been developed [24,210]. The simplest applied is
the modified ITM [24]. The first stage of the procedure is the extraction of nonionic surfactants, which hinder the determination. The sequential extraction to
chloroform causes the separation of PEG from the water matrix. PEG are
determined using the ITT. However, ethoxylates having more t h a n 30
oxyethylene subunits are also determined this way [211 ].
The other tensammetric method for the determination of PEG is the modified
BiAS-ITT [210-212]. The separation of PEG by sequential extraction with ethyl
acetate and then chloroform is identical to the method described above. In the
next stage, PEG and ethoxylates having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits are
precipitated with the modified Dragendorff reagent. Anionic surfactants are in
this way effectively separated. The total concentration of PEG and ethoxylates
having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits can be determined in the dissolved
precipitate by the ITT using ethyl acetate as the monitor [210-212]. To
distinguish PEG and ethoxylates having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits the
second monitor, TBAB is applied [26,212]. In this way the concentration of
ethoxylates having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits can be determined. The
concentration of PEG is calculated by the difference.
6.3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e a q u a t i c e n v i r o n m e n t
Concentrations of non-ionic surfactants obtained using the BIAS, CTAS and
ITM methods can be roughly considered as equivalent to each other. However, it
is necessary to stress that each of these methods yield results for surfactants
having less than 30 oxyethylene units. Surfactants having more than 30
oxyethylene units are uncontrolled. The results available in the literature
concerning the concentration of non-ionic surfactants in raw sewage, biologically
treated waste water, river and lake water are given in Table 1.
The differences in the levels of non-ionic surfactant concentrations in raw sewage
were quite understandable due to the divergent levels of consumption of non-ionic
surfactants and water, as well as population density. This concentration varied
within the range of 1 to 10 mg 1-1. Basically biologically treated waste water
contains from 0.1 to 0.5 mg 1-1 of non-ionic surfactants. In the majority of cases
163
Table 1
Characteristic concentrations of non-ionic surfactants (as d e t e r m i n e d by the
BiAS, CTAS, ITM or similar methods) in the aquatic environment samples
( m g l 1)
ill
Sample
Country
Concentration
Reference
USA
Germany
1.62
3.1 - 8.5
0.2-1.2
0.9-2.3
1.0-3.9
5.0- 5.5
[124]
[162]
[149]
[141]
[141]
[25,26]
0.13 -0.18
0.19 - 0.23
0.21-0.24
0.09-0.17
0.2- 0.5
0.33 - 0.38
0.55
[124]
[162]
[149]
[141]
[141]
[25,26]
Raw sewage
UK
Poland
Treated w a s t e w a t e r
USA
Germany
UK
Poland
[191]
River w a t e r
Germany
0.02 - 0.06
[114]
0.02-0.25
[149]
Poland-Silesia
Israel
0.02 - 0.06
0.02-0.20
0.15- 1.3
7.8
[120]
[191]
[173,1741
[213]
Poland
0.02 - 0.045
[214]
Poland
Lake w a t e r
the concentration of non-ionic surfactants in river w a t e r varied between 20 and

250 ~g 11. The lower value seems r a t h e r to be the result of the detection limit of
the BiAS and CTAS methods t h a n the real lowest concentration. In some cases
[173,174,213] the reported concentrations were more characteristic of raw sewage
t h a n river w a t e r due to extreme pollution. In the only reported case, lake water
had a concentration of non-ionic surfactants similar to the lower range of river
water concentrations [214].
M e a s u r e m e n t s with the application of the multimonitor BiAS-ITT supplied
additional information concerning the aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t which was not
164
available using the other methods. These results are shown in Table 2. The
results concerning the concentration of non-ionic surfactants having more t h a n
30 oxyethylene subunits show that an additional 16% of non-ionic surfactants is
present in raw sewage, 3 - 18%, in biologically treated sewage and 21%, in river
water. The representativeness of these values is limited because they were
obtained from a limited number of sewage treatment plants (2) and river water
samples (4) and they therefore represent the potential of this approach rather,
than a typical ratio of different fractions of non-ionic surfactants in the aquatic
environment.
Table 2 also shows the concentration of oxyethylated alcohols having C16-18
alkyl. It is apparent that this group of non-ionic surfactants is the major
component of the mixture of non-ionic surfactants and constitutes 55 - 65% of
non-ionic surfactants in raw sewage, 40 - 55% in biologically treated sewage and
43 - 48% in river water. Obviously, these proportions were characteristic of only a
part of Poland as well as the corresponding period of experiments (1996).
Poly(ethylene glycols), as the metabolites of the biodegradation of oxyethylated
alcohols according to the central fission pathway, were present in raw sewage at
a negligible concentration (see Table 2), while their concentration in biologically
treated sewage was in the same range as the residual concentration of non-ionic
surfactants. This increase in concentration of PEG strongly supports the central
fission pathway. PEG in the River Warta constituted approximately 10% of nonionic surfactants over the period of measurement (1996).
The concentrations of the metabolites of oxyethylated alkylphenols are shown
in Table 3. The relatively low concentration of alkylphenol and short chain
alkylphenol ethoxylates in raw sewage is apparent but with relatively high
concentrations of alkylphenol mono- and di-oxyethylates in the biologically
treated sewage. This confirms the enzymatic hydrolysis of the oxyethylene chain
biodegradation pathway in the case of oxyethylated alkylphenols. A relatively
high concentration of free alkylphenol and alkylphenol mono- and di-oxyethylates
in the river water, and free alkylphenol in the ground water demonstrate that
focusing attention on these compounds in the aquatic environment is necessary.
Alkylphenol acetic acid and alkylphenoxy acetic acid are products of a deeper
biotransformation of oxyethylated alkylphenols. Their relatively high
concentrations in river and ground waters support the thesis concerning the
difficult biodegradation of oxyethylated alkylphenols having short-chains, and
their accumulation in the aquatic environment.
165
Table 2
Concentration of non-ionic surfactants having more than 30 oxyethylene subunits (EO),
oxyethylated alcohols having C16-18 alkyl and poly(ethylene glycols) in the aquatic
environment samples (mg 1-1 )
Sample/fraction/metabolite
Raw sewage
non-ionic surfactants having 4 - 30 EO
(BiAS-ITT 1-monitor)
oxyethylated alcohols having C16-18 alkyl
(BiAS-ITT 2-monitors)
(%)
non-ionic surfactants having > 30 EO
real total concentration of non-ionic surfactants
(4- 30 EO + >30EO)
poly(ethylene glycols)
Treated sewage*
oxyethylated alcohols having C16-~8 alkyl
(%)
(4- 30 EO + >30EO)
River water*
oxyethylated alcohols having C16-18 alkyl
(%)
Concentration
Reference
[25,26,212]
5.0- 5.1
2.9 - 3.2
55 -65
0.81 - 0.82
5.8-6.0
0.04 - 0.13
[25,26,212]
0.33 -0.38
0.15 -0.18
4 0 - 55
0.01 - 0.06
0.39
0.29 - 0.35
[25,26,212]
0.064 - 0.082
0.028 - 0.036
43 -48

0.013 - 0.018
0.073 - 0.100
(4 - 30 EO + >30EO)
0.006 - 0.011
sewage treatment plants at 'Mosina' and 'Pleszew', ** - the River Warta, Poznan
-
166
Table 3
Concentrations of metabolites of oxyethylated alkylphenols in the aquatic
environment samples (lag 11 ) or (lag g-1 ,)
Metabolite/sample
Alkylphenol
raw sewage
treated wastewater
river water**
ground water
activated sludge
Alkylphenol monooxylate
raw sewage
treated wastewater
river water**
ground water
activated sludge
Alkylphenol dioxylate
raw sewage
treated wastewater
river water**
ground water
activated sludge
Alkylphenol acetic acid
river water**
ground water
Alkylphenoxyethoxy acetic
acid
river water**
ground water
* - dry weight
** - the River Glatt, Switzerland
Concentration
Reference
14
6-14
<0.5 - 2
0.7 - 26
0.1 -33
12.8
[31]
[31]
[31]
[208]
[208]
[31]
18
29-63
0.5- 15
2-20
0.1- 1.7
76
[31]
[31]
[31]
[208]
[208]
[31]
18
42- 72
0.5- 14
0.8- 21
<0.1
61
[31]
[31]
[31]
[208]
[208]
[31]
8.4 - 2 0 . 1
2.8- 3.0
[208]
[208]
20.6- 28.7
12.7- 16.3
[208]
[208]
167
6.4. U n r e s o l v e d q u e s t i o n s of a n a l y s i s of n o n - i o n i c s u r f a c t a n t s
The list of unresolved questions in the analysis of non-ionic surfactants is
much longer than in the cases of the other types of surfactants. The following
major unresolved questions may be specified:
i. the selection of the method for the determination of the total concentration
of non-ionic surfactants capable of approval in interlaboratory tests,
ii. the selection of a standard surfactant representative for the mixture of
non-ionic surfactants in the aquatic environment,
iii. the determination of non-ionic surfactants having less than 5 oxyethylene
subunits,
iv. the determination of non-ionic surfactants having more than 30
oxyethylene subunits,
v. the specific determination of other classes of ethoxylates (oxyethylated
amines,
oxyethylated fatty acids, etc.)
vi. the specific determination of newly introduced non-ethoxylate non-ionic
surfactants (e.g. alkyl polyglucosides),
vii. the trace analysis of non-ionic surfactants,
viii.
the development of a method suitable for the control of
biodegradation at a realistic level of concentration,
ix. methods for the analysis of metabolites of non-ionic surfactants,
x. detectors for HPLC and FIA measurements,
xi. automation of analysis of non-ionic surfactants.
Though the BiAS and CTAS methods are considered as established and
equivalent to each other, they operate optimally only at a range of concentrations
higher than several hundreds pg in the sample. Attempts to perform
interlaboratory tests with several biologically treated samples showed results too
piecemeal to be accepted [162]. The sources of errors of the classical BiAS method
were found [163]. Therefore the method capable of passing the interlaboratory
tests at the level of 20 - 200 ~g in the sample is yet to be found. The choice of
standard is still arbitrary due to the complete lack of knowledge concerning the
composition of the mixture of non-ionic surfactants in real samples of the aquatic
environment.
The other drawback of the BiAS and CTAS methods is their analytical
response to ethoxylates having only 5 - 30 oxyethylene subunits. The control of
concentration of ethoxylates fraction having 1 - 4 oxyethylene subunits has
become more important recently due to the tendency of using oxyethylated
alcohols which have shorter oxyethylene chains [48]. The other factor enhancing
the importance of this fraction may be the gradual shortening of oxyethylene
chains in the aquatic environment due to the enzymatic hydrolysis of the
oxyethylene chain biodegradation pathway [150]. Because of both reasons the
control of the concentration of the fraction of ethoxylates having 1 - 4 oxyethylene
subunits is yet to be found. The long chain ethoxylates are represented by barely
168
biodegradable oxyethylene oxypropylene block copolymers. This fraction is also
uncontrolled. The recently developed method for the determination of this
fraction [25,26] supplied the unique information concerning this fraction in the
aquatic environment. However, the data should be considerably supplemented to
have a clear vision of the role of this fraction in the aquatic environment and
checked by another method which needs to be to developed.
Alkylpolyglucosides are being introduced into commercial use as more
environmentally friendly surfactants than the other groups of non-ionic
surfactants. However, this opinion is based on the model biodegradation studies.
No method exists to determine polyalkylglucosides in the aquatic environment
components. Despite the excellent results of the model investigations, real
measurements of concentration of these surfactants in the aquatic environment
are needed, to finally confirm a positive opinion concerning the biodegradability
of polyglucosides.
To check the absence, or control the level in tap and aquifer water, methods for
the trace analysis of non-ionic surfactants are required. It may be presumed that
only extremely high concentrations of non-ionic surfactants in tap water would be
detectable by the methods currently used. Therefore a new method aimed at
considerably lower concentrations of non-ionic surfactants should be developed.
The presence of non-ionic surfactants in aquifer water would be the measure of
the migration of surface water pollution to the aquifer. More advanced analytical
tools should be useful in the investigation of biodegradation processes running at
a realistic level of concentration. Most biodegradation experiments were
performed at a much higher level of concentration than that expected in the
aquatic environment samples. The main reason for such a high level of
concentration was the fact that the lower concentrations would be undetectable.
However, unrealistically high concentrations affect the biodegradation process,
considerably modifying it [187]. Therefore, more advanced analytical methods
may provide the opportunity for reconsidering these investigations at a realistic
level of concentration of non-ionic surfactants.
The analysis of metabolites of non-ionic surfactant biodegradation may fill the
gap between the pattern of the process observed by primary biodegradation and
the pattern of the process exhibited by the monitoring of the total organic carbon
or biological oxygen demand reduction. The methods for the analysis of
metabolites of oxyethylated alkylphenols are already relatively well established.
The exception, however, is the method for the determination of
alkylphenoxyethoxy carboxylates which reqiures support by more data and
checking by more laboratories. The metabolites of the biodegradation of
oxyethylated alcohols correspond to a different pathway than oxyethylated
alkylphenols. Though the method for the determination of PEG was developed
and its utility demonstrated, it needs to be checked by other laboratories. If PEG
is the main metabolite of the biodegradation of oxyethylated alcohols, the other
169
metabolites of the same pathway, such as free fatty alcohols, short chain PEG
and free ethylene glycol should also be controlled.
The HPLC and flow-injection analysis have the potential to solve most of the
analytical problems concerning non-ionic surfactant analysis, provided the
detection problem is solved. Unfortunately, oxyethylated alcohols, being the main
group of non-ionic surfactants, do not have chromophoric groups which might be
used for spectrophotometric or fluorimetric detection. The solution of the problem
of detection may open the way for the full automation of measurements and in
this way reduce the costs of analysis.
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177
A d s o r p t i o n of s u r f a c t a n t s o n d i e s e l e n g i n e soot a n d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i n
carbody washing
A. E1 Ghzaoui and S. P a r t y k a
Laboratoire des Agr~gats Mol6culaires et Mat~riaux Inorganiques,
ESA 5072 du CNRS, Universit6 Montpellier II, place Eugene Bataillon,
C. C 015, 34095 Montpellier, France
1.
INTRODUCTION
The cleaning of a solid surface involves the removal of unwanted foreign

material from its surface. In detergency, the interaction between solid surfaces
and bulk phase is of fundamental interest. The amphiphilic molecules that
preferentially adsorb at the interface play an important role in such phenomena.
The detergent action during the cleaning is due to the interaction between the
hydrophobic or polar moiety of the surfactant with the dirt and the substrate.
Schwartz [1] lists three main mechanisms for removal of liquid soils from a
surface by surfactant solutions. The first is the so-called rollback mechanism
which depends on the wetting properties of the surfactant. Basically, the oily soil
on the substrate to be washed retracts to form drops which detach from the
surface. The second mechanism is emulsification of oily soil. Here the adsorption
of surfactants at the oily soil-substrate interface, with lowering of the interfacial
tension, may play an important role. The third mechanism is solubilization into a
surfactant micelle. Another mechanism of cleaning is the formation between the
soil and the surfactant of an intermediate phase which can be a lamellar liquid
crystal. The extent and efficiency of solubilization of the oily soil depend on the
chemical structure of the surfactant used for the detergent formulations, the
temperature, the ionic strength, and the pH.
Removal of particulate soils is achieved by different mechanisms and depends
on the dirt type. Despite these differences, a reasonably general mechanism of
deflocculation and suspension by surfactant adsorption has been successful in
describing particulate soil removal for a variety of fiber surfaces [2,3]. The role of
the surfactant appears to be twofold. First it aids in wetting the soil agglomerate
and the surface by adsorbing to them. This causes a thin film of water to
penetrate between the particles forming the agglomerate, and between the
particles and the surface. As a consequence, the adhesion work required to
178
remove the particle soil from the substrate is decreased. The work of adhesion,
Wa, is given by the expression [4]:
Wa
= ~/SB + ~/PB -~SP
where subscripts SB, PB and SP refer respectively the interfaces between

substrate and aqueous solution of surfactant, soil and aqueous solutions of
surfactant and substrate and soil. Adsorption of surfactants at these interfaces
can result in a decrease in 7SB and ~/PB, with a decrease in the work required for
detachment of the soil particles from the solid surface.
Diesel-exhaust particles (DEP) or soot particles are the main cause of urban
pollution. This pollution is mainly formed by diesel engines and particularly if
the fuel-air ratio is badly regulated [5]. It has an impact on h u m a n health and
causes an environmental problem. These particles can be very small, and easily
reach far down into lung tissue, when inhaled. They also deposit on any surfaces
exposed to this pollution. So, if one wants to keep the surface clean, one has to
wash it with an effective detergent formulation. The efficiency of the detergent
formulation involves knowledge of the soil characteristics on the one hand, and of
the surfactant adsorption on the soot particles and on the surface on the other
hand. If the surfactant adsorbs on the DPE particles which strongly adhere to
any surface, it alters the electrical and chemical properties of the both materials
and causes an increase of the interfacial potential. As consequence, an
electrostatic repulsion appears between particles within an agglomerates or
between soil particles and the surface. The second effect of surfactant adsorption
is a wetting phenomenon which facilates a thin film of water to penetrate
between the particles forming the agglomerate. The consequence of this wetting
is the defloculation of the aggregates caused by a decreasing in the attractive
interaction between the particles. This effect is particularly important for
hydrophobic soil. The modification of physicochemical state of the agglomerates
and the solid surface is the most important conditions for the efficiency of the
surfactants in the cleansing process.
The aim of this chapter is a presentation of the physicochemical characteristics
of diesel-exhaust particles and on experimental methodological approach to
carbodies cleaning. The emphasis here is on the surfactant adsorption on soot
particles and on the polyurethane surface as a model of a carbody surface. The
results provided from adsorption data will help to select the best surfactants to
be used for an efficiency detergent formulation.
2. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

2.1. Experimental techniques
The most widely used approach to the direct measurement of the amount
adsorbed is to study the depletion of the surfactants from solution in equilibrium
179
with the adsorbent. The problem then reduces to the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the
s u r f a c t a n t molality in the presence of sufficient interface per unit volume to
cause m e a s u r a b l e change in molality. The method is therefore applicable only
when the specific surface area of the solid is not too small. 0.5 grams of diesel
engine soot was add to 20 g of surfactant solution. These suspensions were sealed
in clean glass tubes and then agitated for 12 h in a t h e r m o s t a t . The s u p e r n a t a n t
was s e p a r a t e d from the solid by centrifugation for 15 min at 12000 rpm and then
analysed with Total Organic Carbon (Shimatzu). The surface excess was
calculated according to
F= (Ct~
Ceq)ml
ms A
(1)
where Ctot and Ceq are the total and the equilibrium concentrations of surfactant,
ml is the initial mass of solvent, ms denotes the mass of soot and A the specific
area of the adsorbent.
A R a n k Brothers microelectrophoresis a p p a r a t u s with a r e c t a n g u l a r cell was
applied to m e a s u r e the average velocity at which charged soot particles moved
under the action of a steady and weak electric field between p l a t i n u m electrodes.
From the average velocity at both stationary levels, the electrophoretic mobilities
(p) of soot particles were calculated by the following relationship:
V
= -E
(2)
where V and E are the velocity of the particles and the electric field respectively.
The electrophoretic mobilities of the soot particles were d e t e r m i n e d under the
same conditions as those used to obtain the adsorption isotherms. After the
a t t a i n m e n t of adsorption equilibrium and centrifugation, samples of the soot
suspension from the s u p e r n a t a n t s were transferred to a t h e r m o s t a t e d
microelectrophoresis cell.
The surface tension of the surfactant solutions was m e a s u r e d with an
electrobalance type tensiometer (Prolabo TD-2000). The area (a0) per surfactant
at the air-solution interface at surface s a t u r a t i o n has been determined by
applying the Gibbs equation. The comparison of the values obtained with the
corresponding values at the soot-solution interface at surface s a t u r a t i o n provides
informations on the packing area and eventually on the orientation of adsorbed
surfactants at the soot-solution interface.
The m e a s u r e m e n t s of pH were performed using a tacussel pH electrode
(C 601). The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of soot particles d i a m e t e r was performed using a
Mastersizer E M a v e r n apparatus. The chemical analyses of soot were performed
with an X-ray emission spectrometer attached to a Stereoscan 360 Cambridge
Electronic Microscope.
180
The heat of immersion data were obtained using the Calvet microcalorimeter
and the surface area of the solid was measured by the BET method. For both
experiments, the soot was outgassed at 150~ under a vacuum of 10 .3 torr for 5 h.
The presence of organic impurities in the soot particles influences very strongly
the heat of immersion and also the surface area.
The turbidity was measured with a Varian spectrophotometer (Carry 3E).
Turbidity is the fractional decrease in the intensity of a primary beam passing
through a suspension. By analogy with the Lambert-Beer law:
dI = (x + e)dx
I
(3)
where T is the turbidity, e the absorbance of the suspended particles and x the
path length of the light through the suspension. Considering both light
absorbency and scattering phenomena in apparent turbidity yields:
(4)
x'=(T+e)=--xlln(~-/
Thus, the apparent turbidity x' for a given path length is defined by the
logarithm of the ratio of the light intensity I0 passing through the reference pure
liquid to the light intensity I passing through the particle suspension.
2.2. A d s o r b a t e s u r f a c t a n t s
The surfactants used in this chapter belong to the four families of surfactants.
Below are listed all the surfactants with their chemical formula.
a. Anionic surfactant
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), n-C12H25SO-4 supplied by Prolabo (France) and
used as received (98 % purity).
b. Cationic surfactants
Dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, (DTAB), n- C12H25N
Tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide, (TTAB), n- C14H29N
supplied by Sigma (France) and used as received (98 % purity).
-,
c. Nonionic surfactants
Octylbenzene polyoxyethylene, CsH17C6H4(OCH2CH2)10-OH, (TX100)
Octylbenzene polyoxyethylene, CsH17C6Hn(OCH2CH2)16-OH, (TX165)
Nonylbenzene polyoxyethylene, C9H19C6Hn(OCH2CH2)lo-OH, (TN111)
d. Zwitterionic surfactant
n-dodecyl betaines, C12H25N
-, (NDB).
-,
181
Among the different properties of surfactants, those resulting from their
a m p h i p h a t i c structure, the property of being adsorbed at interfaces and t h a t of
forming colloidal-sized clusters in aqueous solutions, are the most important. The
former m a y be characterised by the effectiveness of adsorption, whereas the
l a t t e r by the critical micelle concentration (cmc). The area per molecule at surface
saturation, ao, is a useful m e a s u r e of the effectiveness of the surfactant
adsorption at the solution-air interface, since it corresponds to the m a x i m u m
value which adsorption can reach. The cmc represents the m a x i m u m solubility of
the single molecules in a given aqueous medium and thus plays an i m p o r t a n t
role in the s u r f a c t a n t adsorption onto solid substrates, where single ions r a t h e r
t h a n micelles are involved.
Table 1
Critical micelle concentration (cmc), and area per molecule at surface saturation,
(a0), for the s u r f a c t a n t molecules in deionised w a t e r
Temperature
cmc
ao
Surfactant
Solvent
[mmol kg -1]
[nm2/molec.]
[K]
SDS
298
water
8.5
72
TTAB
298
water
4.0
56
DTAB
298
water
12.5
57
TX100
298
water
0.27
TX165
298
water
0.5
106
TNlll
298
water
0.1
66
NDB
298
water
2.0
48
58
The above cmc values of all studied surfactants have been established from the
surface tension data r e p r e s e n t e d in Figures 1-7. Each plot shows a break which
corresponds to the cmc in deionised w a t e r at 298 K.
The m i n i m u m observed in the ~, value m e a n s t h a t the surfactant contains some
impurities (SDS and NDB). The most interesting result which issues from the
surface tension d a t a is t h a t the lowest y values are obtained for the nonionic
surfactants and particularly for TX100 and TN 111.
182
70
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
60
'E
Z
E
55
50
cmc
,,4-45
40
35
30
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
In C
Figure 1. Surface tension of aqueous solution of TTAB against the logarithm of the molality.
0 ....................................................................................................................
65
60
55
'~ 50
9
>~
45
,...1
C~
40
V
9
35
O0
O0
O0
30
25
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
lnC
Figure 2. Surface tension of aqueous solution of SDS against the logarithm of the molality.
183
55
50
45
40
cn'~
>-
35
30
-12
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
lnC
Figure 3. Surface tension of aqueous solution of TX100 against the logarithm of the molality.
.................
.............................................................................................................................................
55
50
Z 45
ClYIC
40
oV
00
O QO
35
30
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
lnC
Figure 4. Surface tension of aqueous solution of NDB against the logarithm of the molality.
184
5 .........................................................................................................................................................................................................
50
C
'-~ 45
?.-.
40
"/
35
30
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
lnC
Figure 5. Surface tension of aqueous solution of TX165 against the logarithm of the molality.
70
65
60
55
9
cmc
5O
45
V
40
35
3 0
'
-8
. . . . . . . .
-7
..............
~. . . . . . . . . .
-6
-5
-4
9. . . .
-3
-2
lnC
Figure 6. Surface tension of aqueous solution of DTAB against the logarithm of the molality.
185
5
50
45
Z
C~
40
>~
35
%
0o
O0
30
25
-13
-12
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
lnC
Figure 7. Surface tension of aqueous solution of TN 111 against the logarithm of the molality.
3.
CHARACTERISATION OF DIESEL ENGINE SOOT
The soot particles were collected in the exhaust pipe of diesel engines. The
particulate emissions from a diesel engine are composed of both solid and liquid
compounds and are very complex in character. Elementary chemical analysis by
X-emission spectroscopy showed that it contained iron, sulphur, calcium, silicium
and other elements in trace amounts: zinc, copper, aluminium. The comparison of
the chemical composition of diesel engine soot and airborne dust, (Figures 8
and 9), shows that the latter contains more mineral oxide t h a n the former. The
solid part of the soot powder contains primarily agglomerations of small
carbonaceous subparticles. The organic quantity present in the soot was detected
by the Total Organic Carbon method and surface tension measurements. The
surface tension of the supernatant which is the mixing between 1 g of untreated
diesel engine soot and 50 g of deionised water is 66 mN'm -1 while this value is
72.5 mN'm -1 for the mixture of washed diesel engine soot and deionised water.
The decrease of the surface tension from 72.5 to 66 mN.m -1 is the consequence of
the presence of organic matter. The organic component soluble in water
represents about 2.20 mg for 1 g of soot. These organic molecules are adsorbed
onto the surface of the soot particles. Typical chromatography analysis show the
existence of more t h a n 300 peaks [6], while the quantitative chemical evaluation
of the soot composition shows that there are between 10 and 15 % mineral oxides,
186
0.20 % organic polar compounds and between 84.8 and 89.8 % solid carbon. The
pH of 0.5 g of soot immersed in 50 g of deionised water is 4.2.
:!;
i
'~
'
H . !.
i" ~1 ] ~ I
,,
"~.
";.
-~
~!!-:1
i~
tiil I
~i~..
,ii~
ii~
:: q !
i"
i"
"
"
. . . . . . .
......
.
. . 9 ...
:.. . . . . . . .
"
...
9. . . . .:... . %
'
'~"~,r
.1 ~..
. . . .
.~ : : . . . . . . . . .
, q.
~:!z:~
~. ~..~.
9:::
iii]
~!?k!:i~#..~,
: ~ ,.
.... ....
:~'. i~!,.~.:, i., ;-
...-: ,],r
-"
C:
5,
~'
9 9 ~4
....
r,1 il
,-, ;!
'
~
'~1-"
i:~l
:l~ii.: . .
5r113
~
:'~
..
..
:
-.
,,
,I
,~.: ,
"
t , ~ ~; , { ~ p . t , . , 7 ~ . , 4 ~
,~
-,
.
"
-.
".
"
~t,..
,~...~'-.-;~,t~.~k.%,~,p
t-::,:-U
lr~.
Figure 8. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis of diesel engine soot material.
i
!i'
..
.:,
"J
"i
,!
i.i
..
:..~
..~
::!
i~ ~i~.
-:
:..
..
,,-~:.~
,-.
,:
!#~
:.:~
9
,,)
.
,
' ,:
.~
"
"
',
"
~.
",
~, _ , . .
'.t.
"
2;-;
".-, ,~ . . . . . . . . .
....
.,,_...
..,~
..
Figure 9. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis of airborne dust material.
:::.
187
The particles diameter was measured by the light scattering technique.
Figures 10 and 11 show the average diameter of soot particles without any
t r e a t m e n t and soot washed with two organic solvents (hexane and methanol).
,5
..................................................................................
2,5
1,5
0,5
diameter, ~n
Figure 10. Particle size distribution of the original diesel engine soot.
,5
.......................................................................................................
3,5
2,5
2
1,5
0,5
Ii Ii!i11111 lil, i
diameter,
Figure 11. Particle size distribution of the washed diesel engine soot.
188
In both cases the distribution of the particles diameter is large. The average
diameter of the soot washed by two organic solvents is about 6 pm while it is
about 19 pm for the u n t r e a t e d soot. This variation is certainly the result of the
solubilization of organic m a t t e r which coated the particles and behaves as a
cement between the particles. The solubilization of the organic m a t t e r causes a
defloculation of the aggregates. This explains the decrease of the average
diameter.
The decrease of the particles diameter is also confirmed by scanning electron
microscopy. The specific surface area measured by nitrogen adsorption at 77 K
varies from 52 m 2 g-1 for the u n t r e a t e d soot to 70 m 2 g-1 for the soot washed with
two solvents (Figures 12 and 13). This variation is due to desorption of organic
molecules and also to the decrease of the average diameter of the soot particles.
40
S~t
35
52 m 2 g-1
30
E
r
25
o,r~
20
15
o
E
10
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
P/Po
Figure 12. Nitrogen adsorption isotherm on the unwashed diesel engine soot at 77 K.
An a t t e m p t has been made to assess the polarity of the soot particles. This
polarity is deduced from interactions between the solid and different probe
liquids by using immersion microcalorimetry [7]. Immersion calorimetry gives
the change of enthalpy resulting from the creation of the soot-liquid interface.
The values of enthalpy of immersion of the treated and untreated diesel engine
soot are shown in Table 2. The values obtained for the washed soot in non polar
and polar liquids are exceptionally high. It is recalled that usual values of
enthalpy of immersion for mineral oxides such as A1203, SiO2 in the same liquids
are about 300 m J m -2 [8]. The enthalpies of immersion of the u n w a s h e d soots in
the same liquids are much smaller which is understandable because the
u n w a s h e d soot particles are covered by several layers of organic molecules. When
189
this coated m a t e r i a l is in contact with the pure liquids, the enthalpy of
immersion is due to hydrophobic-hydrophilic interactions and consequently very
low. To conclude of this section we note t h a t the enthalpy of immersion reflects a
very strong surface activity of the washed soot surface.
45
Sbet-- 70 m2 g-1
40
-~o
35
.
<>0
3o
O~
O@
oq~
q.
OO O O
.~ 25
0
r~
20
o 15
9 Adsomtion
10
<>Desorption
.......................
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
P/Po
Figure 13. Nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms on the washed diesel engine soot at
77 K.
Table 2
Enthalpy of i m m e r s i o n of diesel engine soot in different liquids
E n t h a l p y of immersion of
E n t h a l p y of immersion of
Liquids
t r e a t e d soot [mJ m 2]
u n t r e a t e d soot [mJ m 2]
n-heptane
145
7O
water
791
100
formamide
917
120
190
3.1. A d s o r p t i o n o f s u r f a c t a n t s o n t o d i e s e l e x h a u s t p a r t i c l e s
We have studied the physicochemical behaviour of several surfactants at the

interface between the washed soot and the aqueous solution of the surfactant.
Figures 14-18 show the adsorption isotherms of anionic, cationic, nonionic and
zwitterionic surfactants and the corresponding variation of the electrophoretic
mobility of the soot particles with the equilibrium molality.
10
.......................................................................................................................................... 0
-0,5
00
-1
1,5 =
O 9
oF
z:t.
-2
og
4
-2,5
:s
-3
-3,5
-4
>"
-4,5
2
10
12
14
16
Ceq, mmol kg-I

Figure 14. Adsorption isotherm of SDS and the corresponding electrophoretic mobility curve
for the washed soot at 298 K.
The common characteristic for all the surfactants studied is a very clear
isotherm plateau which is reached around the corresponding cmc values. The
amounts adsorbed at the plateau (Fmax) are reasonable and they are similar to
the data obtained for hydrophobic or hydrophilic adsorbents [9,10].
A very high Fmax is observed for SDS surfactant (8.4 gmol m-2), although the
significant increase in electrophoretic mobility indicates a progressive increase of
the negatively charged surface patches. This tremendous amount adsorbed
means that in the interfacial region, giant aggregates and may be 3D
dimensioned aggregates are present. The isotherms of adsorption of TTAB and
DTAB have quite similar shapes to those for hydrophilic silica surfaces [11,12].
The Fmax in both cases is identical. The analysis of the corresponding
electrophoretic mobility curve suggests an electrostatic adsorption at the
beginning of the isotherm. This recalls that the soot surface is initially negatively
charged and becomes positively charged even
at the very low adsorption
coverage.
191
4
.............................................................................................................................................................................. 3,5
lID
3,5
'~
e e o'~ o
o o
2,5 _
o
1,5
1,5
1
::[
0,5
0,5
0
0
12
15
Ceq, mmol kgl

Figure 15. Adsorption isotherm of TTAB and the corresponding electrophoretic mobility
curve for the washed soot at 298 K.
From an equilibrium molality of about 3 mmol'kg -1, the electrophoretic

mobility is then positive and constant. The adsorption mechanism is therefore
composed of two simultaneous adsorption processes: firstly the cationic
surfactant molecules adsorb on all available negatively charged sites situated on
the different oxides, which causes the changing of the sign from negative to
weakly positive, while secondly one observes adsorption of surfactants on the
hydrophobic part of the surface via dispersion hydrophobic interactions between
the alkyl moiety of the surfactant and the surface. Since the length of the alkyl
chain of TTAB is larger t h a n that of DTAB, the cmc appears at smaller molality
which is a main reason to note that the saturation plateau of adsorption of TTAB
is formed earlier. We can underline that Fmax is much higher for TTAB. The
cationic surfactants form aggregates at the interface between the soot and the
aqueous solution of surfactant. The larger the aliphatic tail of the surfactant, the
higher is the aggregation number, and by analogy the interfacial aggregate will
be bigger. Consequently the amount adsorbed is higher for TTAB than DTAB
(Figure 16).
The shape of the adsorption isotherm of the nonionic surfactants on the soot
material ressembles the isotherms of the same surfactants adsorbed on the
activated carbons [13-16]. They are of the Langmuirian type. The amount
adsorbed at the plateau, Fmax, depends strongly on the length of the polar chain
192
1,8
4 -
(a)
9
1,5
"
,t
@
3 o-
(b)
1,2
0,9
0
2 i
0,6
0,3
"0
lqP
oTXI00
oTX165
0o o
""
,g
oDTAB
oTTAB
0,2
0,4
0,6
Ceq, mmol kg
0,8
0 q
10
15
20
-1
25
Ceq, mmol kg"
Figure 16. Adsorption isotherms of TX100 and TX165 on washed soot and the corresponding
electrophoretic mobility curve (panel a) and those for TTAB and DTAB at 298 K (panel b).
in such a way that Fmax increases when the polar chain decreases (Figure 16).
Conversely, for a polar group, when the length of the alkyl tail increases, ['max
increases. This phenomenon appears at a smaller molality. The general trend of
nonionic surfactant adsorption is characterised by two steps: for low coverage
values the surfactants are adsorbed by their hydrophilic and hydrophobic
moieties. In this first stage the molecules are certainly flat on the surface. When
the coverage value increases, there is a second step; the hydrophilic parts of the
molecules are repelled from the surface and the surface phase becomes thicker.
We can note that the negative charge of the surface is not affected by adsorption
of nonionic surfactant (Figure 17).
'7,
0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
-0,05
-0,1
-0,15
0
O0
00
0 0
OF
o~
"7
"7
r
>
-0,2
-0,25
-0,3
-0,35
0,2
0,4
0,6
Ceq, mmol kgl
-0,4
0,8
Figure 17. Adsorption isotherm of TN111 and the corresponding mobility curve for the
washed soot at 298 K.
193
The adsorption of zwitterionic surfactant, NDB, on the soot surface is initially
characterised by the strong adsorption at low surface coverage (Figure 18). One
observes a linear increase of adsorption until the isotherm plateau is reached in
the cmc region. The simultaneous measurements of the electrophoretic mobility
show the changing of the sign at low coverage. This change is well correlated
with the vertical part of the isotherm and suggests adsorption of surfactant via
electrostatic interactions between negatively charged surface sites and the
cationic group of NDB. Then, in turn, the mechanism of adsorption alreasy
described above starts with the alkyl chain of surfactant on the hydrophobic
patches of the surface and simultaneous formation of interfacial aggregates. The
amount adsorbed at the plateau, ['max, is relatively high and comparable to the
value obtained for this kind of surfactant on hydrophilic surfaces [17].
0,6
O
9 O
0
9
O
9
0,5
0,4
0
E
0,3
0,2
0,1
o~t
-0,1
0
'
0
-0,2
8
10
12
14
Ceq, mmol kg1

Figure 18. Adsorption isotherm of NDB and the corresponding mobility curve for the washed
soot at 298 K.
To summarise the results of surfactant adsorption on the soot surface, we can

draw the following observations:
- the soot is composed of two types of surface: hydrophilic and hydrophobic,
- the surface is initially negatively charged,
the negative charge of the surface can be altered by the adsorption of
cationic and amphoteric surfactants while adsorption of anionic surfactant
increases the negative charge of the surface,
- the adsorption of nonionic surfactant does not influence the charge of the
surface.
194
Furthermore the kinetic investigation of surfactants adsorption on this kind of
material shows that the equilibrium of adsorption is reached after about 5 min
(Figure 19). This time is relatively long compared with the time necessary for car
washing which is usually from 10 to 15 min.
0,9
0,8
r
,
E
-:.
o
E
m.
0,70,6]0,5I
0,4
30
60
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300

temps, s
Figure 19. Adsorption kinetic of TN 111 on the washed soot at 298 K.
4.
A D H E S I O N OF S O O T P A R T I C L E S TO P O L Y M E R I C S U R F A C E
At the solid-liquid interface, the strength of adhesion can be expressed

quantitatively as the free energy of adhesion. In the case of solid-solid interface,
adhesion is much more complicated and depends on elastic and plastic properties
of the solids coming into contact, because the adherents deform each other at the
region of contact. Particle adhesion is the result of forces which exist between
particles and the substrate. Generally, the main cause of adhesion is believed to
be the London dispersion force. Excess electric charges generated by frictional
electricity can sometimes enhance the rate of soiling by catching dust particles
from the air. Soil particles such as soot are not only able to adhere to the
substrate by adhesive bonds but they may also be occluded in holes or crevices of
the substrate. The main forces involved in the adhesion of soot particles on a
carbody surface which is a polymeric surface are capillary, van der Waals, elastic
and ionic type.
195
4.1. Capillary force

Under humid conditions, a liquid bridge between particle and surface can be
formed in two different ways: by spontaneous capillary condensation of vapours
and by directly dipping the particle into a wetting film which is present on the
substrate, this is the capillary force [18-25]. Due to surface tension, a liquid
bridge between the particle and the surface results in a mutual attraction. At
thermodynamic equilibrium the meniscus radius represented in Figure 20, is
related to the relative vapour pressure by the well-known Kelvin equation:
~+~=~ln
~P
r1 r2
2~,M \ Ps J
(5)
where rl and r2, R, T, p, ~,, M and ~P are the meniscus radius, the gas constant,
ps
the temperature, the density, the surface tension of the liquid, the molecular
weight and the relative vapour pressure respectively.
/
----r2
liquid--
Soot particle
rl
t_~
polymeric surface
Figure 20. The model of capillary interaction between the soot particle and the polymeric
surface which is covered with a liquid adsorbate.
The mutual attraction between the particle and the surface results from the
Laplace pressure p:
p= ~-~rk
where rk is the Kelvin mean radius
(6)
196
rl r2
rk = ~
r 1 + r2
(7)
If the liquid wets perfectly, t h e n the total capillary force exerted on the particle is
given by:
F(d) = nx 2(d) ~'

rk
(8)
where (x) is the radius of the area. From geometrical considerations one obtains
x 2 = 2Rz and for t << R, one has:
z~t-d+r
[ R]
1 1 + ~
R+r 1
(9)
For rl << r2, one can write rl ~ rk, and one has the capillary force given by:
Fc(d) = 2~R~, 1 +
~R R-rk
~t-d 1
rk
(10)
if rk << R a n d t ~ d, the capillary force becomes: :

Fc = 4~yR
If the surface is not an ideally wetting surface, we m u s t introduce the contact
angle b e t w e e n the surface and the liquid:
Fc = 4n 7 cos0 R
4.2. L o n d o n - v a n der W a a l s force

From observed deviations from the ideal gas law, van der Waals concluded in
1873 t h a t molecules a t t r a c t each other. Only after development of the theory of
q u a n t u m mechanics, London could quantify this s t a t e m e n t in 1930. London
forces can be u n d e r s t o o d as follows: for a nonpolar atom, the time average of its
dipole m o m e n t is zero, but at any i n s t a n t there exists a finite dipole m o m e n t
given by the i n s t a n t a n e o u s positions of the electrons. This i n s t a n t a n e o u s dipole
generates an electric field t h a t polarises any closely n e u t r a l atom, inducing a
dipole m o m e n t in it. The consequence of an interaction is an a t t r a c t i o n force
b e t w e e n the two atoms. If one considers an interaction between two condensed
bodies, a sphere and flat plate, the interaction energy is given by the following
equation:
197
(11)
where A is the H a m a k e r constant, R the radius of the sphere and H the

separation distance. If R>>H, the interaction energy becomes:
AR
Va = - ~
6H
(12)
corresponding to an adhesive force Fa,

AR
Fa = ~
6H 2
(13)
The H a m a k e r constant m a y be evaluated from the equation, A = 12 ~H 2 W, where

W is the energy per unit area. So the London-van der Waals force will then be
given by the expression:
Fa=2 r~RW
(14)
4.3. E l a s t i c f o r c e
A flat polymeric surface can be considered as an elastic solid. This m e a n s t h a t

the surface has a definite shape and is deformed by external forces into a new
equilibrium shape. If the force is removed, the surface reverts to its original form.
The solid stores all the energy which it obtains from the external forces during
the deformation, and this energy is available to restore the original shape when
the forces are removed. The deformation of an elastic surface induced by a rigid
sphere is described by Sneddon mechanics [24]. The elastic force is given by a
more complex formula:
Fe = 2(1 - v 2)
[. R - n )
where E, v, 1"1and R are respectively Young's modulus, the Poisson coefficient, the
radius of the contact area between the sphere and the flat surface and the radius
of the sphere.
If one a s s u m e s t h a t ~ < 1, the elastic force becomes"
R
E
Fe =
,, fiR
1-v
(16)
198
The surface of contact between the sphere and the flat surface is defined by,
= 2Rd, where d is the penetration depth. The elastic force will be given by:
Fe =21/2
E R3/2dl/2
1- v2
(17)
A particle which adheres to the polymeric surface is subjected to three forces: two
attractive forces, capillary and London-van der Waals forces, and a repulsive
force, the elastic force. At equilibrium:
Fc+ Fa- Fe = 0
4~/R + 2 ~ R W - 21/2
(18)
E R3/2d 1/2 = 0
l_v 2
If we pose A - 4~R, B - 2~W and C -
(19)
21/2 1-Ev 2 ' then by r e a r r a n g i n g the above
equation we can calculate the penetration depth, d:
d = I A +1B ]C 2 R
(20)
The adhesion of a solid dirt particle such as diesel engine soot on the polymeric
surface is dependent on the radius of the particle. The smaller is the radius, the
larger is the depth of penetration and the larger will be the area of contact. In
fact the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to the contact area. This is
the simple theoretical basis which shows that solid soils become more difficult to
remove from the surface as their size decreases. This effect has been
demonstrated m a n y times and in the case where the substrate is a textile fibber
has been attributed to mechanical e n t r a p m e n t of the soil particles in the crevices
on the fibber surface [25]. In reality the adhesion between the soot particles and
the substrate is much more complex because diesel engine soot is a mixture of
solid particles and organic matter. The latter can act as a hydrophobic bond
between the polymeric surface and the solid particle.
5.
W E T T I N G OF C A R B O D Y S U R F A C E S BY A D S O R P T I O N OF
SURFACTANTS
5.1. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l s u r f a c e t e n s i o n o f a c a r b o d y s u r f a c e
The determination of the surface energy of a solid is of interest in fields such
as adhesion and detergency, where forces operate across an interface. The
199
physicochemical basis for the wetting of a solid surface, S, by a liquid is as follow:

a drop of liquid L, layed down on the solid in contact with air, A, will spread out
until it makes a contact angle, 0, defined by the solid surface and the tangent to
the liquid-air interface. 0 is measured in the liquid phase. At equilibrium, and
neglecting gravity effects, this situation is described by the so-called Young
equation [26]:
7LVCOS0
= ysv- 7SL
(21)
where 7LV, ysv and 7SL are respectively the surface tension of the liquid, the
surface tension or surface energy of the solid in equilibrium with air and the
interfacial surface tension between the solid and the liquid. Two parameters are
useful in wetting relationships: the adhesion tension and the work of adhesion.
The adhesion tension, i:, for a liquid on a solid is defined as the difference
between the surface tension of the solid and the interfacial tension at the solidliquid interface:
I: = 7SV- 7SL
(22)
The energy required to separate an unit area of solid surface from the liquid is
the work of adhesion, W, [27]. This is given by the following expression:
W
-~ 7LV -F 7SV" 7SL
(23)
The lower the solid-liquid interfacial tension, the stronger the adhesion and the
lower will be the contact angle between the solid and the liquid.
The knowledge of the surface energy of the solid is fundamental to understand
the wetting. In the case of low energy solids such as polymers, Zisman [28]
characterised the wetting of solids by the measuring contact angles, 0, between
solid surfaces and a series of liquids, and plotting cos0 versus 7LV, the liquid
surface tension. The point at which the resulting curve intercepts the line
cos0 = 1, is called the critical surface tension, 7c. The 7c is the liquid surface
tension required to give a contact angle of zero degrees. The more nonpolar the
solid surface, the lower the value of Yc which is obtained. We have measured the
critical surface tension of the polyurethane polymer which is used as the paint on
carbody surfaces. The value obtained is about 45 mJ m 2. Since the liquid surface
tension of water is 72 mJ m 2, it is not spontaneously spread over the polymeric
surface and forms a contact angle of 62 ~ This situation is unfavourable for the
removal of diesel engine soot from carbody surfaces. The effectiveness of carbody
washing necessitates t h a t the washing liquid wets perfectly the surface of
interest. This is why the addition of surfactants to water, to decrease the
interfacial tension of the solid-liquid interface, is often necessary to enable water
to wet a solid.
200
5.2. C o n t a c t a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t s
The addition of surfactants to water is a well-established means of enhancing
the ability of aqueous solutions to wet and spread over solid surfaces [29,30]. The
Wilhelmy plate method was used to measure the variation of contact angles.
Figures (21-23), show these variations between the polymeric polyurethane
model surface and a series of aqueous solutions of surfactant versus the molality
of the surfactants.
1,1
1,0- ; ' 9
1,1
1,0
0,90,8
o
"9
"
0,9""
,8 " 9
(a)
0,7
o
o 0,60,5
0,4
0
C, mmol kg
(b)
0,7-.~
0,6"'
0,5i
0,40,3
0
10
-1
20
30
C, mmol kg
40
-1
Figure 21. Variation of cos 0 between the polyurethane surface and aqueous solution of SDS
(a) and NDB (b) against the molality.
0
0
1,1
1,1
1,0
0,9 9
0,8 g
0,7 g
0,6
1,0"
(c)
00 9
0,90,8-
"
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,40,3
10
15
20
(dl
.o
0,7- o
CD
O,6 P
o 0,5:
10
20
30
-l
C, mmol kg
40
-1
C, mmol kg
Figure 22. Variation of cos 0 between the polyurethane surface and aqueous solution of
TTAB (c) and DTAB (d) against the molality.
201
1,2
1,2
1,0
. o ~
oo
0,8 gm
O
o
0,4
g, 0,6
0,4
0,2
0,2
0
0,0
0,2
0,4
9 t
0,8 Dt
(e)
0,6
0,0
1,0
0,6
(f)
-I
-l
C, mmol kg
C, mmol kg
Figure 23. Variation of cos 0 between the polyurethane surface and aqueous solution of
TN 111 (e) and TN 150 (d) against the molality.
The contact angle decreases as the molality of the s u r f a c t a n t increases and

becomes equal to zero at a molality below the critical micelle concentration. The
molality at which the contact angle is zero depends on the n a t u r e of the
surfactant. If we define the effectiveness of a surfactant to decrease the contact
angle as the m i n i m u m a m o u n t needed to obtain a zero contact angle, then the
nonionic s u r f a c t a n t TN 111 is the most effective, as see in Table 3.
Table 3
Molality and surface tension of aqueous solutions of s u r f a c a t n t at which the
contact angle is zero
Surfactant
TTAB
DTAB
SDS
NDB
TNlll
TN150
Molality for which the contact

angle is zero [mol kg -1]
2.03
7.52
2.00
8.25
3.00
3.14
10 .3
10 .3
10 .3
10 .4
10 .5
10 .4
Surface tension for which the

contact angle is zero [mJ m -2]
49.3
48.4
47.2
46.0
40.0
41.7
It has been stated t h a t aqueous solutions of surfactants wet solids by a

mechanism in which the surfactant is adsorbed with the hydrocarbon chain in
contact with the hydrophobic surface such as polymers. B e r n e t t and Zisman [31]
a t t e m p t e d to explain the wetting by aqueous solutions on the same basis as
wetting by pure organic liquids. To a first approximation the spreading is then
202
caused by the surface tension of the liquid, and the solid-liquid interfacial tension
7SL, plays only a minor role. The ability of an aqueous solution to wet a low
energy surface should therefore depend upon the surface energy of the solid and
the molality of the wetting substance dissolved in water to decrease the surface
tension of the water below the surface tension of the solid. However, the wetting
of the solid surface is more complex. On polar solids, when the solid surface bear
an opposite charge to t h a t of the surfactant, aqueous solutions of surfactant
induce a dewetting. At low molality the surfactant adsorbs on the surface. The
alkyl moiety of the surfactant is oriented towards the solution and renders the
surface hydrophobic [32].
We believe t h a t the wetting of the polyurethane surface is mainly caused by an
adsorption of surfactants on the surface of the polymer. According to this
approach, the solid-liquid interfacial tension, 7SL, between water and the
polyurethane surface must be reduced by an addition of surfactant. Indeed, if the
wetting of the surface is not caused by an adsorption, the interfacial tension can
not change. The lowering of the interfacial tension is therefore related to the
extent of adsorption at the solid-liquid interface. The variation of 7SL from the
water-polyurethane interface to t h a t between an aqueous solution of surfactant
and polyurethane can be calculated as follows:
7Wsv -7wSL : 7wLVCOSWO
(24)
ySsv - 7sSL = 7sLVCOSSO
(25)
where the exponent w refers to water and s to surfactant solution of a given

molality. If we assume t h a t ~'sv does not varies, then ~,wsv= 7ss, on can writes
~/wSL + 7wLVCOSWO _-- ~sSL + 7sLVCOSSO
(26)
7wSL - 7sSL = 7sLVCOSSO -TwLVCOSWO
(27)
From this equation, we can evaluate the change in ~SL produced relative to water
by an addition of surfactant. These variations are shown in Table 4.
The decrease in solid-liquid interfacial tension induced by an addition of
surfactants seems to be dependent of the nature of the surfactant. These
variations can be related to the unequal adsorption of the different surfactants on
the polyurethane surface. The plot of 7LVCOS0versus 7LV, for all the system, shows
t h a t 7LvCOS0increases as 7LV decreases. According to the Young equation and
assuming t h a t 7sv is unaffected by the surfactant solutions, this means t h a t the
interfacial tension 7SL decreases and confirms qualitatively the calculated change
of 7wSL - 7SSI seen in Table 4.
203
Table 4
Change in interfacial surface tension ~wSL- ~sSL
Surface tension of aqueous
solutions of surfactant at which
the contact angle is zero [mN.m -1]
Surfactant
TTAB
DTAB
SDS
NDB
TN111
TN150
7wSL - 7sSL ([N-m -1]
49.3
48.4
47.2
46
40
41.7
15.3
14.3
13.2
12
6
7.70
A convenient method of analysing the relationship between adsorption at the

solid-liquid interface and wetting has been developed by Lucassen-Reynders [33].
When the solid surface is a low-energy surface such as polyurethane, the contact
angle can be used to determine the surface excess of the surfactant at the solidliquid interface. The combination of the Gibbs adsorption equation applied to the
solid-liquid interface with the Young equation, yields:
d (7 Lv c~
dlnC
)
.=RTFsL
(28)
Therefore, the slope of the plot of 7LVCOS0 versus In C may provide information
about the surface excess of the surfactant at the solid-liquid interface. These
excesses were calculated according to the above expression. The values are shown
in Table 5.
Table 5
Surface excesses of the
surfactant interface
Surfactant
TTAB
DTAB
SDS
NDB
TNl11
TN150
surfactants
at
polyurethane-aqueous
Surface tension of aqueous

solutions of surfactant at which
the contact angle is zero [mN.m -1]
49.3
48.4
47.2
46
40
41.7
solution
FSL [mol m 2]
1.62
1
1.10
9.57
4.12
3.57
10 .6
10 .6
10 .6
10 .7
10 .7
10 .7
of
204
One can note t h a t the surface excess varies with the n a t u r e of the surfactant.
It also varies with the length of the alkyl moiety of the surfactant. From TTAB to
DTAB, the surface excess decreases from 1.62 10 .6 to 1.0 10 .6 mol m -2 related to
the length of the alkyl moiety of the surfactant. This q u a n t i t y also reduces as the
length of the headgroup of the nonionic surfactant increases; FSL is equal to
4.12"10 .7 mol m -2 for TN111 for which the n u m b e r of oxide groups, n = 9, to
3.57.10 .7 mol m 2 for TN150 where n = 15. The a m o u n t adsorbed at the
p o l y u r e t h a n e surface seems to be correlated to the change of the solid-liquid
interfacial tension, 7wSL - 7sSL. This line of reasoning would indicate t h a t a
particular s u r f a c t a n t m a y be a poorer wetting agent for some s u b s t r a t e s t h a n for
others, whereas for the same substrate, two different surfactants m a y show
different wetting behaviour when the value of the surface tension, 7LV, of the
aqueous solutions of these surfactants are the same. This is w h a t we observe in
our system: the value of the surface tension 7LV at which the contact angle
between the polyurethane surface and the aqueous solutions of surfactants is nil,
depends on the n a t u r e of the surfactant (see Table 5).
6.
D E T E R G E N C Y OF CARBODY S U R F A C E
A simple definition of detergency is the removal of particulate soil from the

carbody surface by aqueous solutions of surfactants which can alter the adhesion
between the soil and the surface. The detergent process on a carbody surface is in
principle takes place at an interface. It is therefore f u n d a m e n t a l l y a colloidal
phenomenon. The qualitative washing of such a surface with a detersive system
is complicated because of the n a t u r e of the paint surface, the soil and the
detergents. The detergent composition will depend on both surface and soil. An
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of carbody detergency involves several steps: artificial soiling of
the paint surface, determination of the a m o u n t of soil on the surface, washing the
surface with the surfactant of interest, and determination of the a m o u n t of soil
retained on the surface after the washing process.
6.1. S o i l i n g m e t h o d
Diesel engine soot was used as an artificial soil on the carbody surface. The
comparison between the washing effectiveness of the different s u r f a c t a n t s
requires a reproducible soiling method simulating realistic soiling conditions of
the carbody in cities. N a t u r a l soiling occurs with the airborne soot particles come
in contact with the surface. The diesel engine soot m a y be dry or wet depending
on the weather. Artificial soiling with diesel engine soot can then be carried out
with the soil a dry or wet state. It is difficult to soil the paint surface with a dry
diesel engine soot because the method is not uniform and reproducible.
The s u b s t r a t e was metallic disks painted with a polyurethane paint which is
used by car manufacturer. We have applied diesel engine soot particles as a
suspension in a mixed solvent of water-ethanol mixed solvent, on p o l y u r e t h a n e
205
surface and the system was heated up at 40 ~ C for 5 hours. The soiled surfaces
obtained were uniform and reproducible.
6.2. D e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f t h e a m o u n t o f soil o n t h e p o l y u r e t h a n e s u r f a c e
The visual cleanliness or soiling of a surface of interest is useful. It is the only
method used by the consumer to appreciate the effectiveness of the washing
action. Nevertheless this method is subjective and the opinion of two consumers
may be different. Visual estimation can not give a quantitative amount of soil per
unit area of the surface. Therefore, if we want a valid theoretical description and
a comparison of the cleansing action of detergent solutions, a physical method
must be used.
The estimation of the amount of soil on a polyurethane surface can be
evaluated by several physical techniques: chemical analyses, radioactive
methods, or spectrophotometry measurements. The latter method has been used
because it has the advantage of resembling the visual evaluation of the soiled
surface. This appearance is essential for consumers and must be taken into
account. Spectrophotometry measurements for the determination of the amount
of soil deposited on a polyurethane surface are more precise and sensitive than
visual estimation. The effectiveness of detergency, D, of polyurethane surface
was estimated using the following expression :
D = Ro_ R___.~I 100

R0
(29)
where Ro is the reflectance of the soiled surface and R1 the reflectance of the
washed surface.
6.3. D e t e r m i n a t i o n
of the washing effectiveness of the surfactants
The washing process was as follows: the polyurethane surface was immersed
in aqueous solutions of surfactants at different molalities for 5 minutes, and
rinsed for 30 seconds with deionised water. The metallic disks were dried before
reflectance measurements. Figures (24-26) show the dependency of the
detergency effectiveness upon the nature and molality of the surfactant.
For the surfactants studied, the washing effectiveness increases with the
molality of the surfactant until the critical micelle concentration (cmc) is reached.
Nonionic surfactants T N l l l and TX100, and anionic surfactant SDS are the
most efficient, Table 6. The washing effectiveness depends on the length of the
alkyl moiety of the surfactant; D decreases from 11.1 for TTAB, to 9 for DTAB. It
also depends on the number of oxide groups in the nonionic surfactants; d
decreases from 13.4 for TXl00 to 8 for TX165.
206
14
12-
(a)
12-
(b)
10.
O
10-
8.
o~
oDTAB
9 TTAB
6J
420
l0
12
14
16
12
-i
15
18
21
-i
C, mmol kg
C, mmol kg
Figure 24. Variation of the detergency effectiveness upon the molality of SDS (a), TTAB and
DTAB (b) at 298K.
10.
1412
87-
10
~6.
5-
6
4
(d)
9-
(c)
43 .D
21
2
0
0,0
0,1
0,2
0
0,3
-1
C, mmol kg
10
-1
C, mmol kg
Figure 25. Variation of the detergency effectiveness upon the molality of TN 111 (c) and NDB
(d) at 298K.
207
4
.....................................................
12
10
o
D
9 TX100
o TX165
2
0
0
0,5
1
C, mmol kg
1,5
-1
Figure 26. Variation of the detergency effectiveness upon the molality of TX100 and TX165
at 298K.
Table 6
Washing effectiveness of aqueous solution of surfactants
Surfactant
SDS
TTAB
DTAB
NDB
Tlll
TX100
TX165
Washing effectiveness [%]

13.8
11.1
9
8.10
13.7
13.4
8
It follows from this that the washing process is firmly correlated with the
nature and the structure of the surfactant. This relation can be explained if we
consider the adsorption of these surfactants on diesel engine soot and the wetting
of the polyurethane surface.
208
7. A D S O R P T I O N AS A CONDITION OF CARBODY WASHING

7.1. W e t t i n g of the c a r b o d y surface
The removal of diesel engine soot from a carbody surface by aqueous solutions
of surfactant is a result of two mechanisms. The first one is the wetting of the
surface. The tendency of a liquid, L, to spread over a surface, S, is given by the
spreading coefficient, Svs
SL/S = 7SA - 7SL" 7LA = 7LA (COS0 - 1)
(30)
where the subscripts SA, SL and LA refer to the surface-air, surface-liquid and
liquid-air interface. If the spreading coefficient is negative, the liquid does not
spread spontaneously over the surface, and mechanical work must be done to wet
the surface. In the case of a polyurethane surface, we have shown that the
surface is hydrophobic. The contact angle between this surface and water was
62 ~ Consequently, SIJS = -3.84. Since the spreading coefficient is negative, the
washing effectiveness of a carbody surface soiled with diesel engine soot is weak.
Increasing the efficiency of the washing process involves the adsorption of
surfactants on the polyurethane surface, to decrease the contact angle between
the aqueous solutions of surfactants and the surface and to make S~s nil. We
have shown previously that the wetting of a polyurethane surface occurs by
adsorption of surfactants via London dispersion interactions between the
hydrophobic moiety of the surfactants and the surface, with the polar headgroups
oriented towards the solution. As a result the contact angle, 0, decreases and
becomes nil. As result SIJS increases and the washing solutions spread over the
surface. This causes a decrease in the adhesive forces and a diminution in the
work required to remove the soot particle from the carbide surface.
Adsorption of surfactants at the surface solution interface induces an
interfacial pressure, ~, cause by the repulsive interactions between the surfactant
molecules in the interfacial film. It is this spreading pressure which bring about
a diminution of the adhesion between the soil and the surface and facilitates the
removal of the soil (Figure 27).
209
Adsorption of
surfactants
Soot
particle
._ _. _. _. _ . _ . _ ._ _. _ ~
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
/ / / / / / / / /
Figure 27. Removal of soot particle caused by the spreading pressure.
7.2. C o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a d s o r p t i o n of s u r f a c t a n t s on d i e s e l e n g i n e soot
and the washing process
Adsorption of surfactants on diesel engine soot was followed by turbidity
measurements. In all cases, we note a maximum dispersion of soot particles and
a stabilisation of these dispersions around the cmc region, while it is more
difficult to disperse soot particles in pure deionised water. Since the surfactant
adsorbs on the soot via hydrophobic interaction between the alkyl chain moiety of
the surfactant and the surface with the headgroup of the surfactant oriented
toward the bulk phase, the soot particles becomes more hydrophilic.
We have shown that electrophoretic mobilty of soot particles is not affected by
adsorption of nonionic surfactant, while it is modified by adsorption of cationic,
zwitterionic and anionic surfactants. Therefore the dispersion of soot particles
can be explained by electrostatic forces in case of ionic surfactants and by steric
interaction in the case of nonionic surfactans. The interpenetrating of two
adsorbed layers of nonionic surfactants can result in a loss of transformational
freedom and so to a loss of entropy and leads to repulsion between the soot
particles. A theory including an entropy-repulsive energy term between two
particles was developed:
V r =
27t0I
(31)
In this equation, 0 is the surface coverage and I is an integral depending on the

geometry of the system. From this equation, we conclude that the maximum
entropic repulsion between soot particles are obtained when 0 is maximum.
Spontaneous deflocculation by nonionic surfactants can be explained on the basis
210
of the spreading pressure exerted by the adsorbed nonionic layer, this leads to
penetration over the contact zone between the adherents. The disjoining force Fa
exerted on the adherents can be represented by:
Fd = 2nrP s
(32)
where r is the radius of the particle and Ps a spreading pressure. The spreading
pressure can be calculated by the Gibbs equation:
d~,=- .~Fidl~ i
1
This equation is valid not only for liquid-liquid and liquid-gas interfaces, where ~,
can be measured, but also for solid-liquid interface. One of consequence is t h a t
the spreading pressure, i.e. the difference between the surface tension of the solid
in the absence of the adsorbate, ~,o and in its presence, ),, can also be evaluated for
a solid-liquid interface, then one can writes:
Fi
Ps =~/0 _y = E ~Fidpi
i Fi= 0
(33)
For ideal solutions of uncharged molecules, d~ is equal:

dpi = RTd In c i
(34)
T h e Fi terms are surface excesses. In dilute solutions, all Fi terms can be referred
to Fsolvent, which by definition is set to zero. So, in the case of adsorption of
nonionic surfactants on diesel engine soot, we can calculate the spreading

pressure by the following equation:
c
Ps = RT~Fdlnc
o
(35)
In this equation R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature, F the a m o u n t

adsorbed of the surfactant and c the concentration of the surfactant. Therefore
the adsorption of surfactants on the diesel engine soot induces an interfacial
pressure caused by the repulsive interaction between the adsorbed surfactant.
Then, the removal of diesel engine soot from the polyurethane surface, is
facilitated by the interfacial pressure and the repulsion between the surfactant
adsorbed on diesel engine soot and the polyurethane surface (Figure 28).
211
Soot
particle
--~
---_-------------.=
__. . . . . . . .
Adsorption of
surfactants
~
~Q O Q
: t :
9 .. 9
71.
"tr
.y.~. ,~.~
~'~
Figure 28. Mechanism of removal of soot particle from the polyurethane surface.
8.
SUMMARY
The quantitative evaluation of the chemical composition of the diesel engine

soot material shows that there are between 10 and 15% mineral oxide, 0.20%
organic compounds and between 84.8 and 89.8% solid carbon. The specific surface
area varies from 52 m2"g-1 for the untreated soot to 70 m2.g1 for the soot washed
with two solvents. The distribution of the average diameter also depends on
chemical t r e a t m e n t and varies from 19 ~m to 6 ~m. This surface is hydrophilic
and hydrophobic and negatively charged in aqueous solution.
The results of the surfactant adsorption show a strong adsorption on
hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts of the surface. The best wetting surfactant of a
model carbody surface is the nonionic surfactant.
All these experimental results have allowed to propose a mechanism of
washing and to obtain an efficiency detergent formulation for carbody cleaning.
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Adsorption and its Applicationsin Industryand EnvironmentalProtection

9 1998ElsevierScienceB.V. All rightsreserved.
213
T h e o r y a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of p r e s s u r e s w i n g a d s o r p t i o n for t h e
environment
Y. Liu, D. Subramanian and J.A. Ritter
Department of Chemical Engineering, Swearingen Engineering Center
University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
Analytic, equilibrium theory-based expressions for the periodic state process
performance and bed profiles of three evolving environmental pressure swing
adsorption (PSA) processes are presented. The three PSA processes include single
component solvent vapor recovery, single component air purification with
complete clean-up, and binary solvent vapor recovery. The analytic expressions
are used to carry out conceptual designs of several environmentally related and
commercially relevant PSA systems, including dimethyl methylphosphonate
(DMMP) and butane vapor recovery, purification of air containing ppm levels of
styrene vapor using a complete clean-up cycle, and separation of n-butane vapor
from a mixture of n-butane and n-heptane in an inert carrier gas. These
conceptual designs show that the analytic expressions can be readily used in the
preliminary design, feasibility and performance evaluation of environmental PSA
processes, even by the novice.
1. I NTR ODUCT I O N
Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions such as benzene, butane, acetone,
trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and styrene have been under increased
scrutiny worldwide [1], with the only likely scenario being even more stringent
requirements on the release of VOCs into the environment. Thus, an increasing
emphasis has been placed on the development and use of air purification (AP)
and solvent vapor recovery (SVR) processes. Similarly, very strict exposure limits
have been placed on contaminants used in defense applications (i.e., chemical
agents) because of their extreme toxicity. Moreover, experiences gained during
the Gulf War have heightened the awareness of the need for better AP systems
designed specifically for defense applications. The requirements for defense
systems differ, however, from those needed for controlling vapor emissions. In
contrast to SVR processes, which have to simultaneously purify air and recover
solvent vapors, defense systems only have to purify air. Nevertheless, both
applications are inherently environmentally related, where adsorption technology
has been used quite extensively and successfully.
214
Carbon adsorption with steam regeneration has been one of the most
frequently used methods for removing and recovering solvent vapors from air
[2-8]. However, this method suffers from thermal aging of the adsorbent,
equipment corrosion, and inefficiency in energy usage [9]. Clearly, carbon
adsorption with steam or hot purge gas regeneration is also not very practical for
defense applications because of the large bed sizes that are required as a result of
the long cycle times. In this later application, once-through systems have been
used with subsequent disposal of the carbon. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
offers attractive alternatives for both SVR in industrial applications [10,11] and
AP in defense applications [12].
The essential features of PSA have been delineated in the pioneering patents
of Hasche and Dargan [13], Perlet [14], and Finlayson and Sharp [15], as well as
in the papers of Kahle [16,17] and Skarstrom [18]; it has also been extensively
discussed in the recent monographs by Ruthven [10], Yang [19], and Ruthven et
al. [20]. During the 1980s, PSA gained widespread commercial acceptance [20];
and the growth in research and development, and commercialization of PSA has
been rather spectacular in the last two decades. The key reason for this
outstanding progress is that PSA technology can provide a very flexible and
efficient means of gas separation and purification, and, for many applications, it
can reduce the energy and cost of separation compared to conventional
separation processes like absorption and distillation. Nowadays, PSA processes
are widely used on a very large scale for a variety of gas separations [21]. In
contrast, environmental and defense applications of PSA represent two relative
new areas with major potential for growth.
For example, the recovery of small amounts of organics from chemical
processes, storage-tanks and other gaseous vents, as well as from solvent
painting, purging and cleaning operations, are increasing [22,23]; and so are AP
needs in defense applications [24]. Specific environmental issues related to
adsorption science and technology where PSA processes have either recently been
commercialized or shown some promise for commercialization include, local
environmental problems, such as SVR [1,6,7,10,11,25], solvent vapor
fractionation, and SOx and NOx removal from flue gas [26], and global
environmental problems, such as emission control of green-house gases (CO2,
CH4, N20, etc.) [27,28], recovery of CFCs in emission control of ozone depletion
gases [29], and contaminant removal in defense applications [12].
The objective of this chapter is to introduce some simple analytic
expressions derived from equilibrium theory that can be used for environmental
PSA process heuristics, feasibility, design, development, performance, and
understanding. Complete sets of expressions are given for three evolving
environmental PSA processes: single component SVR from an inert carrier gas
(e.g., nitrogen or air); single component AP with complete clean-up cycles, and
binary SVR from an inert carrier gas, where the lighter vapor is separated from
the heavier vapor. Conceptual process designs are carried out for all three cases
to illustrate the use of these simple expressions. It is noted that only those
215
processes having feed streams containing one or two components in an inert
carrier, with the total contaminant mole fraction being less t h a n about 15%, are
treated; this is typical of environmental applications. It is also noted that the
relative humidities of the gas streams are not taken into account because of the
associated complexities, which supersede the use of a simple equilibrium model.
Nevertheless, the general concepts and ideas conveyed here can be extended to
more complex PSA processes including bulk gas separation.
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PSA PROCESSES

2.1. Principles
The principle underlying PSA technology is the selective adsorption of one or
more components from a feed gas mixture on a solid adsorbent, so that an
adsorbed phase having a composition different from that of the feed mixture is
formed when the feed is contacted with the adsorbent. The gas phase becomes
richer in the less selectively adsorbed components during the adsorption step and
in the more selectively adsorbed components during the desorption step. The
attractive forces responsible for this adsorption phenomenon are of the van der
Waals type. Thus, the adsorbed components are easily desorbed by reducing their
partial pressures. The desorption process also cleans the adsorbent so that it can
be reused in subsequent cycles. The partial pressures of the components can be
altered by decreasing the total pressure and/or by changing the composition of
the gaseous mixture. A major advantage of PSA, relative to other types of
adsorption processes, such as thermal swing, is that the pressure can be changed
much more rapidly t h a n the temperature. This makes it possible to operate a
PSA process on a much faster cycle, thereby increasing the throughput.
The adsorption capacity available for separation in PSA depends on both
equilibrium and kinetic factors, but the relative importance of these factors
varies greatly for different systems. The majority of PSA processes are
"equilibrium driven" in the sense that the selectivity depends on differences in
the equilibrium affinities. This is true also of PSA processes for the environment.
In such processes mass transfer resistance generally has only a slight but
nevertheless deleterious effect and reduces the performance relative to ideal
(equilibrium) systems, which are the type treated here.
2.2. Basic s c h e m e s
Different from PSA bulk gas separation processes, which typically utilize
multiple beds and additional steps to increase the light product recovery (such as
pressure equalization and co-current blowdown steps), environmental PSA
processes utilize a twin bed system with a Skarstrom-type cycle. During each
cycle, two beds each undergo four steps, namely, adsorption, countercurrent
blowdown, countercurrent purge, and repressurization. The purge gas can come
from the light product of the other bed or from ambient air, and the
216
pressurization can be realized by using the feed mixture (cocurrently) or again by

using ambient air (countercurrently). While one bed is undergoing adsorption the
other bed is being purged, and while one bed is undergoing repressurization the
other bed is being depressurized. In this way, the beds operate 180 ~ out of phase
with each other. Other cycle designs are also possible, whereby feeding is
continued in one bed while the other bed undergoes blowdown, purge and
pressurization. A typical cycle sequence is depicted in Fig. 1, and it may be
carried out as follows.
During the adsorption step, the gas mixture is fed into the bed at a constant
high pressure and the less selectively adsorbed component(s) is withdrawn as the
light product (or vented as clean air). During the blowdown step, the bed is
depressurized from the high pressure to the low pressure by withdrawing gas
through the feed end of the bed (countercurrently). The light product end of the
bed is kept closed during this step. During the purge step, the depressurized bed
is countercurrently purged. The gas enriched in the more selectively adsorbed
component(s) is withdrawn through the feed end of the bed during both the
blowdown and purge steps. During the repressurization step, the bed is
pressurized from the low pressure to the high pressure with the feed gas mixture
through the feed end of the bed (cocurrently) while keeping the other end of the
bed closed. Once the bed reaches the high pressure, feeding commences to begin a
new adsorption step and thus cycle. Eventually, these coupled beds reach a
periodic state, which is also commonly referred to as the cyclic steady-state.
2.3. P e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c a t o r s
The performance of an environmental PSA-AP process is evaluated mainly by

the light product purity (yp) and the process throughput (0p), which is defined as
the volume of feed mixture processed per unit mass of adsorbent per unit time.
For the PSA-SVR process, in addition to yp and 0p, the process performance is
also judged by the solvent vapor recovery (~) and enrichment (E), and the bed
capacity factor (BCF) (for single component only), which is akin to the length of
utilized bed [25].
is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of the solvent vapor leaving
the bed during steps III and IV to the number of moles of the solvent vapor
entering the bed during step II. E is defined as the average mole fraction of the
solvent vapor leaving the bed during steps III and IV divided by the mole fraction
of the solvent vapor in the feed. yp is defined as the average mole fraction of the
solvent vapor exiting the light product end of the bed during step II. The BCF is
defined as [25]
Lb
BCF = f qdz/qfL b
0
(1)
217
~ Light Product
]3
Effluent
Feed
Feed
Blowdown
V
Column A
II
Light Produc~
Pressumzation
Column B
III
Blowdown
~ Purge
IV
Effluent
Effluent
III
Pressurization Purge _~
Light Product
I
Feed
Figure 1. Schematic of an environmental PSA process and sequence of steps in a cycle.
and represents the capacity of the bed that is used at the periodic state
(measured at the end of step II) compared to the maximum capacity of the bed at
218
the feed conditions. Thus, at a fixed process throughput and when there is no
solvent vapor breaking through the bed during step II, a larger BCF indicates a
poorer performance. Within the realm of equilibrium theory (see the next
section), Eq. 1 reduces to
BCF = za
Lb
(2)
where Za is simply the bed length that is covered by the concentration shock front
at the end of the adsorption step. It is also convenient to define a feed
(adsorption) step throughput (Of) as the volume of feed processed per unit mass of
adsorbent per unit time during the adsorption step, i.e.,
Of=
Vf
= v---k--f
PbAbLb PbLb
(3)
The relationship between Of and 0p is given by

tc
Of = ~-f 0p
(4)
E Q U I L I B R I U M THEORY A N D E N V I R O N M E N T A L P S A P R O C E S S
DESIGN
Mathematical modelling has been widely used as a very powerful tool in the
theoretical study of PSA in order to gain a clearer understanding of this rather
complex process. It can also be used to predict the process performance under
various operating conditions, which may save time and cost associated with pilotscale testing. A wide variety of mathematical models have been developed [20],
and these can be essentially classified into two groups, namely, equilibrium and
dynamic models. Dynamic simulation involves tracking the transient by repeated
numerical integration of the governing equations until the periodic state is
reached. It is generally quite flexible and very accurate, but difficult to
implement for the novice user. For this type of modeling, interested readers are
referred to Liu and Ritter [25, 30-32] for SVR processes, and LeVan, Ruthven,
and Yang and their co-workers for purification processes [33-36]. In contrast,
equilibrium theory is the simplest approach to modeling PSA processes, as it
accounts mainly for mass conservation, and ignores transport phenomena; and in
many cases, it allows the governing material balance equations to be solved
analytically by the method of characteristics.
219
The usual assumptions of equilibrium theory include: isothermal operation, no
axial dispersion, no axial pressure gradients, and most importantly,
instantaneous local equilibrium implying negligible transport phenomena.
Building on the pioneering works of Shendalman and Mithchell [37], Chan et al.
[38], LeVan [39], and Pigorini and LeVan [40], Ritter and co-workers [12,41,42]
developed some simple analytic expressions for PSA-SVR and PSA-AP processes
that give directly the periodic state process performance in terms of the process
and adsorption isotherm parameters. Additional assumptions used in the
development of these expressions include neglect of the velocity changes in the
column due to a non-adsorbing carrier gas and the low feed mole fraction of the
adsorbing impurity, neglect of the gas phase capacity due to high partition ratios
between the adsorbed and gas phases, and neglect of the pressure transient steps
as they occupy only a small fraction of the total cycle time. This later assumption
freezes the concentration profiles in the gas and solid phases during the pressure
changing steps [43], which reduces the analysis to a two-step PSA process,
composed only of feed and purge steps [39,41]. Furthermore, purging of the
columns is carried out countercurrently using pure inert carrier gas emanating
from an adjacent bed during the high pressure adsorption step.
The analytic expressions and a conceptual process design for single component
SVR from inert carrier gas are presented first; it is noteworthy that these simple
expressions have been justified by comparison with a more rigorous
mathematical model under limited conditions [41]. This development is followed
by the formulations and a conceptual process design for complete clean-up during
PSA-AP. Finally, expressions and a conceptual process design are given for
binary PSA-SVR from an inert carrier gas with the lighter vapor being separated
from the heavier vapor. In all cases, the designs are directly related to
environmental applications of PSA. Further details of the developments of these
expressions are given elsewhere [12,41,42].
It is noted at the outset that all of the analytic expressions are derived based
on the general Langmuir adsorption isotherm, which is given by
qi =
qs,ibiPYi
1 + Z bjPyj
J
(5)
for any number of components, where i represents the component and j is

summed over all components. Eq. 5 has a one-to-one correspondence with the
constant separation factor isotherm,
qi =
ci
,
R i + (1 - R i)c i
through the constant separation factor,
(6)
220
1
Ri = 1 + biPHYf, i
(7)
For favorable L a n g m u i r adsorption isotherms, Ri is restricted to 0 < Ri < 1.0. The

dimensionless variables in Eq. 6 are defined as
* qi
qi = ~
qf
,
ci
ci = w
cf
(8)
(9)
3.1. S i n g l e c o m p o n e n t PSA-SVR p r o c e s s
The PSA-SVR process has received increasing attention since its recent
commercialization [1,10,11,25,30-32,39,41-46]. Potential markets for PSA-SVR
are very large, as the use of organic solvents is ubiquitous throughout m a n y
industries [5]. PSA-SVR processes also offer many advantages over conventional
SVR processes by [10,11,47] (a) providing a greater portion of the total working
capacity by pulling a vacuum, thereby resulting in more solvent vapor adsorbed
for the same amount of adsorbent, and an improved process performance;
(b) avoiding high temperatures compared to t e m p e r a t u r e swing adsorption (TSA),
thus eliminating or reducing thermal aging of the adsorbent and the possibility of
adsorbent combustion in the presence of flammable hydrocarbons and hot air;
(c) avoiding the hot steam purge, thus eliminating the secondary waste stream in
the recovered condensate (i.e., condensed steam s a t u r a t e d with minute levels of
the recovered solvent); (d) avoiding extremely low t e m p e r a t u r e s compared to
cryogenic condensation; and (e) providing higher separation factors and lower
energy costs compared to distillation.
3.1.1. PSA-SVR p r o c e s s w i t h o u t b r e a k t h r o u g h
When no heavy component b r e a k t h r o u g h occurs during the adsorption step in
the PSA-SVR process, yp = 0 and ~ = 100%. Therefore, the process performance is
judged only by the BCF and E. The dimensionless periodic state bed penetration
is expressed as
(I - R)(7 v - I) +7 V- 2~(I - R)(7 v - I)7 v
~a=
(I0)
where g is the dimensionless axial coordinate defined as

Z
-
--
q-L
(Ii)
221
L is the distance penetrated by the concentration wave in the very first feed step;
it is defined as
L =
vftf
(12)
The subscript on ~- in Eq. 10 indicates a periodic state variable; thus

~a = ~Za
=
(BCF)Lb
L
(13)
Introducing Eqs. 2, 3 and 12 into Eq. 13 gives the following expression
qa =
\cf
0ftf
(14)
Also note t h a t Tv and ~/M a r e related by

TV =TM(z
(15)
To obtain the enrichment, first, the concentration of the heavy component

exiting the column during the purge step is obtained as a function of time from
!
,
7VRt-~TVtqatfR
ci =
7Vt(R- 1)
(16)
Eq. 16 is then averaged over the duration of the purge step to give E as
(Z
E =~
v
T
(17)
It is pointed out t h a t the frozen solid phase assumption applied to the pressure
changing steps in the development of the equilibrium model limits the pressure
ratio (a) that can be employed for a given feed mole fraction, or vice versa [41] to
y~nax <_1
(18)
222
The periodic adsorbed phase concentration profile at the end of the adsorption
step is simply a shock wave that covers the bed from z = 0 to z = Za, or in
dimensionless terms from ~-= 0 to ~- = ~-a. The adsorbed phase concentration
profile at the end of the purge step is an expansive wave (heel). This heel extends
from the bed entrance to a certain position G = Go, where ~o is the dimensionless
axial position reached by the dimensionless concentration ci* = 0 (and thus qi* = 0)
when it travels countercurrently. The adsorbed phase concentration profile at the
end of the purge step is obtained from
/
*
g - ga +
qi =
~]TVR(ga - g)
( 1 - R ) ( g - g a)
(19)
and ~-0 is given by

g0 = ga -
R7 v
(20)
The corresponding gas phase concentration profile is obtained from Eq. 12

through the adsorption isotherm, Eq. 5.
In the design of a PSA-SVR system, the adsorbent, adsorbate, and the
corresponding adsorption isotherm are usually known. Also, designers usually
have information on the feed, such as the feed mole fraction (yf), feed pressure
(PH) and, sometimes, the feed volumetric flow rate (Vf). There are two types of
design problems. One is to determine the operating conditions for existing
columns and desired process performance; and the other is to design the columns
for pre-determined operating conditions and desired process performance.
In the first type of design (i.e., known yf, PH and bed dimensions), if Vf and the
cycle time (tc) are selected, the purge to feed ratio (7v and 7M), a and thus PL are
determined for the desired process performance (E and BCF) as follows. First, qf
is calculated according to the adsorption isotherm, Eq. 5, and cf is calculated from
yf, Tf and PH in terms of the ideal gas law. Then the superficial feed velocity (vd is
calculated from Vf and the bed diameter (db). With the calculated qf, cf and vf,
and the specified feed duration (tO, L is calculated from Eq. 12. Note t h a t for this
two-step PSA process, tf = 0.5tc. After L is obtained, ~-a is determined from Eq. 13
corresponding to the desired BCF. Now, 7v is obtained from Eq. 10 with R
obtained from Eq. 7. a is then calculated according Eq. 17 from the specified E
and calculated 7v. PL is simply obtained by dividing PH by (z, and then 7M is
obtained from Eq. 15.
If a or 7v (or 7M) is specified instead of Vf or tf, then the other operating
conditions are obtained as follows. If a is known, 7v is calculated from Eq. 17, and
then ~'a is obtained from Eq. 10. From Eq. 13 and with the calculated ~'a,
223
specified BCF and known Lb, L is determined. So, vf (and therefore Vf) is obtained
for a fixed tf, or tf (and thus tc) is obtained for a fixed vf from Eq. 12.
Equilibrium theory necessarily shows that it is the amount of the adsorbent
(i.e., the volume of the bed), not the a r r a n g e m e n t of the adsorbent (i.e., the length
to diameter ratio), that plays the role in achieving the desired process
performance [41]. Therefore, to obtain the bed dimensions in the second type of
design problem, the analytic expressions are used to find the adsorbent inventory
(bed volume) for selected operating conditions and desired process performance.
After obtaining the bed volume, complete specification of the bed dimensions
requires the bed diameter or bed length to be selected a priori. For example, with
known Vf and tf (tc), if (z is known, ~,v is calculated from Eq. 17 for the desired E,
and then ~a is obtained from Eq. 10 with R obtained in the same m a n n e r as in
the first type of design problem. Using Eq. 14, Of is solved for the desired BCF.
Finally, Eq. 3 is used to determine the bed dimensions with either db or Lb
specified.
The first type of design is carried out for the recovery of dimethyl
methylphosphonate (DMMP) vapor from an inert carrier gas using BPL activated
carbon. The adsorption isotherm of the DMMP-BPL activated carbon system at
298.2 K is taken from Ritter [48]; it is plotted in Fig. 2 along with the Langmuir
model correlation. The isotherm parameters and the average relative error (ARE)
defined by
5.0
4.5
4.0
........
........
........
........
........
........
I
F
3.5 __
3.0
(33
-~ 2.5
0
E 2.0
_5
o- 1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
L
_ J
-
l x 1 0 -6
,,,,,,I
ental data
model correlation
,
l x 1 0 -5
,,,,,,I
l x 1 0 -4
, ,,,,,,I
l x 1 0 -3
, ,,,,,,I
l x 1 0 -2
, ,,,,,,I
l x 1 0 -1
,,,,,,,
lx10 ~
P (kPa)
Figure 2. Equilibrium adsorption isotherm of DMMP vapor on BPL activated carbon at
298.2 K [48]" experimental data and Langmuir model correlation.
224
1.5
m m
'
'
'
'
end of purge step

end of feed step
'
0.0
'
'
,i
edde
I
I
I
0.0
'
0.010
0.005
0.000
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3 0.4
I ...... I
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
,,
0.9
,,,
1.0
Figure 3. Periodic adsorbed phase concentration profiles for the DMMP-BPL system at the
end of the feed and purge steps.
ARE%= !00
- qi=1
~ acb sa/ q le x'p 'qexp,i
i / N
(21)
are given in Table 1. This design problem involves determining Vf and 7v (or 7 M)
that are required to obtain the specified process performance of E = 10 and
BCF = 0.6. The feed conditions are PH = 121.56 kPa and yf = 300 ppm. (z is chosen
to be 15 ancl tc is fixed at 1,440 s ( t f - 720 s). All of the design information
including the bed dimensions and adsorbent properties are tabulated in Table 1,
along with the results of the design.
For the desired process performance, 1124.3 SLPM of feed are processed, using
yv = 1.5 (~/M _-- 0.1) and PL = 8.1 kPa. The periodic adsorbed phase concentration
profiles at the end of the adsorption and purge steps are displayed in Fig. 3. The
resulting adsorbed phase profiles do not change much between the end of the
adsorption and purge steps during the periodic state because of the strong
affinity between DMMP and BPL activated carbon. The insert in Fig. 3 shows
that the simple wave at the end of the purge step starts from almost the same
position as where the shock wave ended at the end of feed step. This behavior is
quite typical for PSA systems with strong adsorbate-adsorbent interactions
[25,43]; nevertheless, PSA is still quite effective at concentrating DMMP from
300 to 3000 ppm while utilizing 60% of the column.
225
Table 1
Conceptual design of a PSA-DMMP-SVR process without breakthrough during
the feed step
Design Input
Adsorption isotherm parameters
b (kPa-~)
8732.1
q~ (mol/kg)
3.83
ARE (%)
7.51
Bed information
Lb (m)
db (m)
pb (kg/m 3)
0.5
0.2
431.6
Feed conditions
yf (ppm)
PH (kPa)
Tf(K)
300
121.56
298.15
Process conditions
(-)
tf (s)
15
720
Design Output
Operating conditions
Vf (m3/s)
0.1704
(SLPM)
1124.3
7 v (-)
1.5
~M(_)
o.1
PL (kPa)
8.1
Required process performance

E (-)
10
BCF (-)
0.6
3.1.2. P S A - S V R p r o c e s s w i t h b r e a k t h r o u g h
In the case of heavy component breakthrough, the periodic state bed

penetration is always equal to the bed length (i.e., BCF = 1.0). Therefore, the PSA
process performance is judged by yp, ~ and E. The extension of the equilibrium
theory to allow for the case of breakthrough is restricted to the case of a pure
carrier gas purge. Under the simplifications of the theory, breakthrough occurs
when the shock t h a t forms and propagates in the feed step breaks out of the bed
before the termination of the feed step. In other words, the bed capacity is not
sufficient to contain the shock wave in the bed. It is mathematically simulated
when the chosen process parameters determine a periodic state penetration
greater than the chosen bed length. In such a case, a completely saturated bed
results at the end of the feed step, with some of the heavy component vapor being
lost in the breakthrough.
The procedure for obtaining the heavy component enrichment is quite similar
to that used in the case without breakthrough [41]; the final expression for E is
226
II
I Lb~
LbP bqfR _ R 7 v + - vftfcf

vftfcf
E =a
(22a)
7 v ( 1 - R)
or
qfR
0ftfcf
E =a
R 7v +
qf
0ftfcf
(22b)
7v(1-R)
To obtain 9~, the change in the adsorbed phase concentration over the purge step
duration is calculated through a mass balance, where the final expression is
w r i t t e n as
N = E7 v =
a
2 7 V L b P b q f R _ R 7v
vftfcf
(l-R)
+ vftfcf
(23a)
or
2
9~ = ETv =
a
qfR
0ftfcf
R 7v +
qf
0ftfcf
(23b)
(l-R)
To obtain yp, the solvent vapor concentration exiting the bed is required as a
function of time over the feed step duration. The time t a k e n for the shock wave to
form and propagate to the column exit is the time for which pure inert e m a n a t e s
from the column exit. The rest of the feed step duration pollutes the inert light
product at the feed concentration level. The average light product purity is given
by
(24)
-
(l-R)
The periodic adsorbed phase concentration profile is obtained in the same

m a n n e r as in the case without breakthrough. However, in this case, the shock
wave at the end of the adsorption step covers the whole bed from ~-= 0 to ~-= ~'b.
227
The adsorbed phase concentration profile at the end of the purge step is obtained
from Eqs. 19 and 20, except t h a t ~'a in these equations is replaced by ~-b for the
case with breakthrough. The design methodology is also similar to the no
b r e a k t h r o u g h case. Note t h a t since the BCF is always equal to unity in the case
with breakthrough, it is no longer a performance indicator, yp is the important
performance indicator in environmental applications; and so are 9~ and E if the
solvent vapor is recovered.
In the first type of design (i.e., known yf, PH and bed dimensions), all of the
operating variables (Vf, tc, a, PL and ~/v) are determinable for a specified
performance (E, ~ or yp), when two of them are specified. In practice, however, 9~
and yp are not pre-determined simultaneously since they are related. In
environmental applications, yp is usually specified to meet the environmental
regulations, leaving ~ to be calculated. To determine these variables, Eqs. 22 to
24 are solved simultaneously for any two of the operating variables, and either
or yp by noting the governing relations in Eq. 3 and Eqs. 13 to 15. For example, if
Vf and tf are specified, Gb is calculated from Eq. 11 in terms of Lb. Then R and L,
as well as qf and cf, are calculated in the same way as in the case without
breakthrough. For the specified yp, ~,v is obtained by solving Eq. 24, and then a is
obtained by solving Eq. 22 for the desired E. 9~ is calculated from Eq. 23.
Specifying the bed dimensions in the second type of design also requires the
simultaneous solution of the aforementioned equations to find Of. The bed
dimensions are determined through Eq. 3. In this case, at least three process
conditions (Vf, tf, a and ~,v) must be specified, with Vf as one of them to
completely define the bed dimensions. For example, for a known feed condition
(PH and Y0, to achieve the desired process performance (E and yp) for selected Vf,
yv and tf, the bed dimensions are determined as follows. First, Eq. 24 is solved to
obtain ~-b and then Of is calculated from Eq. 14 with Gb replacing ~'a and
BCF = 1.0. The calculated Of is then used to determine the bed dimensions
according to Eq. 3 with either Lb o r db specified. The calculated Of and ~v are used
in Eq. 22b to obtain (z for the desired E.
A second type of design is carried out for the recovery of b u t a n e vapor from an
inert carrier gas using Westvaco's BAX activated carbon. The adsorption
isotherm of the butane-BAX system at 298.2 K [49] is plotted in Fig. 4 along with
the L a n g m u i r model correlation; the isotherm p a r a m e t e r s and ARE are given in
Table 2. The design is carried out in exactly the same m a n n e r as in the case
without breakthrough. The specific value of each p a r a m e t e r is given in Table 2
along with the design outputs. In this case, two beds with different dimensions
are obtained for the same operating conditions (both specified and calculated
conditions) and the same process performance, as a result of solving Eq. 24 for yv.
With respect to the overall mass balance constraints and viable process and
operating conditions, both bed designs are feasible. However, the periodic
228
7.0
........
6.0
.......
9
----
5.0
m
0
.......
.......
.......
.......
.......
experimental data
modelcorrelation
m..,..,,~,.J 9 -
, .... ,,I
'
' ' ' "';
4.0
3.0
(3"
2.0
1.0
0.0
........ I
....... J
,,,,,I
, ,,,,,.I
, ,,,,,,
'o
'o
'o
P (kPa)
Figure 4. Equilibrium adsorption isotherm of n-butane vapor on BAX activated carbon at
298.2 K [49]" experimental data and Langmuir model correlation.
Table 2
Conceptual design of a PSA-n-butane-SVR process with breakthrough during the
feed step
Design Input
Design Output
Adsorption isotherm parameters

b (kPa -1)
0.1514
qs (mol/kg)
6.5194
ARE (%)
14.62
(z (-)
1.5
PL (kPa)
16.21
TM (-)
0.2
Bed information
pb (kg/m ~)
Process performance
517.97
Feed conditions
yf(-)
PH (kPa)
Tf (K)
0.15
121.56
298.15
Process conditions
Vf (SLPM)
~v (.)
tf (s)
4000.0
1.5
720

E (-)
5.0
yp (ppm)
10.0
(%)
Bed dimensions
Lb (m) (specified)
db (m)
99.993
1.5
0.398 or 1.177
229
adsorbed phase concentration profiles shown in Fig. 5 show that only the smaller
bed is physically realistic.
1.5
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
(a)
1.0
realistic behavior
0.5
0.0
1.5
'
'
'
'
'
"Ix
'
'
'
'
'
unrealistic beh_~_avior
1.0
-'-
-"-
"-"-
(b)
"-
....
\
0.5
\
0.0
,
0.0
I
0.1
I
0.2
I
0.3
I
0.4
I
0.5
I
0.6
I
0.7
I
0.8
I
0.9
,/
1.0
z/L b
Figure 5. Periodic adsorbed phase concentration profiles for the n-butane-BAX system at the
end of the feed (solid lines) and purge (dashes) steps for the (a) smaller and (b) larger bed
designs.
The periodic adsorbed phase concentration profiles at the end of the purge step
are quite different in each case. The profile for the larger bed (Fig. 5b) shows that
the adsorbed phase concentration in a certain mass transfer region exceeds that
corresponding to the feed condition, which is physically impossible but occurs
mathematically to satisfy the mass balance condition. The profile for the smaller
bed (Fig. 5a) does not exhibit this unusual behavior; in fact, its behavior is
characteristic of that obtained with rigorous numerical modeling [25]. Thus, the
smaller bed corresponds to the only realistic design. It is also interesting to
compare the adsorbed phase concentration profile in Fig. 5a for butane with that
230
in Fig. 3 for DMMP. The profiles are quite different, with butane exhibiting
significant movement of the simple wave during the purge step. This is indicative
of a large amount of butane adsorbing and desorbing during each periodic cycle,
and it is a direct reflection of the adsorbent/adsorbate affinity.
3.2. Single component PSA-AP process with complete clean-up

PSA-AP is a well established process. More than thirty industrial companies in
the United States design and manufacture PSA-AP systems [51]. In fact, there
has been a great deal of interest recently in the design and development of PSAAP systems [34,35,44,45,51,52], especially for use in chemical defense systems
where specific concerns have been raised pertaining to the residual contaminants
that remain in PSA-AP beds [25]. This so called "heel" within the beds is
characteristic of PSA processes, since PSA beds are never meant to be completely
regenerated. What this means is that PSA-AP systems used in defense
applications continuously desorb contaminant vapors from the beds even after
the contaminant is no longer being exposed to them. This makes it rather
difficult for a military vehicle to return to the base after being exposed to the
contaminant vapor in the field, because toxic vapors are continuously desorbed
from the AP system as long as it is operating; and this desorption can persist for
some time. Thus, the objective here is to introduce new vacuum swing adsorption
(VSA) cycles for AP with complete regeneration of the beds during every cycle
[12].
The conceptual design of a PSA-AP system involves the same procedure as
that used for the PSA-SVR processes, both with and without breakthrough.
However, the expressions derived by Ritter et al. [12] for complete clean-up only
apply to PSA cycles without breakthrough during the feed step; so 9{ = 100%,
yp = 0 and the periodic state process performance expressions depict in Eqs. 7 to
17 are valid. Based on these expressions, the critical volumetric purge to feed
ratio required for complete clean-up is given by
v
--I
(25)
R
By noting Eq. 15, Eq. 25 is readily adapted to yield the critical pressure ratio (ac)
in terms of yM as
ac =
~,MR
(26)
Also, according to the definition of R (Eq. 7), Eq. 26 becomes
(Zc =
(1 + bPHyf)
M
Y
(27)
231
It is again pointed out t h a t the frozen solid phase assumption applied to the
pressure t r a n s i e n t steps in the equilibrium model constrains the pressure ratio
t h a t can be employed for a given feed mole fraction or vice versa [41]. For the
case of complete clean-up, this feature limits the applicability of the analytic
expressions to feed mole fractions constrained by
y~nax<~/l_ + 4bPH~/M - 1
2bP H
(28)
The case of incomplete clean-up is governed by Eq. 18.

As in the case when there is no b r e a k t h r o u g h during the adsorption step, the
periodic adsorbed phase concentration profile at the end of the adsorption step is
a shock wave which covers the bed from ~-= 0 to G= ~'a. Due to the nature of
complete clean-up, however, the contaminant is completely removed from the
feed end of the bed at the end of the purge step. Therefore, no contaminant heel is
left in the bed at the start of a new cycle. So, the adsorbed phase concentration
profiles at the end of the feed and purge steps are obvious.
To design a PSA-AP process with complete clean-up, once the feed condition is
determined (PH and Y0 for a known isotherm system, 7cv required for complete
clean-up is fixed, i.e., according to Eq. 25, 7cv is only a function of PH, yf and b (the
Henry's law constant) at the operating temperature. Therefore, in the design of
the complete clean-up PSA cycle for known feed conditions, the first step is to
determine 7cv. As mentioned above, Eqs. 7 to 17 are valid for this complete cleanup case, and the design methodologies for both types of designs are essentially
the same as in the case of a PSA-SVR process without breakthrough. The only
notable differences between theses two cases are t h a t 7cv is determined for a
known feed mixture (it is not chosen arbitrarily), and ac is related to 7M (it is not
an independent design variable). Also, PSA-AP process designs usually do not
consider ~ as a performance indicator.
To illustrate, a conceptual PSA-AP process design with complete clean-up is
carried out using the styrene-BAX activated carbon system. The adsorption
isotherm at 298.2 K for this system [50] is plotted in Fig. 6 along with the model
correlation. The isotherm model p a r a m e t e r s and ARE are given in Table 3. This
design involves the determination of the bed dimensions, 7cv and ac for known
feed conditions (PH = 101.3 kPa and yf = 1000 ppm ), and selected 7M = 0.5,
Vf = 1 m 3 STP/min (1000 SLPM) and tf = 600 s. The choice of 7M = 0.5 is a
compromise between the need for producing a clean light product and the need
for reducing ac. The desired bed utilization at the periodic state is also specified
(BCF = 0.6) with 40% of the bed being used as a guard against breakthrough. The
selected 7 M has to satisfy Eq. 28, which gives 7 M ~_ 0.043; and the applicability of
the equilibrium correlations constrained yf < 3430 ppm under the specified
conditions (see Eq. 28).
232
5.0
iiii
........
........
........
........
.......
4.5
4.0
e x p e r i m e n t a l data
3.5
3.0
-~
2.5
E 2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
. . . . . . . .
lx10 -6
lx10 -5
lx10 -4
lx10 -3
......
lx10 -2
lx10 -1
I I
IIII
lx10 ~
P (kPa)
Figure 6. Equilibrium adsorption isotherm of styrene vapor on BAX activated carbon at 298.2
K [49]: experimental data and Langmuir model correlation.
First, the ideal gas law is used to calculate cf from the known yf, PH and Tf.
Then Eq. 5 is used to calculate qf, Eq. 7 is used to calculate R, and 7cv and ac are
obtained from Eqs. 25 and 26, respectively. Now, Eq. 10 is used to calculate ~- in
terms of the calculated R and 7cV; and then the calculated ~-, is used to calculate Of
through Eq. 14. Finally, Eq. 3 is used to determine the bed dimension, i.e., LD for
a selected db, in this case. All of the inputs and outputs of this design are given in
Table 3.
Only two relatively small beds are required to achieve the specified
performance, even though styrene is a relatively strong adsorbate. Moreover, the
chosen process feed conditions are indicative of actual PSA-AP systems used in
defense applications [33]. What allows these beds to be so small in this case is the
complete clean-up of the beds during every cycle. This gives rise to a significant
adsorbent capacity compared to PSA systems that leave a significant heel in the
beds (e.g., see Figs. 3 and 5a). Also, PL = 1.17 kPa is still quite reasonable for
conventional vacuum systems.
3.3. B i n a r y PSA-SVR p r o c e s s from inert carrier gas

Many ternary systems exist throughout various industries, consisting of two
dilute vapors in a relatively inert carrier gas (i.e., nitrogen or air), where it is
233
Table 3
Conceptual design of a PSA-styrene-AP process with complete clean-up during
every cycle
Design Input
Design Output
Adsorption isotherm p a r a m e t e r s
b (kPa 1)
416.62
qs (mol/kg)
4.0498
ARE (%)
11.28
(Zc (-)
86.4
PL (kPa)
1.17
Vcv (-)
43.2
Bed information
pu (kg/m a)
517.97
Bed dimensions
db (m) (specified)
Lb (m)
1000.0
101.3
298.15
7cM (-)
0.06
0.128
Feed conditions
yf (ppm)
PH (kPa)
Tf (K)
Model constraints
yfmax (ppm)
> 0.043
3430.2
Process conditions
Vf (SLPM)
1000.0
7 M (-)
0.5
tf (s)
600.0

BCF (-)
0.6
advantageous to separate and recover the lighter vapor (typically a solvent or

reaction medium like methylene chloride) from the heavier vapor (typically a
monomer like acrylic acid) for recycle, resale, etc. In many cases, streams of this
nature are still being vented to the atmosphere, or condensed as a binary mixture
and then discarded as a waste [52]. Another example is the methylethylketone
(MEK)-toluene system (common in the textiles industry), which is being removed
from air using very large steam regenerated activated carbon beds [53]. But these
systems necessarily generate a secondary waste stream consisting of the organiccontaminated condensate from such processes. Moreover, because the MEK and
toluene are recovered as an organic liquid mixture, they cannot be recycled and
are discarded as a waste [53]. With the development of these binary PSA-SVR
processes, secondary waste streams can be avoided and the potential for recycle
of at least one of the solvents becomes feasible.
In the context of a two-component mixture, the goal is to separate the two
impurities into two enriched products. One of the products is enriched in the
lighter component, and the other in the heavier component, with both products
234
being comprised mostly of inert carrier. As proposed recently by Pigorini and
LeVan [40] and extended by Subramanian and Ritter [42], the PSA cycle is
operated as a typical bulk gas separation process, producing one of the products
during the feed step as a mixture of the lighter impurity and inert carrier gas,
and the other product during the purge step as a mixture of all three components,
but relatively enriched in the heavier impurity. In this case, the purge step
duration is terminated just when the lighter component is purged out of the bed.
They [40,42] both used equilibrium theory to analyze this situation. The resulting
analytic expressions are employed here to carry out the second kind of process
design, where the column dimensions are determined based on a chosen set of
operating conditions.
In this design, the two beds undergoing feed and purge are coupled, and the
feed and purge step durations are equal. Moreover, the formulation assumes a
pure inert carrier gas purge throughout the purge step. But, this is true only for a
determinable fraction of the purge (feed) step duration, after which the lighter
impurity contaminates the effluent of the bed undergoing feed. So, an actual PSA
separation process of the type being designed necessarily requires an
intermediate vessel to store the pure inert carrier gas effluent for use as purge
throughout the purge (feed) step duration.
The analysis of the wave phenomena is done in the context of fully convex
mixed Langmuir isotherms (see Eq. 5), or equivalently by the constant separation
factor isotherm, which is given by
Cl
ql =
Zl
+ (1- R1)o~. + (RI/R2X1- R2)o~
(29)
for component 1 and similarly for component 2 with the subscripts interchanged.
The separation factor, R/, given by Eq. 7, has been invoked in reaching Eq. 29
from the basic mixed Langmuir isotherm model. The inputs to the design are the
feed and isotherm parameters, or the so called triad, {R1,R2,~}, where G is
defined as
(30)
t c 1,f )t q~,f )
o is the solid phase
ci, f is the concentration of component i in the feed, and qi,f
concentration that exists in equilibrium with the feed concentration,
ci, f
corresponding to a pure-component feed. Note that R1 < ~IR2 ensures that

component 1 is always the stronger adsorbing component. 7v is obtained from
235
v
. a2(bl -ao)
Y=ao(2albl-aobl-a2)
(31)
where ao, bo, al and bl are the Rieman invariants [42] that are directly related to
the feed conditions and the adsorption isotherm parameters through the constant
separation factors; they are obtained from Eqs. 32, 33, 36 and 37, respectively.
a~
n - 1 - 2h +2hR 1 + ~ 1
2R2 -~IR2 - 2hR1 +2hR 2 +fiR 2 ~ 1
(32)
rl-1 - 2h + 2hR 1 - ~ 1
2 - 2hR 1 + 2 h R 12-qR 2 ~ 1
(33)
b o=
q 2 R 2 -qR
where
NI=(1 +2n +rl 2 -4nR2 -4nR1 +4nRIR2)
h=q
1 R1
(34)
(35)
and
al=
1
vlR2
(36)
bl=R1
(37)
For a given Vf, the feed step (and purge step) duration of the process is obtained
from
qRiR2boao ( 2 a l b l - a 2 -aobl )
-of=
(b 1 _ao)
(38)
in which the dimensionless feed step duration is defined as

vftf
~f =
(ql'f ]L b
(39)
236
or
0ftf
(40)
xf =(ql,f~c~,f/
Furthermore, fixing the fraction, f, of the pure inert carrier molar flux emanating
from the column undergoing feed, that must be diverted as purge into the other
coupled column undergoing purge, determines the pressure ratio of the process. If
f is the fraction chosen for the process, then a is given by
cz=
al b~
-a~
ao(albl + bobl - a l b o -aobl)f
(41)
which ensures that the molar amount of pure inert carrier gas is the correct
amount required to force periodicity of the characteristic conditions.
The recovery of the lighter component is defined as the fraction of moles of
the lighter component fed into the process that is recovered as light product in
the feed step; it is given by
- a l X a 1 - ao)~blqR 2 -1)
~L=(2(~~al- bla o - a2 ~boqR2 - 1)
(42)
The enrichment of the lighter component in the light product is defined as the
ratio of its mole fraction (or dimensionless concentration) in the product (at the
rolled-up level) to that in the feed. This enrichment is expressed as
(43)
EL'II= bl~boqR2
The recovery of the heavier component during the purge step, ~H is always 100%,
since in this case the heavier component concentration wave is just contained
inside the bed at the end of the feed step. The enrichment of the heavier impurity
in the purge effluent relative to its mole fraction in the feed is expressed as
EH = ( b l - a ~ l a 2 b
(al - ao)(2
l - (Rl(ao
- Ri)(1
q + al))(1
R
- R1)2- boR1)
aoal (al bl + bo bl - albo -ao bl)f
(44)
The enrichment of the lighter impurity in the purge effluent relative to its mole
fraction in the feed is expressed as
237
(bl_aolao2bo (al-ao)(2-~lR2(ao+al))(botlR2-1)
1~_(~22_~1)(1_R2
)
EL'IV=
aoal (al bl + bo bl - albo -ao bl )f
(45)
Note that the frozen solid phase assumption restricts the applicable pressure
ratio to
1
o~<.(yI + Y2 )
(46)
This also restricts f in Eq. 41 to

f>
al bo(bl -ao )/Yl + Y2,)

ao(albl+ bob1 - albo - a o b l )
(47)
The specific characteristics of this binary SVR process results in the heavier
component concentration wave front just reaching the light product end of the
bed at the end of the adsorption step, and all of the lighter component just being
purged from the feed end of the bed at the end of the purge step. Therefore, the
bed is saturated with feed at the end of the adsorption step and only the heavier
component (with the inert carrier gas) is left in the bed at the end of the purge
step. The heavier component gas phase concentration profile at the end of the
purge step is represented by a constant concentration spanning from the feed end
of the bed to a determinable position, zp, beyond which a heavier component
expansive simple wave profile exists. The constant heavier component
concentration, C*l,const, is determined by
,
klk + 1 - h + ~(k + 1 - h ) 2 + 4 h 1
Cl,const =
k+l+h+x/(k+i
h) 2 + 4 h
(48)
where h is given by Eq. 35, 1"1is given by Eq. 30, and

k = R1 - qR2
1-R 1
(49)
The simple wave starts from zp, or in dimensionless form, ~p, and is determined
by the following relation:
al
% = 1- bo
(50)
238
where the dimensionless bed length, ~, is defined as
=
Z
-
(5~)
Lb
and a l and b0 are given by Eqs. 36 and 33, respectively. Within the simple wave
region, the heavier component concentration varies from Cl,const to zero, and the
relationship between these concentrations and their axial position is given by
= 1 - alb~
-RlCl -Rlk)2
k2
(52)
Therefore, the simple wave profile is readily plotted using Eq. 52 in terms of the
heavy component concentrations between Cl,const and zero.
The conceptual design of the binary PSA-SVR process is somewhat different
from those discussed in previous sections because of the nature of the specific
case considered, i.e., the purge step terminates just when all of the lighter
component is purged out of the bed. In this case, if f is chosen, the process
performance and a are uniquely determined based solely on the feed conditions
(PH, yf,I and Tf) and the Langmuir isotherm parameters of the two solvent
vapors. However, the selection of f must satisfy Eq. 47, and the calculated (z must
satisfy Eq. 46.
To start the design, the triad {R1, R2, q} is calculated corresponding to the
known feed conditions (yf, i, PH and TO and the adsorption isotherm of each
component using Eqs. 7 and 30 with ci,f calculated from the ideal gas law and the
corresponding q~ calculated from the pure-component Langmuir isotherm
model. Then Eqs. 32 to 37 are used to calculate ao, bo, al and bl. The process
performance is then determined using Eq. 42 for 9{L, Eq. 43 for EL, II, Eq. 44 for EH
and Eq. 45 for EL,~ for a selected f. Note that 9{H is always equal to 100% in this
case. The required ~v is calculated from Eq. 31 and a is calculated from Eq. 41. If
tc is specified, Of (0p) is calculated from Eq. 40 using the value of xf obtained from
Eq. 38; or conversely, the corresponding tc is calculated using Eq. 40 if Of (0p) is
specified. Of (0p) is then used to determine Lb or db from Eq. 3 if one of them is
known; or to determine Vf from Eq. 3 for the specified bed dimensions.
The binary n-heptane-(1)-n-butane (2)-BAX activated carbon system is selected
to illustrate the conceptual process design of a PSA-SVR separation process. The
adsorption isotherm data and Langmuir correlations for these systems at 298.2 K
are displayed in Fig. 7, and the isotherm parameters and AREs are given in
Table 4. The Langmuir representation of this n-butane-n-heptane - BAX system
corresponds to R1 = 0.071, R2 = 0.352 and ~ = 5.413. Remember that the purge
step of this process has a duration which just corresponds to complete removal of
the lighter impurity (butane in this case). The equilibrium model limits a < 8.33
and f _> 0.346; so, an f = 0.5 is chosen. In this example, U, a and bed dimensions,
239
Table 4
Conceptual design of a PSA-n-heptane-n-butane solvent vapor separation process
from inert carrier gas with n-butane separated from n-heptane
Design Input
Design Output
Adsorption isotherm p a r a m e t e r s
n-heptane (1):
b (kPa ol)
5.37
qs (mol/kg)
4.9235
ARE (%)
6.176
n-butane (2):
b (kPa -1)
0.1514
qs (mol/kg)
6.5194
ARE (%)
14.62
a (-)
5.76
PL (kPa)
21.1
7v (-)
1.906
Bed information
pb (kg/m a)
480.0
Feed conditions
yf,1
yf,2
PH (kPa)
Tf (K)
0.02
0.10
121.56
298.15
Process conditions
Vf (SLPM)
tf (s)
f (-)
4000.0
720.0
0.5
Bed dimensions
Lb (m) (specified)
db (m)
1.5
0.548
Process performance
EL, II (-)
~i)~L (-)
EL, IV (-)
EH (-)
Of (m3/kg/s)
1.184
0.40
1.812
3.022
3.565 10 .4
Model constraints
f (-)
a (-)
_>0.346
_<8.33
as well as the process performance are sought for the given feed conditions
(PH = 121.56 kPa, y f , 1 - 0 . 0 2 , y f , 2 - 0.1 and Tf = 298.2 K), a specified Vf = 4000
SLPM, and tc = 1440 s (or tf = 720 s). All of these conditions are listed in Table 4,
along with the design outputs.
For the complete removal of the lighter impurity (butane vapor) during the
purge step, 7v = 1.906 and a = 5.76 are needed. This pressure ratio is within the
range given by the model limitation ((z _< 8.33) and corresponds to a moderate
PL = 21.1 kPa. A light product stream consisting of 11.84% n-butane in nitrogen
(EL, II = 1.184) and a heavy product stream consisting of 6.044% n-heptane
(EH = 3.022) and 18.12% n-butane (EL, rV = 1.812) in nitrogen are produced with
the corresponding recovery of the n-butane of 40.0% during the adsorption step.
Note that the recovery of n-heptane is 100% in this process. For the specified to, a
Of = 3.565 .4 m3/kg s (at actual feed conditions) is obtained, which is used to
determine the bed dimensions. With Lb specified at 1.5 m, the required db is
0.548 m.
240
7.0
6.0
n-heptane data
n-butane data
model correlations
A
5.0
--~
4.0
E
cr
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
!
0
|
0
P (kPa)
Figure 7. Equilibrium adsorption isotherms of n-heptane and n-butane vapors on BAX

activated carbon at 298.2 K: experimental data and Langmuir model correlations.
1.5
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
C1 ,C 2
1.0
0.10
..
i i I xl
0.00
0.5
t~ r
I',,. OO O~ C~
~o~o~o
od6dd~
c1
"
-
0.0
I,
0.0 0.1
I,
I,
0.2 0.3
I,
I,
a,
0.4 0.5 0.6
i,
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
z/t
Figure 8. Periodic gas phase concentration profiles for the n-butane and n-heptane-BAX
system at the end of the adsorption (solid lines) and purge (dash) steps; note that c2" - 0
everywhere inside the column at the end of the purge step.
241
The periodic gas phase concentration profiles at the end of the adsorption and
purge steps are plotted in Fig. 8. At the end of the purge step, a constant
n-heptane concentration of Cl,const - 0.306 exists in the column from ~ = 0 to
- 0.813, i.e. a p l a t e a u region exists in the column. The simple wave starts at
- 0.813 and it reaches zero at ~ - 0.993 The almost negligible region from
- 0.993 to ~ = 1.0 is free of adsorbate and only consists of inert carrier gas. The
insert in Fig. 8 shows this adsorbate-free region very clearly.
~P
~p
4.
SUMMARY
Simple analytic expressions derived from equilibrium theory are introduced for
three evolving e n v i r o n m e n t a l PSA processes: single component solvent vapor
recovery from inert carrier gas; single component air purification with complete
clean-up during every cycle, and binary solvent vapor recovery from an inert
carrier gas, where the lighter vapor is s e p a r a t e d from the heavier vapor. These
expressions can be readily used for process heuristics, feasibility, design and
development, as well as performance and understanding. Conceptual process
designs are carried out for all three cases to illustrate the use of these simple
expressions. It is anticipated t h a t because of their simplicity and ease of use, the
theoretical developments and case studies presented here will be useful to both
the novice and the expert for rapidly carrying out p r e l i m i n a r y studies of new PSA
processes with e n v i r o n m e n t a l applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the US National
Science Foundation u n d e r G r a n t CTS-9410630, and from the Westvaco
Charleston Research Center.
NOMENCLATURE
Ab
a
ao
al
b
bo
bl
ci
c*i
ci,f
bed cross sectional area, m 2

negative R i e m a n n i n v a r i a n t
negative R i e m a n n i n v a r i a n t corresponding to the feed state
negative R i e m a n n i n v a r i a n t corresponding to the pure inert carrier state
positive R i e m a n n i n v a r i a n t , or isotherm p a r a m e t e r , k P a -1
positive R i e m a n n i n v a r i a n t corresponding to the feed state
positive R i e m a n n i n v a r i a n t corresponding to the pure inert carrier state
fluid phase concentration of component i , mol/m 3
dimensionless fluid phase concentration
concentration of component i in the feed, mol/m ~
242
db
EL,II
EL.IV
EH
f
k
L
Lb
N
N1
PH
PL
qs
qi
q*i
q~
qexp,i
qcal,i
R
Ri
Tf
9~
t
tc
tf
Vf
Vf
yi
yf, i
z
Za
bed diameter, m
enrichment of the lighter impurity in the feed effluent
enrichment of the lighter impurity in the purge effluent
enrichment of the heavier impurity in the purge effluent
fraction of the pure inert carrier gas light product used as purge
intermediate parameter
penetration of the square profile in the very first feed step, m
bed length, m
number of experimental data
intermediate parameter
feed pressure, kPa
purge pressure, kPa
adsorption isotherm parameters, mol/kg
adsorbed phase concentration of component i, mol/kg
dimensionless adsorbed phase concentration
adsorbed phase concentration in equilibrium with pure component i at
ci,f, mol/kg
experimental adsorbed phase concentration of component i, mol/kg
calculated adsorbed phase concentration of component i, mol/kg
isotherm separation factor
constant separation factor for compone~:t i
feed temperature, K
solvent vapor recovery
time, s
cycle time, s
feed step time, s
superficial feed velocity, m/min
feed volumetric flow rate, m3/s
gas phase mole fraction of component i
gas phase feed mole fraction of component i
axial coordinate, m
bed length covered by the concentration shock at periodic state, m
Greek letters
o~
(~0
P
7v
~/M
Ph
T
T
pressure ratio
negative invariant
positive invariant
volumetric purge-to-feed ratio
molar purge-to-feed ratio
bulk density of the packing, kg/m 3
dimensionless time
dimensionless purge step duration
243
G
Op
Of
dimensionless axial coordinate, z/L

dimensionless periodic state bed penetration
dimensionless axial coordinate, z/Lb
dimensionless ratio
process throughput, m3/kg s
adsorption step throughput, m3/kg s
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245
M o l e c u l a r m o d e l l i n g of a d s o r p t i o n a n d d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s e s i n z e o l i t e s
i n r e l e v a n c e to e n v i r o n m e n t p r o t e c t i o n
R. Vetrivel a, R.C. Deka a, S.B. Waghmode a, S. Sivasanker a, K. Mizukami b,
H. Takaba b, M. Kubo b and A. Miyamoto b
aCatalysis Division, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune - 411 008, India
bDepartment of Materials Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering,
Tohoku University, Sendai 980-77, J a p a n
Unlike several other practical heterogeneous catalysts, zeolites are highly

crystalline and well characterized materials. The surfaces amenable for the
approach of molecules, the catalytic active sites for adsorption and the space
available for their reaction are well-defined. The above facts have led to the
development of zeolites as the breeding ground for molecular modelling methods.
In turn, the molecular modelling methods have played a crucial role in improving
our understanding of several facets of zeolite catalysis, thus establishing a
symbiotic relation. In this work, we bring out the application of molecular
modelling methods to understand, interpret and to some extent predict the
properties of zeolite based environment-friendly catalysts. The studies applied
to design zeolite catalysts which are prospective candidates to replace
environmentally hostile catalyst materials such as mineral acids, chlorides of
aluminum, zirconium, iron etc. are presented.
Two typical cases, where
modelling has been carried out on zeolite catalysts in order to understand the
mechanism of complex organic transformations, are described. In case I, the
yields in the conversion of several spirolactones to enones were rationalized and
the role of shape-selectivity in controlling the yield are brought out. In case II,
the distribution of Na and RE in zeolite-Y and their consequence on the yield of
S-N acetals are understood. Further, the adsorption and diffusion characteristics
of alkylaromatics in various zeolites are studied by force-field based energy
minimization calculations.
These studies have brought out the power of
molecular modelling methods for i) the initial screening of zeolite catalysts in
shape selective reactions, ii) to identify the energetically favorable and
unfavorable locations for the molecules insides the pores of zeolites and iii) to
deduce the energy barriers for the diffusion of the molecules. The energetically
favorable locations of 1,2-dichlorobenzene, its electronic interaction with C12 and
promoter inside zeolite K-L are studied. The results are useful to understand the
mechanism of selective formation of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene. Additionally, the
246
attempts based on molecular modelling studies towards the design of zeolite
catalysts for pollution control such as deNOx
and removal of
chloroflurohydrocarbons by adsorption over zeolites are described. The mode of
activation of c g 4 and H20 over Ga-ZSM-5 are brought out. The influence of the
extra framework cations on the adsorption of CF2C12 on CsNaY is revealed.
Overall molecular modelling studies throw light on the underlying chemical
forces - their nature and magnitude, which control the behavior of the reacting
molecules inside the zeolite pores.
Molecular modelling methods basically comprise of i) molecular graphics and
molecular fitting techniques, ii) force-field based calculations and iii) q u a n t u m
chemical calculations.
The force-field based calculations include energy
minimization, Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics calculations. We have used
all the above methods at appropriate places to study zeolite catalyzed reactions.
In the following sections, we describe the application of molecular modelling
methods to understand the adsorption and diffusion of molecules inside zeolites.
These processes are particularly relevant to the protection of the environment,
because either these molecules are conventionally synthesized using
environmentally hostile catalysts or these molecules themselves are
environmentally hostile. We describe typical case studies where complex steps of
an organic transformation occurs in a single step over zeolite catalysts (sections 2
and 3), production of the required isomer of alkylaromatics (section 4) and
chloroaromatics (section 5) occurs with high selectivity, selective catalytic
reduction of NO (section 6) and the adsorption of chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)
inside zeolites (section 7).
THE ROLE OF S O L I D ACID CATALYSTS IN THE S Y N T H E S I S OF

ACYCLIC E N O N E S
2.1. B a c k g r o u n d a n d m e t h o d of a p p r o a c h
Acyclic enones are important intermediates in the total synthesis of natural
products and complex organic molecules [1-3]. The acid catalyzed intramolecular
transformation of spirolactones over methanesulphonic acid - P205 mixture is the
conventional procedure used in the synthesis of these enones[4,5].
The
difficulties in working up and the requirement of a large excess of the acid
reagent are the drawbacks of this procedure. Recently, there has been several
reports wherein hazardous catalysts were replaced by environment-friendly
zeolite catalysts for organic reactions [6-8]. Pillai
and
coworkers
have
demonstrated the successful use of zeolite catalysts for the synthesis of acyclic
enones [9,10] and in the present study, we apply molecular modelling methods to
247
model the spirolactone to enone conversion. The structural relations between the
spirolactone and the zeolite voids have been analyzed by molecular graphics and
fitting techniques, which otherwise need to be determined by tedious
experimental studies. The success of conversion of specific spirolactones (1-5)
shown in Figure 1 over zeolites with different pore architecture is analyzed. The
reasons for the r e q u i r e m e n t of 'stoichiometric' quantity, r a t h e r t h a n 'catalytic'
quantity of zeolites are probed. The electronic interactions between the organic
molecules [spirolactones (1-5) and enones (6-10)] shown in Figure 1 and the
zeolite H-Y host lattice are studied to u n d e r s t a n d the mechanism of this
conversion reaction.
g
4
tO
Figure 1. The 3-D structural view of reactant spirolactones and the product enone molecules.
Their actual dimensions are given in Table 1. The conversions shown above were carried out
over various zeolites and the yields obtained [9] are given in Table 2. The terminal hydrogen
atoms are not labeled.
248
2.2. D i m e n s i o n o f t h e r e a c t a n t a n d p r o d u c t m o l e c u l e s
The size and shape of the molecules are crucial p a r a m e t e r s t h a t decide their
diffusivities inside the constrained space of zeolite voids. The molecular size of a
guest molecule is usually characterized by a critical diameter, de [11], a LennardJones length constant, Sm [12], or a m i n i m u m kinetic diameter of molecule, dm
[13]. The molecular sizes defined by above methods pose problems such as, either
they are too difficult to estimate or the estimated values are not reliable. We use
more realistic values to describe the size and shape of the molecules. For the
energetically favorable conformation of the molecules, the largest dimensions (a x
b x c) in m u t u a l l y perpendicular directions of the molecules are measured.
Assuming t h a t the molecules are exactly fitting inside the smallest possible
rectangular box as shown in Figure 2, the dimensions of the molecules are the
dimensions of the box. The dimensions of the various reactants and product
molecules are given in Table 1.
Figure 2. The molecule is fitted inside the smallest possible rectangular box and the
dimensions of the box (a x b x c) are the dimensions of the molecule. The fitting of
spirolactone (1) inside a rectangular box is shown as a typical case.
The product enone molecules (6-10) are of similar or smaller dimension t h a n

the r e a c t a n t spirolactone molecules (1-5). It is convention to neglect the largest
dimension (a) of the molecule [14], since the molecules diffuse into the cb-annels
and cages with their largest dimension lying parallel to the channel axis. In
general, the product molecules have small dimensions with larger strain energy.
In Table 1, we report the strain energy due to bonded and non-bonded
interactions. The analysis of the individual contributions of various bonded and
non-bonded terms to the strain energy of these molecules are discussed elsewhere
[15]. We note t h a t the bonded energy terms are unfavorable, while the nonbonded terms are favorable as indicated by almost zero or negative values.
249
Compared to the reactants, products have
unfavorable
strain energy,
particularly non-bonded energy. These results indicate t h a t the products may
be more polar, which could lead to their stronger adsorption inside the zeolite
void volumes. This is in correspondence with the experimental findings [9,10]
t h a t the final product h a d to be solvent extracted after the reaction. A probable
mechanism and the characteristics of the intermediates are reported elsewhere
[16].
Table 1
The dimensions of various molecules at their m i n i m u m energy configuration.
The geometry of the molecule is optimized to obtain m i n i m u m strain energy
using the force field calculations described in CHARMM software package
distributed by Molecular Simulations Inc., USA. The n u m b e r s of the molecules
are as assigned in Figure 1
Molecule
No. of
Dimension (A)
Strain energy (kcal/mol)
atoms
Total
Bonded
Nonbonded
1
22
7.00 x 4.25 x 4.00
15.7889
21.5913
-5.8035
2
25
7.00 x 4.25 x 4.25
6.4875
10.2886
-3.8035
3
29
7.50 x 5.50 x 5.50
20.8836
21.8529
-0.9693
4
32
7.50 6.00 6.00
19.8921
24.8102
-4.9182
5
35
7.75 x 5.65 x 5.65
8.5793
12.3631
-3.7837
6
7
8
9
10
19
22
26
29
32
6.50
6.00
6.75
7.10
8.00
4.50
4.65
5.10
5.50
5.25
4.50
4.65
5.10
5.50
5.25
17.8080
15.6723
27.7583
21.7622
18.5582
19.9514
15.6289
30.1872
24.8070
17.8135
-2.1435
0.0434
-2.4270
-3.0447
0.7447
2.3. I m p o r t a n c e o f p o r e d i m e n s i o n s a n d p o r e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f z e o l i t e s
The pore diameters of various zeolites are known from reported crystal
structures [17]. It is possible to study the fitting of these molecules in several
zeolites. The product yields of enones over different zeolites obtained in the
experimental study by Pillai and coworkers [9,10] are given in Table 2. The
yields of the enones (6-10) over various zeolites listed in Table 2 could be
rationalized from the .pore diameters of the zeolites. H-ZSM-5 has 2-d channels
with diameters of 5.1A and 5.4A, while H-ZSM-12 has l-d elliptical channel of
diameters 5.7A and 5.9A. H-Beta has 2-d channels with diameters of 6.5A and
7.5A. H-EMT and H-Y have larger supercages with elliptical (7.1A 7.4.&) and
circular (7.4A) openings, respectively, into the supercage. The bicyclic lactones
(6 and 7) are small enough to enter the medium (with 10-m rings) pores of
250
H-ZSM-5 as well as the large (with 12-m rings) pores of H-ZSM-12, H-Beta,
H-EMT and
H-Y. However, the tricyclic lactones are having an a n g u l a r
conformation.
They can not diffuse into the channels of
H-ZSM-5 and
H-ZSM-12. Thus the product yields of various enones obtained over different
zeolite catalysts are in correspondence with their structural fitting. It can be
generalized t h a t large pore zeolites with structures are efficient catalysts for the
conversion. The range of dimensions of organic molecules are just in between
t h a t of 'medium' (H-ZSM-5) and 'large' (H-ZSM-12, H-Beta, H-EMT and H-Y)
pore zeolites. The roles of shape selectivity in controlling the product yield are
clearly brought out from these results.
Table 2
The yield of various enones over different zeolites (Temperature = 150~
Time = 6 h, Amount of catalyst = 5.0 g., Amount of substance = 0.5 g.,
Solvent = Hexane) [9]
Catalyst
Yield of enones (mol. %)
H-ZSM-5
H-ZSM-12
H-Beta
H-EMT
H-Y
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(I0)
69
79
77
84
92
61
68
70
78
95
0
0
52
64
90
0
0
58
66
89
0
0
56
68
86
2.4. I m p o r t a n c e o f e l e c t r o n i c i n t e r a c t i o n s
Although the fitting of the molecules inside the voids of the zeolite catalysts is
a necessary condition, the electronic interactions are also expected to play a vital
role in controlling the yield of the reaction. Typical results of experimental
findings by Pillai and coworkers [9,10] for the formation of enone (8) from
spirolactone (3) at 150oc for 6 h, over H-Y are given in Table 3. The results
indicated t h a t the yield obtained is dependent on the solvent media as well as on
the a m o u n t of catalyst used. When the a m o u n t of catalyst is reduced, the n u m b e r
of supercages as well as the catalyst surface available for the r e a c t a n t s decrease.
This leads to a drastic decrease in the product yield (please compare the
experiments 1 and 5 in Table 3) for a given reaction. In experiment 5, the
catalyst a m o u n t is reduced to 1/100th of the amount in experiment 1, while
keeping all the experimental conditions same. The product yield decreased from
90% to less t h a n 1%. If the reactions are occurring on the external surface, such
a drastic decrease in product yield is not expected. The adsorption of molecules
on external surface is expected to be weak compared to t h a t inside the cage.
Hence, the active sites on the surface will be easily replenished, compared to
those sites inside the cages. Thus the results in Table 3 indicate t h a t the
reactions m a y be occurring only inside the cage and not on the externa! surfaces.
251
Table 3
Comparison of the yield of enone (8) over zeolite H-Y at various reactant/catalyst
weight ratios. The effect of different solvents on the final product yield is also
shown (Temperature - 150oc, T i m e - 6 h)
Reactant/
Weight of
No. of
Weight of
No. of
No.
Catalyst
Super
reactant
Reactant
Catalyst
Solvent*
Yield
(g)
cages
(g)
molecules
Weight
(%)
ratios
1
10.0
1.0xl021
1.0
3.6x1021
0.10
H
90
2
10.0
1.0xl021
1.0
3.6x1021
0.10
M
19
3
5.0
5.0x102~
0.5
1.8x1021
0.10
M: H (1:4)
58
4
0.2
2.0x1019
1.0
3.6x1021
5.00
M: H (1:4)
8
5
0.1
1.0x1019
1.0
3.6x1021
10.00
H
<1
* H" Hexane; M: Methanol.
We studied the electronic properties of the molecules as well as the

mechanism of electron transfer between organic molecules and the framework of
zeolite H-Y by the semi-empirical q u a n t u m chemical calculations. The
calculations were carried out using the s t a n d a r d MOPAC code [18] using the
AM1 Hamiltonian [19]. The total energy of the reactant, and the product
molecules are given in Table 4. The total energy values of P r o d u c t + Water are
grater t h a n t h a t of reactant. These results are in correlation with the strain
energy obtained from force field calculations (Table 1).
The net charges on
various atoms calculated from Mulliken population analyses are also given in
Table 4 and they indicate t h a t the ketonic oxygens are more negative t h a n the
Table 4
Electronic properties of reactants and products
Total
Molecule
Change on oxygens
energy (eV)
Ring
Ketonic
1
-1829.25
-0.28
-0.32
2
-1986.88
-0.24
-0.30
3
-2270.42
-0.23
-0.30
4
-2426.12
-0.23
-0.30
5
-2582.01
-0.24
-0.30
6
7
8
9
10
-1481.28
-1637.71
-1920.73
-2076.03
-2232.75
-0.28
-0.29
-0.28
-0.28
-0.29
Bond order between C and O

Ring
0.934
0.923
0.924
0.923
0.923
Ketonic
1.857
1.831
1.825
1.826
1.832
1.868
1.883
1.866
1.866
1.884
252
ring oxygens. Hence the ketonic oxygen atoms are expected to have interaction
with the Bronsted acid site of zeolite. The orders of the ~
bond in the ring as
well as the ketonic bond are also given in Table 4. Since H-Y was found to give
the best yield (Table 2) among all the zeolites used, we studied in detail the
interaction of molecules with the H-Y framework. The 12-member pore opening
in zeolite H-Y has C6v s y m m e t r y along the 'b' axis, as shown in Figure 3 The
symmetric molecules such as benzene [20] and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene [21] are
known to take symmetric locations at the center of this pore opening. Hence,
t e t r a m e r i c cluster models centered at 01 and 04 are considered to r e p r e s e n t the
active site.
Figure 3. The molecular graphics view of the 12-member pore opening into supercage of
zeolite H-Y as viewed along the b-axis. O1 and 04 oxygens are alternatively repeating. Thus
there is C6v symmetry along b-axis.
The adsorption complex formed between the molecule and the zeolite is
simulated by a cluster model containing a t e t r a m e r of zeolite and the organic
molecule.
The cluster model is derived by fitting the molecule inside the
supercage of H-Y. The two criteria considered in creating the cluster models
were t h a t there should be interaction between the Bronsted acid site and ketonic
oxygen, as well as the created orientation should not lead to any bad contacts
between the van der Waals radii of atoms in the molecule and zeolite framework.
253
The organic molecules are found to have multi-site interaction with the
framework [16]. In the 'zeolite cluster:organic molecule' complex, it was found
that the major interaction was between the methylene hydrogens of the organic
molecule and the oxygens of the framework, which support the mechanism
proposed by Pillai and coworkers [9,10].
2.5. S a l i e n t o u t c o m e
The yield obtained in the conversion of several spirolactones to enones are in
correspondence with the structural fitting of these molecules inside zeolite
channels or cages. Thus the shape selective catalytic behavior of various zeolites
has been rationalized and some generalizations on the mechanistic aspects have
been derived from the molecular fitting and quantum chemical calculations. The
interaction energy of the products with the framework are more favorable than
the interaction energy of reactants with the framework. Thus the final products
formed have to be solvent extracted and the cages are not available for other
reactants. The specific orientations and interactions of the organic molecules at
their minimum energy conformations are useful to understand the mechanism of
conversion.
3. S-N A C E T A L S F O R M A T I O N BY C-S BOND CLEAVAGE

Rajappa and coworkers [22,23] proposed a novel route for the synthesis of
functionalised ketene S,N-acetals. 1-Methylamino-l-methylthio-2-nitroethylene
is an important inter-mediate in the synthesis of a popular ulcer drug ranitidine
[24]. Ranitidine, a H2-receptor antagonist, is a powerful inhibitor of gastric acid
secretion and is extensively used in peptic ulcer therapy [25]. In general,
nitroketene S,N-acetals have been shown to be useful intermediates for several
nitroheterocycles by Rajappa and coworkers [26,27]. Due to the disadvantages in
the conventional routes, a novel route shown in Figure 4 was reported [22,23] for
the first time using rare earth exchanged NaY zeolite catalysts. Here, we report
the results of force field calculations adopted for the molecules involved to
understand their geometry and conformational flexibility. The visualization and
the calculations of energy were performed using QUANTA/CHARMM software
packages distributed by Molecular Simulations Inc. The force field equations are
as described by Gelin and Karplus [28] and the parameters are listed elsewhere
[29]. The zeolite-Y lattice was modeled from the crystal structure reported from
X-ray crystallographic studies [30].
3.2. M o d e l o f c a g e s a n d w i n d o w s in zeolite-Y
There are many distinct types of cationic sites, three of which are significant
for cation occupancy in faujasite-type zeolites described as I, II and III (Figure 5)
[31]. The electrostatic field strength felt by the cations in each type of extra
framework site is different and hence the catalytic activity induced by them will
254
/SMe
R--N---C\sMe + CH3NO2
/SMe
R--NH--C--SMe
\CH2NO2
la-i
MeS\
y
-MESH
2a-i
R
3a-i
a= ~ ~ ' , ~
OMe
b= ~ ~ ' - , ~
d= @
/C---CHNO 2
RHN
OMe
g= ~
Z,~ ~
O
OMe
e= ~ ~ ' , , , ~
U= ~ " ~ p h
O
Ph
O
Figure 4. Condensation of nitromethane with the carbonimido dithoates (la-i) leading to
variable yields of nitro ketene S, N-acetals (3a-i) with the elimination of methane thiol. The
possible intermediates (2a-i), which on cleavage of C--S bond leads to the product are also
shown. The efficient use of zeolite-Y for these novel condensation reactions are reported by
Rajappa & coworkers [22,23].
t
Figure 5. The schematic representation of the supercage in zeolite-Y framework. T atoms
(where T=Si or AI) are at the vertices of the lines. The oxygen atoms are approximately midway between the T atoms and they are not shown in the Figure for clarity. The different
possible extra framework cationic sites are shown.
255
also be different. F u r t h e r , the presence of cations in different types of sites will
alter the d i m e n s i o n of windows opening to the cages. Therefore, s h a p e selectivity
can be visualized as a function of the n a t u r e a n d location of cations.
T h e r e are 16 type I, 32 type II a n d 48 type III cationic positions in the
faujasitic s t r u c t u r e . For N a Y with an Si/A1 ratio of 4.2, all type I sites a n d n e a r l y
two t h i r d s of type II sites will be occupied by Na. It is k n o w n t h a t Na in type I
sites is very stable a n d it is difficult to pull it out from the small cage. Hence in
RE (70%) NaY, the large tripositive l a n t h a n i d e ions will occupy type II sites [32].
It should be noted t h a t a m o n g the 32 type II sites available in the unit cell,
only one fifth will be occupied by r a r e e a r t h cations. However, it is possible t h a t
the l a n t h a n i d e s m a y also occasionally e n t e r the sodalite cage a n d hence m a y not
have any influence on the shape selectivity.
As shown in Figure 5, each
supercage h a s four 12-T ring windows. A m o n g these four windows, one or none
of t h e m m a y be blocked by r a r e e a r t h cations. However, the other 12-T windows
are fully open for molecular traffic. The dimensions of the 12-T window and the
supercages with different cationic contents are given in Table 5.
Table 5
Reduction in d i m e n s i o n s of the 12-m window a n d the supercage in zeolite-Y due
to different cation occupancy
Case
P r e s e n c e of e x t r a f r a m e w o r k
cationsa
1
2
3
4
None
16 cations/u.c, in type I site
8 cations/u.c, in type II site
32 cations/u.c, in type III site
Dimensions of
12-m window (/k)
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
x
x
x
x
7.4
7.4
6.4
5.4
Dimensions of
supercage (/k)
12.4
12.4
12.4
10.4
x
x
x
x
12.4
12.4
12.4
10.4
x
x
x
x
12.4
12.4
10.4
10.4
a Cation radii are assumed to be 1.ON; u.c. = unit cell.
3.3. M o d e l of r e a c t a n t a n d p r o d u c t m o l e c u l e s
The force-field e n e r g y m i n i m i z a t i o n calculations were p e r f o r m e d for all the
r e a c t a n t s (la-i) a n d products (3a-i) shown in Figure 4. The total energy values
for the molecules in t h e i r favorable conformations are given in Table 6. From
Figure 4, it can be seen t h a t in the r e a c t a n t molecules, the s u b s t i t u e n t 'R' is far
from the other a t o m s a n d the conformation of the molecule is not d e p e n d e n t on
'R'. In contrast, the s u b s t i t u e n t 'R' is closer to -nitro a n d -SMe groups in the
product molecules, respectively, a n d hence the conformation is found to depend
on the n a t u r e of 'R'.
256
Table 6
Total s t r a i n e n e r g y a n d the d i m e n s i o n s of various molecules c a l c u l a t e d for t h e
equilibrium structures
No. of a t o m s
Molecule No.
22
25
35
31
22
25
29
26
29
la
lb
lc
ld
le
If
lg
lh
li
Total e n e r g y
(kcal mol 1)
-2.96
-7.12
9.74
-0.93
-3.26
-5.82
-2.85
0.59
2.55
D i m e n s i o n s (/k)
a b c
9.75 6.40 1.75
9.75 6.25 x 3.75
10.10 8.40 5.60
10.60 5.60 4.75
8.50 6.40 1.75
7.75 6.50 x 3.80
8.10 5.90 x 4.10
10.75 6.25 1.80
10.25 6.40 x 4.00
Yield %
23
3a
-3.97
10.60 x 6.40 x 3.50
25.00 a
26
3b
-10.65
9.80 7.00 x 3.60
65.00
36
3c
-1.28
8.75 7.75 x 5.60
45.00
32
3d
-10.10
10.00 7.50 x 4.00
0.00
23
3e
-0.88
8.30 x 7.40 x 3.25
76.00
26
3f
-4.74
8.90 6.20 x 3.00
82.00
30
3g
-2.86
8.75 x 6.70 x 4.25
75.00
27
3h
0.70
9.50 x 7.25 x 3.50
80.00
30
3i
-0.50
10.30 x 8.30 x 3.75
50.00
a A cyclic product from self-condensation of la was also obtained in 53% yield along with
this compound.
3.4. C o r r e l a t i o n o f m o l e c u l a r d i m e n s i o n s to z e o l i t e - Y v o i d d i m e n s i o n s
The t h r e e l a r g e s t d i m e n s i o n s (a b c) for the m i n i m u m e n e r g y c o n f o r m a t i o n
of the molecules were calculated, as described in section 2.2 a n d c o r r e l a t e d to the
d i m e n s i o n s of pores of zeolite-Y. It was found t h a t the efficiency of NaY was very
low for t h e s e conversions. NaY will c o r r e s p o n d to case 4 as shown in Table 5,
b e c a u s e only 50% occupancy in type I sites are possible owing to overcrowding.
Accordingly, the d i a m e t e r of the void space in a s u p e r c a g e will be r e d u c e d to
10.4/k from 12.4/k. More crucially, the d i a m e t e r of 12-m windows which are the
e n t r y points to s u p e r c a g e s is also reduced. C o m p a r i n g the d i m e n s i o n s of the
molecules given in Table 6, it is clearly e v i d e n t t h a t the e n t r y a n d exit of r e a c t a n t
a n d p r o d u c t molecules to the s u p e r c a g e t h r o u g h 12-T window is severely
restricted.
However, w h e n t h e r e is 70% e x c h a n g e of Na + by r a r e e a r t h cations to form RE
(70%) NaY catalyst, the s i t u a t i o n will c o r r e s p o n d to case 3 s h o w n in Table 5,
since t h r e e Na + are r e p l a c e d by one RE cation. W h e n c o r r e l a t i n g t h e m o l e c u l a r
257
dimensions with the zeolite void dimensions, it is customary to neglect the
largest dimensions (length) of the molecule. This is because the molecule can and
does energetically prefer to enter the cage through its smaller dimensions. There
are more detailed analyses on the effect of shape of the molecules in the
literature. The model proposed by Choudhary and Akolekar [33] is a typical
example which support the fact t h a t the molecules prefer to enter the pores
through their smaller dimensions.
3.5. M o l e c u l a r f i t t i n g
Several criteria could be assigned to the observed efficient ~
bond cleavage
reaction over RE (70%) NaY. The r e a c t a n t and product molecules have to be
smaller t h a n the 12-m windows, because they have to enter or leave supercages
through these windows. The active sites are inside the supercages since the
proposed i n t e r m e d i a t e s can be formed only inside the supercages owing to their
large dimensions.
The molecules can enter the cage in certain preferred
orientations, which are graphically visualized by m a t c h i n g the r e a c t a n t s with the
windows.
As discussed in the previous section, the largest dimension of the molecule
does not matter. On this basis, when the r e a c t a n t molecule is too small, say as in
the case of l d, then products are formed in very low yield, probably because of
their short residence time inside the cage due to free diffusion of the molecules.
When the r e a c t a n t molecule is too large, say as in the case of lc, then also the
yield decreases. Actually the size of l c (8.4 x 5.6/k) is slightly larger t h a n the
12-m window and the size of l d (5.6 x 4.75 A) is slightly smaller t h a n the 12-m
window, but for all other r e a c t a n t s the second largest dimension is in the range
6.0-6.5/k. However in the case of 3a, although the molecule is small, the product
yield is low. The low yield may be due to the observed formation of a cyclic
product [23] by self-condensation of two r e a c t a n t molecules (la).
The selfcondensation reaction occurs only with r e a c t a n t l a because of the presence of an
active methylene group, with a highly acidic proton. The dimensions of the
product molecules are close to the d i a m e t e r of 12-m windows.
The yields
obtained are found to be a function of their sizes and those with comparatively
larger dimensions such as 3c and 3i are obtained in lower yields. Hence, there is
a kind of molecular recognition m e c h a n i s m by the port entries to the cage which
decide the efficacy of the reaction.
The formation of the i n t e r m e d i a t e and cleavage of the ~
bond in this
i n t e r m e d i a t e occur ideally inside the supercage. The dimensions of the proposed
i n t e r m e d i a t e s are such t h a t they easily fit in the supercage of RE (70%) NaY. In
Table 7, the contributions of individual energy t e r m s to the total strain energy
are given.
It was found t h a t the dimensions of the molecules are not dependent
on just the n u m b e r of atoms but more on their conformation. The conformations
themselves are controlled by the attractive electrostatic interaction (Eelectrostatic)
and can non-bonded van der Waals interactions (EvDw), as can be seen from the
values given in Table 7. The i n t e r m e d i a t e s were always found to have greater
258
s t r a i n energies t h a n the r e a c t a n t s or products. There are also m a n y degrees of
conformational freedom for these molecules. The exact conformation adopted by
the molecule m a y also be influenced by external factors such as electrostatic
interactions between the molecule and the zeolite, the electrostatic field inside
the cages, solvents used for the reaction medium and the t e m p e r a t u r e of the
reaction. In some conformations, there is a possibility of the reacting group being
sterically shielded, resulting in non-reactivity of the r e a c t a n t molecules. This
m a y be the reason for the absence of a 1:1 correlation of molecular dimensions to
the yield obtained.
Table 7
Contributions of individual energy term s (kcal mo1-1) to the total s t r a i n energy for
the final energy minimized molecules
Molecule
Ebond
length
Ebond angle Edihedralangle Eelectrostatic
EVDW Eimproper
Etotal
torsion
la
lb
lc
ld
le
If
lg
lh
li
0.05
0.07
0.35
0.18
0.02
0.02
0.07
0.18
0.19
0.21
0.29
2.07
1.26
0.12
0.22
0.36
0.34
1.09
0.00
0.30
5.35
4.63
0.00
0.21
0.20
0.00
4.39
-3.56
-8.15
-0.44
-7.00
-3.30
-6.07
-3.28
-2.78
-5.77
0.33
0.35
2.39
-0.02
-0.09
-0.21
-0.21
2.86
2.64
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
-2.96
-7.12
9.74
-0.93
-3.26
5.82
-2.85
0.59
2.55
3a
3b
3c
3d
3e
3f
3g
3h
3i
0.02
0.01
0.27
0.12
0.08
0.02
0.05
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.29
1.41
0.61
0.39
0.31
0.42
0.04
0.49
1.08
0.98
1.04
0.60
2.06
0.15
0.13
0.58
2.30
-3.70
-10.17
-1.10
-9.82
-2.90
-3.27
-1.83
-2.03
-3.07
-1.64
-1.11
-1.97
-3.52
-0.53
1.38
0.32
0.25
0.15
0.03
0.60
0.01
0.24
0.34
0.23
-3.97
-10.65
-1.28
-10.10
-0.88
-4.74
-2.86
0.70
0.50
-0.93
-5.04
From the present study, the following conclusions can be drawn: the
supercages in zeolite-Y have the requisite characteristics for catalyzing the
condensation of n i t r o m e t h a n e with N - s u b s t i t u t e d carbonimidodithioates. The
effect of the Si/A1 ratio and the n a t u r e of extra framework cations in modifying
the cage and window dimensions[34] can be elucidated using molecular modelling
259
studies. The force field energy minimization calculations predict the equilibrium
configuration of molecules. The shape and size of these molecules provide the
rationalization of the yields obtained for the reactions involving these molecules.
4.
S H A P E SELECTIVE P R O D U C T I O N OF ALKYLAROMATICS
4.1. B a c k g r o u n d
Alkylation of benzene and substituted benzene leads to alkylaromatics and
conventionally this process is carried out over Friedel-Crafts catalysts [35].
Alkylaromatics have found several applications as intermediates or as end
products in the manufacture of synthetic fibres, rubber, plastics, detergent, highoctane gasoline and fine chemicals [36,37]. Most of the Friedel-Crafts catalysts
are liquids and there is always working-up problem in addition to corrosivity,
toxicity and polluting effluents. The recent awareness and the universal aversion
towards environmentally hostile materials are the reasons, which led to the
search for environmentally friendly solid acid catalysts. Considering the above
two requirements, zeolites emerge as consensus candidate material with desired
properties.
A fascinating structure-related aspect of the zeolite catalysis is molecular
shape selectivity [38-40]. The subtle interplay of "configurational" diffusion and
intrinsic kinetics of reactions in the intracrystalline pore system enable zeolite
catalysts to differentiate between molecules or transition states involved in a
reaction on the basis of their size and shape, and thus direct the reaction along
specific paths. The diffusion of molecules in zeolite pores plays the major role in
this shape selective process. The understanding of its mechanism can greatly
facilitate the design of zeolite catalysts.
In this work we attempt to find out a suitable zeolite catalyst for selective
synthesis of p-IBEB
which is the key intermediate in the production of
(z-(4-isobutylphenyl) propionic acid, a popular analgesic drug ibuprofen [41]. The
conventional synthesis route for the production of p-IBEB involves the alkylation
of isobutylbenzene with ethene over Lewis-acid catalysts [42] in which the
selectivity towards p-IBEB is typically 17.6%. Recently, the possibility of using
zeolite catalysts for the production of p-IBEB by disproportionation of
isobutylbenzene and a polyalkylbenzene over HY zeolite [43] has been shown to
lead to better selectivity (46.3%). Although HY zeolite is better t h a n conventional
catalyst, selection of this specific zeolite is a random choice r a t h e r than a logical
selection and no experimental results are available for any other zeolites. Hence,
we analyzed the efficacy of different zeolites. We have chosen large pore zeolites
with l-d pores, where only single file diffusion is possible, zeolites with 2-d pores,
where different molecular reorientation is possible at channel intersections and
zeolites with 3-d pores where cage to cage translations are possible, with total
dynamic freedom inside the cages. The influence of change in pore architecture
on adsorption and diffusion behavior of the molecules is studied in detail.
260
4.2. A p p r o a c h
Force field energy minimization technique is an efficient method for studying
the location and conformation of large guest molecules within the micropores of
zeolites. We demonstrate here that this approach can be extended to study
diffusional behavior of alkylbenzenes in zeolites. We use this technique to study
the adsorption and location of ethylbenzene (EB), isobutylbenzene (IBB) and o-,
m- and p-isomers of isobutylethylbenzene (IBEB) in several large pore fully
siliceous form of zeolites. The atomic positions of the fully siliceous zeolite
framework are held fixed and the adsorption and diffusion behavior of the
molecules are studied at zero surface coverage.
The methodology that we have
used for calculating diffusion energy barrier is based on energy minimization
procedure. This technique is widely used in the recent past, for example, to study
alkylation of naphthalene [44], to study the skeletal isomerisation of l-butene to
isobutene [45] and to study amination of methanol [46].
4.3. D i f f u s i o n a l b e h a v i o r of a l k y l a r o m a t i c s in FAU, LTL, MAZ and MOR
Conformational analysis of the alkylaromatics is performed by allowing
cooperative motion of the alkyl groups and the strain energy values for different
conformers of the molecules are determined. For the energetically favorable
conformation, the three largest dimensions (a x b x c) in mutually perpendicular
directions of the molecules are given in Table 8.
When correlating the
dimensions of the molecules with the pore diameter of zeolites for molecular
fitting purposes, it is customary to neglect the largest dimension (a) of the
molecules [14]. The molecules prefer to enter the cages through their smallest
dimensions on the basis of interaction energy criteria. Hence, only the other two
dimensions (b and c) of the molecules have to be compared with the size of the
pore openings. Comparing the dimensions (b and c) of the molecules in Table 8, it
is observed that 'small' (with 8-member rings) and 'medium' (with 10-member
rings) pore zeolites are too small to accommodate isomers of IBEB, while 'large'
pore zeolites are suitable for the diffusion of IBEB isomers. A list of 20 large pore
Table 8
Dimensions of different organic molecules as derived from the force-field
calculations
Dimensions//k
Molecules
EB
p-DEB
IBB
m-IBEB
o-IBEB
p-IBEB
6.32
8.47
7.93
8.45
7.50
10.47
b
4.97
5.28
5.07
5.95
6.85
5.22
c
2.74
4.23
3.88
5.55
4.64
4.46
261
Table 9
The channel s t r u c t u r e and f r a m e w o r k density of large pore molecular sieves
containing 12-member rings
Pore
Framework
No Code
Zeolite
Channel
diameter
density
dimensionally
(/k)
(T/lO00/~a)
1
AFS
MAPSO-46
3
6.3 6.3
13.7
2
FAU
FAUJASITE
3
7.4 x 7.4
12.7
3
AFY
COAPO-50
2
6.1 x 6.1
12.5
4
BEA
BETA
2
6.4 7.6
15.0
5
BPH
BERYLLOPHOSPHATE
2
6.2 6.7
16.4
6
EMT
EMC-2
2
6.5 x 7.4
12.9
7
GME G M E L I N I T E
2
7.0 x 7.0
14.6
8
MEI
ZSM- 18
2
6.9 x 6.9
14.3
9
OFF
OFFRETITE
2
6.7 x 6.7
15.5
10 AFI
ALPO-5
1
7.3 7.3
17.5
11 AFR
SAPO-40
1
6.7 x 6.9
14.9
12 ATO
ALPO-31
1
5.4 x 5.4
19.2
13 ATS
MAPO-36
1
6.5 x 7.5
16.4
14 BOG
BOGGSITE
1
7.0 x 7.0
15.6
15 CAN
CANCRINITE
1
5.9 5.9
16.7
16 LTL
LINDE-L
1
7.1 x 7.1
16.4
17 MAZ MAZZITE
1
7.4 x 7.4
16.1
18 MOR M O R D E N I T E
1
6.5 x 7.0
17.2
19 MTW ZSM-12
1
5.5 x 5.9
19.4
20 ROG
ROGGIANITE
1
4.2 4.2
15.6
zeolites k n o wn in the l i t e r a t u r e is given in Table 9. Among these, excluding the

n a t u r a l zeolites, a l u m i n o p h o s p h a t e structures, zeolites with several polymorphs,
7 zeolites are considered for detailed analysis. We compare here, the diffusion
characteristics of the alkylbenzenes in 12-m channels of a variety of different
siliceous zeolites.
The molecular graphics picture in Figure 6 shows the three supercages in
FAU and diffusion p a t h of the molecules from A to C, via B. Figure 6 includes
the diffusion energy profile for p-IBEB. The m i n i m u m energy configuration of pIBEB in faujasite is also shown in Figure 6. It is clear from Figure 6 t h a t when
the molecule moves from one supercage to a nothe r the molecule energetically
prefers to be n e a r the wall r a t h e r t h a n at the center of the supercage. Its
interaction energy decreases and becomes m i n i m u m w h e n the benzene ring of pIBEB is at the center of the 12-member ring. As the molecule diffuses towards
the center of the second supercage from 12-m ring its interaction energy
increases and again becomes m a x i m u m at the center of the second supercage.
Due to this high energy conformer, a diffusional energy b a r r i e r exists for cage to
262
"8
E
-60
rr
uJ - 7 0
z
LIJ
B
C
Ic.)
9
r r~ - 9 0
ILl
z -I00
-I10
11.4
22.8
DISTANCE TRAVELLED BYTHE MOLECULE(~.)
Figure 6. Variation of interaction energy ofp-IBEB with faujasite lattice during cage to cage
diffusion through 12-m windows.
The molecular graphics picture depicts the three
supercages in different planes of the faujasite lattice.
A typical minimum energy
configuration of p-IBEB during the diffusion calculation is shown. A, B and C in the
molecular graphics picture show the center points of the three supercages. In the graph, A, B,
and C show the interaction energy values at the center points of three supercages.
cage diffusion of the molecule in faujasite.

Similar diffusional profiles are
calculated for EB, p-DEB, IBB, m-IBEB and o-IBEB and the overall behavior of
the molecules are found to be the same. The diffusional energy barriers of all the
alkylbenzenes are given in Table 10.
In case of zeolite-L, the diffusion of the molecules along the 12-m channel
is studied. The diffusion p a t h for the molecules is defined by a pair of points (A
and B) on the channel axis at opposite ends of the section of the channel u n d e r
investigation, as shown in Figure 7 and the diffusion calculations are carried out
in the same way as in faujasite. The energy profiles for p-IBEB in zeolite L are
shown in Figure 7 and the diffusional energy barriers for all the molecules are
given in Table 10. A series of sharp peaks with high intensity is observed at
regular intervals for m- and p-IBEB in zeolite L. These sharp peaks in zeolite L
are due to the barrel shaped cage between two 12-m rings.
263
Table 10
Diffusional energy barriers in kJ/mol for different molecules in large-pore zeolites
Alkylbenzenes
Zeolites
Faujasite
Zeolite L
Mazzite
Mordenite
EB
26.92
38.69
14.09
6.74
p-DEB
35.36
38.09
7.65
7.82
IBB
31.65
35.87
11.21
10.13
m-IBEB
28.38
43.69
9.78
17.95
o-IBEB
32.74
40.87
50.78
95.69
p-IBEB
31.65
28.43
10.69
6.44
12-m RING
E
..'< - B O
,,....
~L-~. c
B -'L BARREL
n~
IJJ
z
tu - g o
z
o_
o
a: - I 0 0
bJ
p_z
i
-I10
7.48
..
14.96
22.44
DISTANCE T R A V E L L E D BY THE MOLECULE (,~)
Figure 7. Variation of interaction energy of p-IBEB with zeolite L lattice during its diffusion
along the c-axis through the barrel shaped cages. The molecular graphics picture shows the
diffusion path of the molecule alongwith a typical minimum energy configuration ofp-IBEB
during the diffusion.
Zeolite mazzite is another hexagonal but one dimensional zeolite with pore
diameter of 7.4/k. Two types of smaller channels are present: the first consists of
stacked gmelinite cages surrounded by six-member rings, the second is between
two cross-linked rows of cages and is surrounded by eight-member rings. The
calculated diffusional energy barriers for the molecules in mazzite are given in
Table 10. The detailed studies on the influence of molecular dimensions of
alkylbenzenes in diffusing the 12-m channel of mordenite has been the subject of
264
our previous theoretical studies [47]. In case of mordenite, an elliptical 12-m
channel (6.5 /k x 7.0 /k) runs parallel to [001] and has small side pockets
(2.6/k x 5.7 /k) parallel to the [010] direction which connect to the next 12-m
channel. The calculated diffusional energy barriers of the molecules in mordenite
are given in Table 10. It can be seen that the diffusional energy barriers for the
isomers of IBEB are significantly different even though there are only small
variation in the dimensions of the molecules. It is evident t h a t the diffusion of the
r e a c t a n t molecules, namely EB, p-DEB and IBB have energy barriers of
6.74 kJ mol 1, 7.82 kJ mol 1 and 10.13 kJ mo1-1 respectively. The energy barrier
for the diffusion of p-IBEB is also of the same order (6.44 k J mol~). However,
there exists an energy barrier of 17.95 k J mo1-1 for m-IBEB and a significantly
large energy barrier of 95.69 kJ mo1-1 for o-IBEB.
4.4. D i f f u s i o n a l b e h a v i o r of a l k y l a r o m a t i c s in O F F , M T W and CAN
In case of offretite it can be observed t h a t there is an 8-m channel r u n n i n g
perpendicular to the 12-m channel. The variation of the interaction energy
between the molecules and the framework as well as the location and orientation
of molecules were calculated as for the other zeolites. The diffusion energy
barriers calculated from the energy profiles are given in Table 11. It is observed
t h a t when the ethyl and isobutyl groups are nearer to windows, the interaction is
unfavorable and when they are nearer to the surface the interaction is favorable.
ZSM-12 has slightly elliptical pore of diameters 6.2 x 5.7/k. The molecules
were allowed to diffuse through 5 unit cells in the b-direction. The variation of
interaction energy between the molecules and the framework was studied. The
diffusion energy profile showed a single m a x i m u m and a single m i n i m u m in each
unit cell. The diffusion energy barriers calculated from the energy profiles for all
the molecules are s u m m a r i z e d in Table 11.
Next, the diffusion of the molecules in cancrinite was studied.
The
s y m m e t r y and a r r a n g e m e n t of the 12, 6 and 4-m channels in CAN are exactly
same as in OFF. However, the pore diameter is considerably smaller (5.9/k) t h a n
t h a t of OFF (6.7/k). The molecules were diffused through 5 unit cells along the
c-direction. The variation of the interaction energy between the molecules and
CAN as the molecules diffuse in c-axis was calculated. The diffusion energy
profiles show two peak maxima within an unit cell. The diffusion energy barriers
Table 11
Diffusional energy barriers in kJ/mol for different molecules in large-pore zeolites
Alkylbenzenes
Zeolites
OFF
MTW
CAN
EB
11.11
4.25
8.59
IBB
8.61
16.10
5.50
m-IBEB
30.00
38.21
81.51
o-IBEB
149.68
243.60
68.45
p-IBEB
15.43
19.13
14.65
265
calculated from the energy profiles are again summarized in Table 11. It is also
observed from the absolute values that all the molecules are tightly fitting in
CAN.
4.5.
Salient outcome
The molecule-zeolite interaction is studied elaborately using force field based

energy minimization calculations. It is shown that the macroscopic diffusion
behaviors could be understood from microscopic molecular level interactions.
The major factors that influence the diffusion of the molecules inside the 12-m
channel are i) pore diameter, ii) pore architecture iii) dimension of the molecules
and iv) flexibility of the molecules, assuming the chemical composition of the
zeolite frameworks are same. In addition to the above factors i) the nature of
transition state complex ii) number and nature of tetra or trivalent cations
isomorphously substituted in place of Si, iii) the number and nature of charge
compensating extra framework cations, iv) temperature and v) pressure also
influence the diffusion of the molecules in a minor way. Here, we concentrated
on the major factors assuming that the dimension and flexibility of transition
state complexes are in proportion to the product molecules. These results also
provide the information on the nature of sites inside zeolites where the molecules
have favorable and unfavorable interactions.
From the results presented above the features of the diffusion of IBEB can be
summarized as given below:
i) Force field energy minimization calculation of the diffusion energy profile is a
simple technique relative to experimental studies of diffusion and a reliable
technique for logical catalyst screening.
ii)The molecules prefer the configurations, where there is maximum interaction
between the surface of the zeolite and the alkyl groups of the molecules.
ill)The significant energy barriers exist for m- and o-IBEB in mordenite, o-IBEB
in mazzite, and for none of them in faujasite and zeolite L. OFF and MTW are
predicted to have good efficiency in the separation of o-IBEB from other
isomers, whereas CAN can have good efficiency in the separation of all the
three isomers. The actual values of interaction energy of different molecules
with the zeolite framework depends on how good these molecules fit inside the
channels.
5.
S E L E C T I V E C H L O R I N A T I O N O V E R Z E O L I T E K-L
5.1. B a c k g r o u n d
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene (1,2,4-TCB) is a well-known termite exterminator [48],
an additive in insulating and cooling fluids used for electrical engineering
applications [49]. Conventionally, FeC13 is used as a catalyst for chlorinating
1,2-dichlorobenzene [1,2-DCB] to 1,2,4-TCB. But the process produces undesired
1,2,3-TCB (1,2,4-TCB/1,2,3-TCB = 2.2). Higher selectivity for 1,2,4-TCB
(1,2,4-TCB/1,2,3-TCB-6.0) is achieved using solid acid catalyst, namely zeolite
266
K-L and it improves to -~ 14.0 in the presence of the promoter monochloroacetic
acid[50].
5.2. A p p r o a c h
In this study, we describe the application of the combination of molecular
graphics, force field calculations and q u a n t u m chemical calculations to
u n d e r s t a n d the m e c h a n i s m of selective chlorination of DCB to TCB over K-L
zeolite and the role played by monochloroacetic acid as a promoter. The force
field calculations were carried out as described in the previous section (4.2) to
locate the favorable adsorption sites. Further, the electronic structure of the
adsorbed complex are studied by q u a n t u m chemical cluster calculations.
Although accurate ab initio calculations are desired, we opted for semi-empirical
calculations since our interest was to derive electronic properties of a cluster
model as large as SilsO48H24. In this study we used the PM3 Hamiltonian. The
calculations were carried out using MOPAC version 6.0 program [18].
5.3. Force field c a l c u l a t i o n s to locate favorable a d s o r p t i o n sites
The molecular graphics picture of zeolite L lattice as viewed along the C-axis is
shown in Figure 8. There are two crystallogrphically distinct t e t r a h e d r a l sites,
namely, T1 and T2. The T1 sites are on the periphery of the 12-member window,
Figure 8. The molecular graphics picture of zeolite-L lattice. The 12-member channels run
along the c-axis. There are two crystallographically distinct tetrahedral sites where Si or AI
are located. They are shown as squares (Yl) and circles (T2).
267
t_c
Figure 9. The initial (I) and final (F) positions of the diffusion path as well as minimum
energy location for I,2-DCB in zeolite -L. The active site of zeolite -L which surrounds 1,2DCB is marked by a circle.
while Te sites are on the periphery of the barrel shaped cage. The location of
DCB in zeolite L framework is not reported in the literature, although its location
inside zeolite Y has been identified from synchrotron study [51]. We carried out
force field calculations to identify the diffusion characteristics of 1,2-DCB in the
fully siliceous zeolite L. The initial (I) and the final (F) points studied for the
diffusion p a t h inside the channel along c-axis as well as a typical minimum
energy location for the DCB are shown in Figure 9. The results indicate that the
molecule is in a energetically favorable location when the phenyl ring is at the
center of 8-member window which is perpendicular to the main channel. Similar
calculations were carried out for the promoter-monochloroacetic acid and the
reactant-chlorine to identify their minimum energy locations. It was found that
monochloroacetic acid had a smaller diffusion energy barrier t h a n 1,2-DCB and
chlorine showed several minima along the main channel indicating that there are
many possible adsorption sites.
It should be noted t h a t the minimum energy locations identified for these
molecules correspond to single phase adsorption of these molecules. In order to
study the influence of the intermolecular interaction between the molecules on
the final locations of the promoter and reactants, a geometry optimization
calculation was performed. These calculations were carried out by considering
only van der Waals forces between the molecules and thus the final adsorption
sites for 1,2-DCB, chlorine and monochloroacetic acid were derived. It was
observed t h a t all these molecules could be accommodated inside a single "barrelshaped" cage. In Figure 9, the active site in zeolite which has maximum
interaction with the molecule is highlighted as a circle.
268
5.4. Q u a n t u m c h e m i c a l c l u s t e r c a l c u l a t i o n s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e
mechanism
A cluster model containing all these atoms inside the circle is chosen for
further electronic structure calculations.
The valency of oxygens on the
periphery of this cluster model is saturated by adding hydrogen atoms. The
position of these hydrogen atoms are along the original O-Si vector with an O-H
distance of 1.03/k. The cluster model chosen for quantum chemical calculations
is shown in Figure 10. PM3 calculations were performed for the cluster model of
the complex shown i n Figure 10 where all the three molecules are present inside
zeolite L cage. Calculations were also carried out for cluster models where the
individual molecules are adsorbed. These results are given in Table 12.
Cl
Cl
"
to
Figure 10. The quantum chemical cluster model chosen to study the interaction between the
promoter-monochloroacetic acid and the reactant-chlorine & 1,2-DCB.
The presence of monochloroacetic acid is found to cause a decrease of 3.0 to 3.5

A in the pore diameter of the zeolite L. Thus, the geometric restriction imposed
by the presence of monochloroacetic acid is also a reason for improving the
selectivity of 1,2,4-TCB. The total energy of the individual molecules are also
given in Table 12.
The adsorption energy values calculated for C12 and
monochloroacetic acid are reasonable chemical values, whereas the adsorption
energy of 1,2-DCB is an overemphasized value, which may be due to the
inadequate representation of VDW forces between phenyl ring and the zeolite
269
Table 12
PM3 energy values calculated for the cluster model of LTL, relevant molecules,
and the adsorption complexes
Bare cluster or molecule Complex between zeolite
cluster or molecule
Zeolite cluster
-15873.873
C12
-627.048
- 16503.602
C1CH2 COO H
- 1187.877
- 17060.916
DCB
-1405.441
-17255.000
C12 + DCB + C1CH2COOH
-19072.532
lattice. I m p r o v e m e n t s in identifying the location and orientation of the molecules

in terms of geometry optimization calculations are in progress.
We analyzed the net charges on various atoms of the free molecule as well as
in their adsorbed state. It is observed t h a t the molecules are more polarized in
their adsorbed state, particularly the atoms closer to the zeolite framework. The
net charge on various atoms of the zeolite cluster and their changes when the
molecules are adsorbed were analyzed. It is observed t h a t the net charge on Si
and 0 varies in the range of 1.43 to 1.49, a n d - 0 . 6 0 to -0.69, respectively. The
s y m m e t r y related atoms have uniform charges and the Si atoms on the
periphery of the cluster are less positive compared to those in bulk of the cluster.
It is found t h a t the silicon atoms, r a t h e r t h a n oxygen atoms have electronic
interactions with chlorine and monochloroacetic acid.
The efficacy of the combination of molecular modelling techniques in studying
various aspects of the m e c h a n i s m of chlorination of 1,2-DCB have been brought
out. Although both 3 and 4 positions of 1,2-DCB are a m e n a b l e for electrophilic
chlorination, geometrical restrictions favor chlorination at 4-position.
The
'barrel-shaped' cage in zeolite L is ideally dimensioned to accommodate the
promoter and r e a c t a n t molecules. The promoter, monochloroacetic acid decreases
the pore d i a m e t e r by 3.0 to 3.5 /k, thus creating the required geometric
environment to achieve selectivity. The actual n a t u r e of electronic interaction
between the zeolite framework and the molecules are brought out from the
analysis of electron population on various atoms.
6. R E M O V A L O F NO BY S E L E C T I V E C A T A L Y T I C R E D U C T I O N
6.1. B a c k g r o u n d and m e t h o d of a p p r o a c h
Pt-based composite catalysts supported on monoliths are conventionally used
for the removal of NO from automobile exhausts. However, these three-way NO
removal catalysts are weak to large excess of oxygen in s t a t i o n a r y exhausts such
as diesel engines and lean-burn oil engines of power plants [52,53]. Hence, the
270
removal of NO by selective reduction with hydrocarbons over metal exchanged
zeolite catalysts are attempted [54]. Zeolites are extremely suited since it
stabilizes the metal under oxidative atmosphere by providing a suitable redox
matrix.
NO by itself and its oxidation products are potential pollutants which
deteriorate our environment in several ways [52,53]. Recently, the direct
decomposition of NO into N2 and 02 over Cu -ZSM-5 catalyst was reported by
Iwamoto et al. [55]. The synergistic roles played by Cu and ZSM-5 framework for
the reaction were emphasized in a detailed study [56]. The selective catalytic
reduction of NO with different hydrocarbons such as methane, methanol, ethene,
propene and propane has been tried using various metal-exchanged zeolites such
as Ga-ZSM-5 [57-59], Ce-ZSM-5 [60], Co-ZSM-5 [61,62], Cu-ZSM-5 [63], Mn-ZSM5 [64], Ni-ZSM-5 [64], Pd-ZSM-5 [65], In-ZSM-5 [66], Cu-MOR [67], and CuSAPO-34 [68] as well as H-ZSM-5 [69]. However, final consensus on a successful
catalyst formulation has yet to be evolved. In particular, much attention has
been given to Ga ion-exchanged ZSM-5 introduced by Yogo and co-workers,
[57,58] because of their high activity and selectivity with methane as the
reductant, which otherwise was regarded as an inactive agent [70].
6.2. Approach
Quantum chemical(QC) calculations based on density functional theory (DFT)
were performed using the DMOL package of BIOSYM Technologies, Inc. The
geometry optimization calculations were carried out using a minimal numerical
basis set [71]. The total energy for the final optimized geometry was then
evaluated using a double numerical polarization basis set [71]. A JMW local
type functional [72] was used for the exchange-correlation energy terms in the
total energy expression.
The cluster model for QC calculations has been based upon the crystal
structure of ZSM-5 reported by X-ray diffraction study [73] modified according to
the equilibrium geometry given by MD simulation [54], where the T12 site was
considered for aluminum substitution. Earlier quantum chemical studies [74]
have also reported T12 as the energetically favorable site for the incorporation of
aluminum. Figure 11 shows the conformation of the oxidized form of the Gaexchanged site, namely [GaO] species within the zeolitic lattice as obtained from
large model MD calculation [54].
In our QC calculations, a single A104 tetrahedron was considered as the
representative of the active site, with adjacent silicons replaced by hydrogens and
charge deficiency compensated by [GaO] cationic species. We believe that the
cluster model specified above is adequate to reproduce basic features of the
zeolitic active site and local electronic structure. At the same time, the modest
size of the cluster allows for meeting more rigorous demands of QC methodology
and testing various computational parameters.
271
A1
Si
"
0 2.
Figure 11. The structure of [GaO]-ZSM-5 as derived from molecular dynamic calculations at
300 K after 5000 time steps of 2.5 1015 seconds. A1 is substituted in place of Si at T12 site.
6.3. Location of extra framework gallium

The way in which the gallium ions are dispersed in Ga-ZSM-5 is expected to be
the cause of catalytic activity. These materials have been simulated in order to
u n d e r s t a n d the salient features of this catalyst which give it its high activity. We
also simulated the Ga203 lattice. The striking difference is the high coordination,
namely six coordination for Ga in the bulk Ga203. low and coordination namely
three coordination for gallium ions in Ga-ZSM-5. Various gallium species such as
Ga 3+, [GaO] +, [Ga(OH)] 2+ and [Ga(OH)2] + were simulated inside ZSM-5.
[Ga(OH)2] + is the likely cationic species in the h y d r a t e d form. The dehydration of
gallium hydroxide at 600 K to form gallium oxide occurs as follows:
[Ga(OH)2]
[GaO] + H20
It was observed t h a t the [GaO] cation was more dynamic t h a n the

hyroxylated gallium ions and both of them had more mobility t h a n the Ga ions
on the surface or bulk of the Ga203. The computer graphics illustrations shown
in Figure 12 show the structure of [Ga(OH)2] ion in Ga-ZSM-5.
P r e l i m i n a r y studies on the behavior of water molecules showed t h a t water
undergoes preferential adsorption on [GaO] ion leading to [Ga(OH)2] causing
the reversible reaction in the above equation. The adsorption behavior of water
is described in detail in the following section. It was found t h a t the oxygen
attached to Ga h a d the most mobility indicating the easier approach ability and
less steric hindrance of gallium to NO and hydrocarbons.
272
A1
0 2-
H+
Si
Figure 12. The structure of [Ga(OH)2]-ZSM-5 as derived from molecular dynamic

calculations at 300 K after 5000 time steps of 2.5 x 1015 seconds. A1 is substituted in place of
Si at T12 site.
,*
O
Figure 13. Cluster models considered to represent the active site [GaO]-ZSM-5 with the
molecular formula of GaO-[AI(OH)4]. A single (a), double (b) and triple (c) coordination of
Ga to the oxygens in the [AI(OH)4]- unit are considered.
As molecular dynamics can not provide a quantitative description of chemical

bonding, the final coordination of [GaOl unit to the zeolite framework has
been verified by q u a n t u m chemical DFT calculations. [GaO] can coordinate to
the [AI(OH)4] -1 t e t r a h e d r o n in three different ways. They are single coordination,
double coordination in a bridging position between two oxygen atoms, and triple
coordination in a three-fold site between three framework oxygens as shown in
Figures 13 a, b and c, respectively. The DFT total energy minimization for the
273
three configurations showed [75] that the doubly co-ordinated bridging site was
the most stable structure and that this should be the most favorable coordination mode for the ion-exchanged cation.
6.4. A d s o r p t i o n o f CH4 over [GaO]-ZSM-5

In general, selective C-H activation of saturated alkanes by various catalytic
systems is an extensively studied subject due to its importance in the
transformation of the relatively inert alkanes to more useful products.
Among other catalytic systems cation-exchanged zeolites have received specific
attention due to their valuable catalytic properties in an environmentally
important process of the removal of nitrogen oxides from exhaust gases, as
mentioned above. The mechanism by which the reduction of nitrogen oxides by
hydrocarbons proceeds is very complicated as it involves many intermediate steps
and not their nature but even the sequence of elementary steps is still far from
understood. Here, we describe our QC calculations on the adsorption of various
molecules over [GaO] exchanged ZSM-5.
In the first step, the geometry optimization calculations on the methane
molecule in the vicinity of the Ga site in the cluster model shown in Figure 14
were carried out. We located the position of weakly adsorbed methane.
t3a
Figure 14. The optimized geometry of the GaO-[AI(OH)4] in its double coordinated mode,
which is the energetically favored one. This cluster model was used for studying the
interaction of methane and water molecules.
274
Figure 15 shows the optimized configuration of a methane molecule adsorbed
on the Ga site and displays the dissociation of one of the C-H bonds in m e t h a n e
compared to t h a t of the gas phase molecule. It can be seen from Figure 15 t h a t
the [GaOl + active site had enough polarizing ability to dissociate an approaching
m e t h a n e molecule.
We have studied two possible routes of the m e t h a n e
dissociation. The first - Figure 15a leads to a methyl attached to the Ga a+ ion
and hydrogen forming a hydroxyl group with the extraframework oxygen. The
second - Figure 15b assumes the reverse attachments, namely H attached to the
Ga 3+ ion and CH3 connected to the extraframework oxygen to make a methoxy
group. The calculated adsorption energy values are given in Table 13.
(b)
(a)
O H
9-..J QQ%
A1C3~Ga
O CH3
~~..
"
'~
~~CH3
Figure 15. Two possible dissociative modes of adsorption of methane on GaO-[AI(OH)4].

Quantum chemical geometry optimization calculations led to these two configurations. The
configuration with Ga-CH3 and O-H (a) is energetically more favorable than the configuration
with Ga-H and O-CH3.
Table 13
Adsorption energy values of guest molecules on [GaO] site. The adsorption energy
has been estimated according to the equation:
Eadsorption = Ehost 4- Eguest - (Ehost: guest complex), where Ehost, Eguest and (Ehost: guest complex)
denote the total energy of the zeolite cluster system, the incorporated guest
molecule and the complex formed by the zeolite cluster:guest molecule,
respectively
Adsorption
Host cluster
Guest molecule
energy
(kcaYmol)
GaO-ZSM-5
GaO-ZSM-5
GaO-ZSM-5
CH4 dissociatively adsorbed into Ga-CH3 a n d - O H

CH4 dissociated into Ga-H and O-CH3
H20 dissociative adsorbed
-63.0
-31.4
-77.4
275
The optimized geometry for the transition state was also analyzed. The saddle
point character of the transition state was confirmed by the analysis of the
Hessian restricted to optimized coordinates.
The only negative frequency
corresponded almost exclusively to the in-plane movement of the dissociated
hydrogen atom between its neighboring carbon and oxygen atoms, supplemented
by the Ga-O stretch. Thus, the reaction coordinate was chosen based on these
results.
6.5. A d s o r p t i o n o f H20 a n d its i n f l u e n c e on t h e m e t h a n e a c t i v a t i o n
process
We studied the approach of water molecule to the [GaOl site, by geometry
optimization calculations.
Water hydrates the
[GaO] site to [Ga(OH)2] +
reversibly as shown in the equation in section 6.3. It was suggested that the
nucleophilic and electrophilic region around the
[GaO] site might be
significantly changed and the physical hindrance might be imposed due to
hydration. The water molecule effectively adsorbs on Ga via an oxygen atom and
consequently, one of its O-H bond is broken leading to increased coordination to
gallium. The adsorption energy of water molecule is more favorable than that of
methane molecule as shown in Table 13. This result reveals that the physical
hindrance may be imposed by water molecules for the reactant
methane
molecule and the nucleophilicity around Ga may be also decreased. Thus,
the structural and electronic factors explain the reasons for high sensitivity of
Ga-ZSM-5 towards water.
Selective reduction of NO using hydrocarbons over Ga exchanged ZSM-5 is
studied using molecular modelling tools. Specifically, the results of mechanistic
aspects over Ga-ZSM-5 are reported here. The nature, co-ordination and the
location of Ga are analyzed. It is noted that partially u n s a t u r a t e d coordination of
oxygen in [GaO] species increases it dynamic nature inside the pores of ZSM-5.
Adsorption studies of CH4 revealed the various modes of adsorption of CH4. The
dissociative mode where -CH3 a n d - H are attached to Ga and O of [GaO] species,
respectively was found to be the favorable mode. Dissociative adsorption of water
is even more favorable t h a n that of CH4 and leads to the conversion of [GaO]
into [Ga(OH)2] thus saturating the coordination of Ga and O as well as reducing
their dynamic nature.
7. A D S O R P T I O N OF C F C s IN F A U J A S I T E Z E O L I T E
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are widely used as solvents, refrigerants, foam
rubber blowing agent, and propellants. It is well known that the emission of
CFCs lead to global environmental problems such as the stratospheric ozone
layer depletion and causing green house effects. Although Molina and Rowland
276
[76] had pointed out the destruction of the ozone layer in 1974 itself, after nearly
decade, F a r m a n and coworkers [77] discovered the CFCs as the cause for the
destruction of the ozone layer. Since then there are attempts to catalytically
decompose or to trap them inside suitable adsorbents [78-89]. There are previous
experimental work on CFC-zeolite interactions but concentrating on catalyst
regeneration [90,91] on the dehydroflurination reaction[92] and on the dynamics
of the CFCs [93].
Traditionally the active carbon was as employed adsorbent for CFCs from
refrigerators or gas stations.
However, there are difficulties in handling,
desorbing and recycling, due to unstable nature. Recently there are reports
indicating zeolites as novel candidate materials for adsorbing CFCs. Alkali ion
exchanged Y zeolites are extensively studied by Kobayashi et al. [88,89]. In this
background, we studied the adsorption behavior of dichlorodifluromethane
(CF2C12) in CsNaY using Grand Canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) method [94].
7.2.
Detailed distribution
o f A13+, Cs a n d N a in C s N a Y z e o l i t e
Although the SiO2 framework structure of Y type zeolite is well known, the
fine details of the structure of CsNaY (Si/A1 = 2.43), such as the distribution and
location A13 Cs Na have not been established. We determined the A1
distribution in the NaY by using molecular dynamics simulations [95], to
reproduce the occupancies and sites of Na cations obtained experimentally by
Fitch and coworkers [96]. These findings were further confirmed by NMR
simulations shown in Figure 16. 29Si MAS NMR spectrum was simulated for the
c~
8g
90
I gg
I Ig
12g
-Chem Shl F~c(ppm)
Figure 16. The simulated 29Si MAS NMR spectra of our estimated aluminum distribution
model in the zeolite NaY with Si/A1 = 2.43. This simulated spectrum reproduce the one
observed by experimental report [97]. This distribution of aluminum was derived from
several trial and error MD calculations.
277
'AI' distribution predicted by MD, using 'Catalysis' module in the BIOSYM
molecular modelling package. Since the calculated chemical shifts were in good
a g r e e m e n t with the experimental spectrum by Klinowski et al. [97], we
determined the structure of the CsNaY (Si/A1 = 2.43) on the basis of the NaY
structure.
There are several sites for the e x t r a f r a m e w o r k cations in Y type zeolites. The
locations of these cationic sites are shown in Figure 5. In our Na56Si13c~k15603s4
model 32 Na cations are located in type II sites, 16 Na cations in type I' sites,
and 8 Na cations in type I sites. As discussed earlier (section 3.2) Na in the type
II sites can be easily exchanged by Cs cations as compared to the Na cations in
the site I and I', because only the cations in the site II are exposed to the
supercage of the CsNaY and experimentally CsNaY is p r e p a r e d by the Cs ionexchange of the NaY. The structure of Cs32Na24Si136A1560384 around a super cage
is shown in Figure 17.
Cs
INa
Figure 17. The structure of CsNaY with Si/A1 = 2.43. The exchanged cations are shown as
solid spheres, whereas the zeolite framework is shown as stick model. The large spheres are
Cs and the smaller spheres are Na.
7.3. Adsorption of CF2C12 in CsNaY by GCMC simulation

We performed GCMC calculations at various pressures of the CF2C12, in order
to clarify the atomistic mechanism of the CF2C12 adsorption in the CsNaY (Si/A1 =
2.43). It was shown [90] t h a t the simulated adsorption isotherm of the CF2C12 in
the CsNaY is in a g r e e m e n t with the earlier experimental results [88,89]. In the
present GCMC calculations, the interatomic potential p a r a m e t e r s derived from
278
DFT calculations were used. Thus a calculation procedure to reproduce and
predict the adsorption isotherm of CFCs in zeolites, was established.
In order to discuss the atomistic adsorption mechanism of the CF2C12 in the
CsNaY, the adsorption sites and distributions of the CF2C12 in the CsNaY
at various pressures were investigated. The results of simulation were visualized
using the computer graphics (CG). Figure 18 represents a CG image of the
adsorbed CF2C12 in the CsNaY at low pressure of 0.001 kPa. It was noted t h a t
the locations of CF2C12 were very regular and systematic. The molecules occupied
sodalite cages. This phenomenon can be related to the position of the Cs cations;
the CF2C12 interacts with Cs cations of the CsNaY and not with the SiO2 of the
zeolite framework. Thus the strong interaction between the Cs cation and the F
& C1 atoms, in zeolite and the molecules, respectively are the reasons of this
selective adsorption of the CF2C12. The reason of the selective adsorption can also
be explained by the fact t h a t the location of the Cs cations in type II sites allow a
direct interaction with the CF2C12 molecules entering through the supercage of
the CsNaY.
Figure 18. The results of GCMC calculations at a pressure of 0.001kPa. The CF2C12
molecules, exchanged cations and the zeolite framework are shown as solid spheres, dots and
stick models, respectively. CF2C12prefers the ordered packing inside sodalite cages.
279
Figure 19. The results of GCMC calculations at a pressure of 0.007 kPa. The CF2C12
molecules, exchanged cations and the zeolite framework are shown as solid spheres, dots and
stick models, respectively. CF2C12molecules prefer to agglomerate with each other.
CG image of the CF2C12 in the CsNaY at higher pressure of 0.007 k P a is shown

in Figure 19. It can be observed t h a t the space for the adsorption of the CF2C12
around the Cs cations are already filled and the CF2C12 molecules start to
aggregate with each other in the supercage of the CsNaY. It is revealed t h a t the
adsorption of the CF2C12 at higher pressure follows a different mechanism
compared to t h a t at low pressure. George et al. [98] reported the sorption energy
of CF2C12 in zeolite-Y as a part of their more general study to explore the
possibility of zeolites as scrubbers for CFC. They also reported a significant
difference in the binding energy values for the guest molecules when they are
located inside the sodalite cage and the supercage; the difference can be up to 10
kcal/mol.
The detailed structure of Cs32Na24Sil~15603s4 has been worked out. The
results of GCMC calculations suggest t h a t the location and the a m o u n t of the
exchanged cation in zeolite-Y have a profound influence on the adsorption site
and a m o u n t of CFCs. This is an information which is helpful to design novel
adsorbents for CFCs with high efficiency and ability. Thus the cage effect in
280
addition to the cation effect is also brought out. The most exciting outcome of our
study is the aggregate of molecules formed at higher pressures and the potential
for CsNaY as a sorbent for CF2C12.
8.
CONCLUSIONS
The value of zeolite catalysts for the synthesis of fine chemicals are brought
out. Novel cyclization and rearrangement reactions occur in a single step with
very high selectivity inside zeolite cages. Computational studies by molecular
graphics and molecular fitting procedure allow one to derive a set of desirable
criteria expected in the catalyst for a specific organic reaction and the nature of
substituent required in the reactants.
This is a computationally efficient
procedure to be adopted as pre-experimental activity. The diffusion calculations
are described, which are again beneficial for the screening of zeolites in order to
achieve the desired selectivity. The studies on alkylaromatics are detailed and
the predictions have been made for zeolite systems, where there are no
experimental reports. Additionally, they also provide an understanding of the
adsorption sites and adsorption processes. The studies on selective chlorination
confirmed the experimentally observed behavior and threw light on the role of
promoters. The studies on deNOx reaction mechanism and CFC adsorption
mechanism over zeolites have brought out the power of highly accurate
computations to provide information on novel catalyst systems for pollution
abatement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Prof. C. N. Pillai, Dr. S. Rajappa and Dr. A.P. Singh for fruitful
discussions. One of us (RCD) thank CSIR, New Delhi for financial support in the
form of senior research fellowship.
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285
M o d e l i n g of m e t a l i o n s o r p t i o n p h e n o m e n a i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s y s t e m s
S. Yiacoumi and J. Chen
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0512, USA
A systematic approach for modeling metal ion sorption phenomena occurring

in aqueous solutions is presented here, with a discussion on environmental
applications.
Three different models are introduced: the surface complex
formation model (SCFM) to describe sorption equilibrium; the KINEQL model to
describe sorption kinetics; and the HYDROGEOCHEM model to describe
transport of metal ions in treatment systems, as well as in natural subsurface
systems.
Sorption or adsorption is a gas-solid or liquid-solid phenomenon defined as the
accumulation of particular component(s) at the surface between the two phases.
Unbalanced forces of attraction between the gas or liquid and solid phases result
in an increase of concentration of the particular component(s) on the solid phase.
Sorption can be categorized into physical sorption and chemisorption based on
the strength of these forces. Physical sorption involves only relatively weak
forces, while in chemisorption a chemical bond is formed between the sorbate
component(s) and the sorbent components on the solid surface.
In the past several decades, a dramatic increase of metal contaminant volume
has posed many serious environmental problems. The most common treatment
processes like precipitation and ion-exchange are usually effective in reducing the
extent of contamination, but are not economical. Removal by various sorbents,
such as activated carbon, has emerged as one of the most effective technologies
for removing organic and inorganic pollutants from water and wastewater [1].
The preparation, disposal and recycle of sorbents and ion-exchange resins,
however, need a substantial amount of energy. Searching for cost-effective
sorbents, as well as modeling sorption processes, has become the focus of
attention of many researchers. One promising technique to accumulate metals is
by using biopolymers and non-living organisms as sorbents [2,3]. Biopolymers
are extracted from and have common chemical properties with non-living
organisms. It has been well documented that biopolymers possess a high
potential to sequester and accumulate inorganic ions present in aqueous
286
solutions. Studies on biopolymers such as calcium alginate by Chen et al. [3]
showed that after usage, the volume of calcium alginate may decrease
dramatically by drying the beads.
Furthermore, used beads, after being
contacted with a weakly acidic solution, can be reused and their effectiveness for
metal ion removal is comparable to that of fresh beads.
Metal ion waste streams from various sources also contaminate natural
surface and subsurface systems. As a result, contamination problems of surface
water and groundwater have increased significantly in the past two decades [46]. Forecasting water pollution by mathematical models, as well as searching for
remediation techniques, is necessary for making strategies to meet challenges in
the future. Among several mechanisms, sorption plays an important role in the
transport of contaminants in natural systems.
In addition, sorption of metal ions by naturally occurring particles can change
the surface properties of particles, which in turn affects the stability and
transport of these particles in natural systems. Recent studies show that the
change of surface properties of particles also results in changes in particle
flocculation kinetics [7].
Metal ion sorption experiments in batch and fixed-bed columns reactors and
modeling of metal ion sorption equilibrium, kinetics and transport in natural and
treatment systems have been the focus of many researchers in the last several
decades. This chapter summarizes the findings from experimental studies and
presents a systematic modeling procedure for describing metal ion sorption and
transport in one-dimensional fixed-bed and subsurface systems. In all the cases
examined in this work, sorption and transport are studied in aqueous solutions.
2.
METAL ION SORPTION EQUILIBRIUM
In this section, factors that affect metal ion sorption equilibrium are first
summarized, followed by a brief introduction of equilibrium models. The surface
complex formation model, as well as examples to illustrate the application of this
model, is presented.
2.1. Factors i n f l u e n c i n g metal ion sorption equilibrium

Several studies have shown that sorption of metal ions from aqueous solutions
is strongly pH dependent [8,9]. An increase of the solution pH results in a
decrease of surface charge and an increase of negatively charged sites and
eventually an increase of metal ion binding [10,11].
Many studies demonstrated that metal ion sorption by activated carbon,
hydrous oxides and biopolymers increases with increasing pH [8,11-16]. Chen et
al. [11] reported that sorption of copper ions strongly depends on solution pH and
increases from 10 to 95 % in pH ranging from 2.3 to 8. A dramatic change in pH
and emission of small gas bubbles were observed during the experiments, which
may result from sorption of hydrogen ions and/or redox reactions. Reed and
Matsumoto [17] also showed that the sorption edge for cadmium ions ranges from
287
pH 3 to 9. Chen et al. [3] demonstrated that sorption of copper ions by calcium
alginate strongly depends on solution pH; the metal ion binding increases from
0 to 90 % in pH ranging from 1.5 to 5.0. Rao et al. [18] studied the sorption of
Cu 2 by G. lucidum and A. niger at an initial concentration of 0.5 mM. They
found that the binding had an increasing trend in pH 2 to 6, with the maximum
between pH 5 and 6.
For some types of sorbents, pH may play a different role in sorption,
depending on the initial metal ion concentration. Hao et al. [19] reported that
when the initial concentrations of Cu 2 Pb 2 Zn 2 Cd 2 and Cr 2 were 10 ppm
and U. lactuca was used as sorbent, the binding of metal ions was independent of
pH. When the concentrations of these metal ions were 100 ppm, however, the
sorption increased with increasing pH. Ke et al. [20] also reported similar results
for the Ag sorption by Datura cells. These studies suggest that at least two
binding sites are involved: one site is pH-independent and displays a greater
affinity with a lower availability than the other site, which is pH-dependent.
Ionic strength also plays an important role in sorption of metal ions. In the
sorption by activated carbon and hydrous oxides, this effect is quite different as
compared to that by biopolymers. The metal ion sorption increases with an
increase in ionic strength when activated carbon and hydrous oxides are used
[8,10,14]. Corapcioglu [21] demonstrated that the surface charge of activated
carbon decreases with increasing ionic strength. These two observations result
from the compression of the electrostatic double layer (EDL), while the
competition for the functional groups between metal ions and other ions in
solution is less important.
Different trends are observed when biopolymers are used as sorbents. Chen
and coworkers [3,12] conducted experiments of copper ion sorption by calcium
alginate and found that a decrease in ionic strength results in an increase of
copper ion removal. Chang and Hong [22] reported t h a t mercury uptake by
Pseudomonas aeruginosa decreases with increasing ionic strength. Sorption of
copper and cobalt investigated by J a n g et al. [23] indicated t h a t ionic strength
does not affect strongly the sorption at concentration of copper above 60 ppm. At
concentration of copper below 60 ppm, the copper binding increases with
decreasing ionic strength. Cho et al. [24] showed that there was no significant
decrease in the binding of Cd 2+ and Zn 2 up to ionic strength of 10 .3 M, but the
extent of sorption decreased when ionic strength exceeded 10 .2 M. Kuyucak and
Volesky [25] found that in seawater where ionic strength and pH values are high,
it is possible to have shifting of equilibrium toward sorption of light metal ions
(e.g., Ca, Na, K, Mg). In distilled water, on the other hand, it was found that the
equilibrium uptake of these sequestered metal ions, which are replaced by
protons, is decreased. All these experimental observations are contrary to what
is observed in the sorption of metal ions by hydrous oxides and activated carbon.
In the case of biopolymers, the competition for the functional groups between
metal ions and other ions in solution plays a more important role t h a n the
compression of EDL. Since the number of functional groups available is fixed at
288
a certain pH, the sites available for metal ion uptake decreases with increasing
ionic strength.
2.2. Models for m e t a l ion s o r p t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m

The most common models used for sorption processes are the Langmuir and
Freundlich isotherms. The major advantage of these models is their simplicity;
however, both models fail to predict the effects of several important factors, such
as pH and ionic strength. If the model parameters are obtained based on
experiments under one set of conditions, the models cannot give accurate
predictions for another set of conditions. For example, it has been shown that
metal ion sorption increases dramatically in a short pH range. If the parameters
of the empirical equations are based on experiments at a certain pH in this short
range, these parameters cannot be used to calculate sorption equilibrium at a
different pH. In addition to the pH effect, it is experimentally shown that the
type and concentration of electrolytes and complexing agents play important
roles in sorption as discussed in Section 2.1. Empirical equations fail to predict
accurately sorption equilibrium under varying ionic strengths. Additionally, the
empirical models cannot give a fundamental understanding of ion sorption.
Numerous investigations have been carried out in the past several decades to
overcome these problems. Several models have been developed to describe the
mechanisms of metal ion sorption at solid-liquid interfaces. They include the
Gouy-Chapman-Stern-Grahame model, the ion-exchange model, the ion-solvent
interaction model and the surface complex formation model (SCFM) [9]. Among
these models, SCFM is able to take into account the effects of pH, ionic strength,
concentration of metal ions and other factors. It has been found that SCFM is
very successful in predicting metal ion sorption by hydrous oxides [8,9,13-15,26],
activated carbon [9-11] and biopolymers [3,12].
2.2.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n of surface c o m p l e x f o r m a t i o n m o d e l
The surface complex formation model (SCFM) considers that sorption depends
on three interrelated processes: surface ionization, complex formation and the
formation and presence of an EDL adjacent to sorbent surfaces [9]. There are
several models proposed based on the considerations of the EDL formation and
the types of functional groups. Different considerations of the electrostatic layers
adjacent to solid surfaces lead to the formulations of the diffuse layer model, the
Basic Stern model, the constant capacitance model and the triple-layer model
[9,27]. The schematic representation of the triple layer model is shown in
Figure 1. Hydrogen ions are usually considered to be sorbed in the inner layer
and the other ions are regarded as being sorbed in the outer layer. By comparing
acid-base titration data with modeling results, Westall and Hohl [27] concluded
that there are no differences among various models. Hayes and coworkers
[15,16], however, reported that the location of sorbed ions is strongly dependent
on the relative bonding affinity of ions for the functional groups on the sorbents.
Studying the effect of the ionic strength, one can distinguish the location of ions
289
sorbed. According to the experimental and modeling results of Hayes and
coworkers, ions of higher affinity with surfaces are sorbed in the inner layer,
while those of lower affinity are sorbed in the outer layer. The triple-layer model
is considered valuable as it can predict sorption w h e n ions have lower or higher
affinity with surfaces.
In addition, modeling studies have revealed t h a t in
addition to free m e t a l ions, metal ion hydroxides m a y also be sorbed [13,14,26].
Mm+OHO - . . . . . d,- M m + ~~.JY13

rJ:
M(0H)m
O . . . . . . -:'- M m+
OH
OHy
O ...... ~- X +
O
Mm+
OH 2
OH~---~-YE
0 . . . . . . -L
H+
Mm+
OH/
[3
13"13
(Yd
C1
~o
(~o
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of surface complex formation model.
290
At the surface, functional groups for ion sorption are regarded as one average
site or functional group, which is treated as an analog to complexing ligands in
solution. Under different pH conditions, the functional group has different
surface charge. Two models are commonly used, the one-pK model or the two-pK
model. At a given pH, the one-pK model considers the functional group in the
form of SOH ~/2+ and SOH 1/2- [28], while the two-pK model treats the functional
group in the form of SO, SOH and SOH~ [13,14,26]. There are no significant
differences between the one-pK and two-pK models in terms of describing metal
ion sorption equilibrium [9]. On the other hand, Reed and Matsumoto [17,29]
proposed a multiple-site model. They used three types of sites (or functional
groups) instead of one average functional group to represent the surface sites of
activated carbon. Their modeling results gave a good representation of their
experimental data. Basically, the model is the same as the diffuse layer model
with the exception that multiple sites are involved in the calculations. The
diffuse layer model considers that all the ions are sorbed in the inner layer [9,27].
If the affinity of ions for the sorbent has to be considered, however, the triplelayer model must be employed.
Better representations may result if one
combines the multiple-site and triple-layer models in the calculations. In this
case, the calculations will become extremely complicated and the number of the
parameters may be too large to be determined.
2.2.2. Mathematical description of surface complex formation model

Metal ion sorption by the functional groups on the surface of the sorbents
results in the removal of metal ions from solution. The functional groups are
treated as analogs to complexing ligands in solution. Electrolyte, represented as
XY, is used to adjust the ionic strength in order to obtain information on the
complexation of background electrolytes and the EDL. The general surface
protolysis reactions, the electrolyte surface reactions and the metal ion sorption
reactions for the triple-layer two-pK SCFM are listed in Table 1. The triple layer
refers to the location of the ions in three different layers, i.e., o, 13 and d-layers as
shown in Figure 1, while the two-pK refers to surface ionization corresponding to
three types of surface species (SO-, SOH and SOH~) and associated with two
equilibrium constants, KH1 and KH2. There are several possibilities for the
removal of metal ions: removal may result from the formation of the surfacemetal complexes SO-M m+ or SOM(OH)I m-l)+ (a hydrolysis product of SO'M m+),
or a combination of both. In addition, complexation of metal ions by multidentate
surface sites, i.e., formation o f -(SO')nM(OH)}m-/)+,
"
may contribute to the binding
of metal ions. All the ions except the hydrogen ion, normally, are assumed to be
sorbed in the outer layer, or 13-layer (see Figure 1). If the functional groups have
strong affinities for the ions, these ions could be sorbed in the inner layer as
suggested by Hayes and coworkers [15,16].
291
Two key t e r m s h a v e to be defined before the f o r m u l a t i o n of the m a t h e m a t i c a l
model. T h e y are the components a n d species which are used in the equilibrium
model, M I N E Q L , by Westall et al. [30]. According to the definition by Westall et
al. [30], the components in a m a t h e m a t i c a l sense form the i n d e p e n d e n t basis set
from which every species can be defined a n d upon which the m a s s balance
equations are based. In a chemical sense, the components are a set of chemical
entities such t h a t every species can be r e p r e s e n t e d as the product of a reaction
involving only these components and no component can be r e p r e s e n t e d as the
product of a reaction involving only the other components. M a t h e m a t i c a l l y ,
species r e p r e s e n t log linear combinations of the components; chemically, a species
is the product of a chemical reaction involving the components as r e a c t a n t s .
A s s u m i n g a s y s t e m in which there are Mx aqueous species with concentrations
xi, My sorbed (absorbed, adsorbed, complexated a n d ion-exchanged) species with
concentrations yi a n d Mp precipitated species with activities of unity, one can
express the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s or activities of the three types of species in t e r m s of Na
aqueous c o m p o n e n t s with concentrations cj, Ns sorbent components with
concentrations sj a n d two electrostatic components co a n d %.
The specific
equations, k n o w n as equilibrium relationships, which give the concentrations or
activities of the t h r e e types of species are [13,26,30]:
Na a x
xi = KX 1-] Ckik '
k=l
(5
yi-
aYk
bYk caYocl3Yl3
lick
Sk
i = 1,2 ..... M x,
(la)
i = 1,2 .... , M y ,
(lb)
i = 1,2 ..... M p ,
(lc)
J~k=l
1= KP Na
1-[ CkPk ,
k=l
where,
K x - modified equilibrium c o n s t a n t of the i-th aqueous species,

x _ stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th aqueous component in the i-th aqueous
aik
species,
K y - modified equilibrium c o n s t a n t of the i-th sorbed species,
Y - stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th aqueous or electrostatic component in
aik
the i-th sorbed species,
b ik
y - stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th sorbent component in the i-th sorbed
species,
K p - modified equilibrium c o n s t a n t of the i-th precipitated species,
aPk- stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th aqueous component in the i-th
p r e c i p i t a t e d species.
292
Table 1
Mathematical description of two-pK triple-layer surface complex formation model
Reactions
Equilibrium expressions**
Surface protolysis reaction

+
SOH + H + ~ SOH2
[ OH l
ISOHl{H+} - K.1
ex.(_ e~ o/
[so ]{H+}
SOH r SO- + H +
~()-I-I-]
= K H 2 e x p ( ~ -]
Electrolyte, XY, surface reactions

SOH + X + <=>S O X + + H +
[SOH]{X + } =Kxexp
SOH + H + + Y- r SOH~Y
[SOH~Y-]
Outer-sphere metal ion (M m+)

sorption*
nSOH + M m+ +/H20 r (SO-)n M(OH)I m-l)*
kT
_ Kyexp[_ e(r
E(O-)nM(OH)Im-"+1{"+}'n+"
[SOH]n {M m+ }
- ~,fl
)/
n
= KM(OH)/
(n +/)H +
exp
kT
I(SO)nM(OH)Im-l-n)+l{H+}(n+l)
Inner-sphere metal ion (M m+)
sorption*
nSOH + M m+ +/H20 r (SO)nM(OH)I m-l-n)-~
[SOH]n {M m+ }
exp
= KM(OH)/ x
leIn+l-mt~'!o
kT
(n +/)H +
* n is the number of surface sites in mol/L, which reacts with one mol/L of M m
in solution; n = 1, 2, ..., N. l defines t h e / - t h hydrolysis product of Mm+; l = 0, 1,
2 ..... L;
l = 0 corresponds to the simple ion.
**Expressions include electrostatic interactions; if electrostatic interactions are
neglected, exponential terms equal to one.
293
The modified equilibrium constants in Equations (la)-(lc) include activity
corrections. Because of the EDL adjacent to the sorbent surface, electrostatic
components c o and cfl are included in Equation (lb). The EDL consists of the
charged surface and an excess of counter-ions over co-ions t h a t are diffused in the
solution as shown in Figure 1. The electrostatic components are energy terms
related to the electrical potentials ~'o and ~fl at o and ~-layers of the EDL as
follows:
co = exp(- e~T~) ,
c#=exp -
e ~'fl)
kT
(2a)
(2b)
'
where e, k a n d T are the electron charge, Boltzmann constant and absolute

temperature, respectively. The electrical potentials, ~uo , U fl and ~d, in the
three layers of the EDL are related to the corresponding surface charge densities,
cr o , crfl and cr d , through the charge/potential relationships defined from the
specific model chosen for the EDL. For the triple layer model illustrated in
Figure 1, these relationships are [27]:
O"d = - ~ / 8 c R T I
sinh[e~dl[~
2kT)
(3c)
'
where C1 and Cz are the capacitances of the EDL, c is permittivity of the medium,
R is the gas constant and I is the ionic strength.
From the electroneutrality condition we have:
O"o + O'fl + O"d = 0.
(4)
The surface charge densities, cro and ap, can be obtained from the sorbed species
concentrations as:
My
o- o = ~
i=1
aYyi,
(5a)
294
My
(5b)
cr fl = Z a ~ Y i .
i=1
Equations (1)-(5) may be solved to give the total sorbed concentration of the j-th
aqueous component, S j , given by:
My
j = 1,2..... N a .
S j = Z aY yi ,
i=1
(6)
Based on the various reactions listed in Table 1 and on the electrostatic

relations and mass balance equations, the distributions of ions in both solid and
liquid phases can be easily obtained by using the KINEQL model [9], which
allows equilibrium calculations similar to MINEQL [30], in addition to kinetic
calculations as will be discussed in Section 3.
2.2.3. Application of surface complex formation model

In order to obtain parameters for the various sorption reactions, two kinds of
experiments have to be performed and used as an input for determining the
parameters. They include potentiometric titration experiments of sorbents and
equilibrium experiments of metal ion sorption. The surface charge of sorbents
obtained by the titration experiments provides information on the equilibrium
constants of surface protolysis reactions (KH1 and Kin) and of electrolyte surface
reactions (Kx and Ky ), as well as on the physical constants of EDL, i.e., the
capacitances C 1 and C 2 (see Table 1 and Figure 1). Once these parameters are
obtained, equilibrium constants of metal ion sorption reactions can be found
based on sorption equilibrium experimental data and the parameters (KH1, KH2,
Kx, Ky. C1 and C2) obtained from the modeling study of surface charge. The
search of all these parameters can be carried out by comparing experimental data
with model predictions and by using optimization techniques. All the estimations
of parameters can be conducted by a computer program combining the KINEQL
model [9] and the Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) optimization routine
[31], with the objective function given as:
~__~I(Yj,measuredYj,yj,
measuredCalculated/20.5
SHAT -
N P - NPAR- 1
(7)
where yj,measured and yj,calculated correspond to the experimental data and calculated
results, respectively, NP is the number of experimental data and NPAR is the
number of parameters to be found. When the parameters are obtained, the
295
speciation of ions at equilibrium is well-defined. Here, modeling of copper ion
sorption equilibrium by activated carbon and by calcium alginate will be
presented to illustrate the application of SCFM.
Example 1" Modeling of copper ion sorption equilibrium by activated carbon

An experimental study of copper ion sorption by activated carbon was carried out
by Chen and coworkers [5,11]. Representation of the experimental data can be
performed by the two-pK triple-layer model, one of the SCFM approaches, as
shown in Table 2. The reactions given in Table 2 are represented with the same
way as in the KINEQL algorithm; c o m p o n e n t s are shown on the left-hand side of
the reactions and species on the right-hand size of the reactions. Modeling of
surface charge of activated carbon was conducted based on reactions (1) to (4)
given in Table 2. A computer program with two major subroutines (KINEQL and
SQP) was used to search for the equilibrium constants of reactions, the
capacitances C 1 and C 2 and the concentration of functional groups. Values of
these p a r a m e t e r s are found and are listed in Table 3. Detailed information of the
p a r a m e t e r search can be found in the literature [5,11].
Table 2
Two-pK model and solution reactions for copper ion sorption
Surface reactions:
KH1
1. SOH + H + + e x p ( - y o ) r
=SOH +
KH2
2. S O H - H + - e x p ( - y o) r SOKCIO4
3. SOH + C10~ + H + + e x p ( - y o ) - e x p ( - y f l ) ~
SOH~-C10~
KNa
4. SOH + Na + - H + - exp(-y o ) + exp(-y/3) ,r SO-Na +
5. SOH+Cu 2 + + 2 e x p ( - y f l ) - H + - e x p ( - y o )
KSOCu
~
SO-Cu 2+
6. SOH+Cu 2+ + e x p ( - y f l ) - 2 H + - e x p ( - y o )
KSOCuOH
~
SO-CuOH +
Solution reactions:
7.
C u 2+ -
H+ r
8. Cu 2+ - 2H + r
9. 2Cu 2+ - 2 H + r
10.-H + r
CuOH +
Cu(OI-I)2
2+
OH-
where Yo = e~'o / kT referred to o-layer and yfl = e g f l / kT to fl-layer
296
Table 3
Model p a r a m e t e r s for copper ion sorption by activated carbon and calcium
alginate
Name of p a r a m e t e r
Activated carbon
Calcium alginate
C1
31 gF/cm 2
25.3 ~tF/cm 2
C2
23 gF/cm 2
-*
KH1
107.26 M 1
100.49 M 1
KH2
10 "10"70M
10 -13.~176
M
Kclo4
103.56 M 2
-*
KNa
10-11.95
_r162
Ksocu
10 1"13
10 T M
KSOCuOH
10-14.55 M
10 .6.02M
Concentration of sorbent
10 g/L
20 g/L
Concentration of functional groups
0.10 M
0.924 M
Surface area
1.24x104 m2/L
lx104 m2/L
Dpcu
l x l 0 -6 cm2/s
l x l 0 5 cm2/s
kfcu
3xl0-3cm/s
5xl0-3cm/s
ap
0.2 mm
1.25 mm
IOp
1.316 g/cm 3
1.01 g/cm 3
* The two-pK Basic Stern model was employed in the modeling of copper ion sorption by
calcium alginate and reactions 3 and 4 of Table 2 were not included.
The search of the equilibrium constants of copper ion sorption can be

conducted, with the objective function, SHAT, given by Equation (7). Since the
electrolyte was added to the system during the metal ion sorption, reactions (1) to
(4) of Table 2 can be included in the model and the p a r a m e t e r s obtained from the
modeling of surface charge are used in the modeling of sorption equilibrium.
Copper ion solution reactions listed in Table 2 were also included in the modeling.
Modeling by using the inner-sphere metal ion sorption shows t h a t no better fit
could be obtained [11]. It was also assumed t h a t copper ion removal results from
formation of single surface-metal complexes, SOCu 2+ or SOCuOH +. Modeling of
the metal ion sorption shows t h a t a single surface-metal complex assumption
(SOCu 2+ or SO-CuOH +) cannot be held because of larger values of SHAT.
Some researchers [13,29] showed t h a t combinations of several single sorption
reactions can give a better representation. In addition, Reed and Matsumoto [29]
297
reported that in cadmium ion sorption by activated carbon, the overall
stoichiometric coefficient (moles H released per mole cadmium sorbed) ranges
from 0.89 to 1.24. This observation implies that there are more than one sorption
reactions taking place. Therefore, a search is based on the consideration of two
single sorption reactions (5) and (6) listed in Table 2. The modeling results
shown in Figure 2 indicate that the combination of reactions (5) and (6) gives a
good representation of the experimental data. The parameters found from the
search are listed in Table 3. From the modeling, one can conclude that copper ion
removal results from the formation of surface-metal complexes SO-Cu 2+ and
SO-CuOH + in the outer layer. The disagreement between modeling results and
experimental data in the low pH region shows that the proposed model has
limitations.
0,12
Co=l.lxl0 4 M, I= 0.05M
m =20 g/L Calcium Alginate
9 Experimental Data
Modeling Results
0,1
O
O
"~
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
ra~
0
1
11
pH
Figure 2. Modeling of copper ion sorption equilibrium by activated carbon.
Example 2: Modeling of copper ion sorption equilibrium by calcium alginate

Experiments of copper ion sorption by calcium alginate, one of the
biopolymers, was also studied by Chen and coworkers [3,12]. This information
provides important input data for the modeling of copper ion sorption. In this
case, the two-pK Basic Stern (BS) model, a limiting case of the two-pK triplelayer model, was employed to describe metal ion sorption equilibrium by calcium
alginate. The triple-layer model can be simplified by merging the three layers (o,
[3 and d-layers; see Figure 1) in various ways [9]. In the BS model, [3 and d-layers
coincide and the complexation reactions occur in the d-layer. Sorption reactions
(1), (2), (5) and (6) and solution reactions (7) to (10) listed in Table 2 were used in
298
the modeling.
Similar to the modeling process for activated carbon, two
procedures were used in searching for the model parameters. First, titration of
calcium alginate provided information on the surface charge which was used in
the determination of such parameters as the capacitance of EDL (C1), KH1 and
KH2, as well as the surface area and the concentration of functional groups.
Values of these parameters are listed in Table 3.
Based on equilibrium sorption experiments, on copper solution reactions
available in Table 2, as well as on surface protolysis reactions found from the
modeling of surface charge, searching for the equilibrium constants of sorption
reactions was initiated. Similar to the modeling of copper sorption by activated
carbon, it was assumed that copper ion removal results from the formation of
such surface-metal complexes as SO-Cu 2 and SO-CuOH In the calculations, a
computer program including KINEQL and SQP was used to find the equilibrium
constants of reactions (5) and (6) of Table 2, with the objective function SHAT
given by Equation (7). The constants Ksocu and KSOCuOHwere found and listed in
Table 3 and the modeling of copper ion sorption is shown in Figure 3 together
with the experimental data. As shown in Figure 3, the two-pK BS Model
provides a good representation of the experimental data and describes well the
effect of pH on the equilibrium uptake. The formation of the surface-metal
complexes S O C u 2+ and SO-CuOH results in the copper ion removal.
0,12
Co=l.lxl0 -4M, I = 0.05M
m =20 g/L Calcium Alginate
9 ExperimentalData
Modeling Results
0,1
o
o
-~
~D
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
r~
o
1
11
pH
Figure 3. Modeling of copper ion sorption equilibrium by calcium alginate.
299
3. METAL ION SORPTION KINETICS
In this section, factors affecting metal ion sorption kinetics and possible
mechanisms of sorption kinetics by various sorbents, as well as kinetic models,
are discussed. KINEQL, a kinetic model, is introduced, followed by a discussion
on its applicability to describe copper ion sorption kinetics by activated carbon
and calcium alginate.
3.1. Factors i n f l u e n c i n g metal ion sorption k i n e t i c s
Metal ion sorption kinetics experiments show that sorption follows two
phases. Rapid sorption occurs initially followed by a much slower phase, which
takes from a few hours to several weeks [11,32]. The sorption rate depends on
the mixing strength of solution, type of both the sorbent and the sorbate, pH and
ionic strength of solution, initial concentration of metal ions, as well as
concentration of sorbents.
Lo and Leckie [33] demonstrated that sorption of cadmium ions by aluminum
oxide reaches equilibrium in one day. Chen et al. [11] showed that copper ion
sorption by activated carbon reaches equilibrium quickly at higher pH values and
lower initial concentration. Most of the sorption is completed in the first hour
and equilibrium is reached within four hours approximately. Huang and Smith
[34] investigated cadmium sorption kinetics by using two types of activated
carbon, Nuchar SN and Nuchar SA, at various values of pH and sorbent
concentration and in the presence of cyanide (CN-) and fluoroborate (BF4). They
found that maximum sorption is reached in the first two minutes. Thirty
minutes is sufficient for the complete sorption of lead and copper by powdered
activated carbons as reported by Netzer and Hughes [35]. Complete sorption of
cobalt by the same sorbents is done in two hours. Reed and Matsumoto [17] used
two types of activated carbon, Darco HDB and Nuchar SN, to remove cadmium
and found that sorption of cadmium is completed in six hours. In these studies,
the removal kinetics was found to be slower for solutions containing high initial
cadmium/activated carbon concentration ratios. Perez-Candela et al. [36] showed
that there is no further sorption of chromium (VI) by activated carbon after nine
hours. Wilczak and Keinath [32] reported that initial sorption of copper and lead
onto two types of activated carbon, Nuchar SA and Filtrasorb 400, occurs rapidly,
followed by a slow sorption step that takes about 35 days. Metal ion sorption
with granular activated carbon is slower than that with powdered activated
carbons [29]. Rubin and Mercer [37] reported that the equilibrium time for the 810 mesh activated carbons is 95 hours, while cadmium sorption is achieved
equilibrium in six hours with 50-200 mesh carbons. Huang and Smith [34]
concluded that pore diffusion is the rate limiting step in metal ion sorption.
Metal ion sorption kinetics by biopolymers has extensively been investigated
in recent years. Low et al. [38] observed that copper sorption by Eichornia
crassipes is rapid in the first ten minutes. Corder and Reeves [39] reported that
no further uptake of nickel by A. flos-aueae is observed after three hours. Konishi
300
et al. [40] showed that uptake of neodymium and ytterbium by alginate reaches
equilibrium in two hours. Chen et al. [3] reported that copper ion removal by
calcium alginate occurs rapidly in the first hour, followed by a slow uptake
process that takes about 15 hours. Based on sorption kinetic experiments with
various kinds of calcium alginate, it was found that diffusion plays an important
role in the uptake rate.
3.2. M o d e l s for m e t a l ion s o r p t i o n k i n e t i c s
Among a few modeling investigations, there are two major kinetic models, one
formulating sorption kinetics empirically [32,33,41] and the other considering it
mechanistically [3,9,11,40,42-44]. The first group of models are essentially based
on data-fitting and are not able to interpret the sorption experimental data. The
second group of models can be catalogued into reaction-controlled and diffusioncontrolled models and are based on the relative importance of the chemical
reaction rate to the diffusion transport rate [3,9,11]. Reaction controlled or
diffusion controlled models can be identified experimentally [3,5]. Diffusioncontrolled models can be employed to describe metal ion sorption kinetics once
the reactions rate is found to be negligible. Similarly, reaction-controlled models
are used when diffusion of metal ions is less important.
Among the various models, the diffusion-controlled models are often used for
activated carbon and biopolymers. Most of the diffusion-controlled models
discussed in the literature use a simplified expression (e.g., the Freundlich and
Langmuir models) to describe the local equilibrium relationship. As mentioned in
Section 2.1, these models and their parameters are system-specific and cannot be
applied to other conditions, such as different pH and ionic strength. Yiacoumi
and Tien [9] developed a kinetic model, called KINEQL, in which SCFM is used
to express the local equilibrium relationship.
KINEQL can solve not only
equilibrium problems as discussed in Section 2.2.2, but also kinetic problems in
reaction-controlled and diffusion-controlled cases.
It has been shown that
KINEQL works well in the representation of metal ion sorption kinetics by
hydrous oxides [9,42,43], activated carbon [5,11] and biopolymers [3,5,12]. The
advantage of KINEQL is that all the important factors, such as pH, ionic
strength, temperature, metal ion concentration and sorbent concentration, are
considered.
3.2.1. K I N E Q L m o d e l
Single-species batch sorption kinetic experiments for the sorbents can be
analyzed to determine the rate parameters of the uptake process. The first step
in this analysis is to determine the rate-limiting step of the sorption process by
various experimental techniques, such as using varying sorbent sizes and mixing
intensities. Once the rate-limiting step is identified, the appropriate formulation
can be followed. Many studies show that diffusion plays an important role in the
sorption kinetics by activated carbon [34,37] and biopolymers [3,12,45,46]. On
the other hand, sorption reactions in most systems were considered
301
i n s t a n t a n e o u s and, therefore, the diffusion mechanism is a s s u m e d to be the
controlling step in the metal ion sorption process and is discussed in detail below.
Neglecting any electrical potential gradients in the internal surface of the
sorbent particles, the intraparticle equation can be written as:
617j
Ep - -
D pj ~ r 2 - ~ ]
=
r2
p p Oqj
c~
m c2
(8)
where cj is the local concentration of ion j in the pore solution within the particle
pellet and qj is the local concentration of ion j in the sorbed phase based on bulk
m, top, c p and D~j are the mass sorbent concentration, the
solution volume,
sorbent density, the sorbent porosity and the diffusivity, respectively.

The
independent variables are the time t and the radial distance r.
When the sorption reaction step has no effect on the rate of the overall uptake
process, equilibrium exists between the pore liquid phase and the solid phase
across the sorbent particle. The local concentrations of ion j in the solution and
sorbed phases of the sorbent pellets, cj and q j , are related with the equilibrium
relationship which is defined here by the function f, i.e.,
qj = f (cj ) ,
(9)
The initial and boundary conditions are:
cj=O
at
t=O,
(lOa)
&J =0
&
at
r=O,
(lOb)
at
r=ap,
(10c)
&j
k j j ( C j - c j ) = Dpj cTr
where
k~ is the external
mass transfer coefficient of the ion, Cj is the
concentration of ion j in the bulk solution and a p is the radius of the sorbent
particles.
The macroscopic conservation equation for the concentration of ion j in the
bulk solution, Cj, is described as:
.
dt
,Op a p
r =ap
,Op
ep
--~
,Op dt J
(11)
where cj and q j are the average quantities of c i and qj within the sorbent pellet.
302
By applying the parabolic boundary approximation [47,48] and assuming that
pp--
@cj <<~qj,
one can obtain the equations describing the diffusion of N a
m
aqueous components inside of the sorbent as:
dSj
~=
dt
Ej 3m B j ( c j - C j s ),
pp
j = 1,2..... N a ,
(12)
Ej - D p j / a p2,
j = 1,2..... Na,
(13a)
Bj = apk y] / Dpj ,
j = 1,2,...,N a .
(13b)
where
The symbol cjs in Equation (12) defines the concentration of ion ] at the external
surface of the sorbent, given by:
Cjs=
E(
(1- Bj)c] +-1 1- Bj)2--cj2 + 8~-5-j(75-j+ Bjcj

4
4
)11/2
, j : 1,2.... ,Na,
(14)
where
cjSj
cj= My
j = 1,2,...,N a .
(15)
X ai~Yi
i=1
The system of Equations (12)-(15) is an approximate representation of

intraparticle diffusion equations in a batch system based on the mathematical
scheme introduced by Yao and coworkers [47,48]. The solution of this system of
equations, in association with the required equilibrium relationships, provides Sj
as a function of time. The mathematical method to solve the system of Equations
(12)-(15) in connection with Equations (1)-(5) should include a combination of a
chemical equilibrium algorithm with a differential equation solver. Such an
algorithm was developed by Yiacoumi and Tien [9] in the KINEQL model for the
case of sorption of metal ions from aqueous solutions under conditions where
either reaction or mass transfer controls the process. The rate parameters can be
estimated from correlation relationships available in the literature [49]. The
first-order ordinary differential equations corresponding to the rate expression
given by Equation (12) can be solved numerically by using an ordinary
differential equation solver, such as the EPISODE package [50].
303
A similar mathematical formulation can be derived for the reaction-controlled
limiting case, as well as for the more generalized one in which both diffusion and
reaction are important. Formulations for the latter case are available in the
literature to describe sorption of nonionic organic compounds by porous particles
[51-54].
3.2.2. Application of KINEQL model

To illustrate the application of the KINEQL model, modeling of copper ion
sorption kinetics by activated carbon and by calcium alginate is presented here.
The modeling assumes that diffusion is the controlling step for metal ion
sorption. Experimental data can be found in the literature [3,5,11].
Example 1: Modeling of copper ion sorption kinetics by activated carbon

To carry out the modeling, the equilibrium relationships as well as the
identity of the ions that diffuse into the interior of the sorbent have to be defined.
Surface reactions (1) to (6) and solution reactions (7) to (10) of Table 2 are used in
the kinetic calculations as discussed in Section 2.2.3. The parameters required in
the calculations are listed in Table 3.
It is assumed that only Cu 2 ions diffuse from the bulk of the solution to the
interior of the sorbent. The surface-metal complex SO-Cu 2 is formed by the
sorption of Cu2+, while the species SO-CuOH is formed by the hydrolysis of the
surface species SO-Cu 2 Such an assumption was necessary in order to give
physically realistic model parameters [9]. The rate expression for sorption
occurring in the micropore region can be derived from Equation (12) as:
d[so-cu2+]+[so-cuo.+]) cu
dt
3m Bcu[{Cu2+ } _ {Cu2+ }s],
(16)
Pp
where
+1 E
)2
8{Cu2+ x
(17)
The sensitivity analysis of the model showed that the external mass transfer
coefficient affects the initial sorption phase and results in most of the metal ion
removal, while the diffusivity influences the rate of sorption in the second phase
[11]. Increasing these two parameters results in the rapid sorption of metal ions.
Wilczak and Keinath [32] reported that the slow sorption phase takes several
weeks and may result from lower diffusion of metal ions in the activated carbon.
304
Modeling of copper ion sorption kinetics was carried out with the diffusivity,
external mass transfer coefficient and other parameters listed in Table 3. The
external mass transfer coefficient of 3x10 3 cm/s is close to the value obtained
from correlations available in the literature [49]. The diffusivity of 10 .6 cm2/s is
one order of magnitude lower than that in water, which can be explained from
the nature of the porous structure of the activated carbon pellets. Modeling
results are plotted in Figure 4 against experimental data, where the solid line
and the points represent the modeling results and the experimental data,
respectively. It shows that the model describes well the concentration histories
for pH 4 and 5. The poor description for the concentration history of pH 3 is
because of the poor description of the sorption equilibrium at the same pH (see
Figure 2). The prediction of the sorption kinetics strongly depends on the
accuracy of the equilibrium calculations. Better description of sorption kinetics
cannot be accomplished without an improved sorption equilibrium model.
~, 0,08
Co=7xl 0-5 M, I=0.05M
0,06
pH=3.0
0,02
"~ 0,00
0
20
40
60
80
Timel/2 , m l .n 1/2
Figure 4. Modeling of copper ion sorption kinetics by activated carbon.
Example 2: Modeling of copper ion sorption kinetics by calcium alginate

Similar to the modeling of copper sorption kinetics by activated carbon, the
model used here is the intraparticle diffusion model where the equilibrium
relationship is expressed by the sorption and solution reactions (1), (2), (5), (6)
and (7) to (10) of Table 2 and the EDL is described by the two-pK BS model.
305
Similar to the case of sorption by activated carbon (see Example 1), it is assumed
in the modeling t h a t free copper ions diffuse from the bulk of the solution into
the interior of calcium alginate and that the surface species SO-Cu 2 and SOCuOH are formed.
The external mass transport affects the initial sorption rate and results in
most of the metal ion removal, while the diffusion influences the rate of sorption
in the second phase. It is assumed that the diffusivity is similar to t h a t in water,
which is reasonable, given the high water content in the calcium alginate gel
beads. Here a diffusivity of lx10 5 cm2/s is used, very close to that in water.
Based on an empirical equation available in Tien's monograph [49], the external
mass transport coefficient was found to be 5 .3 cm/s. The mass concentration,
radius and density of beads used in the calculations can be found in Table 3.
Modeling results are plotted in Figure 5 against experimental data, where the
solid line and the points represent the modeling results and the experimental
data, respectively. As one can see, the model gives a good representation of
experimental data and successfully predicts the effect of pH on the kinetics of
copper ion uptake.
0,12
Co=l.03xlO -4 M,
o
~-, 0,10
9
0,08
nlq=9
.~ 0,06
0,04
oH=3
0,02
oH=5.
"~ 0,00
10
20
30
40
50
60
Timel/2 , mln
. 1/2
Figure 5. Modeling of copper ion sorption kinetics by calcium alginate.
It can be concluded that the diffusion-controlled model presented here, in

association with the surface complexation approach, can successfully describe the
metal ion sorption equilibrium and kinetics by activated carbon and calcium
306
alginate. The rate parameters used in the model, i.e., the diffusivity and external
mass transport coefficient, have a physical significance and their values obtained
from the experimental data agree with existing correlations and the physics of
the process. Based on the model, the mechanism of copper ion removal is
diffusion of free copper ions from the bulk solution to the external and internal
surfaces of the sorbents, resulting in the formation of two surface-metal
complexes: SO-Cu 2 formed by sorption of Cu 2 and SO-CuOH formed by
hydrolysis of SO-Cu 2
"
METAL ION T R A N S P O R T IN T R E A T M E N T AND N A T U R A L

SUBSURFACE SYSTEMS
In Sections 2 and 3, the discussion on metal ion sorption equilibrium and

kinetics was based on simple batch reactor systems. More complex reactors, such
as fixed-bed columns and fluidized beds, are usually employed for metal ion
removal. In addition, pollution of metal ions in natural subsurface systems has
increased dramatically in the recent decades. Eventually, information from
experimental and modeling studies of batch sorption equilibrium and kinetics is
not sufficient. Experimental studies with various reactors, as well as transport
modeling under certain conditions, have to be carried out.
Microscopic and macroscopic modeling are necessary for the description and
practical applications of metal ion sorption. Microscopic mathematical models,
which are essentially the kinetic models discussed in Section 3, describe the
uptake rate of metal ions from the solution to the sorbent, while macroscopic
modeling incorporates the microscopic models with mass transport and
hydrological transport equations to predict the behavior of the process.
4.1. F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g m e t a l ion t r a n s p o r t in t r e a t m e n t a n d n a t u r a l
subsurface systems
Metal ion transport can be categorized into two major groups, one in
treatment systems, e.g., fixed-bed columns and another in natural surface and
subsurface systems. The major difference between these two groups is that the
flowrate of the first is much larger than that of the second. In addition to the
factors discussed in Sections 2 and 3, the flowrate of solution also plays an
important role in metal ion transport.
4.1.1. T r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s
As a treatment approach, sorption by fixed-bed columns has been widely used
in water and wastewater treatment. While it is well-documented that this
technique provides a highly effective remediation method for organic
contaminants, there are not many studies on metal ion removal by fixed-bed
columns. Research on metal ion sorption in the past has focused on batch
equilibrium and kinetic studies. Nonetheless, a few studies reveal valuable
information on metal sorption in fixed-bed columns by various kinds of sorbents.
307
These investigations include the influence of influent pH, concentration of metal
ion and chelating agents, flowrate of the influent solution, bed depth and the
effect of pre-treatment/pre-washing of fixed-bed columns.
Among different
chemical and physical conditions, column pH is a critical parameter that
influences fixed-bed sorption performance.
Fixed-bed experiments with activated carbon and at various values of influent
pH, ionic strength and metal ion concentration, investigated by Chen and
coworkers [5,55], showed that with an increase of influent pH, the breakthrough
time increases. An overshoot of effluent concentration was observed due to
desorption of copper ions from surface-metal complexes. A dramatic increase of
pH at effluent was also found in the experiments. The breakthrough time
increases as ionic strength and empty bed contact time are increased and influent
metal ion concentration is decreased. The removal of lead by granular activated
carbon column was investigated by Reed and Arunachalam [56]. Fifty bed
volumes (BV) of stream with pH 5.47 and concentration of 10 ppm were treated
by virgin carbon. The effluent pH decreases from pH 7 at the beginning of the
operation to pH 5.4 at the end. The breakthrough occurs at 300 BV by using
activated carbon pretreated with HNO3, or a combination of HNO3 and NaOH.
The effluent pH also decreases from 11 to 8 at breakthrough. Additionally, the
presence of acetic acid or EDTA significantly decreases the BV treated. Sorption
and surface and pore liquid precipitation were assumed to be the dominant
removal mechanisms. Shay and Etzel [57] reported that a stream with nickel
and zinc, as well as citrate and EDTA, was treated by granular activated carbon
column. Thirty-six minutes is sufficient to reach complete metal ion removal.
Bowers and Huang [58] demonstrated that the breakthrough of granular
activated carbon column occurs after 600 BV of Cr (VI) were treated. In the
study, the fixed-bed column was washed previously with 150 BV of pH 2.5 and
0.1 M NaC1 solution. Huang and Wirth [59] conducted a study of fixed-bed
sorption of cadmium with powdered activated carbon.
Over 1500 BV of
wastewater with pH 7.0 and concentration of 10 .4 M were treated. Removing
lead from drinking water with granular activated carbon fixed-bed columns at
various values of pH and in the existence of other metal ions was also
investigated by Kuennen et al. [60]. It was found that for lead sorption, the
breakthrough takes place at 10, 900 and 7000 BV for pH 5, 6 and 9, respectively.
At pH 7, breakthrough occurred at 1000, 1000, 3200 and 6400 BV for zinc,
cadmium, copper and lead, respectively.
These results illustrate that the
activated carbon used is favorable for copper and lead sorption, but not for zinc
and cadmium.
Interest in the usage of biopolymers as sorbents in fixed-bed columns has
increased in recent years since biopolymers can be inexpensive, have high
selectivity and high capacities for sorption of many heavy metal ions. Copper ion
sorption by calcium alginate was investigated by Chen and Yiacoumi [12]. It was
found that the breakthrough occurs in the beginning of the experiment and the
column reaches saturation in 300 hours. Low et al. [38] conducted sorption of
308
electroplating waste containing copper and nickel in a column by using 2.5 g nonliving dried water hyacinth roots as sorbents. Solution pH was 5.24 and the
concentrations of copper and nickel were 7.98 ppm and 14.73 ppm, respectively.
The flowrate of the waste and the internal diameter and length of the column
were 10 mL/min, 1.2 cm and 12.5 cm, respectively. It was found t h a t about
700 mL nickel waste and 3100 mL copper waste were completely removed from
the column. Watson et al. [61,62] reported that over 50 BV of strontium solution
with 10 ppm of initial metal concentration and pH 7 were treated by using
Micrococcus luteus (ATCC-4698).
The usage of granules of crosslinked
biopolymers of brown alga A. nodosum (FCAN) for fixed-bed sorption of cadmium
with pH 5.5 and concentration of 10 ppm was investigated by Volesky and
Prasetyo [63]. They found that there is a linear relationship between the
breakthrough time and the depth of column at any given flowrate.
4.1.2. S u b s u r f a c e s y s t e m s
Heavy and radioactive metals resulting from metal milling, incineration and
military operations have caused serious impact on natural environments mainly
because of their toxicity to h u m a n and their longer half-lives. For example, in
recent years, the concern on h u m a n health from depleted u r a n i u m (DU) is
increasing. A facility for producing uranium metal and uranium tetrafluoride
began operation in 1951 and was shut down in 1989 [64]. Estimates suggest t h a t
2,000,000 to 4,000,000 m 3 of soil near this facility may have unacceptable levels
of uranium contamination.
The current technologies for the remediation of DU-contaminated soil include:
(i) excavation and transportation of the soil to repository, (ii) immobilization of
the DU in place, (iii) physical separation and removal of the more highly
contaminated soil fractions from the rest of the soil and (iv) soil washing. Field
tests indicate that metal ions may transport hundreds of miles after some years,
depending on the pH and other factors of soil.
4.2. Models for m e t a l ion t r a n s p o r t in t r e a t m e n t and n a t u r a l s u b s u r f a c e
systems
The development of metal ion transport models was initiated for designing
fixed-bed columns for the t r e a t m e n t of metal ions, as well as for determining the
extent of metal ion transport in natural subsurface systems. Many of the
existing models use empirical methods to express the chemistry of the system
and cannot describe accurately a system in which aqueous speciation,
precipitation, redox, ion-exchange and sorption reactions are involved. These
reactions can be correctly described using the equilibrium model MINEQL [30]
discussed in Section 2.2. HYDROGEOCHEM [4,65] comprises MINEQL and a
hydrologic transport model and can predict metal ion transport in subsurface
systems. The model was developed for simulation of metal ion transport in
subsurface systems. One of the assumptions in HYDROGEOCHEM is t h a t all
the chemical reactions are at equilibrium, which may be valid for subsurface
309
systems as the flowrate of groundwater is very slow, but may not be true in fixedbed columns where the flowrate is usually higher.
4.2.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n of H Y D R O G E O C H E M m o d e l
HYDROGEOCHEM is a coupled model of HYDROlogic transport and
GEOCHEMical reactions in saturated-unsaturated media. The model is designed
to simulate transient and/or steady-state transport of aqueous species and
transient and/or steady-state mass balances of sorbent and ion-exchange sites.
Thus, HYDROGEOCHEM is a general-purpose model useful for the simulation of
reactive multispecies-multicomponent chemical transport through saturatedunsaturated media. The model includes hydrophysical and chemical processes.
The hydrophysical processes, which include advection, dispersion and diffusion,
are described by a set of partial differential equations. The chemical processes,
which
include
aqueous
speciation,
sorption/desorption,
ion-exchange,
precipitation/dissolution, redox and acid-base reactions, are assumed to be at
equilibrium and are described by a set of nonlinear algebraic equations.
Additionally, the intraparticle mass transport resistance of metal ions is
neglected since groundwater flowrate is low.
The transport of aqueous
components, the mass balance of sorbent components and the mass balance of
ion-exchange sites are included to describe the mass transport processes in
subsurface systems, with detailed information available in the literature [4,65].
These transport equations, together with the appropriate flow equations and the
chemical reactions of the system, are solved by a finite element method in order
to give the concentrations of various species.
4.2.2. A p p l i c a t i o n of H Y D R O G E O C H E M m o d e l
Modeling of copper ion sorption in fixed-bed columns and simulation of
depleted uranium transport in subsurface systems are demonstrated here as
examples for the application of HYDROGEOCHEM. The detailed information of
these modeling procedures has been discussed elsewhere [5,6,55].
Example 1: Modeling of copper ion transport in activated carbon fixed-bed columns
In copper ion sorption experiments with activated carbon fixed-bed columns,
carried out by Chen and coworkers [5,55], it was found that pH increases
dramatically once the activated carbon is put into the solution [11]. In order to
eliminate this pH variation, deionized water with ionic strength of 0.005 M and
pH 3.1 or 5.8 was used to wash the fixed-bed columns. Modeling of the sorption in
fixed-bed columns was performed by using the HYDROGEOCHEM model. The
chemistry of aqueous reactions, sorption reactions and their constants were
obtained from Tables 2 and 3. The physical parameters, such as influent
flowrate, were obtained from the experimental study [5,55]. Similar to the
modeling performed for the sorption kinetics experimental study, the simulation
was conducted with fixed pH as 3.1 and 5.8. The modeling results, together with
experimental data, are presented in Figure 6. As one can see, the model gives a
310
reasonable representation of the experimental data. It also can predict correctly
the exhaustion or saturation of fixed-bed column for metal ion sorption. There
are several factors resulting in the inaccuracy of the model for the representation
of experimental data.
One of the factors is that sorption kinetics is not
considered in the formulation of the model. From the kinetic study, it is
demonstrated that the sorption takes about four hours to reach equilibrium [11].
The assumption of instant equilibrium in the HYDROGEOCHEM model and the
less accurate equilibrium model, therefore, are the major reasons for the
disagreement.
0,12
pH=3.1
0,1
r
0,08
pH=5.8
9149
0,06
0,04
0,02
0_
0
Co=lxl0-4 M, I=5x10 3 M
L=4.0 cm, Q= 15 mL/min
~
10
20
30
40
50
Time, hr
Figure 6. Modeling of copper ion sorption in activated carbon fixed-bed columns at two
different pH values.
Example 2: Modeling of depleted uranium (DU) transport in subsurface systems.

In order to obtain an understanding of DU transport in n a t u r a l subsurface
systems in terms of space and time and under different chemical and physical
conditions,
simulations
of DU transport
were conducted by using
HYDROGEOCHEM. DU transport resulted from a continuous DU source of
constant concentration and the groundwater flow. Different types of reactions,
such as aqueous speciation, precipitation and sorption, were considered in the
simulations. These reactions were obtained from the literature [65-68].
Depleted uranium transport was studied with the consideration of aqueous
speciation, precipitation and sorption reactions. The hydrologic conditions and
311
background and incoming concentrations of the chemical components are shown
in Table 4. The results in Figure 7 show t h a t DU concentration decreases to 0 at
1500 m after 90 days and at 4100 m after 720 days for influent pH 4.0.
Table 4
DU t r a n s p o r t with aqueous speciation, precipitation and sorption
Component
pH
C a 2+
C O 32-
Background
4.0
lxl0 4 M
l x l 0 -4 M
Incoming
4.0
lx10 -a M
lxl0 4 M
SO24 -
Sorbent
lx10 4 M
lx10 -4 M
5x10 -4 M
l x l 0 -4 M
DU
Velocity = 0.3 m/d, dispersivity = 0.1 m, moisture content = 0.3
0,6
pH=7.9, t=790 d
,, pH=7.9, t=80 d
0,5
<~N
g
g
--o- pH=4.0, t=720 d
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Distanc e, m
Figure 7. Effect of pH on DU transport in groundwater.
It is well-known t h a t pH plays an i m p o r t a n t role in metal ion sorption. With

an increase of pH, metal ion u p t a k e increases, as discussed in Section 2. The
data of Table 4 were used, but the background pH and t h a t of the incoming
s t r e a m were changed to 7.9. The results in Figure 7 show t h a t DU concentration
decreases to 0 at 700 m after 80 days and at 2000 m after 790 days. Comparing
the results for pH 4.0 with those for pH 7.9, one can see t h a t a higher pH can
312
effectively retard DU transport in a subsurface system since at lower pH values

sorption is negligible as can be seen from the equilibrium studies (see Figures 2
and 3). A conclusion from this example is that sorption reactions play a major
role in the transport of metal ions in subsurface systems.
5.
SUMMARY
A systematic approach for modeling metal ion sorption phenomena in

engineered and natural environmental systems is presented in this chapter. In
addition, all the important factors that affect metal ion sorption equilibrium,
sorption kinetics and transport are discussed based on relevant studies in the
literature. Solution pH, ionic strength and initial concentration of metal ions
play important roles in metal ion sorption equilibrium. Metal ion sorption
increases with increasing pH and decreasing concentration. For activated carbon
and hydrous oxides, the metal ion uptake increases when ionic strength is
increased, but it decreases for biopolymers. The surface complex formation model
is able to describe well the metal ion sorption equilibrium. Metal ion sorption
rate varies with pH, ionic strength, metal ion concentration and type and
concentration of sorbents. It has been shown that the KINEQL model represents
successfully the metal ion sorption kinetics. Metal ion transport in treatment
and subsurface systems is a complex process, involving important parameters,
such as influent pH, ionic strength and flowrate of solution.
The
HYDROGEOCHEM model can simulate the metal ion transport in fixed-bed
systems, as well as in subsurface systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support for this work, provided by the Georgia Institute of

Technology, the Army Environmental Policy Institute and the National Science
Foundation through a Career Award (BES-9702356) to S. Yiacoumi, is highly
appreciated. The authors are also thankful to Dr. C. Tsouris, K. Subramaniam,
F. Tendeyong, J. Yoon and T. Blaydes for their help and comments during this
work.
NOTATION
ap
radius of sorbent particles
ap
ik
stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th aqueous component in the i-th

precipitated species
aik
stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th aqueous component in the i-th

aqueous species
ay
ik
stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th aqueous or electrostatic

component in the i-th sorbed species
313
biky
stoichiometric coefficient of the k-th sorbent component in the i-th

sorbed species
parameter defined by Equation (13b)
stoichiometric coefficient of jth sorbent component in ith sorbed
species
cj
concentration of j-th aqueous component, or local concentration of

ion j in the particle, based on pore solution volume
cj
average quantity of cj
Cjs
concentration of ion j at the external surface of the sorbent
cO
electrostatic components defined by Equation (2a)
cz
electrostatic components defined by Equation (2b)
Co
initial concentration of metal ion
C1
first capacitance of EDL
C2
second capacitance of EDL
c,
concentration of ion j in the bulk solution

diffusivity
electron charge
Ej
parameter defined by Equation (13a)
ionic strength
Boltzmann constant (1.38x10 2a J/K)
koo
external mass transfer coefficient
Kf
modified equilibrium constant of the i-th precipitated species
Kx
modified equilibrium constant of the i-th aqueous species
Ki"
modified equilibrium constant of the i-th sorbed species
fixed-bed column length
mass concentration
Mp
number of precipitated species
Mx
number of aqueous species
314
My
number of sorbed species
Na
number of aqueous components
NP
number of experimental data
NPAR
number of parameters to be found
qj
local concentration of ion j in the adsorbed phase, based on bulk

solution volume
qj
average quantity of qj
flowrate
radial distance
Sj
concentration of j-th sorbent component
Sj
total sorbed concentration of jth aqueous component
SHAT
objective function in Equation (7)

time
absolute temperature
Xi
concentration of ith complexed species
Yi
concentration of ith adsorbed species
Yj,measured
experimental data
Yj,calculated
calculated results
permittivity of the medium
gp
porosity
Pp
density of sorbent
surface charge densities at o-layer
surface charge densities at ~-layer
cr d
surface charge densities at d-layer
~'o
electrical potential at o-layer

electrical potential at ~-layer
~gd
electrical potential at d-layer
315
BS
Basic Stern
BV
bed volumes
DU
depleted uranium
EDL
electrical double layer
SCFM
surface complex formation model
SQP
sequential quadratic programming
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319
T r a c e m e t a l c a t i o n a d s o r p t i o n i n soils" s e l e c t i v e c h e m i c a l e x t r a c t i o n s
and biological availability
J.H. Rule
Department of Ocean, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Old Dominion
University, Norfolk, VA 23529 USA
Metal cations in soil systems may occur in many geochemical forms: free or
complexed ions in soil solution, ions held to charged surfaces (exchangeable or
specifically sorbed) and metal (Cd, Cu, Pb, etc.) hydroxides and carbonates.
Metals may also be associated with Fe and Mn oxides (or oxyhydroxides) and A1
hydroxides, bound within organic matter, incorporated into sulfides and bound
within lattice structures of phyllosilicates and resistant primary minerals. The
speciation of trace metals in soils determines the availability of metals for plant
uptake as well as the potential for ground water contamination.
This chapter addresses the nature of metal ions adsorbed to soil solids as
interpreted by selective chemical extractions. Adsorbed metals may be classified
as being bound by processes of general adsorption or specific adsorption, known
as chemisorption. Metals in soil geochemical phases other than exchangeable
(adsorbed) ions are in chemical equilibrium with the adsorbed metals and serve
as a reservoir for metals in the soil solution and sorbed forms. Outside of the soil
solution species, adsorbed metals are the most bioavailable geochemical forms in
the soil and are of great interest with respect to bioavailability and potential
ground water contamination. Metals in geochemical phases other than adsorbed
(exchangeable) ions are often available to living organisms and also need to be
considered. One of the most recent geochemical applications is the use of
chemical extractions to provide rapid assessment of the bioavailable cations in
contaminated soils and to estimate the long-term reservoir of potentially
bioavailable and leachable metals.
2.
SOIL SOLIDS
The solid phase of soils consists of primary and secondary minerals, amorphous
compounds and organic matter.
The secondary minerals and amorphous
compounds result from the weathering of primary minerals, and to a certain
extent, reflect their composition. Weathering and soil formation from diverse
320
types of rocks and other p a r e n t materials give rise to the compositional
differences of various soil types. Extreme w e a t h e r i n g may, of course, produce
similar mineralogical and compositional suites from a diverse group of p a r e n t
materials.
The n a t u r e and extent of m a n y physico-chemical reactions in soils will vary as
a function of the soil type due to these compositional differences. As the p r i m a r y
minerals w e a t h e r and the abundance of the secondary minerals increases, a
corresponding reduction in average particle size occurs (Figure 1). One of the
most i m p o r t a n t chemical reactions in soils is ion exchange which m a i n l y occurs
on clay (< 2 pm) and colloidal sized (< 1 ~m) particles. 1
secondary
minerals
9
9
\
\
primary
W
O2
minerals
.......
quartz, feldspars,
m!cas, _resistant
Sand
50
phyllosi licate clays,

AI, Fe, Mn oxides,
non-crystalline
aluminosilicates
\
\
Silt
Clay
PARTICLE SIZE(#m)
Figure 1. Standard abundance of primary and secondary minerals in various size fractions of
soil (redrawn after [6]).
Ion exchange in soil materials occurs due to the surface electrical charges of
clays and organic particles. These materials m a y carry either a net negative or
net positive charge. Most of the phyllosilicate clays, Mn oxides, some amorphous
aluminosilicates and organic m a t t e r in soils generally have net negative charges
while hydrous A1 and Fe oxides are usually net positively charged.
The
amphoteric hydrous Fe oxides have a net positive charge at pH generally less
t h a n 7 and a net negative charge above pH 7. The specific pH at which the net
charge changes, the isoelectric point, is a function of the type and concentration of
1The terms "clay" or "colloid" will be used in this chapter to refer to all materials in the
respective size class unless specific minerals or compounds are mentioned.
321
complimentary ions in the specific soil environment.
Net negative charges
commonly predominate, except in very old soils, notably those from the tropics.
The negative charge of phyllosilicate clays arises from two sources: (1) constant
or p e r m a n e n t charges: ionic substitution of a cation of lower valence within the
structural layers or (2) variable or pH dependent charges: dissociation of H from
-OH groups on the edges of the clay particle. Dissociation or exchange of H from
-OH groups are thought to be the major source of negative sites for cation
exchange in hydrous oxides of A1, Fe and Mn and amorphous aluminosilicates.
Negative charges on organic m a t t e r originate primarily from H dissociation of
phenolic (-OH) or carboxylic (-COOH) groups. The degree of H dissociation is
strongly influenced by the pH and therefore, the number of sites available for
cation exchange varies with pH. At lower pH values, the H ions are held much
more strongly t h a n at higher pH levels and are not easily replaced by other
cations. As a result, the capacity for cation exchange for all these exchangers is
generally less at lower pH t h a n at higher pH.
Ions in the soil solution may be attracted to these electrically charged surfaces.
Since negative charges predominate in most soils, cation exchange dominates
anion exchange and will be considered in detail in this chapter. Cation exchange
in soils occurs when cations in the soil solution move close to the exchanger
surface and, due to a stronger force of attraction, displace an ion already held
near the surface. The strength of adsorption of metal cations to different soil
constituents varies as a function of both ion and exchanger characteristics as well
as the chemical nature (pH, ionic strength, etc.) of the soil environment. Soluble
cations may arise from several sources in a soil system: weathering of primary
and secondary minerals, addition of fertilizer and liming materials, atmospheric
precipitation, decay of organic m a t t e r or anthropogenic inputs. Cation attraction
to negatively charged surfaces is depicted in Figure 2. An electric double layer,
consisting of the surface of the exchanger and the first row of cations, is
partitioned from the remaining ions in the soil solution by the Stern layer. The
cationic density decreases with distance away from the surface in approximately
a logarithmic relationship.
Various intermolecular reactions occur at the solid-solution boundary and may
be involved in "sorption" reactions [1]:
1. van der Waals' forces
2. Ion-dipole forces
3. Hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding
4. Charge transfer
5. Ion and ligand exchanges
6. Chemisorption (specific adsorption)
7. Magnetic bonding.
All of the above mentioned soil components are reactive and affect the soil
solution ion concentration by either ionic interactions at phase surfaces or by
322
Stern layer
44-
4-
4-
4-
4444-
44-
4-
-8
iJJ
4-
4-
44-
03
t-
_
444-
4-
4-
44-
4-
444-
4-
44-
4-
4-
4-
4-
4444-
Diffuse ion layer

Electric double layer (EDL)
Figure 2. Interaction of ions with a negatively charged clay particle and ionic distribution with
distance away from the surface.
Figure 3. Dynamic trace metal equilibrium between major soil phases depicting ionic
transference through the soil solution.
323
precipitation-dissolution reactions. Soil components that are involved in sorption
of trace metal cations are:
1. Phyllosilicate clays
2. Hydrous, amorphic oxides of Fe and Mn, and to a lesser degree, A1 and Si
3. Organic m a t t e r
4. Carbonates, hydroxides, phosphates and sulfides.
The clay minerals, organic m a t t e r and hydrous metal oxides are the most
important groups that participate in various sorption reactions of metal cations.
There is competition and equilibrium between all charged solid phases and
cations in the soil system. The soil solution is the medium through which ions
migrate to and from the various surfaces (Figure 3). Bulk ions in the soil solution
generally determine its ionic strength and may influence the behavior of the less
abundant trace metal cations.
3.
CATION S O R P T I O N
3.1. Specific and nonspecific sorption

Sorption of a cation is the result of the various forces described above, the
nature of the cation which is generally best characterized by the ionic potential
(charge/radius), the nature of the sorbing surface, charge density or intensity and
physical nature of the surface. Each of the solid phases in a soil reacts differently
with an individual cation or group of cations and the cation exchange capacity
(CEC) of these phases also varies (Table 1). The units for the CEC values are
centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil (cmolc kg-1).
Table 1
Representative cation exchange capacities of common exchange materials in soils
as measured at pH 7.0
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Exchanger (Soil Phase)
cmolsc kg -1
Organic m a t t e r
Vermiculite
Allophane
Smectite (montmorillonite)
Chlorite
Illite
Kaolonite
Hydrous oxides
100
100
100
60
20
20
2
2
300
150
150
I00
40
40
16
-8
324
When exchangeable ions are measured, the major portion of the sorbed ions on
all solid surfaces is included. However, some sorbed ions are held very strongly
through specific adsorption, also termed chemisorption, and are not extracted as
exchangeable ions.
General or non-specific adsorption is attributed to the
formation of outer-sphere complexes of the metal and exchanger surface. Specific
sorption involves formation of inner-sphere complexes [2,3]. In uncontaminated
soils, most trace metal concentrations in solution are very low, much below what
is predicted by the ionic strength and composition of the soil solution and mineral
solubility. The most common reason is chemisorption of the metal cations. The
limited number of chemisorption sites is generally sufficient to bind the available
trace metal cations, even against a large concentration imbalance with the major
cations in the soil solution. Dominant exchangeable cations in soils of humid
regions are Ca ++, H A1 and complex Al-hydroxy ions while Ca ++, Mg 247
and Na
dominate in low-rainfall area soils [4]. When concentrations of trace metals in
soils are increased notably above background levels, specific adsorption sites
become saturated and the remaining amounts of trace metal cations will not
compete well for simple adsorption sites against high levels of the major cations.
During recent experiments using serial batch leaching of Cd, Pb and Zn from
contaminated surface soil downward into a non-contaminated, low CEC soil, the
three trace metals quickly saturated available specific sorption sites and then
migrated, without further attenuation, due the presence of high concentrations of
Ca and Mg in the soil solution. Although Cd, Pb and Zn were initially removed
from solution by chemisorption, the sites available for the three trace metals in
this situation comprised a small percentage of the total sites available for
sorption.
Addition of organic matter to the contaminated soil caused the
formation of soluble organic Cd, Pb and Zn complexes which reduced the amount
of trace metal sorbed by the underlying soil [5]. Specifically sorbed ions may also
be displaced by more strongly held ions or may be released to the soil solution if
the solid phase to which they are attached is affected by dissolution processes.
Chemisorption of metal cations is sometimes difficult to distinguish from
precipitation processes, especially at high pH levels [6]. The method by which
cation adsorption is traditionally measured contributes to this difficulty. Usually,
the pH is adjusted over a given range and the amount of metal removed from
solution is determined from the change in solution concentration. Using this
method, the solid phase is not examined and sorption cannot be distinguished
from precipitation of metal oxides or hydroxides. Trace metal cations hydrolyze
increasingly as pH increases and the hydrolyzed forms are apparently sorbed to
exchange sites. The presence of oxide and hydroxide phases in the soil may serve
as sites for hydrolyzed metals and/or as nuclei sites for precipitation. The
combination of sorption, hydrolysis and hydroxide precipitation creates a process
that usually appears as a "sorption continuum" which is described as a smooth
sorption isotherm [6]. One technique that gives some insight into distinguishing
between sorbed and precipitated metal cations is selective sequential extraction
325
following the sorption step of the isotherm process.
Results of such an
experiment are presented in Section 7.1.
Since many of the trace metal cations that are soil contaminants are bound by
mechanisms other t h a n chemisorption, study of phases other t h a n exchangeable
is necessary to understand their geochemical behavior and fate. Several studies
have shown that metal bioavailability in soils is commonly related to the amount
of exchangeable ions while other research has discovered that metals in other
geochemical phases are also correlated to biological uptake.
In order to
characterize and model both the geochemical behavior and bioavailablity of the
trace metal cations, study of phases in addition to exchangeable is very
important.
3.2. Ion e x c h a n g e of soil phases

Trace metal cations are sorbed to different solid phases with variable
strengths. Understanding the nature of differential sorption of trace metal
cations in soils of variable composition is important in predicting contaminant
behavior. Preference order of sorption of cations for the major soil phases is
difficult to predict and varies notably with different exchangers (Table 2). The
more electronegative metals theoretically form the strongest covalent bonds with
O atoms on any mineral surface. However, on the basis of electrostatics (ionic
potential), the strongest bond should be formed by the metal with the greatest
charge/radius ratio. Predicting the order of bonding via chemisorption is difficult
because of these two contrasting characteristics (Table 2; [6]). Electrostatics also
predict that M metals would chemisorb in preference to the divalent metals.
Markedly different sorption selectivities are evident between different soil
components and few sequences are similar to the ones predicted by either
electronegativity or ionic potential (Table 2).
Sorption preferences for the trace metal cations onto the silicate clays is
somewhat variable and does not seem to reflect the type of clay (Table 2).
Sequences for sorption onto goethite varied in different studies and differed from
that reported for a freshly precipitated Fe oxide gel (Table 2). One would expect
that the charge, size and surface area differences between the freshly precipitated
Fe oxide and the more aged goethite would account for some of the observed
deviations.
The order of selectivity of divalent cations for soil organic m a t t e r does not
follow the sequence as predicted from electronegativity or any other single factor.
The order of stabilities of complexes between divalent ions and soil fulvic and
humic acids vary somewhat from that of whole organic m a t t e r but the same
general pattern is reported for all ([19]; Table 2).
326
Table 2
Selectivity of Trace Metal Cations in Different Soil Materials (modified after
Yong et al., 1992)
Material
Selectivity Order
Refs.
G e n e r a l - based on
electronegativity
Cu>Ni>Co>Pb>Cd>Zn>Mg>Sr
[6]
G e n e r a l - based on ionic
potential
Ni>Mg> Cu> Co> Zn> Cd> Sr> Pb
[6]
Kaolinite clay (pH 3.5-6)
Pb>Ca>Cu>Mg>Zn>Cd
Cd>Zn>Ni
[7]
[8]
Kaolinite clay (pH 5.5-7.5)

Montmorillonite clay (pH 3.5-6)
Ca>Pb>Cu>Mg>Cd>Zn
[7]
Montmorillonite clay (pH 5.5-7.5)
Cd=Zn>Ni
[8]
Illite clay (pH 3.5-6)
Pb>Cu>Zn>Ca>Cd>Mg
[7]
A1 oxides (fresh, amorphous)
Cu >Pb>Zn>Ni>Co>Cd>Mg>Sr
[9]
Fe oxides (fresh, amorphous)
Pb> Cu> Zn> Ni> Cd> Co> Sr>Mg
[9]
Goethite
Cu> Zn> Co> Pb>Mn
[10]
Goethite
Cu>Pb>Zn>Co>Cd
[11]
Goethite
Pb>Zn>Cd>T1
[12]
Mn oxides
Mg> C a>B a>Ni> Zn>Mn> Co
[13]
Soil organic matter
Cu>Ni>Pb>Co>Ca>Zn>Mn>Mg
[6]
Fulvic acid (pH 3.5)

Fulvic acid (pH 5.0)
Cu>Fe>Ni>Pb>Co>Ca>Zn>Mn>Mg
Cu>Pb>Fe>Ni>Mn~Co>Ca>Zn>Mg
[14,15]
[14,15]
Humic acid
Cu> Zn> Ni> Co>Mn
[16]
Humic acid (pH 4-6)
Cu>Pb>Cd>Zn
[17]
Mineral soils (pH 5, no organics)

Mineral soils (20-40 g kg -1
organics)
Pb>Cu>Zn>Cd
[18]
Pb>Cu>Cd>Zn
[18]
Selectivity of metal complexation with soil organic matter depends upon

several factors other than properties of the metals themselves, including [6]:
1. The chemical nature of the organic ligands (types of functional groups)
2. The amount of sorption on the organic matter
3. The pH at which sorption is measured (variable competition of M 247for H on
functional groups)
4. The ionic strength of the soil solution (influences competition by other cations
for complexing sites).
327
Although the above cited studies reported generally similar findings, variations
in selectivity exists even for the "same" substance. Differences in the geochemical
conditions, e.g., ionic strength (I), counter ions, matrix cations, of the system
affects ionic competition and sorption.
The pH of the system significantly
influences sorption on all types of surfaces present, especially oxides and organic
matter where the charges are predominately pH dependent. The ionic strength
influences sorption processes on all types of surfaces due to competition for sites
between the dominant cation(s) and trace metal cations. When multiple solid
phases are present, the competing factors and interactions become even more
complex.
3.3. Ion e x c h a n g e r e a c t i o n s
Although cation exchange is not a chemical reaction in the conventional sense,
the process of ion exchange is represented in an analogous manner.
The
exchange of aqueous Cd in the soil solution for Ca that is adsorbed onto a soil
particle is written as
CaX + Cd++ ~ - Ca++ + CdX
where X represents a solid phase exchanger. Applying the law of mass action, the
ion exchange equilibrium constant, Keq, can be written as
_ (Ca ++ ). (CdX)
K e q - (Cd++). (CaX)
or expressed as
ICa++{ : ke x (CaX)
(Cd ++
(CdX)
where kex is the selectivity coefficient [20]. The value of kex indicates the
preferential adsorption of one cation over the other. Where kex is equal to unity,
equal amounts of both ions are sorbed. This simple approach is a very useful
technique in binary cation systems to measure selectivity of an exchanger for a
cation in very low solution concentrations as compared to the second cation
present at much higher concentrations. This is an excellent method to determine
the amount of trace metal cations attracted to soil solids via chemisorption. By
adding low concentrations of the trace metal of interest to a solution containing a
much greater concentration of a major cation such as Ca ++ , the sorption of the
trace metal via chemisorption should be measurable. An excellent summary of
several other important mathematical equations used to describe cation exchange
of different types of exchangers and ions of unequal valence is given in [20]. The
328
general adsorption isotherms of three classical types are shown in Figure 4.

Significant chemisorption of metal cations by an exchanger would be described by
the high affinity type of curve. Most cation exchange is described by the
Langmuir, or a similar relationship. The constant adsorption curve is generally
considered a theoretical line for adsorption. However, a linear relationship may
exist for many adsorbers at low cation concentrations and for u n u s u a l c a s e s .
High affinity type
"5
'/
~,o~
0
'4-0
0
CO
~J
E
:3
..0
23
OLU
Equilibrium conc of solute in solution
---
Figure 4. General adsorption isotherms of three classical types (modified from [77]).
Ion exchange studies are complicated for multi-element systems due to the
interaction and competition between the ions. The major problem is the near
impossibility of measuring isotherms for all combinations when there are three or
more competing ions [22]. The required amount of exchange data increases as
the number of species increases. For a binary system, there is only one exchange
isotherm for a given total solution concentration and measurement in this system
is not difficult. As the number of competing ions increases, the data requirement
rapidly expands. For a ternary system (three competing cations), there are three
unique binary combinations of ions and for n cations, there are n(n-1)/2 unique
binary combinations.
One study compared several computational methods for predicting ternary
exchange from binary isotherms [22]. The methods were ranked with respect to
their predictability on the basis of the root mean squares of differences between
measured and predicted ternary exchange data in NHn-Ba-La or Na-K-Ca
systems. The conclusions ranked the performance of the methods relative to each
other but the suitability of any method to reliably predict ternary exchange was
not established. This is obviously an area that warrants further research.
329
4.
SOIL GEOCHEMICAL PHASES
Behavior and interactions of cations with solid phase surfaces vary with the
different types of solids and cause difficulties in understanding metal behavior in
soils due to these differences in interactions. In an ideal situation, each of the soil
phases would be isolated and the amount and nature of the metal cations present
determined. Several studies have been conducted using artificially prepared
compounds, such as Fe and Mn oxides, or purified soil extracts of organic matter,
i.e., humic or fulvic acids [23,24]. However, these prepared compounds are
sufficiently different from natural soil components to give only an approximate
understanding of soil reactions. When all components are present, solid phase
competition and interactions further complicate the evaluation.
Another
approach, discussed below, is to selectively extract metals associated with specific
solid geochemical phases from soils. Most commonly, the geochemical phases are
"operationally defined" and target the following phases (modified from [1]):
1. Free or complexed ions in soil solution
2. Ions bound to charged surfaces (sorbed or exchangeable) by processes of
general adsorption or chemisorption
3. Metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, etc.) present as hydroxides and carbonates
4. Metals associated with Fe and Mn oxides or oxyhydroxides and A1 hydroxides
5. Metals bound within organic matter, excluding exchangeable cations
6. Metal sulfides in reduced soils and as sulfide minerals
7. Metals bound within lattice structures of phyllosilicates and resistant primary
minerals.
4.1. Water soluble phase

Metals exist as free cations or as organic or inorganic complexes in the soil
solution. The predominant form of a given cation depends upon the organic or
inorganic ligands available, competing ions and stability coefficients of possible
forms. For example, Cu has an extremely high stability coefficient with most
forms of soluble soil organic m a t t e r and most solution Cu exists as organic
complexes. Generally the concentrations of trace metal cations in soil solutions
are very low, due to chemisorption processes as previously discussed.
4.2. E x c h a n g e a b l e / s p e c i f i c a l l y adsorbed phase
Most trace metal cations are sorbed to charged surfaces by chemisorption and
in uncontaminated soils, only small amounts are readily exchangeable. However,
when significant amounts of anthropogenic metals are present in soils,
proportions in the exchangeable fraction may be unusually high. After all of the
chemisorption sites are filled, the trace metals must compete with the major
cations for the general adsorption sites. When a high proportion of a trace metal
is present, a notable amount may be sorbed to the general sites. With a
significant excess of major cations, this competition may result in minimal
330
significant excess of major cations, this competition may result in minimal
adsorption of the trace metals. These metals may, however, react with specific
soil phases via a variety of mechanisms. For this reason, determination of the
metal distribution in other geochemical phases is extremely useful in ascertaining
the nature and degree of soil contamination.
4.3. Carbonate phase

This phase may be an important reservoir for trace metals at near neutral soil
pH levels. The major carbonates in most soils are those of Ca and Mg.
Carbonates contain various amounts of trace metal cations incorporated into the
structure, generally by coprecipitation, of the various mineral forms present in
soils. Hydroxide and oxide forms are also important in governing trace metal
behavior in the soil system. Most trace metal cations precipitate as oxides or
hydroxides at higher pH levels. Selective extraction of the carbonate fraction in
soils should also remove the oxides/hydroxides of the trace metals.
4.4. Fe-Mn oxide phase
The most predominant oxide/hydroxide phases in most soils are those of A1 and
Fe with Mn oxides being less abundant. In old and ancient soils, these oxides are
the dominant clay minerals. Forms of Fe vary from highly hydrated amorphous
hydroxides, such as ferrihydrite, to crystalline oxides such as goethite. The term
oxy-hydroxide is often used to describe the variably hydrated amorphous forms of
Fe that are prevalent in most soils. The predominant form of Mn in soils is
MnO2. All of these oxides rarely have isomorphous substitution of cations in their
structures and consequently have low CECs, especially relative to their large
surface area. The greatest degree of reactivity is from the Fe and Mn oxide
forms.
The Fe oxide/hydroxide phases generally lose hydration water, decrease in
solubility and increase in crystallinity with age. Differentially extracting Fe
oxides of varying solubility/crystallinity may sometimes distinguish between
more recent and historical inputs of trace metals into the soil system. Metals
entering the soil system thousands of years in the past should be mostly
associated with crystalline or moderately crystalline forms while "recent"
additions should be mostly incorporated with the easily reducible or amorphous
forms. This technique works best in well drained upland soils that have not
undergone periods of oxidation-reduction during profile development.
Trace metal cations are associated with the Fe and Mn oxide/hydroxide phases
in soils by the following processes: (a) sorption onto external surfaces, (b) solidstate diffusion of metal cations and (c) cation binding and fixation at sites within
the solid particles [25]. Variable charges at oxide surfaces may also promote
sorption of anions which, in turn, may attract trace metal cations. Metal
hydroxide formation at Fe-Mn hydroxide surfaces may also be of importance, as
discussed above.
331
4.5. Organic phase

Humic substances comprise about 60-80% of soil organic matter with the
balance consisting of non-humic materials. Humic substances are characterized
by aromatic, ring-type structures that include polyphenols and comparable
polyquinones. Humic substances in soil are classified into three chemical groups
based on solubility. The first group is fulvic acid, with lowest molecular weight
(1000 to 5000) and lightest color, soluble in both acid and alkali and most
susceptible to microbial attack. The second group is humic acid, of medium
molecular weight (10000 to 100000) and color, soluble in alkali but insoluble in
acid and intermediate in resistance to degradation. The third group is humin,
with highest molecular weight (>100000), insoluble in both acid and alkali and
most resistant to microbial decomposition and darkly colored[4,6].
The nonhumic portion is composed of (1) polysaccharides, polymers which have
sugarlike structures and a general formula of Cn(H20)m, where n and m are
variable; (2) polyuronides, not found in plants but synthesized by soil
microorganisms; and (3) low molecular weight organic acids and some protein-like
materials, present in relatively small quantities [4].
Moderate amounts of most trace metals are associated with the organic
fraction in most mineral soils unless the texture is very sandy, or the organic
content is unusually high. In these soils, a high proportion of the trace metals is
bound to the organic materials.
4.6. Sulfide p h a s e
Significant concentrations of trace metal sulfides are not common in soils,
especially those having good drainage and aeration but could be expected in
reduced or partially reduced soils that contain significant amounts of S. Thus
sulfides would not be expected in normal agricultural soils but may be
encountered in rice paddy or wetland soils. Common forms might be pyrite or
sulfides of any of the trace metals present in notable concentrations.
4.7. R e s i d u a l p h a s e
The most important primary minerals that might be present, especially in
young soils, are olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars and the silica
group, including quartz. Important secondary minerals are the silicate clay
minerals (phyllosilicates): illite, chlorite, vermiculite, smectites, especially
montmorillonite, and kaolinite. As mentioned above, while soils age and weather,
the proportion of primary minerals decreases and the proportion of secondary
minerals and amorphous forms increase.
5.
SELECTIVE SEQUENTIAL EXTRACTIONS
Numerous schemes have been devised to selectively extract different

geochemical phases from soils and determine metals present in each phase. Most
commonly used are schemes of sequential selective chemical extractions which
332
were first developed for use with sediments in geochemical exploration and
contaminated sediment characterization [26-29]. Other methods were developed
directly for soil extractions [30-33] but a sediment-developed extraction sequence
[29] is commonly cited as the basis for most soil extraction procedures. These
methods are ideally designed to affect only the target phase or species with
minimal influence on other phases, which is difficult to accomplish. A few studies
have shown that although multiple phases are affected by each extractant, the
influences are often minimal and not sufficient to preclude beneficial use of this
technique [34,35]. The order in which the extraction reagents are used is critical
to obtaining the most phase specific data since some of the chemicals will affect
more than one phase if added to a previously untreated soil sample [33,36,37].
For example, the strong H202 used to oxidize organic matter will also oxidize
MnO2 unless the Mn02 has been removed with a prior extractant.
One of the most complete extraction schemes was outlined in [38] as:
1. soluble in water (aqueous phase)
2. exchangeable or unspecifically adsorbed
3. specifically adsorbed
4. bound to carbonates
5. bound to organic matter
6. bound to Mn oxides and hydroxides
7. bound to amorphous Fe (and A1) oxides and hydroxides
8. bound to crystalline Fe (and A1) oxides and hydroxides
9. bound to sulfides
10. bound to silicates (residual fraction).
A discussion of the utility and general procedures for determination of each of
these phases is helpful in evaluating the applicability of determining a given
fraction for particular studies. Following this general discussion, a practical
extraction scheme for evaluating contaminated soil is presented.
5.1. Water s o l u b l e p h a s e
Although the water soluble fraction is the most bioavailable and subject to
leaching, most researchers do not include this aqueous phase in their extraction
schemes. The rationale is that concentrations of trace metals in the soil solution
are extremely low and generally not of significance when compared to the
exchangeable fraction. Additionally, the water soluble phase is co-extracted with
the exchangeable phase metals. While this is true for most soils, contaminated
soils may have notable water soluble concentrations and this fraction should be
determined when investigating soils that might have been subjected to
anthropogenic inputs. For example, an unusual characteristic of the soils at a
contaminated site may be uncommonly high levels of Pb in the aqueous phase
which should trigger a detailed investigation of the abundance and forms of Pb in
the soils. Some researchers [39,40] have reported significant concentrations of
Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn in the water soluble fraction of trace metal contaminated soils.
This simple step involves extraction of the sample with deionized water.
333
5.2. Exchangeable phase

Exchangeable cations are measured after displacement with a cation from a
neutral salt solution equilibration. Several different types of salts t h a t were used
in earlier procedures have largely been discarded due to various difficulties.
Reagents should be carefully evaluated depending on specific objectives of the
extraction scheme. One of the first extractants was NH4OAc because of its
widespread use as a soil test reagent. This extractant is now rarely used to
determine exchangeable cations due to the analytical interferences and the
possibility that carbonates and hydroxides may be affected [29]. Calcium and Mg
chlorides are commonly used to determine exchangeable cations but due to the
formation of chloride complexes of Cd and Pb, studies suggest t h a t phases other
that simple exchangeable forms are affected [41]. Mg is a harder Lewis acid (a
species that can accept an electron pair) than Ca which indicates that Mg may
displace specifically adsorbed trace metals [42]. This consideration that may
discourage its use as an extractant.
Both Mg(NOa)2 and NH4NOa were proposed as extractants because of their
efficiency for displacing adsorbed cations as well as volatility which decreases
background interferences during AAS analysis [37,43]. Extraction with NH4NOa
seems to be the most overall desirable relative to extraction efficiency and low
analytical interferences.
5.3. Specifically adsorbed phase

Very few studies methods are reported for determination of specifically
adsorbed (chemisorbed) metals [33,44-46].
Most of these methods utilize
reagents (NH4OAc, NH4NOa, Na2EDTA, HOAc) that were also used for other
phases and are not specific for extraction of this phase. A few researchers [33]
and [45], who modified the method of [33], utilized Pb(NOa)2 in dilute CaC12 to
determine specifically adsorbed metal cations. The Pb 247
is an appropriate cation
for displacing most other trace metals due to its low pK (7.7) and large atomic
radius which suggest that Pb would be effective in determining specifically
sorbed ions. If Pb were of interest in the soil, another cation such as Cu
(pK = 7.7, smaller atomic radius than Pb) would have to be utilized for the
extraction.
5.4. Carbonate phase

The extractants often employed to remove trace metals bound to carbonates
are the acids HC1 and HOAc (pH 3-3.5), a buffer solution of HOAc/NaOAc (pH 5)
and a buffered complexing agent Na2EDTA (pH 4.6) [29,47,48]
The most
frequently used is the buffer solution of HOAc/NaOAc (pH 5) which is thought to
have minimal effect on other soil phases. Hydroxide phases of alkali, alkali-earth
and trace metals are also affected by this extractant and may explain why
notable amounts of trace metals are extracted in this phase in slightly acidic
soils.
334
5.5. Organic/sulfide phase

Three reagents most frequently used for extraction of the organic phase in soils
are: acidified 30% H202, K4P207 and NaOC1 [29,49]. The H202 procedure has
long been used for extraction or removal of organic matter from soils and
sediments and is the most often reported method used for speciation of trace
metals in soil organic materials [36,37,40]. F o l l o w i n g the oxidation step with the
H202, extraction with NH4OAc is conducted to prevent re-adsorption of the
liberated trace metals onto the remaining solid phases.
Sulfides are solubilized during the same extraction process as organic matter
in oxidative procedures. Methods to separately extract organic forms from
sulfides are difficult and their use has rarely been reported with the exception of
the use of K4P207. The most simple manner to estimate the proportion of metals
associated with each of these two phases is to measure organic carbon and apply
a correction.
However, the very low solubility metal sulfides are likely to
predominate over organic forms in soils where both are present. Another method
is to separately determine the acid volatile sulfides and associated trace metals
and assign the balance of the metal concentration to the organic form.
5.6. Mn oxide phase

The Mn oxides can be either extracted simultaneously with the Fe oxides or as
a separate phase. When extracted as a separate phase the reagent of choice for
Mn oxides is 0.1M NH2OH-HC1 in 0.01M HNO3 [32,33,40,50].
5.7. Fe oxide phase

When Fe-Mn oxides are simultaneously extracted, commonly used reagents
are: (1) a heated mixture of 0.04 M NH2OH'HC1 in 25% (v/v) HOAC or (2)
0.175 M (NH4)2C204 + 0.1 M H2C204 (acid ammonium oxalate). The use of
Na2S204 in a heated Na-citrate buffer solution for determination of the combined
oxides is limited because of analytical interferences. Amorphous Fe oxides are
generally extracted with either (1) 0.175 M (NH4)2C204 + 0.1 M H2C204 in dark;
(2) 0.04 M NH2OH-HC1 in 25% (v/v) HOAC (heated); or (3) 0.25 M NH2OH-HC1 +
0.25 M HC1. To distinguish crystalline Fe oxides, the reagents of choice are
usually (1) acid ammonium oxalate + ascorbic acid (heated); (2) acid ammonium
oxalate under UV radiation; or (3) Na2S204 in a Na-citrate buffer solution
[29,34,51].
The assortment of reagents, their concentrations and specific procedural
conditions used for extraction of the Mn and Fe oxides are rather inconsistent
and lead to variable results. Despite these differences in extraction parameters,
the methods are all fairly selective as long as each procedure is carefully followed
and the proper sequence of extraction is observed: Mn oxides prior to amorphous
Fe oxides prior to crystalline Fe oxides.
5.8. Residual phase

The residual phase is generally described as silicate structures and resistant
minerals that remain after selective removal of the more susceptible geochemical
335
phases. In fact, this phase may contain highly r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s from other
phases t h a t were not completely removed. This is especially true for m a n y of the
commonly used sequences t h a t do not include the extraction step for crystalline
Fe oxides. The Fe content in the residual fraction is usually high in the selective
extraction procedure.
The types/strengths of mineral acids utilized for
extraction/dissolution of the residual phase vary with two p r i m a r y schools of
thought. Some researchers deem it necessary to conduct complete dissolution of
the residue in order to establish a complete inventory of trace metals in the soil.
Other investigators claim t h a t use of a very strong mineral acid will strip away
all metals from any mineral residue t h a t may be released to the environment
even over short geologic time [29]. The procedures used for these digestions also
play a role in the choice of acids. For total dissolution, highly corrosive mixtures
of HNO3, HF and usually HC104 are employed, either in open vessels, P a r r
bombs or microwave digestion vessels. For strong acid digestion, conc. HNO3,
HC1 and HC104 are used singularly or in combination and a few procedures use
30% H202.
An abbreviated version of a general procedure for extraction of contaminated
soils is as follows.
6.
SELECTIVE EXTRACTION FOR SOILS
1. W a t e r soluble P h a s e (WSP): Add 24 mL of ASTM Type I deionized H20 to

3.0 g sample, shake tubes end-to-end for I hour.
2. Exchangeable P h a s e (EP): Add 24 mL of 1.0 M, pH 7 NH4NO~ to 3.0 g sample,
shake tubes end-to-end for 1 hour.
3. Carbonate P h a s e (CP): Add 24 mL of 1.0 M, pH 5.0 NaOAc and place on shaker
for 5 hours.
4. Easily Reducible P h a s e (ERP) - predominantly Mn oxides: Add 24 mL of 0.1 M
NH2OH-HC1 in 0.01 M HNO3 and place on shaker for 1 hour.
5. Moderately Reducible P h a s e (MRP) - predominantly Fe oxides: add 24 mL of
0.04 M NH2OH-HC1 in 25% HOAc and place samples in a 96 ~ w a t e r b a t h for
6 hours.
6. Organic (Sulfide) P h a s e (OSP): a) add 5 mL 0.02 M HNO3 + 5 mL 30% H202,
pH 2.0 and place in 85 ~ w a t e r bath. Over the next 5 hrs, add 3 x 5 mL 30%
H202. b) Extract with 7 mL of 4.0 M NaOAc in 20%(v/v) HNO3 for 30 minutes.
NOTE: the reaction with peroxide can be very vigorous.
7. Acid Extractable P h a s e (AEP): Digest residue in 150 mL tall form Pyrex beaker
with 15 mL conc Trace Metal Grade HNO3 and 5 mL 30% H202 at ~ 100 ~ for
four hours on a hotplate.
8. General comments:
a) Centrifuge the samples at 7,000 rpm in the HS-4 rotor (rcf = 9600g) in a
Sorvall RC2-B refrigerated centrifuge 15 minutes, after each e x t r a c t a n t and
after the w a t e r wash.
336
b) Wash the samples with 15 mL of ASTM Type I deionized water after each
extractant.
c) Remove s u p e r n a t a n t extract with a 5-10 mL Macro-Set or similar pipet.
P H A S E D I S T R I B U T I O N O F M E T A L S IN N A T U R A L AND
CONTAMINATED SOILS
The origin and forms of trace metals strongly influence their behavior and
availability in soils.
Lithogenic metals are only slightly mobile and are
potentially available to plants only under specific conditions. Pedogenic metal
actions reflect particular soil geochemical conditions and anthropogenic metals
are generally the most mobile of these three groups [52]. Knowledge of the
distribution of trace metals in all of the geochemical phases is often extremely
valuable in determining the amount and impact of anthropogenic metals in soils.
In uncontaminated soils, a major reservoir for many trace metals is the residual
phase while for anthropogenically influenced soils, a much greater percentage of
the metals occurs in more mobile forms.
Exchangeable metals are the most bioavailable and mobile of the solid phase
species, but metals in other geochemical phases are in equilibrium with the
exchangeable phase. Multiple and complex chemical forms may be added as
contaminants to soils and these chemicals will undergo alterations over time as
the soil phases alter towards a new state of equilibrium. Contaminant alteration
may produce a supply of metal ions that can be sorbed to exchange sites over
time. Measuring only the exchangeable ions at one point in time does not provide
a sufficient evaluation of the contaminate status of the soil system.
7.1. M e t a l s in m u l t i p l e f r a c t i o n s
Simultaneous examination of trace metals in soil phases is very useful in
evaluating contaminant behavior in soils. Very often, patterns of soil enrichment
of metals from similar sources or processes, as well as lithogenic or pedogenic
metals can be determined.
A recent study of the trace metal distribution in soils of four national parks in
Poland did not reveal any concentrations high enough to classify the soils as
"contaminated". However, enriched concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn
were discovered in soils near industrialized regions. Much of the Cd and,
especially, Pb resided in the exchangeable and carbonate fractions indicating
recent deposition and relatively high mobility of these two metals.
The
proportion of exchangeable metal fraction for Pb was greater t h a n for Cd, Ni and
Zn indicating greater enrichment of Pb relative to the other three metals. Most
of the soil Cu and Ni occurred in the acid extractable (residual) phase suggesting
that lithogenic materials were the primary source of these two elements [53].
One new technique that offers unique insights into sorption processes is
combined sequential extraction-sorption analysis (CSSA) and the method is well
worth utilizing for trace metal sorption studies. Soil or sediment samples are
337
first subjected to standard sorption isotherm methods after which they are
sequentially extracted determine metal partitioning into the different
geochemical phases.
In one study, calcareous clay sediments (pH 7.6-8.0) were individually treated
with Cd, Ni or Pb at solution concentrations from 50 to 11000 mg L -1 [54]. Each
sample was then sequentially extracted for the following phases: exchangeable,
carbonate, Mn oxide, organic and Fe oxide; bulk metals were separately
measured. For the untreated samples, Cd was detected only in the oxide phase,
an unusual occurrence for this metal, while Ni and Pb were found mainly in the
Fe oxide and carbonate phases. After metal sorption, the exchangeable and
carbonate phases were dominant for Cd, with the carbonate phase prevailing at
sediment concentrations <10000 mg kg -1 but exchangeable Cd dominant at 10000
to 200000 mg kg -1. The carbonate phase was the major reservoir for both Ni and
Pb, containing as much as 90% of the total Pb and 75% of the total Ni. Data from
the sequential extractions for each of the phases of all metals fit a Langmuir
sorption isotherm. This pattern suggests that mechanisms for sorption for each
phase operated independently of the other phases, within the realm of sorption
competition.
The very high proportion of Ni and Pb partitioning into the
carbonate phase was expected due to the high pH of the sediments. However, the
predominance of exchangeable Cd at the highest soil concentrations was unusual.
One reason may be the reportedly slow rate of CdCO3 formation [55]. It should be
noted that solution and sediment concentrations in the cited study were
extremely high and may not reflect trace metal behavior at low to moderate
contamination levels.
7.2. M e t a l s in the e x c h a n g e a b l e fraction
As mentioned previously, the proportion of trace metals in the exchangeable
phase is generally very low for uncontaminated soils. A major exception is Cd
where notable proportions may exist in the exchangeable phase in both natural
and contaminated soils [56,57]. In most cases, the proportion of exchangeable Cd
is greater in contaminated soils than in those containing only lithogenic or
pedogenic metals. However, the chemical forms of the contaminants may control
the metal phase distribution, especially in the short-term, and the proportion of
exchangeable Cd may be less than for corresponding native soils.
The exchangeable Cd in a variety of native soils, including agricultural soils
from Norway and Poland and forested soils from Switzerland, ranged between
23-64% of the total Cd [36,56,57]. Other studies have found as little as 13%
exchangeable Cd in sandy textured native soils [58]. Exchangeable Cd in several
soils contaminated by inorganic sources ranged from 30-48% of total Cd [56,59]
while soils treated with biosolids had only 2-29% exchangeable Cd. While it is
evident t h a t there is considerable range to the proportion of Cd existing as
exchangeable, the average percentages are unusually high when compared to the
other divalent trace metal cations. Relative abundances of trace metals in the
geochemical phases in background and contaminated soils are presented in
Table 3.
338
Table 3
Metal abundances in soil geochemical phases
Element
Abundance Order
Background Soils .......

residual>exch>organic~carbonate>Fe-Mn oxide
Fe-Mn oxide>residual>>organic>carbonate>exch
residual>Fe-Mn oxide>organic>carbonate>exch
residual>Fe-Mn oxide>exch~organic>carbonate
residual>>carbonate=Fe-Mn oxide>organic>exch
carbonate>Fe-Mn oxide>exch>organic>residual
exch>Fe-Mn oxide>residual>organic>carbonate
residual> Fe-Mn oxide>organic>carbonate>exch
....... Contaminated Soils .......
Cd #
exch>residual>Fe-Mn oxide>carbonate>organic
Pb #
oxide>>carbonate~organic~residual>exch
Zn #
Fe-Mn oxide~residual>organic>carbonate~exch
Cd*
residual>carbonate>Fe-Mn oxides>organic>exch
Ni*
residual>>carbonate>Fe-Mn oxide>organic>exch
Zn*
carbonate>Fe-Mn oxide>exch>organic>residual
Cd
residual>>exch>carbonate>Fe-Mn oxide>organic
Cu
residual>organic> Fe-Mn oxide>carbonate>exch
Ni
residual>>exch> Fe-Mn oxide>organic>carbonate
Zn
residual>Fe-Mn oxide>carbonate>organic>exch
Cd*
carbonate>exch>Fe-Mn oxides>residual>organic
Cu*
Fe-Mn oxide>carbonate>residual>organic>exch
Ni*
residual>Fe-Mn oxide>carbonate>organic>exch
Zn*
Fe-Mn oxide>carbonate>residual>organic>exch
Cd #
exch>fe-Mn oxide>residual>carbonate>organic
Cu #
Fe-Mn oxide>organic>carbonate~residual>exch
Ni #
residual>>Fe-Mn oxide>organic>carbonate>exch
Zn #
Fe-Mn oxide>residual>carbonate>exch~organic
#smelter contaminated soils; *sludge-treated soils
Cd
Pb
Zn
Cd
Ni
Zn
Cd
Zn
Refs
[57]
[57]
[57]
[59]
[59]
[59]
[58]
[58]
[57]
[57]
[57]
[59]
[59]
[59]
[61]
[61]
[61]
[61]
[60]
[60]
[60]
[60]
[60]
[60]
[60]
[60]
Very small proportions of Cu, usually < 1%, are found as exchangeable in both
native and contaminated soils. Exchangeable Cu ranged from 0.2 - 1% in nine
different contaminated soils [60]. About 2% of the total Cu present in
contaminated soils near Sudbury, Ontario was measured as exchangeable [61],
and the same proportion was noted in the surface horizon of two forested soils in
a virtually unpolluted area of Switzerland [36]. Less than 5% of the total Cu was
reported to be in the exchangeable form in a study of biosolids treated soils [62].
Relatively small percentages of exchangeable Ni are found in soils, but the
proportions are often greater than those for Cu. Exchangeable Ni ranged from
339
8-11% in nine soils that received contaminants from five different sources [60].
Exchangeable Ni was reported to have varied only from 5-8% in both an
untreated and sludge treated soils [58]. Even though the concentration of
exchangeable Ni doubled in the sludge treated soil, the proportion on the
exchange sites remained constant. In one study, after long-term application of
biosolids, it was reported that about 10% of the total Ni in soil existed as
exchangeable [62].
In uncontaminated and many contaminated soils the fraction of exchangeable
Pb is very low, about 5-6% [52,58,62], but in some contaminated soils the
exchangeable fraction may be substantial, as high as 25% [39,40].
The proportion of exchangeable Zn varies notably in both native and
contaminated soils. These percentages are usually greater t h a n for Cu, Ni and
Pb but less than for Cd. No clear pattern of controlling factors is evident from
the studies reported in the literature. In an investigation of nine soils that
received contaminants from five different sources, a range of 1-10% exchangeable
Zn was reported [60]; A range of 3-12% exchangeable Zn was found in both native
and contaminated soils in southwest Poland [58]; while another investigation
noted that exchangeable Zn was < 15% of the total for a variety of biosolids
treated soils [62]. However, results of one study noted that exchangeable Zn
increased from 3% to 26% after the soil was treated with sewage sludge [58].
One review paper [63] reported that the order of prevalence of metals in the
Easily Soluble/Exchangeable fraction of natural soils was: Cd > Zn > Ni > Pb >
Cu.
7.3. M e t a l s in the c a r b o n a t e f r a c t i o n
Carbonates, hydroxide and oxide forms of trace metals are extracted by the
Carbonate Phase reagent.
This phase has been found to contain notable
proportions of Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn in both uncontaminated and contaminated soils,
even at moderate soil pH values [40,58]. Many soil contaminants originate from
various incinerator processes (e.g., fly ash and flue dust) and the metals occur in
the forms of oxides which obviously enriches this soil phase. Depending upon the
counter ions available, some of these metals may accumulate as sorbed ions as
the original forms are altered. Many studies, however, have found rather low
concentrations of several of the trace metals in the carbonate fraction. This is the
most pH sensitive soil phase and has a notable presence at near neutral or higher
pH values and a minor abundance in acidic soils.
One study reported 1-3% Cd and 1-10% Zn occurred in this phase in cultivated
soils, averaging near pH 6, in Norway [57]. It was noted that < 2% of Cu, Ni and
Zn was found in the carbonate phase in a study of contaminated Sudbury soils
but these were very acidic soils [61]. The following results for metals in the
carbonate phase was reported from a study of nine different contaminated soils,
with a pH range of 5.8 to 7.5: Cd: -10%, Cu: 3-11%, Ni: 0.5-2% and Zn: -10% [60].
Biosolids are often lime-stabilized and therefore soils which have received
applications of biosolids may have notable proportions of trace metals in the
340
carbonate phase. The following increases of soil metals in this fraction were
reported after application of sewage sludge: Cd, from 7 to 25%; Ni, from 14 to
16% and Zn, from 16 to 41% [58].
7.4. M e t a l s in t h e Fe-Mn o x i d e f r a c t i o n
Although there is a difference in the selectivity of trace metals by Mn and Fe
oxides (Table 2), most researchers use a reagent t h a t simultaneously extracts
both oxides. The low abundance of Mn oxides in m a n y soils, especially those of
sandy textures, m a y be a reason t h a t this phase is not extracted s e p a r a t e l y from
the Fe oxides. The combined oxide phase is generally an i m p o r t a n t reservoir for
most of the trace metal cations. Moderate a m o u n t s of Cd and Cu are associated
with the oxide phase, in both u n c o n t a m i n a t e d and contaminated soils. Moderate
to high proportions of Ni, Pb and Zn are common in the oxide fraction in native
and c o n t a m i n a t e d soils.
The Fe-Mn oxide fraction in several native soils contained from 29-48% Cd,
~ 4 8 % Pb and 19-39% Zn [56,57].
Distribution of most metals in soils
c o n t a m i n a t e d by metal smelters or from biosolids applications was similar for:
C d - 20-25%; Cu - 28-43%; and Zn= 34-44%. The proportions of Cd and Cu were
approximately 10% less in the smelter affected soils but there was no difference
in the proportion of Zn between the two groups of soils. However, the proportion
of Ni in the oxide phase was much higher (34%) in the biosolids t r e a t e d soils t h a n
those c o n t a m i n a t e d by a smelter (13%). Differences in the chemical forms of Ni
a p p a r e n t l y influenced its distribution in the two soil groups, but there was no
influence on the distribution of Zn. The identical distributions for Zn m a y have
resulted from similar chemical forms in the two sources, which is less likely, or as
a result of the strong affinity of Zn for the oxides.
7.5. M e t a l s in t h e o r g a n i c f r a c t i o n
The association of metals with soil organic m a t t e r is generally low for Cd and
Ni, low to moderate for Pb and Zn and moderate to high for Cu. This relationship
would, of course, be different for organic soils or sludges where the majority of the
solid m a t e r i a l is organic. In such cases, a high proportion of all metals would
occur in the organic phase. No major differences were noted in the distribution of
Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn in the organic fraction between a variety of background and
c o n t a m i n a t e d soils [56-58,60]. There was little difference in the distribution of
Cd, Ni and Zn in the organic fraction of soils affected by two different
c o n t a m i n a n t sources but a notable difference in the distribution of Cu between
the soils. The following proportions of metal in the organic phase were reported:
Cd < 6%; Ni < 9%; Pb and Zn 7-15%. Proportions of Cu were generally 17-33%.
There is an effect of added organic m a t t e r on trace metal adsorption and
mobility t h a t is not evident from the phase distribution data. Research has
indicated t h a t increased levels of dissolved humic materials in leachates from soil
or sand columns increased the solubility of Cd, Cu and Zn [64-66]. Simultaneous
field and laboratory studies were conducted to investigate the effects on Cd
341
mobility induced by a single liquid sewage sludge application onto a soil [67].
Low-level movement of Cd and soluble organic C from the sludge application site
was observed in comparison to the control plot during several weeks following the
sludge application. The conclusion was that the mobility of Cd was enhanced by
the increased soluble organic m a t t e r from sewage sludge disposal, especially
during the period immediately following liquid sludge application. The results of
these studies emphasizes the fact that understanding all on-going soil processes
is very important in evaluating the exchange, mobility and availability of soil
trace metals.
7.6. M e t a l s in t h e r e s i d u a l f r a c t i o n
The major concentrations of many metals in native or uncontaminated soils
are found in the residual fraction. The proportion in this fraction often decreases
significantly when contaminants, usually containing more soluble forms, are
applied to soils. High, but variable proportions of trace metals have been
reported for the residual fraction for a variety of native soil types: Cd - 23-59%;
Ni ~ 80%; Pb ~ 30%; and Zn - 29-70% [56-58]. The proportions of trace metals in
the residual phase was usually less in contaminated soils in the same studies" Cd
= 16-34%; C u - 11-20%; N i - 50-80%; Pb ~ 10% and Z n - 6-30%. [56-59]. In a
study of the phase distribution of metals before and after the application of
sewage sludge, the proportion of Cd and Ni in the residual phase changed only
slightly but the change in Zn distribution was notable" the proportion of residual
Zn decreased from 36 to 6% after sludge application [58].
Similarities exist in the proportion of metals in the residual fractions of native
as compared to contaminated soils, but the variation between contaminated soils
may be especially notable. A s u m m a r y of metal abundance in the geochemical
phases from the cited studies is given in Table 3.
8.
E V A L U A T I O N O F M E T A L B I O A V A I L A B I L I T Y IN S O I L S U T I L I Z I N G
SELECTIVE EXTRACTIONS
Plant growth involves interaction of the plant system and soil. Soil is the
normal medium for plant growth and the plant's roots absorb nutrients, other
elements and water from the soil. The plant's absorption of elements involves
processes occurring in both the plant's root and in the soil. Characteristics or
mechanisms of either of these two media may notably influence processes of the
other. Active ion uptake by the plant roots allows the a t t a i n m e n t of plant metal
levels that are in excess of soil concentrations in the mobile metal phases. The
depletion of soil concentrations of some elements around the growing roots may
induce a redistribution in the soil solution-solid phase partitioning of metals. The
mass flow of soil water into the plant may increase the overall concentration of
soluble cations, or salt content, at the soil-root interface.
This increased
concentration will, in turn, affect the distribution of exchangeable cations and
342
could increase the availability of trace metal cations which occupy a low
proportion of the exchange sites [68].
There has been considerable discussion over the past several years t h a t metals
in the exchangeable phase and a few of the other so-called mobile geochemical
phases are the most bioavailable. While this is proving to be correct, m a n y
studies have been limited to chemical extractions and have not included plant
uptake [47,60,69]. The exceptions have been studies on the use of soil test
extractants, many of which measured exchangeable cations [70]. However, this
type of extractant was used primarily for determination of the major cations
(Ca Mg and K and rarely trace metals.
There are several recent
investigations which have determined metals in the various soil geochemical
phases and compared the values with metal concentrations in the plant. As
previously discussed, there are many different selective extraction schemes which
make data comparison often difficult. However, the one extraction t h a t is almost
universal to all schemes is the one for the exchangeable (adsorbed) cations. As
noted in Section 7.1, the proportion of several trace metals in the exchangeable
phase may be very small which may explain why plant uptake is often related to
phases other t h a n exchangeable.
Some researchers have attempted to relate metal uptake to soil solution
concentration because they believe that the greatest proportion of metals are
absorbed from the soil solution. In an experiment to test this hypothesis, swiss
chard (Beta Vulgaris) was grown in soil which had been treated with sewage
sludge and various additions of P and N fertilizer [71]. The Cd and Zn levels in
the plants were not related to the concentrations in soil saturation extracts (soil
solution), P or N application rates. Although metals in the soil phases were not
measured, the researchers postulated that the availability and plant uptake of
Cd and Zn were reflective of metal desorption from the solid phases. It is
reasonable to assume that a high proportion of these metals were desorbed from
the solid phase directly into the plant root system.
The rhizosphere consists of the soil zone within 1-2 mm of the root surface.
There is a much higher soil acidity, bacterial activity and organic content in the
rhizosphere than in the bulk soil and there is little question of the significant
effect of the rhizosphere on the solid phases in the soil [4]. Low-molecular-weight
organic acids (LMWOA) secreted by plant roots were found to modify the mobility
of Cd through formation of soluble complexes in the rhizosphere of
uncontaminated soils [72]. In a study where organic acids identified in plant root
exudates, viz., 0.02 M acetic, citric, fumaric, oxalic or succinic acid were
equilibrated with soil samples, the released Cd increased over that from the
control soil. The results showed that: (1) Cd was brought into soil solution from
the soils as Cd-LMWOA complexes by the LMWOAs secreted by the plant roots;
(2) the kinetics of Cd release by LMWOAs was diffusion controlled, and (3) the
dynamic release of LMWOAs from the plant roots into the soil rhizosphere would
continuously release Cd from the soils, as indicated by the renewal of the
LMWOAs. The average diffusion coefficients of Cd release from the soils by
343
LMWOAs and the Cd release by renewal of the LMWOAs followed the same
trend as the Cd availability index of the soils. In an earlier study, these workers
suggested that NH4Cl-extractable Cd should be used as a Cd bioavailability index
based on its highly significant correlation with Cd concentration in the grain of
durum wheat [73]. The NHnC1 extraction would measure the exchangeable Cd
which is the most likely phase affected by the LMWOAs.
For contaminated soils in Sudbury, Ontario, a strong linear relationship was
found for Cu and Ni concentrations in birch twigs (dwarf birch, Betula pumila L.
var. glandulifera Regel and white birch, Betula paprifera Marsh.) and soil
exchangeable metal [61]. There was also a highly significant relationship
between Ni concentrations in the twigs and total soil Ni. Levels of Zn in the
plants and soil were within normal ranges and there was no significant
association between soil and plant concentrations. The Cd concentration in sudax
[Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] correlated strongly (r 2 = 0.91) with exchangeable
Cd where sewage sludges containing high Cd levels were land applied [74]. It
was also found that a good correlation existed between Cd plant levels and a
Ca(NOa)2/EDTA extractant which was postulated to remove both exchangeable
and chelation-bound Cd in the sludge solids. The best correlations between plant
content and soil extractions were with soils where the concentration of metal in
the applied sludge was relatively high. Associations between Cd in the sudax
and soil phases for low-Cd sludges were much poorer and the overall correlation
coefficient (r 2) for exchangeable Cd and the sudax concentration was only 0.56.
This lack of a strong relationship between plant metal content and soil phases at
low soil concentrations of the metal seems to follow a proposed "Threshold Level"
theory [75].
The uptake of Cu, Ni and Zn by wheat (Triricum aestivum L.) and soybean
(Glycine max L.) grown on soil treated with co-composted sewage sludge under
greenhouse conditions was investigated [76]. The selective extraction scheme
used by these researchers was somewhat different t h a n the procedure given
above. After extracting the exchangeable and organic fractions, EDTA was
utilized to remove metals from inorganic precipitates. The results determined
that exchangeable Zn correlated with plant uptake but t h a t there was no such
correlation with either Cu or Ni. The best uptake models were obtained from a
stepwise multiple regression procedure where pH, exchangeable and inorganic
precipitate-bound metals were the most important parameters. The authors
pointed out t h a t the small increases in tissue concentrations of metals as a
function of sludge application rate may have resulted in the poor relationship
between metals in plant tissue and in soil phases. However, a relationship could
exist even without a notable increase in metal content as a function of t r e a t m e n t
rate. Other cited studies [39,61] have noted correlations between soil phase
concentrations and plant uptake where there were no t r e a t m e n t effects. Another
explanation for the lack of correlation between metals in plant tissue and soil
phases is t h a t the overall soil and plant concentrations were below a level where
this relationship is clearly expressed.
344
Romaine lettuce (Latuca sativa L.) was grown on soils t h a t had received
varying rates and frequencies of biosolids applications over a 20-year period [62].
Applied biosolids where Cd concentrations were high and the Cd was in forms
that were easily extracted from soil were readily available for uptake by the
lettuce more t h a n 15 years following application. Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni
and Zn in the lettuce leaves were positively correlated to the total concentrations
of respective metals in the soil by either a linear or quadratic regression model.
Using plant uptake slopes from the regression analysis equations, the authors
suggest that the relative bioavailability of the biosolids-applied metals followed
the trend: Cd>>Zn>Ni_>Cu>>Pb. For Cd, the best correlation (r 2 = 0.99) was
obtained by including in a regression model the exchangeable, carbonate and Feoxide fractions. The correlation for Cd uptake and the exchangeable fraction
alone was r 2 = 0.73. Plant Cu, Ni and Zn concentrations were correlated
primarily with the exchangeable soil fraction. Plant Pb levels were generally not
correlated to any of the soil geochemical fractions.
U S E O F S E L E C T I V E E X T R A C T I O N S TO E S T I M A T E M E T A L
L E A C H A B I L I T Y F R O M THE SOIL TO THE G R O U N D WATER.
Few studies have directly investigated the relationship between metal

concentrations in geochemical phases and amounts that can potentially leach into
the ground water. The exception is the incorporation of exchangeable phase
metal concentrations in some transport models. Some of the transport models for
u n s a t u r a t e d soils utilize the cation exchange capacity, Freundlich equation
exponent, distribution coefficient, Kd, and metal solubility as inputs [77]. The
data are often generated from adsorption isotherms or leaching column studies,
which are mono-element systems as discussed above. The importance of ion
sorption reactions has long been recognized and ion exchange data is included in
several models. Many researchers consider that sorption reactions are best
described by a cation exchange model. The most rapid reactions are attributed to
non-specific ion exchange while slower retention reactions are related to specific
sorption of metal ions onto soil solid surfaces [78]. These reactions may also be
interpreted in terms of formation of outer- and inner-sphere complexes with soil
surfaces [2,3].
Two researchers [79,80] incorporated ion exchange reactions into the tworegion (mobile-immobile) concept. Their approach was generally successful in
predicting the overall shape of breakthrough curves for Ca ++ and Mg 247which
were obtained from miscible displacement columns that held different sized soil
aggregates. Other transport models consider several mechanisms including ion
exchange, complexation, dissolution-precipitation and competitive adsorption.
Examples of such models include FIESTA [81], CHEMTRAN [82], and TRANQL
[83]. Because of their complexity, several of these models have not been fully
validated [78]. Results for Cd and Ni breakthrough on a sandy soil utilizing the
FIESTA model have been described [84]. The model predictions provided higher
345
retardation of Cd and lower retardation of Ni t h a n empirically observed.
Improved predictions were obtained when a kinetic approach was used with data
from batch experiments. Model development and validation for movement of
trace metal cations in soils has yet a significant period of evolution ahead.
A thermodynamic
model
was
developed
for
Cd,
Cu
and
Zn
concentrations/solubilities in soil solutions of sandy textured soils that had
received applications of cattle-manure slurry [85]. With the assumption that
organic m a t t e r was the dominant exchanger phase for the metals, the model
accounted for metal complexation with dissolved organic carbon ligands and with
the solid exchanger phase. The authors cautioned that their model is site specific
and has yet to be verified however it provides a basis for further research to test
assumptions and improve the model.
A study of Cd, Pb and Zn in soils that had received surface applications of a
metal-rich flue dust revealed that high proportions of Zn were present in the
exchangeable phase of one of the soils to a depth of 105 cm [86]. The flue dust
was applied annually for six years to raise soil pH and the metal measurements
were conducted four years after the last application. Approximately 20% of the
total Zn was found in the exchangeable phase in the surface samples, but the
exchangeable phase was the dominant fraction at depths greater than 30 cm.
Earlier research had reported that Zn in the exchangeable phase in subsurface
soils was not the primary fraction in most southeastern soils [43]. The high
proportion of exchangeable Zn in the subsurface was caused by the downward
migration of the Zn in the soil profile. There were notable amounts of Zn in the
organic, amorphous Fe oxide, crystalline Fe oxide and residual phases in the
0-30 cm portion of the profile but only minimal amounts in these phases at
greater depths. These results note the stability of metals in the other phases as
compared to exchangeable Zn. There also was a slight downward movement of
Cd noted in the study, but much less than for Zn. Only about 11% of the Cd was
present in the exchangeable form in the surface soil and much smaller
proportions at greater depths.
10. S U M M A R Y AND C O N C L U S I O N S
The importance of ion exchange reactions to nutrient dynamics in soils was
first recognized in the mid-nineteenth century. The ability of soil colloids to
reversibly adsorb cations from the soil solution was understood as an ion
exchange reaction long before the origin of the negative charge on clay minerals
and organic m a t t e r was known.
Both non-specific adsorption, rapid ion
exchange, and specific adsorption, chemisorption, are important reactions that
influence trace metal cation behavior in the soil system. Exchangeable metals
are usually the most reactive solid phase metals - most available for plant uptake
and most easily leached downward through the soil profile. Other geochemical
soil phases are important influencing factors of trace metal behavior in soils.
Trace metal cations interact differently with the various soil phases based on
346
both solution and solid phase characteristics.
The proportions of metals
associated with the individual phases can often provide information pertinent to
the contaminant status of the soil. Often, the absolute and relative concentration
in each phase, as compared with the total metal concentration, can determine the
presence and extent of anthropogenic input as well as the degree of
environmental concern over the metals present. With the exception of Cd, the
proportion of the trace metal cations in the exchangeable phase is small
compared to the total concentration. When larger proportions of exchangeable
metals are found, it is a prompt to conduct a detailed investigation of the trace
metal geochemistry of the site under study. Exchangeable trace metal cations
have been correlated to plant uptake and, in a few instances, related to transport
of metals in the soil water. Since all of the geochemical phases are connected
through the soil solution in a dynamic state of equilibrium, evaluation of all
components is important to fully characterize trace metal cation behavior in soils.
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351
Application of environmental colloid science in the soil systems

J. Szczypa a, I. Kobal b, and W. Janusz a
aDepartment of Radiochemistry and Colloid Chemistry, UMCS,
20-031 Lublin, Poland
b Josef Stefan Institute, Jamowa 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia and School of
Environmental Sciences, Vipavska 13, 5000 Nova Gorica
1.
INTRODUCTION
Soil is, beside air and water, the most important environment for the living
organisms including h u m a n beings. Between these systems, some components
exchange, influencing the development and condition of organisms. Up till now
most of the h u m a n food comes directly or indirectly from soil cultivation. That is the
reason for the special care of soil system quality. The main way is to fully
understand complex processes that rule the ecosystem. When air and water
systems are simple, the soil is very complicated and variable one, concerning the
mineral, grain-size distribution and composition of surrounding solution.
Soil is multicomponent, polydispersed system, usually treated as a three-phase
system (solid, liquid and gas), although some authors consider organisms the fourth
phase. Tens thousands of soils can be distinguished. They can differ by their
provenance, parent minerals and age. For example later soils, less weathered, are
rich in silica, alumina and iron minerals whereas old weathered ones are without
many soluble minerals of alumina and iron and consists of silts and rusty oxides
[1].
Looking at composition of soil there can be distinguished primary and secondary
minerals. Quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, pyroxenes and olivine
are in the first group and hydrolyzed silicon oxides, aluminum and iron hydroxide,
carbonates (calcite and dolomite), hydroxides and silt minerals are in the second
one.
Half of the most soils is formed by minerals, the rest consists of water solution,
air and organic substances (about 5%). In sandy silts the organic substance
contents is small and reaches few percent whereas in peat soils or muck the organic
substance contents may reach 100% [1]. Among many organic substances in soil
very important role play humines, humine acids, humatomelitic acids and fulvic
acids. These compounds dissolve in water in a different degree.
The solid particles of soil show various size from bigger t h a n l m m treated as
gravel and stones, then sand 0.05-lmm, silt 0.002-0.05mm to clays < 0.002mm. The
sandy soil, formed by fine particles is concise, plastic, sticky and impermeable. This
352
type of soil is defined as heavy soil. The soil with sand is porous and defined as light
soil. In this soil the transportation processes of air and water with nutrient
substances are easier. The presence of humus provides proper structure of soil,
decides degree and mechanism of soil particle aggregation. Adsorbing on mineral
particles, h u m u s provides spongy structure of soil that promotes a transportation
process.
Soil is a source of heavy metals and their adsorbent also. These factors, which
have an influence on the total contents of metals and their amount assimilated by
organisms is essential for h u m a n beings life and soil fertility. Some of heavy metals
are known as microelements (Cu, Zn, Co, Mn) that are indispensable for growth
and their life at specific concentrations and toxic at higher, and other metals that
are potentially toxic elements (PTE) (As, Hg, Pb, T1 and U) [2].
Radioactive isotopes, existing in the environment may be divided according to
their origin: primary, cosmic and anthropogenic ones. Primary radioisotopes, which
came into being during nuclear synthesis of elements have a half-life time
comparable or bigger than the age of our planet. To this group belong K-40 and
isotopes of U-235, U-238 and Th-232 series. The isotopes of cosmic origin form in
atmosphere of the Earth as a result of cosmic radiation for example H-3 and C-14.
Man has inconsiderable influence on the formation and spreading of the isotopes
from these groups. Unfortunately there is a group of isotopes that were introduced
to environment by man. Some of them, by the occasion of nuclear energy production
(from mining of radioactive ores to closing down the exploited reactors), other as a
result of nuclear weapon tests. The main radioisotopes introduced to environment
in this way include the uranium
family nucleus' fission products
(U, Pu) and products of activation of reactor materials. The list of radioactive
isotopes, important for the environment contains elements of the most groups of the
periodic table. The list of elements and their origin was presented by Lieser [3].
A physico-chemical behavior of the most radioactive isotopes in soil is the same
as their stable equivalents, only for H-3 some differences may be distinguished.
Radioisotope concentration may be similar or considerably smaller than stable
isotope in environment, depending on its half-life time. The concentration of the
hydrolyzable element is connected with a form it exists in the environment. When
the concentration is smaller than the solubility product of the respective hydroxide
or other insoluble salt and there are no conditions to adsorption on the dispersed
particles of other phase, the isotope may form non-ideal solution. When the isotope
concentration is so high that exceeds the solubility product then the dispersed
phase may form. When the dispersed phase exists and physical conditions enable
the adsorption on the solid, then isotope forms pseudocolloid, that means exists in
the dispersed phase not forming crystalline structure.
From the chemical and physical behavior at the solid/solution interface there is
no difference between stable and a radioactive isotope. The only difference is their
harmfulness to living organisms.
To fully understand the transport phenomena of nutrient substances in such
complicated system, the adsorption measurements of the selected element on the
353
soil are not sufficient method. It is necessary to learn surface properties of
individual components of soil and on this basis to work out the model of
incorporated processes. There are some papers that treat processes running in soil
as a physical chemistry of dispersed systems that is ion adsorption and colloid
transportation in water [2-7].
In present paper the essential processes, having influence on the ion distribution
between solid and solution are presented. They may be related to soil minerals/
aqueous solution system and thus may be useful for the understanding of the
transportation and adsorption phenomena in such complex system as the soil is. In
the subsequent chapters of this paper the problems of the ion adsorption and
surface charge formation are presented.
2.
METAL OXIDE/AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEM
Among metal oxides found in soil, beside silica, there are oxides, hydroxides and
hydrated oxides of iron, aluminum and mixes hydroxides. The electrolyte ions may
accumulate on the metal oxide surface as a result of nonspecific adsorption, caused
by electrostatic interaction, complexing, ion exchange. Another mechanism of
accumulation of ions on the soil minerals is heterocoagulation of colloids which
have been formed by ions.
The adsorption process, connected with the influence of coulombic interaction, is
defined as nonspecific adsorption. It is caused by the electric charge on the surface
of the metal oxide, which caused distribution of the ions in the surrounding solution
layer. In consequence, the ions of the same sign as the sign of surface charge of the
particle of the solid will be removed from that region of the solution, whereas the
ions of the opposite charge will be accumulated. The layer of the solution that is
under the influence of coulombic forces of the solid surface charge is called the
diffusion layer. The whole range of the solid with accumulated charge, together
with the part of solution with compensating charge is defined as an electrical
double layer (edl).
The distribution of the charge in the diffusion layer is relatively well described
by Gouy-Chapman theory of the edl, where the charge density near the flat plane of
the solid is equal:
~d = - ~ / 8 ~ ~
sinh/F~d)2RT
(I)
where:
~d - diffuse layer charge density, ~- relative dielectric constant for water = 78.25,
~o-absolute dielectric constant = 8.85*10~2CemU-~, c - electrolyte concentration,
R - g a s constant - 8.314 J*mol~*K-~, T - temperature, ~gd- diffuse layer potential,
F - Faraday constant 96500 C'mole 1.
354
Electric charge on the metal oxide surface is formed because of acid-base
reactions of the surface hydroxyl groups. In colloid chemistry there are two
approaches to an electric charge formation on the surface of the oxide. The first one
by the reactions of the ionization surface group, defined as 2-pK model [8]:
-SOH~
-SOH+H
(2)
- S O H +_~ - S O - + H +
(3)
where - S represents some surface of metal oxide irrespective of metal atom n u m b e r

that coordinates the oxygen atom of the hydroxyl group. The reaction 2 and 3
constants may be calculated from the charge density data as a function of pH or
from ~ potential versus pH dependence.
The alternate attitude to the formation of the charge on the metal oxide is
proposed by MUltiSIte Complexation model (MUSIC model) where hydroxyl group
on the oxide surface are gifted by the charge that depends on the degree of
saturation of the oxide valence by coordinating metal atoms and hydrogen,
connected by hydrogen bound by donor or acceptor bonding [9].
(--MekO(H)m(HH20)n~ init + H + ~
( - M e k O ( H ) m + l ( H H 2 0 ) n - l ~ fin
(4)
where: Sinit(fin) - charge of the surface group before or after adsorption of hydrogen,
which depends on the number and charge of coordinated metal atoms (k and SMe)
and number (m) of hydrogen atoms (donor type connection) and (n) number of
hydrogen atoms (acceptor type connection), s = ~ SMr + m* s H + n* (1 - s~) + V,
SH = 0.8, whereas V = -2. For the number of free orbitals of the oxygen there is
restriction for the hydrogen bonds for k = 1 ~ n + m = 2, for k = 2 ~ n + m =2 or n +
m = 1 whereas for triple coordinated oxygen atoms (k = 3), n + m = 1. That means
that hydrogen atom may be bound to surface oxygen in the acceptor or donor
way [9]. Reaction constants of surface groups in MUSIC model are calculated
theoretically from crystallographic data. First, from Brown theory, the valence of
metal in the lattice of metal oxide is calculated [10], next, the charge of the surface
group and finally, on this basis, the constants of the surface groups.
The increase of the electrolyte concentration in the metal oxide/electrolyte
system causes the increase of the charge density at the interface due to the
following reactions:
- SOH~An-SOH+Ct
+ ~
- SOH + H + An-
(5)
-SO-Ct ++H +
(6)
According to the site binding theory, anions, which reacts with the hydroxyl group,
produce surface complex type compound. The positive charge of this group is
355
located in the surface layer.
that occupies position in the
concentration of -= SOH ~Ansolution and increase with
Similarly, for reaction 6, the
It is compensated by the negative charge of the anion

inner Helmholtz plane (IHP). Following reaction 5, the
groups should decrease with the increase of pH of the
the increase of the concentration of the electrolyte.
adsorption of the cation results in the formation of the
surface compounds - S O - C t +- type complex, where negatively charged part is in

surface plane of edl, whereas the cation is in the IHP. Because the ions, adsorbing
according to the reactions 5 and 6, form the complex type connections not only by
electrostatic but also chemical forces, this type of adsorption is called specific
adsorption of the ions [11].
The Cs-137 and Cs-134 isotopes adsorb in the same way as the stable caesium.
However, because of their low concentrations (for example 1Bq/dm 3 Cs-137 equals
to 1"10 -15 mole/dm 3) towards 1:1 salts present in soil water, the processes of specific
and nonspecific adsorption will have minor importance. The excess of monovalent
cation Na or K will lower the adsorption of Cs because of the competitive
adsorption on the same site. The concentration of potassium ions, in aqueous
solution of the soil, reaches 2mg/dm 3 (about 50 ~mole/dm~). These ions will adsorb
on hydroxyl groups according to reaction 6, whereas the adsorption of Cs ions from
such dilute solution will be limited [12]. For example complexation constant of Na
for TiO2, pKNa=8.2 and Cs pKc~=7.2. For the concentrations Na+=lmmole/dm ~ and
Cs+=lpmole/dm 3 [lkBq of Cs-137/dm 3] the [-TiO-Na ~] to [-TiO-Cs relation,
calculated with neglecting of the radius difference and activity coefficient was 10-s,
based on the following equation:
I TiO-Cs
TiO-Na-
Kcs * [Cs+]= 10 -7,2 ,10-12

KNa [Na + ]
= 10 -8
(7)
10 .8,2 , 1 0 - 3
That confirms the above opinion of the negligibly low specific adsorption of the
Cs-137 or Cs-134 from the soil solutions containing other also alkaline metal
cations Na or K +. Only contamination by Rb-87, whose concentration
(1Bq/dm 3 =1 mole/dm~), may cause appreciable specific adsorption.
After all, caesium isotopes may adsorb on metal oxides by the exchange reaction
with respective ions, presented in the oxide for example as contamination. Another
process, responsible for the deposition of the caesium on the solid surface may be
heterocoagulaton of the pseudocolloidal form of Cs [13]. This mechanism will be
discussed later. The exchangeable adsorption of ions on the metal oxides occurs in
the presence of the ion type contaminations. On the surface of the oxide, beside the
adsorption of the cation according to reaction 6, the substitution of the
contamination for to the Cs takes place.
= C t s + C s + ~-
-Cs s+Ct +
(8)
356
As far as the concentration of the cation on the surface of the oxide does not change
with pH, the adsorption, according to reaction 8, is independent on the pH of the
solution. On the other hand, because in the exchange reaction the H ions may take
part, then a small pH dependence of the Cs sorption can be observed.
The investigation of caesium sorption on the titanium, aluminum and silicon
oxides, performed by Hakem et al., revealed that the increase of the concentration
of the electrolyte lowers the adsorption of the Cs-137 or 1-131 [14]. The pH
dependence of the sorption of these radionuclides is typical for the adsorption of the
ions on oxides. However, the higher adsorption of the cation at pH>pHpzc and anion
at pH>pHpzc was observed. This behavior suggests that ion exchange process has a
vivid share in the ion adsorption on the surface of the oxides. The authors of
discussed papers characterize applied oxides by mentioning the size of the particles
and specific surface, without telling about the existence of the ion contamination.
Ionic impurities of metal oxide may have influence on the mechanism of the ion
adsorption, especially from very diluted solutions-10-Smole/dm 3. The investigations
made by Kosmulski et al. showed that porous glass, containing on its surface borsodium phase, is good adsorbent for Cs-137115-17]. The adsorption of this isotope is
promoted by alkaline pH and low ionic strength. Some adsorption of the Cs-137
was observed on the silica gel [15]. Appropriately prepared four component glasses,
Vycor-type, showed the good adsorption of Cs-137 [18-19], also not only in the
alkaline pH, as it happened for three component glasses. Although the examination
of the adsorption on the porous glasses focused on the obtaining the adsorbent for
the removing the Cs radioisotopes from water, the achieved results showed that the
presence of ions or the ion exchangeable layer on the surface of the oxide increases
the adsorption of monovalent ions from the solution. Ion exchange character of the
Cs adsorption on the soil sample that mainly consists of the sand was observed by
Shenber and Johanson [20].
The adsorption of multivalent ions or monovalent hydrolyzable ions is specific
adsorption. Because of the valence of the ion, more than one adsorption site may be
occupied. The adsorption of hydrated form may go through dissociation of the
hydrogen cation from the hydroxyl group of the adsorbed complexes as well as from
the surface hydroxyl group. Because the adsorption of the metal cations on the
surface hydroxyl group goes with dissociation of H then the adsorption of cations
in the some range abruptly increases with pH. This effect is called the edge of
adsorption. The parameters that characterize the edge of adsorption [22], are
explained in Figure 1.
The specific adsorption may lead to the formation of inner or outersphere
complexes [23,24]. As an innersphere complex is treated surface compound where
the cation is directly connected with oxygen from the surface of the metal oxide
(Figure 2a). The outersphere complex is formed when the adsorbed cation
maintains the hydrated layer of water, Figure 2b. From the pH dependence on the
adsorption, one cannot conclude, whether the inner or outersphere complex is
formed.
357
ApHlo.9o%
20.0 --
6.4
9 -- ,.L
_--
o~ 15.0 - -
-- 6.0
E
"O
_o
O
E
E
E
N
10.0
0
e.0
0
<
e--
III tn(
"10
~+
!r
--
--
5.6
--
5.2
No-
a ) = d___Me
5.0-I
,
0.0
~-i
PHso%
I
4
I
5
'
'
'
'
4.8
10
pH
Figure 1. Adsorption of Zn(II) (cricles) and concentration of Zn ions (triangles) in

TiO2(Rutile)/electrolyte system as a function of pH (data from [21 ]). pHs0o/o- pH of the solution
with 50% cation adsorption, April0-90 - the pH range where adsorption changes from 10 to 90%,
dpMe/dpH - the parameter that shows how the activity of the cation must be changed with the
changes of pH to leave the cation adsorption on the same level.
a)
b)
(~
(Do 9
o ~I
o @
o~
o ~
o @
o @
~t
o 9
o@
o ~
o9
0 ' e
000
0o~
k, ;
Hq H
o
o
~I
o@
( D o @
o@
o@
sp
ip
sp
IHP
Figure 2. Inner- (a) and outer (b) sphere complexes at the metal oxide surface, sp - surface
plane, ip - innersphere complexes plane, IHP - Inner Helmholtz Plane.
358
The structure of the complex may be estimated by the spectroscopic
measurements, as was proposed by Robertson and Leckie [22]. Especially, very
useful are the spectroscopy methods that allow in situ investigations, i.e. Fourier
Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) electron or proton resonance
spectroscopy, M6sbauer spectroscopy or X-ray adsorption spectroscopy (XAS) [24].
These methods allow also to decide other mechanisms such as polynuclear surface
complex formation or surface precipitation. The polynuclear complexes or clusters
of the new phase may form at higher concentrations of the adsorbing ion. According
to James and Healy, the surface precipitation of the hydroxide occurs at lower
concentration of the cation than in bulk. That is because of the lower value of the
dielectric constant in the compact region of the edl, than in the solution [25].
The coverage of greater and greater surface of metal oxide by the new phase,
with the increase of pH (increase of "adsorption"), changes the surface properties of
the oxide. At high enough coverage degree, there may occur the change of the
surface charge from the negative to positive one in CR2 point (charge reversal). The
following increase of the pH, results in the succeeding reverse of the charge sign
CR3, at pH characteristic for pzc of the adsorbing metal cation hydroxide. Similar
effect, of the charge reversal during specific adsorption of hydrolyzable cation, was
described by Schindler [26].
The specific adsorption of an anion on the surface of oxides goes through the
exchange one or two hydroxyl groups for the anion:
k(- SOH)+ L n- +-~ (- S)kL n-k + k O H -
(9)
The greatest adsorption of the anion is at low pH and decreases from certain
value of pH with the increase of pH of the solution. The weak acid anions may
adsorb on the metal oxide surface from the solutions of the low pH as a molecule of
appropriate acid with liberation of the water molecule:
k(_ SOH)+ LHn-m
m
~
n-m-k + k H 2 0
(- S)k LH m-k
(~o)
At the increase of the pH the respective ion forms of acid may be adsorbed. This
type of adsorption occurs for As, Cr(VI), Mo and V ions. The cation complexation
constants, on the surface of the oxide, may be calculated from the pH dependence,
with the method proposed by Schindler [26]. Recently, the complexation constants
are found with application of the numerical optimization, based on the chosen
model of the edl (DLM, TLM). They allow to fit the model parameters to the
experimental data (FITEQL [27], HYDRAQL [28], SURFEQL [29], GRIFT [30],
SURCOM [31]). Fitting of the edl models with numerical optimization procedures
allows to regard the energetic heterogeneity of the adsorption sites on the surface of
the oxide [32,33]. A survey of data, concerning specific adsorption of cations on the
metal oxides, was presented by Schindler [26], Schindler and Stumm [34],
Kinniburgh [35] and Huang [36]. Some values for the complexation reaction
359
constants of the important for the environment heavy metals are presented in
Table 1 and 2.
Table 1
Negative logarithm of the apparent stability constants of surface complexes of
heavy metal ions with one surface site
Pb(II)
SiO2
5.1 [36]
Cd(II)
6.1
Hg(II)
Co(II)
Cu(II)
H3AsO4
H2AsO4AsO43H3AsO3
[36]
5.52 [34]
FeOOH
3.8 [36]
4.65 [37]
4.9 [36]
0.47 [37]
7.76 [37]
-0.46 [37]
2.89 [36]
29.31 [37]
23.51 [37]
10.58 [37]
5.41 [37]
A12Os
2.2 [35]
2.1 [33]
TiO2
0.2 [36]
0.44 [26]
3.2 [36]
3.32 [26]
4.3 [34]
1.43 [34]
Table 2
Negative logarithm of the apparent stability constants of surface complexes of
heavy metal ions with two surface sites fl2'ii,,)
Cu
Cd
Pb
Co
SiO2
11.19 [34]
14.2 [34]
10.68 [34]
FeOOH
1.7 [38]
4
[38]
1.6 [38]
A12Os
7.0 [34]
8.1 [34]
TiO2
5.04 [34]
9.00 [34]
1.95 [34]
10.6 [34]
Other cation presence, for example alkaline metal cations, may change the
adsorption of multivalent cations, by changing their activity in aqueous solution
and competitive adsorption on the same surface sites. Because the adsorption of
monovalent and multivalent ions on the surface of the oxides goes through the
hydrogen ion exchange in hydroxyl groups, the competition of the adsorption may
occur. For the adsorption that gives innersphere complexes, such competition may
not occur. That is despite the reactions of hydrolyzable and background electrolyte
cations, as the process is ruled by different mechanism. Moreover, the adsorption
with innersphere complex formation is characterized by far greater adsorption
IS
OS
constant. The relation I~Me(II)
> > K.Mr > > I~Na can be observed [24]. Cations, which
adsorb specifically with the formation of innersphere complex, reveal a shift of the
adsorption edge (adsorption-pH dependence) for different concentrations of the
360
electrolyte solution. For example adsorption of Ba 2 on TiO2 (anatase) [21], is
depicted in Figure 3. In the case of innersphere complex, the adsorption edges for
respective ion strength covers. This plot is demonstrated by the the adsorption of
Cd on TiO2 (rutile) Figure 4.
The adsorption of heavy metals on the metal oxides is the localized type
adsorption and its isotherm (as a function of the concentration in the solution) is
described by modified Langmuir equation. This modification includes interaction
with surface potential:
F,~/
FmaxKMe [H+ ~1 [MeZ+ ]* exp - RT
FMe
(11)
1 + KMe [H+ ~1 [MeZ+ ]* exp(- ~-~/

For the settled pH value, the surface potential ~ maintains constant, so the
components of the equation may be included, with ZMe, into adsorption constant
Kad s = KMe
$[H+] -I *exp -
. Then the equation (11)is the same as Langmuir's
one.
0.05 - -
0.04 - -
"13
0
m
o
0.03 - -
~l
m
E
o
Q.
0.02
o
(/)
"13
<
0.01
--
0.00
'
3
I
4
'
I
5
'
I
6
'
I
7
'
I
8
'
I
9
'
I
10
'
I
11
pH
Figure 3. Adsorption of Ba2 ions at the TiO2(anatase)/solution of NaC1 as a function of pH,
rectangles 0.001 mole/dm 3; triangles 0.01 mole/dm 3, circles 0.1 mole/dm 3 of NaC1, (data
from [21 ]).
361
20.0
~E
15.0
+t%
10.0
<~
5.0
0.0
10
11
pH
Figure 4. Adsorption of C d 2+ ions at the T'O2~Rutile)/solution]

~
of NaC1 as a function of pH,
rectangles 0.001 mole/dm3; triangles 0.01 mole/dm 3, circles 0.1 mole/dm 3 ( data from [21]).
Surface properties of soil are not uniform because of its composition, presence of
different components and properties of crystal faces of each component. About this,
for everyone component of the solid phase, one should use a separate set of the
constants of the isotherm equation. Sposito showed, that it is possible to obtain the
approximate Bemmelen-Freundlich isotherm, by using logarithmic-normal
distribution of adsorption constants of the Langmuir isotherm [5].
In the case of very low concentrations of the cation, the adsorption may be
described by Henry's equation. It may be applied thus for the adsorption of
radionuclides having a short half-life time. At the relatively high concentrations,
beside adsorption, the precipitation processes may take places. In the presence of
the solid, for the cation concentrations higher or equal to the solubility product of
the metal hydroxide, the adsorption isotherm does not break, that reflects the
precipitation of the hydroxide of other phase but the isotherm changes the shape,
which suggests the increase of the adsorption and is characteristic for the multicore
complex formation or surface precipitation [24].
In the aqueous environment, there are some ligands beside adsorbing cations,
which may form complexes with these cations. Then, in hydration sphere one or
more water molecules may be substituted by a ligand. Depending on the complex
type, the adsorbing complexing cation may be bind directly with the surface (A type
complexes)
362
n - S O H + MeL~ + ~
(- SO- )nMe(L)I z-n)+ + nil+
(12)
or they may adsorb through a ligand (B type complexes)

n - S O H + L M e z+ + nH20 +_~ (- SOH~)n LMe(n-z)+ + n O H -
(13)
In A-type complexes (reaction 12), as far as the formed complex does not adsorb or
adsorb more weakly than the metal cation, the presence of L-ligand results in
lowering of the metal adsorption.
The possibility of the complex adsorption through a ligand, (for B type
complexes) ease cation adsorption at lower pH values because the adsorption runs
according to the mechanism characteristic for anions. Such influence of the ligand
presence on the cation adsorption was observed for Ag
2 system. In the
natural water environment, the following anions exist as complex anions: CI-, SO42-,
HPO42-, F-, OH- and COa 2. Monovalent anions may influence the cation adsorption,
according to reaction 13, whereas multivalent ones may increase or decrease the
adsorption as well. The important role, as a complexing anion, is played by
carbonate ions. Actinides and another elements which form with these ions the
relatively stable complexes. Unfortunately, in the bibliography there is no data
concerning cation adsorption in the presence of carbonates. Among many anions,
potentially complexing heavy metal cations, present in a gmole amount in the soil
many organic acids [39]. Their role was discussed in details by Hartera and
Naidu [39].
3.
CATION A D S O R P T I O N ON CLAY M I N E R A L S
Beside oxides, clay minerals, products of weathering of rocks, are important

component of soil. They reveal lamellar structure, consisting of tetraheders sheet of
XO4 ,,t" (X = Si, A1, Fe) and octaheders sheet of XO6 ,,o" (X = A1, Fe, Mg). Moreover,
some places may be occupied by other cations of small size. Depending on the
number of layers, the phyllosilicates may be divided into two, three and four layer
types. Among these types in the soil are present kaolinite as twolayers ,,t-o"
(Figure 5) and montmorylonite (vermiculite), smectite or mica, illite as threelayers
,,t-o-t" (Figure 6 )[39].
Generally, ideal phyllosilicates do not exist. The Si(IV) atoms in tetrahedrons
may be substituted for Al(III) and AI(III) or Fe(III) atoms in octahedrons for Fe(II)
or Mg(II). This substitution produces the resulting negative charge of phyllosilicate
lattice, that is compensated by Na K or Ca 2 metal cations, located in a position
around ,,t-o-t" or ,,o-t" layers [40].
In comparison to the other minerals of this type, kaolinite has the relatively low
specific surface (5-40m2/g) and low cation exchange capacity (CEC)[2]. The
363
threelayer minerals, containing water molecules or ions between ,,t-o-t" layers have
greater surface for example: illites 100-200m2/g, vermiculites 300-500m2/g or
smectites 700-800m2/g. The CEC value is slightly different and may be arranged in
a following order illite < smectite < vermiculite [2].
,,~si o
~-
Si
A[
o,
sO
8i
8i
o-
8i
O
O
OO
AI
o
.
H
H
Figure 5. The model of the kaolinite structure.
t
Figure 6. The model of structure of the three layer phyllosilicate.
364
According to Sposito, the electric charge on the mineral surface may form
because of the isomorphic substitution of crystalline lattice atoms, or the reaction of
the surface functional groups. The first one is called permanent charge[5]. For the
hydrated oxides or twolayer phyllosilicates (kaolinite) is lower than 0.02 mole/kg,
whereas for multilayer phyllosilicates (illite, smectite, vermiculite) the permanent
charge is a hundred times higher. Because of acid-base reactions of the soil surface
with H or O H - i o n s the net proton charge is formed (determined as ~H).
Innersphere and outersphere complexes also participate in the formation of the
electric charge [41].
On the kaolinite, one can distinguish three kinds of the layers exposed to the
surface: -the ,,o"-layer of the hydroxyl group connected with aluminum atoms,
-siloxane ,,t"-layer, and edge plate of the ,,t-o" layer where =A1OH as well as --SiOH
groups can exist. For the substitution of one Si atom by one atom of A1 in the
siloxane layer, ,,t", the (=AI-O-Si-) group is formed, donated with negative charge.
As it was previously mentioned, this charge is compensated by alkaline or alkaline
earth cations. According to Stumm, the hydroxyl groups on the edge layer are
characterized by constants pKs = 6.3 and pK~ 2 8.7, like hydroxyl group of A12Oa,
=
whereas octaehedron display properties similar to gibsite pK~,~ ~-4. The surface
charge comes from both kinds of groups, and pHp~c=7.5 [23]. Considering the
solubility of kaolinite and the size of the permanent charge, Sposito found the
surface charge density, point of zero net proton charge (p.z.n.p.c.) and point of zero
net charge (p.z.n.c.) [42-45]. The determined value p.z.n.c.=3.5 is closer to iep value
from electrophoretic measurements of kaolinite than 7.5. This position of p.z.n.c.
suggests that the contribution of the hydroxyl group located on the edge in the
formation of the charge may be smaller or the groups are more acid.
On the basic of the surface charge density and zeta potential measurements,
using the FITEQL program, D u e t al. found the ionization constants of surface
groups of illite [46]. Because in the examined pH range the illite surface was
negatively charged only pKa2 was determined. Good fitting was obtained using the
model of energy homogeneous surface for constant pK=4.12-4.23 or for the surface
of two kinds group. One of stronger acidity of pKa2(I)=4.17-4.44 and second type
weaker acidity of pKa2(n)=6.35-7.74.
Specific and nonspecific adsorption of monovalent cations (Cs Rb+), in the face
of high concentration of the ions in the soil solution, will be negligibly small,
similarly to metal oxide/ aqueous electrolyte solution system. XPS and NMR
examinations, also sorption of Cs on the kaolinite, showed that considerable
amount of caesium adsorb almost completely between the ,,t-o-t" layers, and only
1% of Cs adsorbs on the surface. The adsorption of weekly hydrated Cs or Rb ions
in the region between layers is stronger in comparison with better hydrolyzed Li or
Na ions, as these ions give lower potential formation of the edl [47]. The adsorption
of cations of the higher radius (hydrated) promotes the swelling of the silt [3]. That
explains the observed sequence of monovalent cation adsorption for silt type
minerals [3,5,23]:
365
Li + < N a + < K + < R b + < C s +
(14)
The adsorption of the ions on the clay minerals is the exchange type process. The
ions from the solution may substitute ions from interlayer for example:
R - N a + +Csa+q ~
R-Cs + +Naa+q
(15)
where R - r e p r e s e n t s the phyllosilicate lattice with negative charge. The relative

affinity of Cs ions to the surface of phyllosilicate is described by the total selectivity
coefficient:
ZcsmNa
Kc(Cs_~Na) = ZNamCs
(16)
where:
Z- express the phyllosilicate fraction covered by ,,i"-ion (in relation to CEC),
mi- molar concentration of ,,i"-ion (Cs or Na
Though the equation for the selectivity coefficient resemble the equation for the
reaction constant of the ion exchange, these coefficients are not thermodynamic
constants. That is because the activity of ions in the crystalline lattice of the
phyllosilicates are not known [23].
The adsorption of Cs on the phyllosilicates is a complex process that runs
through the succeeding stages. The adsorption of Cs on K-illite and Ca-illite is well
described by three-box model. Here the adsorption of the solution runs through two
independent reactions followed by the third one, irreversible [48]. These
mechanisms explain partial irreversibility of the Cs adsorption process on the
phyllosilicates. It was proved that the adsorption on the illite covered with Ca ions
(Ca-illite) goes better that on the mineral covered by potassium ions (K-illite). On
the former also more Cs adsorb in the irreversible way than on the latter. For this
course of the reaction on both minerals, the higher distance between layers ,,t-o-t" in
Ca-illite is responsible, that favors faster migration in the space between the layers.
This migration is also responsible for the higher irreversible adsorption of Cs on
Ca-illite [49].
For divalent cation adsorption, the reaction of substitution runs through
exchange of Me 2+ for two monovalent anions for example:
2 R - N a + +Me2q
~_ R2-Me 2+ +2Naa+q
(17)
and selectivity coefficient will be equal:

ZMe m2Na
Kc(Me-~Na) = Z~qam Me
(18)
366
The selectivity coefficients of the alkaline earth cation adsorption on the
montmorylonite and vermiculite arrange in the following sequence [35]:
Mg 2+ <Ca 2+ <Sr 2+ < Ba 2+
(19)
The investigations of the Sr 2 and Ba 2 adsorption on the kaolinite, illite and

bentonite, covered earlier by K, Ca and AI(III) ions, proved that the process is well
described by Freundlich or Dubinin-Radushkievich isotherms. The adsorptionconcentration dependence is poorly fit by Langmuir isotherm here. The adsorption
of the ions is higher on the minerals covered K than Ca 2 or AI(III) [50]. For the
adsorption of these ions the poor dependence from pH was noticed.
The adsorption of heavy metal ions, such as Cd(II), Ni(II), Cd(II), Pb(II) is a more
complicated process. Depending on the pH and concentration of the solution, beside
the adsorption also the surface or bulk precipitation may take place. Cation
adsorption on the silt type minerals may occur on hydroxyl groups of the layers
exposed to the solution, on edges of the ,,t-o-t" layers (,,t-o" for kaolinite). It can run
also by exchange with cations from the space between layers. It is considered that
the siloxane layer (-Si-O-Si-) is not active towards the multivalent cations
adsorption [35]. Schindler et al. found that the adsorption of Cd(II), Cu(II), and
Pb(II) on kaolinite from aqueous solutions occurs on two types of sites, one of week
acid character and another one on surface hydroxyl groups connected with
aluminum [51]. The adsorption on week acid groups is ion exchange adsorption
type and goes at low pH and ionic strength values. Higher values of these
parameters favor adsorption on hydroxyl groups, resulting in the innersphere
formation.
The adsorption of Cu(II) and Pb(II) cations as a function of pH is similar for
oxides/electrolyte systems, in certain pH range one can observe the increase of
adsorption defined as the edge of adsorption. Differently, the adsorption of Cd(II) at
increasing part of adsorption vs pH curve shows two distinct edges, one below and
another above pH=6.5. Angove and coworkers, from the results of the Cd(II)
adsorption and potentiometric titrations, found out the adsorption for pH_<4 is the
exchange type adsorption on the permanent, negatively charged sites of the
siloxane layer. This process is characterized by inconsiderable stoichiometry of a
proton exchange (0.2) [52]. The adsorption on the hydroxyl groups takes place on
the surface of the octahedron layer (A1) with characteristic, for alumina
stoichiometry of the proton exchange. The -SiOH groups are in this adsorption of
minor importance. In the similar way runs the adsorption of Co(II) in the system smectite/electrolyte solution [53]. Low values of pH and ionic strength promote the
adsorption on permanent centers of the charge with formation of outersphere
complexes, whereas increase of NaC1 concentration results in removing Co(II) from
adsorption sites of permanent charge and favor multinuclear complex formation
and surface precipitation. The size of these complexes increases with the increase of
pH. XAS(X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy) investigations showed that distance Co-Co
between atoms is smaller than in Co(OH)2. That may prove the adaptation of the
367
forming complexes to the crystalline lattice of the phyllosilicate. The smaller
distances between adsorbed cations than between respective hydroxides were also
observed for Ni(II) on many silty minerals [54]. In present paper, authors tend to
opinion, that the smaller distance between adsorbed cations results from the
formation of a mixing phase of the nickel-aluminum hydroxide.
To the Pb(II) adsorption on the kaolinite data Majone et al. fitted different
adsorption models. They stated that good fitting of the adsorption of Pb(II) as a
function of pH and ionic strength of the electrolyte data is obtained using the
threelayer model of the edl (TLM) characterized by two types of adsorption sites
and their continuous distribution [55].
The adsorption of UO22 on smectite runs in similar way to cation adsorption and
is characterized by typical for them the adsorption edge [56]. The increase of Na
and Ca 2 ions concentration in solution gives a shift of the edge towards higher pH
values. In this system the adsorption model is very complicated because of many
different ion forms of UO22 and a solubility of smectite.
In the investigations on the adsorption of Am-241 on the montmorylonite (the
swelling mineral), illite (nonswelling) no significant difference was noticed,
regarding their swelling behavior. That proves the actinides adsorption only on the
surface of the minerals [57].
The adsorption of cations on the surface of silts may be described by the edl
models characteristic for oxides. They should consider also the substitution
adsorption processes on the interlayer surfaces of the silts, effects connected with
energetic heterogeneity of the surface and dissolution of the solid.
4.
CATION A D S O R P T I O N ON C A R B O N A T E S
Calcium carbonates, beside oxides and silts are the main parts of soil
components. Beside carbonates, recognized as minerals, other oxides may display
surface properties of carbonates because of CO2 adsorption, though the structure of
the bulk phase is oxide type. In this group may be included for example iron oxides
[58]. A influence of carbon dioxide was also observed with the silt surface.
Calcite and dolomite are the most popular carbonate minerals presented in soils,
beside them siderite FeCO3 and rhodocrysite MnCO~ may be present. Because
carbonates dissolve in aqueous solutions the determination of surface charge by
potentiometric titration is difficult. The additional problem is caused by partial
carbon dioxide pressure that influences the balance of the system. The behavior of
the closed and opened to atmosphere systems is quite different. It is assumed that
for the presence of anion and cation in the crystalline lattice of carbonates, on their
surface the following reaction led to charge accumulation:
-CO3H~=~
-CO~+H +
-C03H + Me 2+
~:~
-CO3Me+ + H +
(20)
(21)
368
- M e O H ~ ~:t
(22)
-MeOH + H +
4:t -MeO-+ H +
- MeOH+ CO2 ~ -MeCO~+H+
(23)
- MeOH
(24)
The charge density on the surface of carbonates is proportional to the algebraic sum
of the concentrations of the respective forms bearing the charge [59],
Go
: F{[-CO3H~]+[-C03Me+]+[-MeOH~1-[-MeO-]- [-MeCOg]- [-C03]}(25)
An electric charge on the surface of the carbonate, as of oxides, forms the electric
double layer on the interface of the mineral. The presence of edl implies the
occurrence of specific and nonspecific adsorption at the interface. Caesium ions may
also adsorb on carbonates but because of higher concentrations of other cations of
alkaline metals in the soil solution their sorption is probably minute.
Divalent cations of heavy metals Co(II), Pb(II), Ba(II), Sr(II) show inclination to
the formation of isomorphic crystals with Ca, Fe and Mn carbonates. Then, beside
the adsorption in the edl a substitution adsorption may take place between Me 2
ions from the solution and e.g. Ca e ions from a crystal lattice of the carbonate. This
adsorption was observed for FeCOa/Mn 2+ aqueous solution and
CaCO3/Cd 2+
solution systems [60,61]. In both, the adsorption process is more complicated the
substitution adsorption is the first quick stage, then a diffusion to the hydrated
layer of the carbonate proceeds and finally diffusion into the solid.
(CaCO3XCaCO3 * H20)Cd 2+"
(26)
(CaCO3XCdCO3*H20)s+Ca2+
(27)
(CaCO3XCaC03 * H20) s + Cd 2+ ~
(CaCO3 XCaCO3* H20)Cd s2+~:t
(CaCO 3 XCdC03 * H20)s + c a 2+ ve
((Ca, c a ) c o 3 XCdC03 * H20)s + Ca 2+
(28)
In Davie's et al. opinion, the plot of Cd 2 adsorption versus pH confirms the

above mechanism of the process, the adsorption lowers with the increase of pH.
Despite the presence of hydroxyl groups on the surface, the substitution adsorption
process cannot run with hydrogen ion liberation. In these condition the increase of
pH is accompanied with the increase of the adsorption, for example metal
oxide/Me 2 aqueous solutions. The observed decrease of adsorption Davies et al.
explain by the exchange for Ca 2 ions [61]. After all, this interpretation of
adsorption versus pH dependence seems difficult to accept because in the examined
pH range (pH6-8), the concentration of Ca 2 ions decreases [62]. When assuming
the Cd-Ca ion exchange mechanism, the increase of the adsorption with the
increase of pH (decrease of H concentration) should be observed. The increase of
Me 2 (Me=Cd, Zn, Mn, Co, Ni, Ba, Sr) adsorption on calcite was observed by
Zachara et al. [63]. In their paper the following sequence of the cation adsorption on
calcite was found:
369
Cd 2+ > Zn 2+ > Mn 2+ > Ni 2+ >> Ba = Sr
(29)
From the experiments on the divalent cation adsorption, the character of their
substitution adsorption with Ca 2 ions was proved [63, 64]. Additionally the
following dependence was observed: the higher hydrating energy of the cation, the
easier its desorption.
Beside the Me 2 ion adsorption, also the dissolution and recrystallization
processes occur in carbonate/electrolyte solution system. These processes may be
responsible for formation of solid solutions of carbonates (Me 2 ion transportation
into the solid phase). The influence of the recrystallization on the diminution of the
cation from the solution is visible at longer adsorption time, and may be interpreted
as "diffusion" into the solid phase. During recrystallization, the cations from the
surface are covered and then the process lead to incorporation of adsorbed ion into
crystal lattice of a solid phase which is one of the mechanisms typical for the system
consists of cocrystallised micro- and macro constituents [13, 61, 65]. The description
of Cd(II) adsorption process on CaC03, which considers recrystallization of the solid
was proposed by Das and Van der Weijden [66].
5.
A D S O R B I N G A N D C O M P L E X I N G P R O P E R T I E S OF ORGANIC
S U B S T A N C E S OF S O I L
Considering their origin, organic substances presented in soil may be divided

into two groups. The first one includes all substances, result from the natural,
biological processes that happen in the environment, the second one contain all
substances introduced by man and his industrial activity [3].
In the first group there are substances of small and big molecular weight such as
acids, amines and aminoacids. The most important carboxylic acids are: oxalic,
formic, citric, acetic, succinic, malonic, maleic, aconitic and fumaric. Their
concentration in cultivated soils is lower than in forest ones [39]. The group of
substances of the high molecular weight includes lignins, celluloses, simple proteins
and products of their degradation. All these organic substances present in soil show
various properties and different solubility in water solutions. An amount of the
organic substance dissolved in water is defined as a dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
and measure in mg of carbon/dm 3.
To the group of organic substances of the anthropogenic origin may be included
detergents, sulfonic acids, whitening agents, polymers, solvents, fuels and so on.
Some of them dissolve well in water and form complexes or precipitates with heavy
metals.
Organic substances presented in soil and called "humic substances" do not have
well-determined chemical constitution. They are formed mainly because of
biological degradation of lignins, proteins and carbohydrates (mainly cellulose).
Substances of smaller molecular weight, formed at the beginning and bonding
370
together gives humic macromolecules in the end [5]. For the different substances
may react in this way the final particle may has the variety of functional groups: COOH, -OH (phenolic and alcoholic)=CO, -COH, -NH, -SOH, N in heterocyclic orimides and amides [5]. The average molecular weight of fulvic acid is 670 a.m.u.
and molecule contains six carboxyl and five phenolic groups [4]. The average humic
acid particle is bigger and may reach 25 000 a.m.u.. The humic substances reveal
properties similar to polyelectrolyte gels because of their three-dimensional
structure. The dissociation of carboxyl or phenolic group forms the electric potential
around the humus molecule or their gel phase (for the insoluble humus). To
neutralize this charge, some cations from the electrolyte accumulate at humus
molecule [67]. The analysis of the H affinity to the functional groups of humic acid,
based on the model of continuous adsorption sites (energetic heterogeneity), showed
two peaks on the distribution curve. One for carboxyl groups of p K H Int ~ 4 and
second characteristic for phenol groups pKHInt -8-9 [68]. Ephraim and coworkers
believe that humic acids behave in intermediate manner between simple electrolyte
and polyelectrolyte; as oligoelectrolytes with discrete distribution of acidity
constants of functional groups [69]. Marinsky et al., proposed the method for the
calculation of ionization constants of carboxyl groups and ionization constants of
metal cation complexation including chelate complexes [70]. They proved that fulvic
acid contains three types of carboxyl groups (I,II, III), characterized by different
dissociation constants (pZaI - 1.2, pZaII - 3.4, and pZaIII - 4.2) and acidic alcohol
(enol) groups of the constant pKaIv =5.7. For metal complexation, there is possibility
to obtain four unidenate and four chelatic species[70].
The organic substances of small molecular weight, show complexing behavior not
only with metal cations in solutions but also may complex these cations that are in
solid phase, for example A1 or Fe. This action promotes the solubility of oxides or
other minerals [71]. The solubility of fulvic acid complexes with A1 or Fe cations,
depends on their mutual ratio (metal cation/fulvic acid). For the ratio equal to one
the complex is soluble. For higher ratio values (3-6) the solubility decreases [4].
Acid properties of humic substances may be learned by potentiometric titrations
[23,72]. From these data the distribution of pK constants of humus functional
groups may be found [73].
The complexing properties of humic and fulvic acids are the subject of many
papers dealing with cation adsorption and the references can be find in many
reviews [4,5,38,71]. Harter and Naidu presented values of complexation constants
for some heavy metal cations: Co, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, by ligands existing in
aqueous solutions of soil [39]. The metal cation adsorption on humic acid particles is
complex process because of polyfunctional character of acid group, its polydispersity
and existence in dissolved and colloidal form [38]. For simplification the adsorption
reaction is assumed to run on quasiparticle with groups of the acid character:
aSHn(aq or s)+ pMe 2+ + qL1- + xH + + y O H - ~-where: 5=2p-x-y-lq and b = n ' a ,
SaMep(OH)xLSq(aq or s) + bH+ (30)
371
Above equation may be reduced to simpler form regarding that humic acid is
dissociated in aqueous solution [38]:
a L H - + Me 2+ ~-
MeL2a(l-a) + a H +
(3~)
This equation is characterized by the constant KH:

KH = [MeL2(1-a) ][H +
(32)
[LH- ~ [Me 2+ ]
It can be noticed from the above equation, that the metal adsorption on humic acid
should increase with the increase of pH. This behavior was observed for Pb(II),
Cu(II), Cd(II) and Ca(II) [38].
The organic substances with groups of acidic (or alkaline) character are active
towards molecules of opposite character or to surface groups having alkaline(or
acidic) properties. Molecules of humic substances may adsorb on the soil minerals
by the interaction of their functional groups with mineral surface. The presence of
aliphatic chain segments or aromatic rings enables humus particles to the disperse
interaction. Sposito distinguished following mechanisms of the organic substances
of soil:
- cation exchange,
- protonation,
- anion exchange,
- water bridge formation,
- cation bridges,
- ligand exchange,
- hydrogen bonding,
- Van der Waals interaction.
Humic acid adsorbs on the oxides and on kaolinite in the way characteristic for
anions, the adsorption decreases with increase of pH [23,71]. Because of the size of
particle and n u m b e r of functional groups the adsorption may run only for the part
of molecule, such as for other macromolecules. Thus, h u m u s particles may
immobilize the nonionic particles (organophosphates halogen derivatives of
hydrocarbons) alkaline type organic particles or metal cations [4,23]. Humus
particles compete with organic acid particles of small molecular weight in
adsorption and complexation reactions [71]. The adsorption isotherm of humic acid
on the kaolinite does not show the tendency to reach plateau, characteristic to
complete coverage, so the humic acid adsorption is multilayer type. The reasons for
this are nonpolar interactions of hydrophobic segments of acid molecules [74]. It
was observed t h a t humic acid adsorbs in lower degree t h a n fulvic at the same
concentration because greater particles of humic acids cover up neighbouring
372
adsorption sites. The adsorption of fulvic acid, which particles are smaller, is a
Langmuir type (monolayer adsorption) [74].
The adsorption of Cu(II) on the kaolinite, covered previously by humic or fulvic
acid showed that:
- adsorption affinity of Cu(II) ions to humic acid is stronger than to fulvic acid
- adsorption affinity of Cu(II) ions does not depend on the molecular weight of
humic acid, and is always the same.
- Cu(II) and H ions adsorb completely on the same adsorption sites.
In the soil/electrolyte system coexist: a solid inorganic phase, humic substances
and solution that contains, among others, the metal cations. Model investigations of
such systems are done mainly for metal oxide (or phyllosilicate) - humic acid electrolyte solution [75-85]. The presence of DOC changes the mechanism of cation
adsorption because of cation complexation. On the one hand, the complexation
leads to lowering the cation adsorption at higher pH values, according to the
mechanism of reaction 12. On the other hand, the cation adsorption on the solid
takes place, according to reaction 13, through the adsorption of ligands. For humic
acid, because of the existence of many different functional groups, the adsorption
may run according to both mechanisms (reactions 12 and 13). This effect was
observed for the Cu(II) adsorption on A1203 and presence of humic acid [75]. Fulvic
acid lowers the Zn(II) adsorption on goetite and hydroarargite by complexing the
metal cations in the solution (reaction 11) and has no influence on this cation
adsorption on SiO2 [85]. The adsorption of rare earth elements, in the presence of
humic acid, is complex process and differs much from the solutions without this
acid [76-80]. This adsorption is connected with humic acid complex formation with
Eu(III) ions in the solution, adsorption of these complexes also the adsorption of
ionic form of Eu(III) on the adsorbed humic acid on the oxide or on the
phyllosilicate. Similar effect of humic acid on the adsorption, was observed for ions
of V, Ag and other rare earth elements [85]. Beside discussed group of ions of rare
earth elements (group A), Takahashi et al. distinguished three groups of ions of
elements. They differ in their adsorption behavior in the environment humic acid/
dispersed oxides (phyllosilicates) [85].
Group B - (Mn,Zn, Co, Be, Sr, Ba, Fe, Cr) - humic acid causes desorption of these
cations in neutral pH.
Group C - (Ru, Rh, Ir, Pt, Ga, Zr, Hf) - humic acid does not have influence on the
cation adsorption but earlier adsorbed acid molecules limit Hf and Zr ions
adsorption through screening the adsorption sites.
Group D - (Rb, As, Se, Te) - the presence of humic acid does not have any influence
on the adsorption of these ions.
The description of adsorption process in the metal cation - humic acid - mineral
system is far more complicated than for the system without acid. Till now, there are
some methods used for the description of adsorption in systems containing humic
(fulvic) acid; LOGA J.C.M. de Wit et al. [86], NICA model (by Bendetti et al.) [87].
One can also adopt adsorption model that considers energetic heterogeneity of
adsorption sites [33].
373
Another review dealing with actinides complexation by humic substances was
presented by Maulin et al. [88]. In this paper some complexation constants of
selected lanthanides and actinides were given. The complexed forms of actinides
with humic acid dominate in solutions of pH<7 (sometimes 8) at concentrations 0.1
mg/dm 3. Whereas the presence of other cations (AI(III), Ca(II)) may change the
contribution of h u m u s complexes of actinides in aqueous phase. To obtain the
adequate opinion of the existing forms in the system, the calculations may include
the concentrations of anions and cations in the aqueous environment of soil.
P R O C E S S E S OF FORMATION, T R A N S P O R T A T I O N AND
A D S O R P T I O N OF COLLOIDS IN SOIL SYTEMS
Heavy metal cations and actinides may often precipitate under the soil solution
conditions. The average concentration of anions that form insoluble sediments in
ground or surface water is often sufficient to form carbonates, hydroxides, sulfides,
phosphates, fluorides or chlorides with respective cations. If in discussed system
some colloids are formed, then processes characteristic for real solutions cannot
explain the ion transportation in natural environment. Obtained as a results of
radioactive isotope precipitation, fine sediments (insoluble salts) are called real
colloids. It was mentioned earlier that radioisotopes under specific conditions may
adsorb on fine dispersed oxides or hydroxides of colloid size. Then, the behavior of
this system will not be the same as for real solutions, but rather as the colloid
systems. Isotopes, adsorbed on colloid matrix form pseudocolloid [3]. Beside two
mentioned colloid systems, Kim distinguishes in natural systems the third kind aqua colloids. They are formed as a result of succeeding reactions: dissolution of the
mineral, hydrolysis of obtained product, polinucleation and colloid formation [89].
Depending on the solid contacted with water, the aqueous solution can contain even
more than 100 ppm of colloids. Usually high concentrations of aqua colloids exist in
water that contact with humus.
Actinides form insoluble sediments with hydroxides, carbonates, sulfates,
phosphates and fluorides [90]. There are no data concerning the solubility of
actinides with silicate anion, though uranium forms with this anion several
insoluble minerals. Because in natural conditions in ground water the hydrocarbon
and carbonate anions play the dominant role, in the reactions of precipitation (in
the 0.01 mole/dm 3 solution of Na pH=7, pC02 =3.5) depending on the oxidation
state of the actinides, the compounds presented in Table 3 may precipitate [90].
The behavior of actinides in natural environment was described in many papers
reviewed by Lieser [3,89], Silva and Nitshe [90], Kim [91,92], Chopin and Stout
[93], Newton and Sulivan [94], Larsen et al. [95] and Tanaka et al. [96].
The behavior of colloids or pseudocolloids in natural soil and water systems is a
subject of the investigations in the aspect of the transportation not only the toxic
substances but also gaining precious minerals or elements, for example Au [97].
The examination of the behavior of Pu in alluvial sediments of Los Alamos
depository revealed that Pu loaded on the colloid, translocates few times slower
374
Table 3
Solid phase and solubilites of actinides[90]
Oxidation state of An
Solid phase
+3
+4
+5
+6
AnOHC03
AnO2
NaAnO2CO3
AnO2(OH)2*H20
Solubility of An
[mol/dm 3]
10 .7
10 -10
10 .5
10 .6
than tritium but more than thousand times faster then it was predicted by two or
three phase model [6]. The model investigations of colloid transportation through
columns packed with quartz, showed that the migration rate of bigger particles, for
example latex, is greater than that of smaller ones [98, 99]. To describe the latex
transportation in a column, the model similar to dynamic chromatography was
proposed. The transportation in quartz packed column is treated as a particle
transportation through capillary. The average rate of particles (v), depends on
equivalent radius of capillary Ro, the rate of the liquid (velocity profile fluid) Vr, rate
of particle Rp and energy of interaction between particle and capillary (packed
quartz) W [99].
Vtr),exE Wr)lrr
(v)=
kT
(33)
~:~ -RP e x p l - :T(r)]rdr

The energy of interaction consists of Van der Waals disperse interaction WVDWand
electrostatic interaction of edl WDL
W = WD1 + WVDw
(34)
For RpfRo << 1 the interactions between particle and package of the column (quartz
grains) may be treated as sphere - plate interaction. Then, the electrostatic
interaction will vary with particle potentials ~gl and the plate potential ~2
WD1 (h)= 16~ .Rp.
tanh ewe//.tanh e~2/.exp -Kh

4kT J
\ 4kT J
where:
h- distance between plate and sphere
e- elementary charge
~- dielectric constant
K-reciprocal Debaye length K = ~
1000e2N Av
-~
~i ziM
2 i
(35)
375
NAv- Avogadro's number
z - valence of the ion
M - molar concentration.
The above equation couples the influence of electric potentials on the surface of
particles and ionic strength of the electrolyte on the electrostatic force interactions.
An increase of ionic strength results in drop of WDL by the increase of parameter.
For spherical particle - plate system the Van der Waals force interactions are
described by following equation:
WVDW (h) = -
+~
+ 21n
x+l
x+l
(36)
where x=h/2R~
A- Hamaker constant.
Hamaker constants for pure components of discussed systems are available in
many monographies dealing with stability of dispersed systems [100]. For real
systems, for example latex-quartz interactions in water, the H a m a k e r constant
have to be calculated from pure component data.
Wv w: (A, 11-
(37)
where: All, A22 H a m a k e r constants for solids (1- latex and 2 - quartz), A33 Hamaker
constant of the liquid medium (water). Velocity of particle migration in the porous
systems, calculated in this way, in the opinion of Nagasaka et al., may well predict
the behavior of colloids in geological systems[99].
This model contains many simplifications: it assumes a small size of colloid
particles in comparison to the packing of the column, does not take into account
precipitation on and liberation particles from collectors, heterogeneity of the
package, and dynamics of processes and at last variation of chemical and physical
conditions. In bibliography, there are known also the more developed models of
porous collectors and the particles transportation [101-104]. However, despite many
models of the colloid particle - collector interactions, which may be successfully
adopted to well-defined systems, their application in such natural systems as soil
still does not give the precise description of the transportation process.
Comprehensive, excellent review of the state of present knowledge on the colloid
transportation in the natural environment was presented by Ryan and Elimelech
[6].
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Adsorption and its Applicationsin Industryand EnvironmentalProtection

381
N e w c o m p o s i t e a d s o r b e n t s for t h e r e m o v a l of p o l l u t a n t s f r o m w a s t e
waters
E.F. Vansant
University of Antwerp (UIA), Department of Chemistry, Universiteitsplein 1,
B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
ABSTRACT
Chemical modification techniques were developed to create new composite
adsorbents from elutrilithe to improve the removal of neutral, anionic and
cationic organic and inorganic pollutants from water.
A chemical activation of the elutri!ithe, resulting from reactions with metal
salts and gibbsite or boehmite at high temperature 700~ in the absence of
oxygen, composite adsorbents were developed for an efficient treatment of waste
waters. The activated products were characterised in terms of surface area, and
micropore volume and evaluated in terms of affinity and capacity for a number of
organic compounds. Relations between the organic compounds and their
molecular size, pKa, pH and adsorption temperature were investigated.
The presence of gibbsite or boehmite during the modification process gives rise
to a composite adsorbent suitable for the removal of anionic and cationic organic
or inorganic compounds from waste water.
Preliminary tests in pre-pilot installations confirmed the results obtained on
lab scale.
The preparation of the new composite adsorbent is cheap with an ease of
handling. From comparative experiments, it was obvious that the modified
elutrilithe adsorbents show a superior affinity and capacity compared to the
classical excisting sorbents in the removal of pollutants from waste water.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Waste water, containing traces of organic compounds, causes a great problem

in the environmental science. Organic compounds, classified as priority
pollutants to remove are phenols [1]. Phenolic compounds are toxic to soil microorganisms at parts-per-million level [2]. The fate of phenols in the environment
and their removal from aqueous media is complicated by their low solubility,
382
ability to ionise, low vapour pressure and tendency to undergo oxidation and
oxidative polymerisation with humic and fulvic acid-type products [3]. The
adsorption technique is one of the alternative treatment processes currently in
consideration for achieving the required level in the removal of phenols.
It is well known that activated carbon is the most significant adsorbent and
widely applied commercial adsorbent in water purification. The removal of trace
levels of organic pollutants from extreme large solution volumes is a microseparation process which requires cost-effective adsorbents. In recent years,
several alumino-silicates were explored as adsorbents in the treatment of waste
water [4-11]. An optimal adsorbent for the removal of organic compounds in
waste water should have the following properties: low cost, ease of handling,
environmental neutrality, high affinity and high capacity. Among many types of
materials, elutrilithe, a natural weathered alumino-silicate containing about 8%
of carbon by weight from coal mining heaps, is of potential interest. The property
of this type of adsorbent is influenced by a number of factors including the carbon
content [12,13] and surface area [14,15]. However, elutrilithe in its natural form
has neither a high affinity nor a high capacity for the adsorption of hydrophobic
compounds. In spite of its high carbon content, elutrilithe has only a surface area
of 10 m2/g, reflecting its low adsorption capacity as reported by Dehon et al. [17].
Only 15-20% of organic materials could be removed from an aqueous solution.
The objective of the present work was to explore the possibility of using
modified elutrilithe for the removal of organic pollutants, especially phenol
compounds. A method to increase the surface area was developed, based on a
thermal shock method in order to form perlite. In this way, the surface area of
elutrilithe increases from 10 to 32 m2/g [16]. Furthermore, a modification of
elutrilithe using inorganic salts at high temperature resulted in a further
increase of the surface area, and the affinity for organic compounds. Indeed,
these modified elutrilithes could adsorb similar quantities of organics from
aqueous solutions compared to activated carbons. Moreover, the modification
procedure was adapted to remove efficiently ionic (cationic and anionic) inorganic
and organic pollutants from waste waters.
2.
EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. M a t e r i a l s
A typical chemical composition of elutrilithe is shown in Table 1.The inorganic
salts, CaC12 9 2H20 and ZrC12, were supplied by MERCK Company. All organic
compounds used in this study were obtained from ALDRICH. Some important
physicochemical properties of the phenol compounds are summarised in Table 2.
383
Table 1
Typical chemical composition of elutrilithe (%wt) [16,18]
SiO2
50
Na20
0.3
Fe203
6.5
KO2
4.0
A120~
25
SO~
0.7
MgO
1.9
TiO2
0.8
CaO
0.6
P20~
1.2
MnO
0.1
Carbon
+8.0
+10 m2/g
BET surface area

Available form
black powder
Table 2
Physicochemical properties of the phenols
Compound
Wavelength of
Water solubility*
adsorption bend (nm) (g/kg, 20~
pKa*
(20oc)
Phenol
269
77.5
9.98
3 -chlorophenol
274
25.0
9.08
3,5 -dichloro phe no 1
277
4.5
8.15
2,4,6 -trichlorophenol
293
0.8
6.00
*:Freier(1976), Aqueous Solution Data for Inorganic and Organic Compounds, Vol. 1
2.2. P r e p a r a t i o n a n d c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n of t h e a d s o r b e n t s
Modified adsorbents were prepared by treating the crude elutrilithe with CaC12
and ZnC12. 10 grams of the crude sample was blended homogeneously with 0.1 g
CaC12 or ZnC12 in a crucible and heated in the absence of air in an oven at 700~
for 3 hours. The modified elutrilithe samples were cooled to room temperature
and washed at 70~ several times with de-ionised water in order to remove
excess salt. The prepared samples were dried and stored. Similar modifications
were carried out with various inorganic salts such as KC1, NaC1, MgC12, ZnC12,
etc. An alternative modification, a combination of metal salts with gibbsite and
boehmite causes important features for the removal of neutral and ionic
compounds from waste waters.
The characterisation of natural and modified elutrilithes was carried out by a
N2-adsorption technique, using a DigiSorb 2600 (Micromeritics Instrument
384
Corporation), in order to determine the surface area and pore volume. The
elutrilithe samples were out-gassed at 150~ for 3 hours, and the nitrogen
isotherms were recorded at liquid nitrogen temperature. The surface areas were
calculated using the BET equation, and pore volumes were estimated at a
relative pressure of 0.99. Surface areas calculated from the Langmuir equation
were also reported if the adsorption data correlated better with this equation.
External surface areas and pore volumes were estimated using as-plots [19]. The
surface area in micropores was calculated by subtracting the external surface
area from the BET surface area.
2.3. A d s o r p t i o n p r o c e s s
Adsorption isotherms were determined using the batch equilibration
technique. Initial concentrations of adsorbates were prepared in the range 0.10 1.00 mmol/1. A series of 100 -ml erlenmeyers containing 0.05 g elutrilithe and
100 ml solution were sealed and shaked at room temperature until equilibrium
was obtained. Afterwards, the adsorbents were removed by centrifugation at
4500 rpm for 15 min. Measurements of the adsorbate concentrations were carried
out by a direct ultraviolet adsorbance (UVIKON 930 instrument) method, using
calibration curves.
3.
R E S U L T S AND D I S C U S S I O N
3.1. C h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n of t h e a d s o r b e n t s
Natural elutrilithe has not a large surface area (+10m 2) nor a high affinity for
organic compounds, in spite of its high carbon content (Table 1). In order to
increase its affinity and adsorption capacity, the surface properties of the
elutrilithe were modified. The specific surface area and the carbon content are
very important factors influencing the adsorption. To increase the surface area of
elutrilithe, as reported by M. De Boodt [16], a thermal shock procedure was used.
In the present work, however, the elutrilithe was treated with inorganic salts
such as CaC12 and ZnC12 at high temperatures. Indeed, the surface properties of
carbonaceous materials can be affected by the presence of the metallic chlorides
during the carbonisation and activation [20]. As expected, a significant change in
the surface properties and micropores in elutrilithes was observed by these
modification processes.
Complete adsorption-desorption isotherms were recorded for untreated and
treated elutrilithe samples. Figure 1 shows that the nitrogen isotherm a t - 1 9 6 ~
of untreated elutrilithe was a type-II isotherm in the classification of Brunauer,
Deming and Teller. The isotherms recorded for the modified samples are
different. Both types of the adsorption isotherms and adsorption affinity were
influenced by the modification process. The isotherms of the modified products
appear to be a combination of the type-II isotherm of the untreated product, and
a type-I isotherm resulting from the adsorption in the micropores, introduced by
385
the modification process. To analyse further the adsorption m e a s u r e m e n t s of the
modified elutrilithes, external surface areas, surface areas and pore volumes in
micropores were e s t i m a t e d using as-plots (Fig. 1). In Table 3, the surface areas
and pore volumes are summarised. The surface areas and pore volumes of the
modified products are significantly higher compared to those of the initial
products. The adsorption data correlate better with the L a n g m u i r equation t h a n
with the BET equation. Both BET and L a n g m u i r equations were used to
calculate the surface areas of the adsorbents. As a result, the surface effects in
modified elutrilithes for organic compounds increase considerably.
h~
60
50
Zn-Elut
---.
o~
4o
30
9
20
9
Ca-Elut
10
<
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
Relative pressure (P/Po)

Figure 1. Nitrogen adsorption isotherms at- 196~ for crude-Elm and the modified
elutrilithes: Ca-Elm and Zn-Elut.
Table 3
Surface area and pore volume of elutrilithes
Sample ID
Surface area (m2/g)

BET
Pore volume (cm3/g)
Langmuir
External
Micropore
Total
Micropore
Crude-Elut
9.7
--
9.7
--
0.0289
Ca-Elut
59.3
83.0
6.5
52.8
0.0449
0.0248
Zn-Elut
157.3
219.9
4.7
152.6
0.0855
0.0726
386
3.2. Adsorption i s o t h e r m s
Figures 2 show adsorption isotherms of phenol (p), 3-chlorophenol (3-CP),
3-5-dichlorophenol (3,5 DCP) and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6 TCP) from water
onto unmodified and two modified Ca-Elut and Zn-Elut. The n a t u r a l elutrilithe
0,4
0,35
9
E~ 0,3
0,25
,.Q
0
0,2
0,15
0,1
<
0,05
Phenol
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
Equilibrium concentration, mmol/1
0,4
0,35
9
E~ 0,3
0,25
or~
0,2
0,15
0,1
<
0,05
3-CP
--
---
---
0,2
---
0,4
---
~.
.It
_.-
0,6
0,8

Figure 2(A). Adsorption isotherms for phenol and 3-CP on crude-Elm (A), modified
elutrilithes Ca-Elut(ll ) and Zn -Elm (+) at room temperature. Equilibrium time = 4 h: Initial
concentrations = 0.10-1.00 mM; Adsorbent/solution = 0.05 g/100 ml.
387
0,45
0
0,4
E! 0,35
El
t..,
o,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
=
0
3,5-DCP
0,1
< 0,05
o
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
Equilibrium concentration, mmol/l
bs
0
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
<
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
Equilibrium concentration, mmol/l

Figure 2 (B). Adsorption isotherms for 3,5-DCP and 2,4,6-TCP on crude-Elm (A), modified
elutrilithes Ca-Elut(ll ) and Zn-Elut(+) at room temperature. Equilibrium time = 4 h; Initial
concentrations = 0.10-1.00 mM; Adsorbent/solution = 0.05 g/100 ml.
does not show any detectable adsorption of phenols. However the modified
elutrilithes adsorb a considerable amount of phenols and reveal a high affinity.
The modification procedure has significantly changed the surface properties from
hydrophilicity to organophilicity. Also a significant difference in the adsorption
capacity of Ca-Elut and Zn-Elut for various phenols can be observed. The
adsorption increases in the order: phenol <chlorophenol < dichlorophenol <
trichlorophenol, revealing that the adsorption capacity is not limited by the size,
but controlled by the nature of the adsorbate molecule. The adsorption on these
two organophilic matrices increases with increasing number of chlorines on the
phenol structure. The hydrophillic properties of these phenols can be reflected by
388
their water solubilities (P > 3 CP > 3,5 DCP > 2,4,6 TCP) (Table 2). An inverse
relationship is observed between the water solubility and the adsorption on the
surface of the modified elutrilithes. All the adsorption isotherms on the modified
elutrilithes are dominantly a classical type-I curve, obeying the Langmuir
equation:
Q~ e
qe = ~
l+kCe
(I)
where qe is the amount of solute adsorbed per unit weight of adsorbent (mmol/g),
Q~ the solid-phase concentration corresponding to all available sites being filled,
i.e., the maximum adsorption capacity, Ce, the liquid-phase concentration at
equilibrium, and k, a constant related to the energy of adsorption. Equation (1)
can be written in a linear form.
1
qe
Q0
kQ~ Ce
(2)
In the double reciprocal plots, the amounts of phenols adsorbed by the solid
phase versus the amount remaining in solution at equilibrium, give the intercept
(1/Q ~ and a slope (1/kQ~ The maximum adsorption capacities and k constants
from these Langmuir plots are given in Table 4.
The adsorption sequence of the different phenols is reflected by the k and Qo
values. Zn-Elut appears to be superior in the phenol adsorption compared to
Table 4
Summary of the Langmuir plot coefficients
Adsorbate
Ca-Elut
Qo
k
(mmol/g)
(1/mmol
Zn-Elut
Qo
k
(mmol/g)
(l/retool)
Phenol
0.157
20.58
0.388
15.73
3-CP
0.173
29.05
0.391
20.63
3,5-DCP
0.190
40.38
0.436
40.76
2,4,6-TCP
0.192
54.37
0.565
41.16
3-CP:3-chlorophenol, 3,5-DCP: 3,5-dichlorophenol; 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
389
Ca-Elut. Comparing the adsorption of the different phenols by Ca-Elut or ZnElut, the adsorption capacity Q~ and the constant k both are in the order: phenol
< 3-CP < 3,5-DCP < 2,4,6-TCP, reflecting the hydrophobic properties of these
molecules. This behaviour indicates that the surface of the modified elutrilithes
has a higher affinity for hydrophobic compounds. The adsorption energy of a
molecule is the difference between the free energy of reaction with the surface
and the free energy of solvation [21]. The constant k, related to the energy of
adsorption, shows that for the most hydrophobic molecule, 2,4,6-TCP, the
adsorption on an organophillic Zn-Elut surface is favoured because both
components of the adsorption free energy should be highly negative. On the other
hand, phenol is a molecule with a small hydrophobic character, the desolvation
process results in a positive free energy, lowering the net adsorption free energy.
For all four phenols, the net adsorption free energy change favours the adsorption
[8]. On the other hand, as expected, the substantially high specific surface area is
also a very important factor in the adsorption. The higher adsorption capacities
in Zn-Elut reflect the larger surface area compared to Ca-elut (Table 3). The
phenol, 3-CP and 3,5 DCP adsorptions on modified clays (cetyl pyridinium cation
exchanged montmorillonite and cetyltrimethyl-ammonium-montmorillonite) were
studied by Mortland et al. [5]. They reported a type-V isotherms for 3-CP and 3,5
DCP. The adsorption capacities for the 3-CP and 3,5 DCP adsorption, however,
were significantly lower compared to the Zn-elutrilithe. In contrast to the amount
of phenol adsorbed by modified elutrilithes, phenol was not adsorbed at all from
an aqueous solution by the modified clays. This demonstrates that the modified
elutrilithes show important affinities and larger adsorption capacities compared
to modified clays in the phenols adsorption.
3.3. I n f l u e n c e of t h e pH
Several experiments were carried out to study the influence of the pH on the
adsorption of phenols by Zn-Elut. The acidity constants (pKa values) for the
different phenols are shown in Table 2. Experiments, with constant initial
adsorbate and adsorbent concentrations, were set up. The dependence of the
adsorption of phenols on the pH of the solution is presented in Figure 3. The
adsorption increases slowly with increasing the pH value in the pH < pKa range.
Maximum adsorption of all four phenols was observed at pH close to the pKa
values, but decreases sharply at pH values greater than the pKa of the adsorbate.
This suggests that the dissociation of the adsorbate influences the adsorption
capacities. The variation in adsorption with the degree of dissociation is not
totally unexpected since the dissociated form is more soluble in an aqueous
solution [20,22]. The dissociated compounds will be less adsorbed because of the
stronger adsorbate-solvent bonds affecting the affinity for the adsorbate. In
general, the adsorption capacities were larger for the neutral phenol than for the
phenolate form.
390
0,4
0,35
0
E~ 0,3
-~ 0,25
0
r.~
0,2
0,15
0,1
< 0,05
10
15
pH value
0,5
0,45
0,4
0
E~ 0,35
0,3
0
r.~
0,25
0,2
= 0,15
<
0,1
0,05
10
12
pH value
Figure 3. Variation in the adsorption of phenols on Zn-Elut with pH at room temperature.
+:phenol, I-! "3-CP, A'3,5-DCP, II :2,4,6-TCP. Initial concentrations = 0.50 mM;
Adsorbent/solution ratio = 0.05 g/100 ml; Equilibrium time = 4 h.
391
3.4.
Influence
of temperature
Adsorption isotherms were determined for 3,5-DCP on Zn-Elut at temperature

of 5, 21 and 30~ The results are shown in Figure 4 and illustrate that the
adsorption of phenols is an exothermic process. The adsorption of phenols
decreases with increasing temperature. However the temperature influence is
small. From the variation in the Langmuir constant k with temperature, the
enthalpy of adsorption (AH) can be calculated by the equation,
k - ko exp(AH/RT)
In k2 _ AH(T2 T1)
kl
RT2T1
(3)
with kl and k2 the Langmuir constants at adsorption temperatures T1 and T2.

The resulting value of AH (--1.3 kcal/mol) is in the order of magnitude expected
for a relatively weak physical adsorption on modified elutrilithe. In contrast, this
value is much larger t h a n the values associated with chemisorption processes
( < - 1 0 kcal/mol).
0,45
9
0,4
9
m
9
m
mm
mm
9
m
7 ------'+
10
0,35
9
o,3
a~ 0,25
9
r.~
0,2
0,15
<
o,1
0,05

Figure 4. Influence of temperature on the 3,5-DCP adsorption by modified elutrilithe Zn-Elut.
A:5~ m. 21~ +: 30~ Initial concentrations = 0.10- 1.00mM; Adsorbent/solution ratio =
0.05 g/100 ml; Equilibrium time = 4 h.
392
3.5. Adsorption-desorption isotherms

Adsorption and desorption isotherms were determined for 3,5-DCP on Zn-Elut.
The adsorption isotherm was carried out in the usual fashion, while the
desorption isotherm was obtained by decanting the s u p e r n a t a n t from each vessel
at the end of the adsorption part of the experiment, and then reinserting 100 ml
of deionized water into each flask. The reaction flask were then resealed and
allowed to re-equilibrate for a period of seven days. At the end of this period, the
concentration of adsorbate was determined in each flask. These equilibrium
concentrations in conjunction with corresponding adsorption phase data were
used to compute the desorption isotherm. The results of this experiment are
presented in Figure 5. A significant hysteresis is observed. This demonstrates
that the 3,5-DCP adsorption on Zn-Elut is a reversible process with important
diffusion effects.
0,45
0,4
b.0
'~9
E~
035
,
0,3
a~ 0,25
t~
o
(D
0,2
0,15
<~
o,1 i
0,05
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8

- - ~ - - A d s o r p t i o n ----!1~ Desorption
Figure 5. Adsorption-desorption isotherms for 3,5-DCP on Zn-Elut at room temperature.

Initial 3,5-DCP concentrations = 0.10 - 1.00 mM; Adsorbent/solution ratio = 0.05 g/100 ml;
Adsorption equilibrium time = 4 h; Desorption equilibrium time = 7 h.
393
3.6. A d s o r p t i o n of other organic c o m p o u n d s

The adsorptive properties of modified elutrilithes for other organic compounds
are presented in Figure 6. It is obvious from this figure t h a t the Zn-Elut, exhibits
a significant selective adsorption. F u r t h e r m o r e Zn-Elut has a very high affinity
for aromatic compounds, chlorobenzenes, toluene en chlorotoluene.
4,5
4
E~ 3,5
3
9
2,5
2
9
=
1,5
<
1
0,5
1
i]
10
Component number
5
4,5
b~
3,5
3
O
2,5
9 Elutdlithe
2
=
[] Zn-Elut
1,5
E~
<
1
0,5
0
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Component number
Figure 6. Adsorption of organic compotmds by unmodified and modified Zn-Elut adsorbents.
Dosage = 0.5 g/100 ml, temperature = 24 ~ C, equilibrium time = 4 hr each adsorbate initial
concentration = 50 ppm. Organic components: 1. diethylether, 2.1-propanol, 3.2-butanol,
4. chloroform, 5. dichloroethane, 6. benzene, 7.3-pentanol, 8. propylacetate, 9.3,3-dimethyl2-butanol, 10. toluene, 11.2,2-dimethyl-3-pentanol, 12.2-chlorobenzene, 13.1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, 14.2-chlorotoluene, 15.2-chlorophenol, 16.1,2-dichlorobenzene, 17.4-methylbenzaldehyde, 18.2,6-dimethylaniline, 19.1,2,4-trichlorobenzene.
394
There are many factors which influence both affinity and capacity of
adsorbents from an aqueous solution. The molecular structure, or nature of the
adsorbate, is in particular important in the adsorption process. In general,
molecules with a low polarity, solubility and ionisability, tend to adsorb
preferentially, in these modified elutrilithe.
3.7. Other important properties by adapting the modification

procedure
If the modification of the crude elutrilithe is carried out in combination with
gibbsite or boehmite the new modified composite adsorbent reveals a significant
ionic exchange. Indeed, crude elutrilithe shows only a low cationic exchange
capacity (10 meq/100 gr) . After this modification procedure followed by a basic
treatment total cation exchange capacities of 100 meq/100 gr can be observed to
remove cationic pollutants (NH4, heavy metals, etc.). On the other hand, an
acidic treatment create total anionic exchange capacities up to 120 meg/100 gr,
useful for the removal of anionic pollutants, such as NO~, PO34, C I , etc. The
total ionic exchange capacity (cationic or anionic) of this modified elutrilithe can
be controlled by the quantity of gibbsite or boehmite and type of metal salts
during the modification process. Efficient removals of NO~, PO34, SO~ and CI
from waste waters were proven.
Also, the origin of the elutrilithe reveals no significant differences in the
removal of pollutants from waste water. All modified composite samples
obtaining from the UK, Poland, Russia, South-Africa and Canada show a simular
removal efficiency of neutral, anionic and cationic organic and inorganic
pollutants from waste waters.
3.8. Water purification tests in pre-pilot installations

The removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from waste water using the
Zn-elut adsorbent in a pre-pilot installation with downflow fixed-bed columns or
in a batch suspension method, confirmed the results obtained on labscale. The
average capacities of the pre-pilot installations were 0.5 m 3 per hour.
3.9.
Regeneration
Because of economic and solid waste disposal considerations, it is feasible to

regenerate spent modified elutrilithe for subsequent re-use than to dispose of it.
In general, experiments have shown that with modified elutrilithe (Ca-Elut, ZnElut) and classical activated carbons, identical regeneration processes can be
used to remove the previously adsorbed materials and to re-institute its ability to
adsorb impurities. A thermal regeneration process at 700~ in N2 with limited
quantities of oxidising gases, using a rotary-tube furnace was sufficient.
However, a new basic or acidic treatment was necessary re-install the cationic or
anionic exchange capacities.
395
4.
CONCLUSIONS
A new composite adsorbent was developed for the removal of neutral, anionic
and cationic organic or inorganic pollutants from waste waters. From
comparative experiments, it was obvious that the modified elutrilithe adsorbents
show a superior affinity and capacity compared to the classical sorbents in the
removal of pollutants from waste waters. Furthermore, important anionic and
cationic exchange behaviour could be generated to remove efficiently charged
organic or inorganic compounds from water. Moreover, the preparation of the
new composite adsorbent is inexpensive with an ease of handling and with in
improved performance in the waste water treatment compared to existent
adsorbants.
REFERENCES
1. M. Kuwahara, N. Shindo and K. Munakata, J. Agric. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 44
(I 979) 169.
2. P.M. Chapman, G.P. Romberg and G.A. Vigers, J. Water Pollution Control
Federation, 54, 292.
3. T.D. Thompson and W.F. Moll, Clays and Clay Minerals, 21 (1973) 337.
4. W. Karickhoff, S. Brown and A. Scott, Water Research, 13 (1979) 241.
5. M. Mortland, S. Sun and A. Boyd, Clays and Clay Minerals, 34, 5 (1986) 581.
6. C. Means, G. Wood, J. Hassett and L. Banwart, Environ. Sci. & Tech.,
14, 12 (1989) 1524.
7. T. Nolan, R. Srinivasan and H. Fogler, Clays and Clay Minerals,
37, 5 (1989) 487.
8. Keeran R. Srinivasan and H. Scott Fogler, Clays and Clay Minerals,
38, 3 (1990) 287.
9. C. Zielke and J. Pinnavaia, Clays and Clay Minerals, 36, 5 (1988) 403.
i0. C. Voice and J. Weber Jr., Water Research, 17, I0 (1983) 1433.
1 I. J. Weber Jr. C. Voice, M. Pirbazari, E. Hunt and M. Ulanoff, Water Research,
17, I0 (1983) 1443.
12. W.C. Steen, D.F. Paris and G.L. Baughman, Water Research, 12 (1978) 665.
13. M.C. Lee, R.A. Miller and E.S.K. Ghian, J. Envir. Sci. Hlth.,
A14(5) (1979) 415.
14. R. Haque, D.W. Schmedding and V. Freed, Envir. Sci. Technol., 8 (1974) 139.
15. Y. Hiraizumi, M. Takahashi and H. Nishimura, Envir. Sci. Technol.,
13 (1979) 580.
16. M. De Boodt, Report: Elutrilithe, Etude des PropriJtJs Physiques
(Laboratoire de physique du sol, R.U.G. Gent, Belgium).
17. C. Dehon, P. Bouviez, D. Demeulder et al., Report: PropriJtJs PhysicoChimique de l'Elutrilithe, ObservJes sur des Lisiers, des Eaux UsJes, des Gaz
(Institut provincial d'hygiene et de bacteriologie, Mons, Belgium) (1985).
396
18. RYAN EUROPE, Report: Characteristiques moyennes de l'elutrilithe,
Charleroi, Belgium (1988).
19. S.J. Gregg and K.S.W. Sing, Adsorption, Surface Area and Porosity,
Academic Press, London, (1982) 90.
20. J.W. Hassler, Activated Carbon, Chemical Publishing Co., New York (1963).
21. N.A. Klimenko, A.A. Permilovskaya and A.M. Koganovskii, Kolloid Zh.,
36 (1974) 788.
22. J.S. Mattson and Jr. H.B. Mark, Activated Carbon Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York (1971).

Carbon materials
as adsorbents
397
for v a p o u r p o l l u t a n t s
F. J. L6pez-Garz6n, I. Fernandez-Morales, C. Moreno-Castilla and

M. Domingo-Garcia
Grupo de Investigaci6n en Carbones, Dpto. de Quimica Inorg~nica,
Fac. de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain.
Adsorption on porous materials has been proved to be an efficient technique
for use in a wide range of very i m p o r t a n t applications ranging from the
elimination of e n v i r o n m e n t a l pollutants to the concentration or storage of
products of industrial interest. Within the large n u m b e r of possible adsorbents,
carbon materials have proved to be the best for these applications because of
their high capacity for adsorption. This is directly related to their textural and
chemical properties (i.e. surface porosity and chemical groups on the surface) and
because of the ease of changing these properties by t h e r m a l or chemical
t r e a t m e n t s [1-3]. Another r e m a r k a b l e aspect is the variety of raw materials from
which these adsorbents can be obtained.
The yield and the selectivity of a particular adsorption process is determined
by the n a t u r e of both the adsorbent and the adsorbate. Therefore the kind of
interaction t h a t takes place between the molecules of the substance to be
adsorbed and the surface of the adsorbent is very i m p o r t a n t [4-5]. There are
mainly two types of interactions to be considered: the first one are those produced
by London dispersion forces (non-specific interactions) and the second by
electrostatic forces through dipole-dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding...etc
(specific interactions). Therefore, in the adsorption on porous materials two main
factors m u s t be t a k e n into account: the porosity and the chemical functionalities
of the adsorbate and adsorbent [6].
The porosity can determine the adsorption depending on the shape and size of
the molecules in such a way t h a t two molecules with only small differences can
be discriminated, i.e. the adsorbent can acts as molecular sieve. Therefore the
adsorption process can be designed to eliminate a pollutant or to selectively
recover a substance [7-10].
Porous carbon materials usually contain polymodal distribution of pores the
sizes of which vary from molecular dimension to several h u n d r e d nanometers,
but they can be tailored with high capacity of adsorption for a particular
adsorbate by an appropriate selection of raw materials, p r e p a r a t i o n process and
specific t r e a t m e n t s [11-13].
398
Lignocelulosic materials have long been used to obtained activated carbons
with high adsorption capacity. In the present chapter activated carbons obtained
from agricultural by-products (olive stones, H carbons, and almond shells, C
carbons) are analysed in relation to the possible application as eliminator of
pollutants. To gain a more complete knowledge of the parameters that can
influence on the surface nature of these porous adsorbents, the raw materials
were submitted to different methods of carbonization and activation periods
[14,15].
Some of the activated carbons used as adsorbents were obtained by
carbonization and simultaneous activation, in a flow of CO2, of almond shells (Cseries) and olive stones (H-series) at 1123 K and for different time periods
ranging from 2 to 30 hours. Other series were obtained by carbonization in N2
and further activation with CO2 (HA-series) or steam (HW-series).
When activated carbons with homogeneous microporosity are required the use
of organic copolymers as starting material gives good results. Depending on the
experimental conditions and the type of organic polymer used it is possible to
obtain carbon materials that range from those with high porosity but very
narrow pore size distribution, showing molecular sieve character, to those with
very low porosity. For this purpose organic copolymer can be carbonized at
different temperatures in an inert atmosphere [16,17] or they can be prepared
using several recipes for copolymerization before the thermal treatment [18-21].
The copolymer of vinylidene and vinyl chloride, commercially known as Saran,
was carbonized in nitrogen at temperatures ranging from 973 to 1573 K to obtain
adsorbents with different average micropore dimensions depending on the
temperature. Molecular sieve character is often found for samples prepared at
highest temperatures [10].
The other type of carbon material studied prepared by copolymerization of
organic molecules are the glassy carbons. These were produced by polymerization
of furfuryl alcohol, using different recipes [13], and further carbonization.
Alternatively, the porous network of the adsorbents can be modified by chemical
treatments in such a way that the introduction of chemical groups in their
structure can change the capacity and selectivity for adsorption. In this sense
activated carbons obtained from Saran were treated with HNO3 and CS2 to
introduce oxygen and sulphur chemical groups. Some of these carbons showed a
molecular sieve character for specific adsorbates as a consequence of the fixation
of the chemical groups at the entrance of the micropores [22].
As mentioned earlier, when the molecules to be adsorbed have chemical
functionalities the specific interactions become very important in the adsorption
process. In this sense the introduction of chemical groups on the surface of the
adsorbents can also have a very important roll in the adsorption process because
of electrostatic or chemical interactions [23-25]. Besides the treatment with
HNO3 and CS2 already mentioned, some of the carbons were also treated with
H202 and KI to test the elimination of pollutants with high dipole moments
or with chemical functions. To better understand the importance of both specific
and non-specific interactions in a determined adsorption process, adsorption on
399
non-porous carbons materials has also been tested: a graphitized black (V3G) and
three graphites (Pyrolitic, Acheson and Degussa) [26,27].
The adsorption of a wide number of adsorbates of very different kind has been
studied. Among the non-polar molecules without chemical functionalities a series
of hydrocarbons of different size and shape (linear, cyclic and branched) were
chosen: n-alkanes (from n-C4 to n-Cg), benzene, cyclohexane and 2,2-dimethyl
butane (2,2-DMB). With these molecules the importance of the average
dimension and morphology of the micropores for the adsorption of a particular
pollutant is discussed. Substances with different functionalities were used to
know the extent in which the specific interactions can improve the adsorption.
These substances are: acetone, diethyl ether, tetrahydrofurane (THF), carbon
tetrachloride, chloroform, dichloromethane, methyl iodide and n-alcohols [28].
Finally, the study of the adsorption processes was carried out in two different
regimes. On the one hand in static conditions, using a gravimetric adsorption
system, which gives very valuable information on the adsorption properties of the
samples in the range of relative pressures between 10 .4 and 1. On the other hand
in dynamic conditions using Inverse Gas Solid Chromatography (IGSC) [29].
From the practical point of view one should take into account that in most real
cases the amount of substance in the gas phase to be eliminated or concentrated
is very low and frequently the temperature is above room temperature. In
addition these molecules are in flue gases, such that the adsorption has to be
carried out under dynamic conditions. These experimental requirements are
easily achieved by IGSC technique.
2. GRAVIMETRIC M E A S U R E M E N T S
2.1. A c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s from l i g n o c e l u l o s i c origin
The data reported in this section deal with activated carbons prepared by
carbonization and simultaneous activation (in a flow of CO2) of almond shells
(C-series) and olive stones (H-series) at a temperature of 1123 K with different
treatment periods [14]. The adsorption of benzene, n-hexane, cyclohexane and
2.2-dimethyl butane (2,2-DMB) was studied on these carbons at 303 K. This
includes the kinetics and the static adsorption isotherms at the same
temperature and P/Po = 0.6. Diffusion parameters were obtained under unsteady
state, for small values of time t using the equation:
V -V 0
V e --V 0
/Dt/1/2
~1/2 ~ r2 )
(1)
Where v is the amount adsorbed at time t, Vo is the amount adsorbed at time

t = 0, Ve is the amount adsorbed at equilibrium, D is the diffusion coefficient and
ro is the length of diffusion path. From the kinetics measurements, adsorption
rates, RL, and diffusion parameters, D1/2/ro were obtained [30] and these are
compiled in Table 1.
400
Table 1
Apparent adsorption rate, RL, and
hydrocarbons on activated carbons
diffusion
parameters
Dl/2/ro of the
D 1/2/ro (rain-1/2)
RL (cm 3 min "1/2)

Adsorbates
H-2
H-13
H24
H30
H-2
H-13
H-24
H-30
n-hexane
0.24
0.41
0.65
0.86
0.25
0.21
0.30
0.43
benzene
0.24
0.54
0.66
0.57
0.23
0.34
0.30
0.31
cyclohexane
0.27
0.54
0.59
0.19
0.27
0.34
2,2-DMB
0.19
0.59
0.70
0.19
0.27
0.36
C-2
C-13
C-24
C-30
C-2
C-13
C-24
C-30
n-hexane
0.46
0.79
1.00
1.00
0.30
0.56
0.54
0.49
benzene
0.45
0.57
0.66
0.62
0.31
0.36
0.33
0.32
0.44
0.62
0.85
0.37
0.34
0.48
0.23
0.47
0.45
cyclohexane
2,2-DMB
0.10
0.20
0.79
0.74
Reprinted from: M. Domingo-Garcia et al. [14].
0.21
An increase in the diffusion parameters, D1/2/ro, and the adsorption rate, RE, with
the time of treatment was apparent for all the adsorbates, which means less
kinetic restrictions for the adsorption on the most activated samples. Adsorption
of 2,2-DMB and cyclohexane on H-2 and C-2 samples were so small that the
kinetic parameters are meaningless. This suggests a discrimination capacity (or
molecular sieve behaviour) for molecules with a mean size of 0.56 nm.
Adsorption isotherms of benzene and 2,2-DMB on both series of samples
(C and H) are shown in Figures 1 and 2. An increase in the adsorption capacity
with activation time of carbons is observed, although in general, beyond 24 hours
of activation treatment this increase is quite small. Otherwise, except for
2,2-DMB and cyclohexane on H-2 and C-2, and 2,2-DMB on C-13 the rest of the
isotherms can be assigned to type I in the BDDT classification which corresponds
to the adsorption in a predominant microporous adsorbent, typical among the
majority of activated carbons. The exceptions mentioned above give isotherms
indicating a low adsorption capacity for these systems and, from their shapes,
they could be assigned to a type IV character. This could mean that the little
adsorption of these two hydrocarbons took place chiefly on the mesopores or
external surface of these adsorbents [1,31]. This difference in the adsorption
capacity of the several adsorptives shown by the less activated carbons supports
the molecular sieve character above mentioned.
401
0,8
a
,~ 0,6
eLO
g
>
0,8
C-30
C-24
.- ~
C-24
0,4
,~ 0,6
C-13
"
C-30
0,4
C-2
>
0,2
0,0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
C-13
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
P/Po
P/Po
Figure 1. Adsorption isotherms of (a) benzene and (b) 2,2-DMB on C-series.
0,8
H-30
O,8
---- H-24
0,6
~
~3
H-13
"~ 0,4
>
0,2
H-30
0,6
~
0,4
H-13
H-2
0,2
H-2
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
P/Po
ll'--ll"--r
0,2
I ~ -
0,4
0,6
0,8
P/Po
Figure 2. Adsorption isotherms of (a) benzene and (b) 2,2-DMB on H-series.
The analysis of the isotherms gives information not only on the adsorption
capacities of the carbons but also on the porous structure which is responsible for
the behaviour of the adsorbents. Among the several approaches that can be used
to analyse the adsorption isotherms, the Dubinin-Radushkevich [32,33] (DR)
theory of volume filling of micropores (equation 2), was chosen and the results
were compared with those obtained by applying the linear form of the Langmuir
isotherm [34]. The DR equation reads:
V=V 0exp-
1 P/ 21
E0~X P 0
(2)
Where Vo is the total volume of micropores, Eo is the characteristic energy of

adsorption and ~ is the "similarity coefficient" which depends on the adsorptive.
Plots of the DR equation are represented in Figures 3 and 4 for all the
hydrocarbons on H-13 and H-30. In general, the linearity of these representations
extends up to P/Po = 0.25 except for 2,2-DMB and cyclohexane on H-2 and C-2,
402
-0,1
-0,2
-0,3
C6H14
C6H6
> -o,4
2,2-DMB
-0,5
C6HI2
C6H6
-o,2
~"
~ ~
-"
-0,3
C6H14
~ " ~
2,2-DMB
"~"---n-----~~..
C6Hi2
-0,6
0
,
1
Ig2 P/Po
-0,4
,
2
1 lg2 P/Po
Figure 4. DR plots for H-30.
Figure 3. DR plots for H-13.
which display a very pronounced u p w a r d t u r n before this relative p r e s s u r e was

attained.
The total volume adsorbed of each adsorbate, Vo, is obtained from e x t r a p o l a t i o n
of the l i n e a r r a n g e of these plots. Table 2 shows the Vo values calculated a n d the
ratio of the a m o u n t adsorbed at a relative p r e s s u r e of 0.1, V0.1, to t h a t at the
s a t u r a t i o n relative pressure, Vs, V01/Vs . It is a p p a r e n t that, with the exception
above mentioned, the adsorption process is almost completed at low relative
Table 2
Volumes of adsorption obtained from DR r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
Vo (cm3/g)
Vo.JVs x l 0 0
adsorbates
H-2
H-13
H-24
H-30
H-2
H-13
H-24
H-30
n-hexane
0.30
0.48
0.70
0.66
83
93
93
95
benzene
0.32
0.47
0.63
0.70
78
95
91
90
cyclohexane
0.06
0.43
0.58
0.56
40
93
93
91
2,2-DMB
0.02
0.37
0.57
0.62
20
73
88
92
C-2
C-13
C-24
C-30
C-2
C-13
C-24
C-30
n-hexane
0.40
0.43
0.61
0.56
82
95
95
96
benzene
0.37
0.42
0.52
0.60
85
93
89
91
cyclohexane
0.08
0.37
0.52
0.56
59
94
90
92
2,2-DMB
0.09
0.17
0.62
0.59
43
79
89
96
Reprinted from M. Domingo-Garcia et al. [14].
403
pressures, which indicates t h a t the adsorption is not allowed to develop to many
multilayers at higher relative pressures [35] and t h a t the adsorbents have
reasonably narrow pore systems. The Vo/V'o ratios for n-hexane/2,2-DMB and
benzene/2,2-DMB couples (which have the largest size difference) are 15 and 16
in H-2 sample, and are very close to unity in the rest of the series. For C-series
the ratios for C-2 are smaller and also very close to unity in the rest of the series.
This means t h a t the discrimination capacity of these carbon samples for these
molecules is low, although as explained above, there is some molecular sieve
behaviour at low degree of t r e a t m e n t (H-2 and C-2).
U p w a r d deviations from linearity of DR plots are generally interpreted as an
"additional" adsorption capacity of the adsorbates on supermicropores and small
mesopores or multilayer formation on non porous surfaces [35,36]. DR plots for
the adsorption of 2,2-DMB on the H-series are represented in Figure 5.
0,0 -
C-30
-0,4 -
C-24
> -0,8
," o--_..__.__~_.~____.__._____.
- 1,2
o~~___....._.~_...,~
-1,6
,
1
C-13
-~ C-2
,
2
" ",
3
lg? P/Po
Figure 5. DR plots for the adsorption of 2,2-DMB on C-series.
It is a p p a r e n t t h a t with the increased activation time, not only a dramatic rise

in the adsorption capacity is produced but also the range of linearity becomes
greater and the u p w a r d deviation at high relative pressures is clearly reduced.
This behaviour supports the hypothesis t h a t the adsorption of the largest
molecules on carbons H-2 and C-2 mainly takes place on the external surface
with multilayer formation at high relative pressures. This means that the
micropore volume of these two carbons is not accessible to molecules with
dimensions of cyclohexane or larger. The small molecular sieve behaviour of
these two carbons and the disappearance of this property with the increase of
activation time are better demonstrated by plotting the micropore volume, Vo,
obtained for each carbon sample with every molecule against the m e a n molecular
size of these adsorbates (Figure 6) [8,14]. From this representation it is also
possible to conclude t h a t after 24 hours of activation t r e a t m e n t there is no clear
improvement in the adsorption capacity on either the H or C carbons.
Characteristic adsorption energies for every adsorbent, Eo, derived from the
slope of the DR representations of the benzene isotherms (which is generally
404
0,8
0,8
C-24
0,6
[]
,~0,6
H-24
fi 0,4
o
or-
0,45
0,5
C-13
~0,2
, ~ ~
0,55
C-30
0,2
0,4
2-
E0,4
H-13
0
0,6
d (nm)
0,4
0,45
0,5
d (nm)
0,55
0,6
Figure 6. Volume adsorbed V0, obtained from DR equation, versus the mean molecular size of
the adsorbates with six carbon atoms (see Table 16 for molecular dimensions).
taken as s t a n d a r d adsorbate), and the characteristic dimension of the micropores

Lo [37] are compiled in Table 3.
Table 3
Characteristic adsorption energy, Eo, and characteristic dimension of the
micropores, Lo
Adsorbents
Eo (kJ/mol)
Lo (nm)
Adsorbents
Eo (kJ/mol)
Lo (nm)
H-2
16.60
0.78
C-2
21.68
0.60
H-13
21.40
0.62
C-13
22.06
0.58
H-24
21.71
0.59
C-24
18.22
0.71
C-30
22.80
0.57
H-30
22.44
0.58
Reprinted from: M. Domingo-Garcia et al. [ 14].
It is, therefore, apparent that the increase in activation time virtually does not
modify the micropore size of the activated carbons because the values of the
adsorption energy, Eo, are very similar when the activation time progresses. This
could mean that the only effect of activation was to favour the access to smaller
micropores. The molecular sieve behaviour shown by the less activated carbons is
therefore attributed to constrictions at the entrance of the micropores caused by
chemical functionalities linked to carbon atoms at the edges of the entrance [4].
After certain activation time (around 13 hours) the constrictions and,
consequently, the discriminative behaviour was lost.
405
Application of the Langmuir model (P/V vs. P) to the type I isotherms gives
linear plots in a wide range of pressures. VL/Vs ratios (VL obtained from the slope
of the linear plots and Vs obtained from the plateau of the isotherms), are in most
cases close to unity (Table 4) except for 2,2-DMB and cyclohexane on H-2 and
C-2. Such results suggest that neither multilayer formation or capillary
condensation occur on those systems and that the adsorbate-adsorbent
interactions are far greater than the adsorbate-adsorbate ones.
Table 4
VL/Vs ratios. VL obtained from Langmuir equation. Vs obtained from DR equation
VL/Vs
VL/V~
H-2
H-13
H-24
H-30
C-2
C-13
C-24
C-30
n-hexane
1.00
1.02
0.96
1.00
0.86
1.02
1.03
1.01
benzene
1.00
1.02
0.99
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.03
1.00
cyclohexane
0.56
1.02
0.98
1.00
0.67
1.00
1.03
1.00
2,2-DMB
0.42
0.97
0.98
1.04
0.57
0.90
0.95
1.00
The VL values coincide very closely with the volumes, Vo, calculated by the DR
equation (Table 2). It is, therefore, possible to conclude that the micropore size
distribution of these carbons is in the range of the molecular size of the organic
vapours adsorbed and little, if any, adsorption took place on the external surface
of the adsorbents working at relative pressures, P/Po, below 0.8.
Surface areas of the carbon materials were calculated using the VL values.
These are considerably smaller than those obtained by CO2 measurements at
273 K for the less activated samples, H-2 and C-2, and for these carbons the area
increases with a decrease in the mean molecular dimension of the adsorbate.
Nevertheless, as the activation increases the areas for all the vapours and that of
CO2 become quite similar. This supports the existence of constrictions at the
entrance of the pores, earlier commented, hindering the access of the adsorbates.
As shown previously agricultural by-products, such as olive stones and almond
shells, are good raw materials to obtain carbonaceous adsorbents of organic
vapours after the appropriate activation process with quite high adsorption
capacities (around 0.6-0.7cm3/g), which is important for their potential
application as pollutant removal adsorbents. For these samples, prepared by
carbonization and simultaneous activation in C02, the process acts mainly by
opening small micropores and eliminating chemical functionalities hindering the
access of the adsorbates.
406
2.2.
Carbon
materials
from polyfurfuryl
alcohol
(Glassy
carbons)
The preparation of these carbon materials basically consisted of the

polymerization and slow carbonization of furfuryl alcohol [13,21,38,39]. Some
t e x t u r a l characteristics like pore volumes and a p p a r e n t surface areas are
s u m m a r i z e d in Table 5. I m p o r t a n t differences in the pore size distribution in the
region of meso, V2, and macropores, V3, are found for the samples. Moreover,
SN2<<Sco2, which indicates t h a t the microporosity is very narrow or t h a t there
are constrictions at the entrance of the micropores [40,41].
Table 5
Textural characteristics of glassy carbon
Sample
SN2 (m2/g)
Sco2(m2/g)
V3 (cm3/g)
V2 (cm3/g)
Vl (cm3/g)
P1
475
408
0.214
0.033
0.119
P2
24
257
0.000
0.041
0.093
P3
398
344
0.024
0.235
0.163
P4
458
468
0.241
0.000
0.105
Reprinted from: M. Domingo-Garcia et al, [41 ].
The molecules used as adsorbates were n-hexane, benzene, cyclohexane and

2,2-DMB, as well as two polar adsorptives, methyl iodide and chloroform. The
kinetics adsorption curves for benzene and methyl iodide on three of these
carbons are given in Figure 7 (The behaviour of carbon P4 was very similar to
P1). Values of adsorption rates, RL, and diffusion parameter, D1/2/ro, are given in
Table 6.
0,20
0,20
P3
9 P3
0,15
0,15
o,,o
o,,o
> 0,05
0,05
~
P2
0,00 .
0
.
.
0,00 T
200
300
400
0,8
1,2
1,6
0
100
t (min)
t (min)
Figure 7. Kinetics adsorption curves on glassy carbons: (a) benzene and (b) methyl iodide.
0,4
500
407
Table 6
Apparent adsorption rate, RL, and diffusion parameters,
adsorption of methyl iodide and benzene
Dl/2/ro, for the
RL (cm 3 g" min 1/2)

P1
P2
P3
Benzene
0.023
0.002
0.043
methyl iodide
0.049
0.015
0.068
D~/ro (min -~)
Benzene
P1
P2
P3
0.178
0.020
0.419
0.097
0.580
methyl iodide
0.572
These data indicate considerable differences for the adsorption process of these
hydrocarbons on each sample, particularly on sample P2 for which these
parameters are more than 10 times lower than for P1 and 20 times lower than for
P3 when benzene is adsorbed. It is possible, therefore, to assume important
differences in the porous system of the three carbon samples due to the different
preparation recipes. Actually, from data in Table 5 one can observe that carbon
P2 has no macroporosity at all, whereas P1 presents a large one. It is known that
macroporosity is very important for the transport and quick penetration of the
adsorbate molecules to the micropores. However, the kinetics parameters are
lower for carbon P1 t h a n for carbon P3, although the latter shows a less extensive
macroporosity. This fact, together with data in Table 5 and the restricted N2
adsorption for carbon P2 due to pore constrictions, suggests that there are also
important differences in their microporous system. On the other hand, the
adsorption rate and the diffusion parameters of methyl iodide on all the samples
are much higher t h a n those of benzene and this is more marked for P1 and P2
than for carbon P3. This means that at the same temperature and relative
pressure methyl iodide is kinetically better adsorbed than benzene.
The adsorption-desorption isotherms of benzene, n-hexane and 2,2-DMB are
depicted in Figure 8. Most of them can be assigned to BDDT type I, i.e.
corresponding to predominantly microporous adsorbents;
nevertheless,
differences in their shape and in the desorption process also indicate a variety in
the characteristics of the porous system. Isotherms of benzene are depicted in
Figure 8(a). For carbons P1 and P3 the isotherms obtained with 2 hours of
adsorption time are coincident with those obtained after 12 hours; therefore, only
the isotherms obtained with long adsorption time are depicted in Figure 8. For
carbon P2, however, the adsorption-desorption isotherm obtained after 2 hours of
adsorption time is very different to that obtained after 12 hours and both have
408
0,3
P3
0,25 P3
0,20
0,2
-~-: ~ . _ _. ~ ...... - . .o ~. - -.~ ,.~ - ~ o ~~
Pl
P1
-~ 0,15
E
gO,1
"
_,-
A-
> 0,10
P2 (12 h)
P2
I
0,05
zl~*!
** *,
0,0
0
0,2
*,
0,4
0,6
-!
m - -ID-
P*2 (2 h)
,
0,00
0,8
0,0
HI
-I--
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
P/Po
P/Po
0,2
P3
~0,1
E
> 0,1
0,0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
P/Po
Figure 8. Adsorption isotherms on the glassy carbons: (a) benzene, (b) n-hexane and (c)
2,2-DMB.
been depicted in this figure. The shape of all these isotherms suggests that
sample P1 appears to have predominant adsorption on micropores with little
participation on the external surface. However, samples P2 and P3 exhibit an
upward deviation in the region of high relative pressure, which is normally
interpreted either as capillary condensation in supermicropores and small
mesopores or adsorption on the external surface of the adsorbent [35,36]. These
two effects follow a different adsorption mechanism to that of adsorption on
micropores; capillary condensation often produces an hysteresis loop at high
relative pressure when the desorption process is carried out. Desorption
isotherms represented in Figure 8(a) show a very small deviation from the
adsorption branches on samples P1 and P3, which extends to the lowest relative
pressure region. The value of these deviations in volume of adsorbate is less than
0.01 cmS/g. Nevertheless, a very pronounced hysteresis loop in the complete
range of relative pressure studied, is found for the two isotherms on sample P2.
Of the several hypothesis given [1,42] to explain the appearance of low pressures
hysteresis loop, taking into account the high rigidity of glassy carbons, it has to
be considered that activated passage of molecules through pre-existing
constrictions into wider pores appears to be the most appropriate for these
409
samples. This interpretation is consistent with the restricted adsorption of N2
already mentioned found for carbon P2 (SN2<< Sco2).
The adsorption isotherms of n-hexane and 2,2-DMB (obtained after 2 hours of
adsorption time) are depicted in Figure 8(b, and c). Adsorption of n-hexane gives
the same kind of isotherms as those obtained for benzene on every carbon.
Cyclohexane, however, is not adsorbed on P2 and a very small amount appears
on P1 and P4 while a considerably greater adsorption is found on P3. Moreover
2,2-DMB is only adsorbed on P3. All this means that carbons P1, P2 and P4
present a high level of discrimination (or molecular sieve behaviour) for
molecules with a minimum critical size such as cyclohexane or larger, while P3
presents the most accessible microporosity. In this sense the Vo/V'o
ratio for n-hexane/2,2-DMB, benzene/2,2-DMB, n-hexane/cyclohexane and
benzene/cyclohexane couples can not be calculated because of the negligible value
of adsorption of 2,2-DMB and cyclohexane on P1, P2 and P4. However, for P3 the
value for the benzene/cyclohexane ratio is between 1 and 2.
Adsorption-desorption isotherms of methyl iodide and chloroform (Figure 9)
show a behaviour comparable to that of benzene. Nevertheless for methyl iodide
on sample P2 at relative pressures less than 0.4 the deviation between the
adsorption and desorption branches becomes much smaller than that for benzene
with a similar hysteresis loop to that expected for capillary condensation on
supermicropores or small mesopores. This result, together with the kinetics
parameters, indicates that methyl iodide passes more easily through the pore
constrictions than benzene does in spite of their similar minimum critical
dimension. With respect to chloroform, which has a minimum critical dimension
slightly higher than that of n-hexane, the adsorption isotherms on the four
samples were comparable to that of benzene and different from that of
cyclohexane. Thus the above mentioned molecular sieve effect shown by carbons
P1, P2 and P4 appears between chloroform and cyclohexane.
0,25
..~
0,20
0,15
o~~-.---#
A-.....
- ~/>-
_~
-o
0,25 ]
P3
P3
0,20
P1
"~ P 2
0,15
~" 0,10
> 0,10
0,05 ~ ' ~ - ~ '
=J
-&
M
-A-
0,4
0,6
P2
0,05
0,00
0,2
0,4
0,6
P/Po
0,8
0,00
0,2
0,8
P/Po
Figure 9. Adsorption (close symbols) desorption (open symbols) isotherms on glassy carbons
of (a) methyl iodide and (b) chloroform.
410
The behaviour of the adsorbates in the adsorption of these molecules has to be

related with the micropore network. In order to obtain information of these
networks, the DR equation has been applied to the adsorption isotherms of all
the adsorbents. Characteristics curves obtained from the application of DR
equation are represented in Figure 10. The micropore volume accessible to each
organic molecule calculated from the linear region of these curves are compiled in
Table 7 together with the adsorption volume at relative pressure of 0.9.
0,00
-0,5
a
*
>
~
~"~_
-1,00
~ t ' ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~
n-hexane "*
-1,5
0
~
benzene" ~
.
de
>o)
--2,00
chloroform
.
3,ool
methyl iodide
12
Ig2 (P/Po)/IT~
chloroform
5
10
15
Ig2(e/Po)/~ 2
-0,50 ]
c
methyl iodide
~-1,00" ~ ~ n z e n e
__
\
I
-2,00 .
0
o,',,oro,orrn
2,2-DMB
.
.
10
15
Ig2 (P/Po)/132
Figure 10. Dubinin-Radushkevich plots of benzene, n-hexane, 2,2-DMB, methyl iodide and
chloroform on (a) P 1, (b) P2 and (c) P3.
Plots for carbon P1 (Figure 10 a) seem to indicate that the adsorption of

benzene, n-hexane, methyl iodide and chloroform takes place on the same type of
micropores. However, the downward deviation from linearity observed for
benzene, n-hexane and chloroform at low relative pressures can indicate that in
this region equilibrium is not attained for the adsorption of these molecules. This
type of deviation is often explained in terms of restricted diffusion into the
narrowest pores or because the molecular sieve effect can lead to difficulties in
adsorption at low relative pressures[2,43]. It should be noted that for n-hexane
this deviation extends up to much higher values of relative pressure than for
chlorofom, although the minimum critical size of the latter is somewhat
411
greater.This fact could be due to packing restrictions in the micropores [2]
because of the great length of n-hexane. On the contrary, for methyl iodide an
upward deviation appears in this region of low relative pressures, suggesting
that this molecule has good accessibility into the narrowest pores.
Table 7
Micropore volume, Vo (cm3/g), from DR equation and volume at P/Po =0.9, Vs
P1
P2
P3
Vo
V~
Vo
V~
Vo
V~
Benzene
0.173
0.21
0.068
0.14
0.156
0.23
n-hexane
0.169
0.19
0.030
0.06
0.113
0.22
0.092
0.13
2,2-DMB
methyl iodide
0.176
0.20
0.093
0.17
0.114
0.23
chloroform
0.177
0.21
0.072
0.13
0.113
0.32
For carbon P2 the DR curves of the four adsorbates are depicted in Figure 10(b).
On this adsorbent the curves of benzene, methyl iodide and chloroform
corresponding to isotherms with the same adsorption time are not at all
coincident. As previously indicated by the kinetics adsorption measurements,
benzene and methyl iodide present very low diffusion parameters on this carbon,
although for the latter this is almost five times higher than for the former.
Actually, the volume Vs of benzene adsorbed increased from 0.07 cma/g after 2
hours of adsorption time up to 0.14 cma/g after 12 hours, and up to 0.17 cm3/g
after 5 days. For methyl iodide the same volume of 0.17 cm3/g is attained after 12
hours. This fact could explain the very different slopes for the corresponding
characteristic curves. Therefore, although adsorption on carbon P2 appears to be
kinetically restricted for the three adsorptives, this is much smaller for methyl
iodide than for benzene and the highest restriction is found for chloroform. As
already suggested this restriction seems to be due to constrictions in the entrance
to the pores [41].
Another fact to be considered is the high dipole moment of methyl iodide,
which can produce specific interactions with the oxygen functional groups, which
are on the carbon surface. This contribution accumulates with the dispersion
forces leading to a considerable increase of the adsorption energy in the initial
region of the adsorption process, i.e. at very low relative pressure. This specific
contribution decreases following micropore filling of the adsorbent [6,23].
Chloroform is the less easily adsorbed of the three adsorptives as its critical
412
dimension of 0.43 nm is the greatest. The fact t h a t chloroform, which is also a
polar molecule, suffers stronger restriction t h a n benzene to access micropores of
P2 indicates t h a t the main p a r a m e t e r s controlling the passage through the pores
constrictions is the critical dimension and the shape of the molecule. The
molecular sieve effect between benzene and cyclohexane confirms the network of
these glassy carbons to be made up by slit-shaped micropores.
As pointed out earlier, the micropore system of carbon P3 also appears to have
i m p o r t a n t differences with respect to those of carbon P1, P2 and P4. This
becomes more obvious when the characteristic curves of the different adsorbates
are analysed. The most i m p o r t a n t difference is t h a t the adsorption capacity of
cyclohexane and 2,2-DMB on sample P3, although smaller t h a n t h a t of the others
adsorbates, turns out to be quite important. Nevertheless, comparing the curves
for the different hydrocarbons, it can be observed t h a t the slope of the linear
region of the curves obtained with cyclohexane and 2,2-DMB is much steeper
t h a n t h a t of the other curves, which usually suggests adsorption on wider pores
[33]. Apart from this, the curves of benzene and methyl iodide are coincident as
well as those of n-hexane and chloroform. The adsorption of n-hexane seems to
suffer some restrictions at low relative pressures while for chloroform only a
linear region t h a t extends over a wide range of relative pressures, (P/Po from 10 .3
to 1.5 10 -1) is found. Moreover, at very low relative pressures an upward
deviation appears not only for the characteristic curve of methyl iodide but also
for t h a t of benzene. On the other hand, observing the Vs values given in Table 7 it
is evident t h a t certain molecular sieve behaviour between chloroform and
cyclohexane is also shown by carbon P3. The steep slopes of the characteristic
curves of cyclohexane and 2,2-DMB suggest t h a t adsorption probably takes place
in the supermicropores and small mesopores. It is interesting to note t h a t all
plots in Figure 10 show an upward deviation from linearity near the s a t u r a t i o n
relative pressures which can be attributed to the filling of supermicropores or
small mesopores by a co-operative m e c h a n i s m [44] which involves little, if any,
e n h a n c e m e n t of the adsorption energy.
Characteristic energies of adsorption, Eo, calculated from the linear region of
the characteristic curves of benzene, methyl iodide and 2,2-DMB on carbons P1
and P3 are listed in Table 8. Moreover the corresponding average micropores
width, Lo, and the range of validity of r e l a t i v e pressures from which these
p a r a m e t e r s were obtained, are also included. The average micropore width, Lo,
obtained for carbon P1 with benzene is quite coincident with t h a t calculated with
methyl iodide. However, for carbon P3 a slight difference of this p a r a m e t e r is
found between these two adsorbates. The very low characteristic adsorption
energy, Eo= 6.1 kJ/mol, corresponding to 2,2-DMB on this carbon is typical of
adsorption on supermicropores or even small mesopores as pointed out earlier.
Therefore one can conclude t h a t these data do not correspond to a specially
narrow microporous system, which is really surprising taking into account the
high discrimination effect already described.
413
Table 8
Characteristic adsorption energy, Eo, and average micropore width, Lo
P1
benzene
methyl iodide
Eo (kJ/mol)
20.9
21.7
Lo (nm)
1.17
1.10
2,2-DMB
Range of validity for P/Po 4.5 10-3-1.7 10 -1 1.3 102-3.5 10 -1

P3
Eo (kJ/mol)
17.1
19.8
Lo (nm)
1.5
1.26
6.1
Range of validity for P/Po 2.7 10-2-1.6 10 -1 3.0 10-2-3.5 10 -1 4.0 10-2-3.0 10 -1
An u p w a r d deviation from the linearity in the region of low relative pressures

(such as the adsorption of methyl iodide on carbons P1 and P3 or benzene on
carbon P3) in DR plots could be the consequence of the superposition of two
extreme ranges of microporosity [33]. These two ranges can be well approximated
by a binomial equation, known as the Dubinin-Isotova (DI) equation:
E/1
V=V01exp-
EOl[3 x RT In
+ Vo2 exp -
E0213
(3)
V01 is the micropores volume obtained from the linear region at very low relative
pressures and according to Stoeckli et al. [45], could be related with the
micropore filling process which gives a characteristic adsorption energy Eol. V02,
and E02 have been associated with the beginning of the secondary micropore
filling process, i.e. the volume and energy of adsorption on the walls of relatively
large micropores. Therefore the volume V02 could provide information on the
monolayer capacity of the largest micropores walls. Table 9 contains all these
p a r a m e t e r s for the adsorption of methyl iodide on samples P1 and P3 and of
benzene on P3.
From these new data one can assume t h a t more t h a n 70% of the total
adsorption volume Vs (Table 7) on carbon P1 takes place on micropores with an
average dimension, L01, of 0.74 nm. Nevertheless this new value is still not small
enough to explain either the drastic molecular sieve behaviour found for
cyclohexane or the restricted diffusion of benzene at low values of relative
pressures shown earlier. This fact supports the existence of some kind of
constrictions at the entrance of the pores. For carbon P3, V01 and E01 data for
both benzene and methyl iodide are quite close and indicate t h a t 56% of the total
adsorption volume takes place on micropores of about 1 nm or less. This means
t h a t 44% of the total micropores volume (i.e., 0.102 cma/g) corresponds to
supermicropores or small mesopores which filled up by the secondary mechanism
414
with very low adsorption energy Eo2. This a m o u n t is very similar to the Vo value
found for the adsorption of 2,2-DMB on P3, which means t h a t this molecular
probe is only adsorbed on the wider pores by a secondary mechanism.
Table 9
P a r a m e t e r s obtained from the Dubinin-Isotova equation
Adsorbate
Vol (cma/g) Eol(kJ/mol)
Lol(nm) Range of validity for P/Po
P1
methyl iodide
0.146
27.7
0.74
3.0 10-3-3.0 10 .2
P3
benzene
0.128
21.4
1.10
3.0 10-3-3.0 10 .2
methyl iodide
0.120
23.2
1.01
3.0 10-3-3.5 10 .2
V02 (cma/g) Eo2(kJ/mol)
Range of validity for P/Po
P1
methyl iodide
0.040
7.7
3.0 10-2-5.0 10 -1
P3
benzene
0.049
5.0
3.0 10-2-6.0 10 -1
methyl iodide
0.047
6.4
4.0 102-5.0 10 -1
From the analysis of these four glassy carbons one can conclude t h a t carbons
P1, P2 and P4 have a complete discrimination (molecular sieve behaviour) for the
adsorption of chloroform, with a critical dimension of around 0.43 nm, and
cyclohexane, with a critical dimension of 0.56 nm. Nevertheless, when the
isotherms of benzene or methyl iodide on sample P1, P2 and P4 are analysed by
the application of DR and DI models the average micropore sizes calculated do
not justified theirs molecular sieve properties. This fact, along with the kinetics
results, indicates t h a t constrictions or some narrowness at the entrance to the
pores are responsible for the molecular sieve character found for these glassy
carbons. Carbon P3, however, shows a different behaviour for the adsorption of
these molecules, and although it acts as a molecular sieve for cyclohexane and
2,2-DMB at low relative pressure, these two hydrocarbons were adsorbed on
supermicropores or small mesopores. As a general conclusion, one can point out
t h a t both kind of adsorbents here discussed, activated carbons of lignocelulosic
origin and glassy carbons, can be tailored to adsorb selectively organic molecules.
For the former carbons this behaviour essentially depends on activation time,
while for the latter it depends on the preparation formula. In addition, this
discriminative behaviour is much higher on glassy carbons t h a n on those
obtained from agricultural by-products. Nonetheless, the adsorption capacities of
activated carbons of lignocelulosic origin are always much higher t h a n those of
the glassy carbons.
415
2.3. A d s o r p t i o n of CO2 f r o m d i l u t e d e n v i r o n m e n t s
A particular case of interest is the adsorption of CO2. This process is currently
used as an almost routine measurement in order to determine the surface area of
adsorbents. For this purpose the adsorption is carried out from low to high
relative CO2 concentration. The data to be reported deal with the adsorption
kinetics of CO2 from diluted CO2-N2 mixtures, conditions prevailing in flue gases
produced in fossil-fuel-based power plants. Activated carbons prepared by
carbonization (H0) and further activation by CO2 (H14, H25 and H35) and by
steam (HW20 and HW44) have been used as adsorbents. Additional experimental
and theoretical data are given elsewhere [46]. The textural characteristics and
the micropore size distributions of these samples are shown in Table 10 and
Figure 11.
Table 10
Textural characteristics of the active carbons
SN2(m2/g)
Sco2(m2/g)
Vo (cm3/g)
Eo (kJ/mol)
H0
246
813
0.314
22.23
HI4
725
974
0.376
20.92
H25
910
1012
0.391
20.68
H35
1190
1220
0.471
19.01
821
0.317
20.58
HW40
1475
1517
Reprinted from: M. A. Salas-Peregrin et al. [46].
0.586
15.45
HW20
812
3
H25
E2
]
|
.-.
b
HW20
H35
.._...
_J
}Q1
0
0,8
"EI
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
0,8
L (nm)
Figure 11. Micropore size distribution of activated carbons.
1,3
1,8
2,3
L (nm)
416
Diffusion parameters were obtained using equation 1. The values of Ve, Vo and
D~/ro at 298 K obtained with a CO2-N2 mixture containing 13.5 % of CO2 by
volume for all these activated carbons are compiled in Table 11. These results can
be explained on the basis of the micropore characteristics of the adsorbents.
Therefore, the carbonized sample, H0, has the smallest value of Dl/2/ro because it
possesses the narrowest micropores as can be deduced from its highest
adsorption energy, Eo (Table 10) and from the distribution of micropores
(Figure 11). The negative value of Vo indicates that there is a retardation in the
CO2 adsorption process.
Table 11
Values of Ve, Vo and D~/ro obtained with a CO2-N2 mixture containing 13.5% of
CO_9 by volume
Sample
Ve
(cma/g)
Vo (cma/g)
D~/ro (s -~)
H0
16.38
-0.09
0.0083
HI4
18.30
5.17
0.0174
H25
18.31
5.96
0.0174
H35
17.11
2.98
0.0174
HW20
17.86
4.67
0.0177
HW44
14.22
3.72
0.0204
Reprinted from: M. A. Salas-Peregrin et al. [46].

When sample H0 is activated in either CO2 (H-series) or steam (HW-series),
there is an increase of both Ve and D1/2/ro, and Vo reaches a positive value so that
there is no retardation in the CO2 adsorption process. The increase in Ve and
D1/2/ro is produced as a consequence of the raised micropore volume and because
of an opening of the microporosity produced by the activation process, which can
be deduced from the decrease in Eo (Table 10) and from Figure 11. Samples H14
and H25 have coincident Ve and D1/2/ro values because these two samples have
almost the same micropore size distribution and similar Eo values. When
activation increases, in samples H35 and HW44, there is a decrease in the Ve
value, and this is more marked in the case of the most activated sample, HW44.
These results, at first, are surprising because H35 and HW44 samples have the
highest micropore volume from their respective series. Thus, these results
indicate that for a low CO2 concentration in the gas phase (13.5% of CO2 in N2)
the higher the degree of activation of the carbon the lower CO2 adsorption
capacity at equilibrium. The same trend, as shown in Table 10, is found for other
lower C02 concentrations in the C02-N2 mixture. Similar results have been
reported [47] for the adsorption of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) at trace
level onto activated carbon fibres.
417
These results can be explained as being due to a decrease in the number of the
smallest micropores available in the most activated samples, which can be
deduced from Figure 11 for H35 and HW44, respectively. This occurs because the
wider micropores do not benefit from the overlapping adsorption potential of
opposite pore walls, and thus, do no experience the enhanced adsorption observed
for the narrower micropores. The results found are quite important, because they
show that when using activated carbons to remove or store CO2 from low
concentration environments, their surface area or pore volume alone is not an
adequate design parameter, but micropore size distribution is the controlling
factor. Therefore, these results indicate that activated carbon H14 (a sample with
a low degree of activation) performs best under these experimental conditions.
Moreover, these results together with those reported [47] permit the above
conclusions to be applied not only for the adsorption of CO2 but also to the
adsorption of VOC at very low concentrations. Consequently, these ideas should
be borne in mind when analyzing results in the following sections.
3. A D S O R P T I O N F R O M V E R Y D I L U T E D A T M O S P H E R E S
In the previous sections the adsorption of several molecules at relatively high

concentrations measured in gravimetric systems has been considered. In this
section the adsorption of VOC under dynamic conditions, at relatively high
temperatures and at very low vapour concentration is considered. Among the
VOC, several hydrocarbons (linear, cyclic and branched) and some organic
compounds
with
different functionalities
as acetone,
diethyl ether,
tetrahydrofurane, carbon tetrachloryde, chloroform, dichloromethane, methyl
iodide and n-alcohols have been chosen. Adsorption has been studied using IGCS.
Details of the experimental conditions are give elsewhere [13,22,26,27,29,41,48].
3.1. A d s o r p t i o n o f V O C o n n o n - p o r o u s c a r b o n m a t e r i a l s
When adsorption is produced on non-porous surfaces the process is controlled

by displacement of the electronic density of the molecules produced by action of
the electrostatic field of the adsorbent. As a consequence of this the degree of
adsorption of linear hydrocarbons increases with the number of carbon atoms of
the molecule. Therefore, the specific retention volume Vs (a p a r a m e t e r which
measures the degree of adsorption) of, for example, n-nonane is higher than that
of n-hexane. Moreover, the degree of adsorption decreases as the temperature
increases. These kind of behaviours are shown in Table 12 for the adsorption of
linear hydrocarbons at two temperatures on three non-porous carbon materials: a
graphitized carbon black (V3G) and two graphites (Pyrolitic and Acheson).
For the same reason as that explained above, the relationship at different
temperatures between in Vs versus the polarizability of the n-alkanes is linear.
Moreover, the differential heats of adsorption are, in absolute values, low and
close to the liquefaction heats of the adsorbates [29]. This means that the
adsorbate-adsorbent interactions are similar to a d s o r b a t e - a d s o r b a t e ones, i.e.
418
Table 12
Specific retention volumes for the adsorption of n-alkanes on non-porous
graphites
Vs (cma/m 2)
343 K
363 K
Adsorbate
V3G
Pyrolitic
Acheson
V3G
Pyrolitic
Acheson
n-C6
4.6
2.6
2.2
2.6
1.5
1.5
n-C7
19.4
7.4
8.4
9.2
3.4
4.3
n-Cs
81.7
28.8
34.0
34.9
12.5
12.9
n-C9
331.6
121.1
109.6
125.5
47.6
44.7
the adsorbate-adsorbent interaction is produced through London dispersion

forces.
W h a t it is noteworthy is t h a t this kind of behaviour remains in the adsorption
on non-porous carbon materials of hydrocarbons which have non-linear shapes.
This is the case of benzene, cyclohexane and isooctane. The interaction of these
adsorbates on non-porous graphite (Degussa) is similar to t h a t of n-alkanes.
Therefore, one can conclude t h a t the adsorption is produced as a consequence of a
displacement of the charges of the molecules under the action of the surface of
the adsorbent (non-specific interaction). This is shown in Figure 12.
7 363 K
if}
>
Isooctane
Benzene
.t,
9 n-alkanes
,~~"
Cyclohexane
12
16
20
Ct(A3)
Figure 12. Variation of In Vs versus the polarizability of the adsorbates for the adsorption on a
non-porous graphite.
However, this behaviour is different if the adsorbate has the same shape as
t h a t of the n-alkanes but different chemical functionalities. This is the case with
the data in Table 13, in which the Vs values of n-alkanes and n-alcohols on
graphite (Degussa) are compiled. The degree of adsorption is larger for an
419
Table 13
Specific retention volumes and differential heats of adsorption of n-alcohols and
n-alkanes on graphite (Degussa)
Vs (cma/m 2)
.AHOA
Adsorbate
333 K
343 K
353 K
363 K
(kJ/mol)
l-propanol
3.6
2.7
2.0
1.5
29.7
l-butanol
7.4
5.6
3.9
2.7
33.1
l-pentanol
13.3
9.1
6.3
4.6
35.1
l-hexanol
60.3
37.7
26.6
16.1
42.4
n-pentane
2.2
1.8
1.3
1.0
28.2
n-hexane
11.4
8.0
5.6
4.0
34.3
n-heptane
42.1
27.7
18.7
12.6
39.6
n-octane
134.3
76.7
50.9
34.5
44.2
n-nonane
487.9
267.7
175.9
104.6
49.6
1465.6
837.2
441.4
55.0
n-decane
n-alcohol t h a n for an n-alkane with the same n u m b e r of carbon atoms. This is

because adsorption of n-alcohols depends on their deformation polarizability and
on the orientation polarizability (specific interaction) which depends on the
dipolar moment, p. Of these two factors, the orientation polarizability is far
larger t h a n the deformation polarizability. Consequently, the behaviour of polar
molecules u n d e r these conditions is different from the non-polar molecules and
depends mainly on the orientation polarization. Moreover, for this reason the
differential h e a t of adsorption is also higher, in absolute values, for an n-alcohol
t h a n for an n-alkane with the same n u m b e r of carbon atoms.
It could be desirable to improve the behaviour of these kind of materials in
order to increase their capacity of adsorption. For this purpose the t r e a t m e n t of
V3G with oxygen at different degrees of burn-off has been carried out. The
results obtained are basically similar to these obtained with the original carbon
black [26]: a linear relationship between In Vs and polarizability of the
hydrocarbons, such t h a t adsorption increases with the polarizability of the chain
length of the n-alkane as well as with the lowering in the adsorption
t e m p e r a t u r e . However, the differential h e a t of adsorption for each n-alkane
increases in absolute value as the percentage of burn-off increases, as a
consequence of the irregularities produced on the surface of the sample [26].
From a practical point of view these data together indicate that the
elimination by adsorption on non-porous carbons of hydrocarbons is favoured by
the polarizability of the adsorbate such t h a t the adsorption increases with the
420
polarizability of the molecule. Moreover, the adsorption of n-alcohols in the same
conditions is more favoured t h a n that of the n-alkanes due to the dipolar moment
of the former molecules.
3.2. A d s o r p t i o n o f V O C o n p o r o u s c a r b o n m a t e r i a l s
It has already been mentioned that the adsorption on these kind of materials
has to be considered taking into account two main factors: the porosity and the
chemical functionalities of the adsorbate and adsorbent. The adsorption of linear
molecules on activated carbons follows the same trend found for non-porous
carbons, i.e. the plot of in Vs versus the n u m b e r of carbon atoms (polarizability) of
the adsorbates is a straight line. Therefore, the mechanism of adsorption can be
considered as non-specific. Nevertheless, those non-linear hydrocarbons do not
follow the same trend as that found for non-porous carbons. This behaviour is
shown in Figure 13 in which the adsorption of linear (n-alkanes), branched
(2,2-DMB) and cyclic hydrocarbons (benzene and cyclohexane) on two activated
carbon series, C and H, is plotted.
H-13
H-2
CeH
"J
n-alkanes
~ 1
>
_c
>
--CO
-2
06H12 ~,
-1
10
12
14
oc (A 3)
9 06H12
~
t1"
A 2,2-DMB
8
/)P
. / n-alkanes
C6H6m
-2
9 2,2-DMB
,
10
11
12
13
14
o~ (A 3)
Figure 13. In Vs versus the polarizability for the adsorption on activated carbons.
The fact that these non-linear molecules do not follow the behaviour found for
n-alkanes suggests that the shape and size of these molecules is an important
factor in the adsorption on porous materials. This can be seen in Figure 14 in
which the specific retention volumes are plotted versus the mean molecular
dimensions of the adsorbates (see Table 16).
It is interesting to emphasize that all the adsorbates have different shapes and
sizes and the same n u m b e r of carbon atoms (six). The general trend found is that
the adsorption decreases as the size of the molecules increases. Moreover, at low
degree of t r e a t m e n t of the raw material (C-2 and H-2 carbons) the specific
volumes of adsorption are clearly lower t h a n at higher periods of treatments. In
all cases the lower volume of adsorption is for 2,2-DMB which is the largest
molecule (0.60 nm). In addition the adsorption of this molecule, which is almost
negligible at low degrees of treatments (C-2, C-13 and H-2) increases at higher
degrees of t r e a t m e n t of the raw materials. The separation ratios, (Vs/Vs'), on H-2
for the n-hexane/2,2-DMB and benzene/2,2-DMB couples are 87.5 and 101.8.
421
20
C-24
20
~
E
C-13
E
E
~
{/1
H-13
tar)
>
>
10
10
0
0,40
H-3
0
0,45
0,50
d (nm)
0,55
0,60
0,40
0,45
0,50
d (rim)
, 0,55
I,
0,60
Figure 14. Specific retention volumes versus the molecular size of hydrocarbons with six
carbon atoms (see Table 16 for molecular sizes).
However, for samples obtained with long periods of t r e a t m e n t s , H-30, these

ratios are 2.7 and 1.5 respectively. These separation ratios are in all cases higher
t h a n those obtained in the adsorption at high relatives pressures above
commented. This is because the n u m b e r of molecules to be adsorbed in this case
is very low. Consequently, the possibility of finding a n u m b e r of pores with a
dimension close to the molecular dimension is high. In contrast to this at high
relative pressures the n u m b e r of molecules to be adsorbed is very high and
consequently this possibility is clearly lower. On the other hand, the separation
ratios found at low concentration support the hypothesis t h a t progressive
t r e a t m e n t s of the raw m a t e r i a l open the microporosity of the activated carbons.
For this reason it can be concluded that, in general, the activation times higher
t h a n 13 hours do not improve the capacity of adsorption of these pollutants from
very diluted concentrations. Consequently, on using almond shells or olive stones
to prepare activated carbons for removing these organic molecules one can
diminish the period of t r e a t m e n t of the raw material. Similar results to those
obtained with these series are also reported [15] for activated carbons prepared
by activation of chars (HA-series), although the Vs values are slightly lower.
The second factor commented above, to be considered in the adsorption of VOC
concerns the chemical functionalities of both adsorbate and adsorbent. A case of
practical interest is the adsorption of methyl iodide. Iodine-131 is one of the
dangerous substances produced in the fission process, but it mainly survives in
the atmosphere as methyl iodide. The elimination by adsorption of this substance
has been studied using adsorbent materials such as zeolites, silica gel and
activated carbons, but the latter seem to show the best results [48-50]. Methyl
iodide has an i m p o r t a n t dipolar m o m e n t ~ = 1.62 D. As a result it can be expected
to make an i m p o r t a n t contribution of specific interactions in the adsorption of
this molecule. One could, therefore, expect an increase in the adsorption capacity
in cases in which specific interactions are favoured.
422
To study this effect several activated carbons treated with H202 [41] have been
used for the adsorption of methyl iodide. In Table 14 some selected results are
recorded. Samples with the symbol O appended at the end of the name have been
obtained by treatment the original samples with H202. So, the comparison of data
in Table 14 deals with the effect of the oxygen functionalities, on the surface of
the active carbons, on the capacity for methyl iodide adsorption. An increase in
the adsorption capacity of samples treated with H202 is apparent from these
data. Surprisingly, this increase does not mean a more exothermic process as
could be expected from a specific interaction. In fact, these data show no
energetic differences between the interaction in the original samples and in those
obtained after H202 treatment, having a higher differential heat of adsorption, in
absolute value, than the liquefaction heat of methyl iodide, -AHL = 27.6 kJ/mol
[48].
Table 14
Specific retention volumes, Vs, at 473 K, and differential heats of adsorption,
AH~ of methyl iodide on activated carbons
Sample
Vs(cma/m 2)
-AHOA(kJ/mol)
Sample
Vs(cma/m 2)
-AH~ (kJ/mol)
C-2
1.2
56.1
C-2-O
1.7
53.6
H-2
0.6
64.8
H-2-O
1.2
52.2
HA2
0.6
49.2
HA2-O
0.9
58.1
HA4
1.0
52.2
HA4-O
0.9
52.5
Reprinted from: F. Carrasco-Marin et al. [48].
Another possible way to increase the capacity of activated carbons for methyl
iodide adsorption is by impregnation with KI [41,51]. The data in Table 15 show
an increase in the adsorption capacity of the samples treated with KI. In addition
they show a decrease in the differential heats of adsorption, although they are
also higher, in absolute value, than the methyl iodide liquefaction heat. Hence,
the results are similar for the samples treated with H202 and with KI. This could
be because the interactions in both cases are produced by a mixed mechanism
(specific + non-specific) such that the interaction of the adsorbate with the pores
can be more exothermic than with oxygen or with KI. This aspect will be
considered later on discussing the adsorption on glassy carbons. These results
show that it is possible to increase the adsorption capacity for methyl iodide of
activated carbons if different chemical factors capable of specific interactions are
introduced. However, these interactions do not appear to be more exothermic
than those inside the pores.
423
Table 15
Specific retention volumes at 443 K, Vs, and differential heats of adsorption,
AH~ of methyl iodide
Vs(cm3/m 2)
Sample
-AH~ (kJ/mol)
Original
With KI
Original
With KI
C-13
3.5
3.9
57.3
48.7
C-30
2.8
3.0
53.3
48.3
H-13
3.0
3.2
53.0
51.0
H-24
2.2
3.1
49.8
47.0
Merck
0.3
1.2
57.2
59.9
In relation to carbon materials with a tailored porosity for adsorption of VOC,

several adsorption data obtained on carbons prepared from Saran copolymer and
from polyfurfuryl alcohol have been reported [10,13,41,52,53]. The behaviour of
carbon materials obtained by carbonization of Saran in the adsorption of linear
hydrocarbons is the same as that described above, i.e. a linear relationship
between In Vs and the number of carbon atoms. Moreover, the Vs values are
higher than those obtained with other carbon materials and with a maximum
adsorption for the temperature of 1373 K.
However, Vs is also affected by the shape and size of the non-linear molecules
such that the Vs/Vs' ratio for benzene/cyclohexane couple is close to unity, for
treatment temperatures ranging from 973 to 1173 K, while it raises to 210 for the
sample obtained at 1573 K. In addition, the adsorption of 2,2-DMB is negligible
in all the samples. Therefore, these carbon materials have a large capacity for
VOC adsorption and even with high capacity of discrimination of adsorbates
depending on the shape and size and on the preparation temperature of the
samples. This behaviour of the sample prepared at 1573 K is explained by
shrinkage of the carbonaceous structure which permits the adsorption of benzene
and inhibits that of molecules larger than cyclohexane. The behaviour of these
carbon materials is so versatile that the porous structure can be modified by
different treatments. The structure of the porous network of the sample obtained
at 1573 K can be progressively opened by mildly gasification at 1 and 6% of burnoff, and the new samples so obtained loose the capacity of discrimination for
adsorption of the benzene/cyclohexane couple. The introduction of oxygen
chemical groups in these samples by treatment with HNO3 diminishes the
capacity of adsorption of hydrocarbons. This is a consequence of fixation of
chemical groups at the entrance of the pores [10,54] This decrease is the largest
for 2,2-DMB for which the adsorption is almost negligible due to their larger
molecular size (0.60 nm).
424
30
180
20
.....,
-'~'140
o
v
r
>
10
n-pentane
>
100
n-butane
0
973
r"
'
'
'
1173
1373
1573
60
973
T(K)
1173
1373
1573
T (K)
Figure 15. The specyfic retention volumes of linear hydrocarbons versus the carbonization
temperature of Saran.
Moreover, the effect produced by the oxygen functionalities can be enhanced if

the chemical t r e a t m e n t is carried out with CS2, because in this case the chemical
functionalities fixed at the entrance of the pores are sulphur compounds which
are larger in size t h a n the oxygen compounds. This effect of the sulphur
functionalities is shown in Figure 16. In this figure the separation ratios for the
n-hexane/benzene, benzene/cyclohexane and n-hexane/cyclohexane couples are
plotted versus the percentage of sulphur content in a sample obtained by
carbonization of S a r a n at 1173 K and further t r e a t m e n t s with CS2 . A very high
discrimination
capacity
is
shown
for
4.3%
sulphur
content
for
benzene/cyclohexane and n-hexane/cyclohexane couples, as a consequence of
cyclohexane having a larger molecular size t h a n benzene and n-hexane. In
addition, the n-hexane/benzene ratios are almost the same in all cases. This
suggests t h a t the sulphur functionalities have partially closed the access to the
interior of pores [22].
1800
1400
c c
1000
>
benzene/
cyclohexane
600
n-hexane/
benzene
200
-200
0
s(%)
Figure 16. Effect of the sulphur content on the discrimination capacity of sample S 1173.
425
Concerning the carbon materials obtained by polymerization and further
carbonization of furfuryl alcohol the samples used were those whose adsorption
behaviour at high relative pressures has been commented above. The following
VOC were adsorbed at very low vapour concentration [55]: carbon tetrachloride
(CCI4), chloroform (CHCla), dichloromethane (CH2C12), acetone (C3H60), diethyl
ether (CnHloO), t e t r a h y d r o f u r a n e (C4H80, THF), n-alkanes (CnH2n+2, from C4 to
C7), benzene (C6H6), cyclohexane (C6H12) and 2,2-DMB (C6H14).
The change of In Vs for the adsorption of linear hydrocarbons with the n u m b e r
of carbon atoms follows, as is usual, a straight line. Again, when the shape and
size of the adsorbates are different, the porosity of the samples is a very
i m p o r t a n t factor in determining the degree of the adsorption. This is shown in
Figure 17 in which Vs values obtained at 473 K for the four carbons are plotted
against the critical dimension of the adsorbates with the same n u m b e r of carbon
atoms, but with different shapes and sizes. The plots obtained for the Vs values at
the other t e m p e r a t u r e s are similar to these.
P1
~E 4
m
P3
0
E
o
P4
-A
r~ 2
;>
P2
0
L~
0,4
.- ~
.....
9 -:43---
---4
0,45
0,5
0,55
0,6
d (nm)
Figure 17. Specific retention volumes versus the molecular size, for the adsorption of organic
molecules with six carbons atoms on glassy carbons (see Table 16 for molecular dimensions).
Sample P1 (Figure 17) can be seen to discriminate between the critical

dimension of benzene and cyclohexane. This behaviour is the same as t h a t
described above for the adsorption of these adsorbates m e a s u r e d at high relative
pressures. One can conclude t h a t sample P1 has such a narrow distribution of
micropores t h a t it behaves similarly for adsorption in a wide range of
experimental conditions, i.e. from a very low relative pressure (at zero surface
coverage) up to P/Po = 1, and from 303 K up to 533 K. The trend of Vs values for
P4 is very similar to t h a t for P1. Moreover, P4 has the same discrimination, or
molecular sieve effect, for the m i n i m u m critical size between benzene and
cyclohexane. These data indicate t h a t P4 also has a very narrow distribution of
micropores similar to t h a t of P1. P3 has a molecular sieve effect, but for a
m i n i m u m critical size larger t h a n t h a t of P1 and P4. In this case this behaviour
appears for the cyclohexane/2,2-DMB couple. Therefore, like for samples P1 and
426
P4, sample P3 has a similar molecular sieve behaviour as that observed for
samples P1 and P4, but for larger molecules.
The comparison of the adsorption of hydrocarbons to that of organic molecules
capable of specific interactions can give useful information to determine the
driving forces of the adsorption in each case. Once these are known it would be
possible to design the properties of the carbon materials to adsorb these
substances. The specific retention volumes for these molecules are compiled in
Table 16.
Table 16
Specific retention volumes, Vs (cma/m 2) on glassy carbons at 473 K
Vs(cm3/m 2)
P4
Mean molecular
size (nm)
P1
P2
P3
CC14
0.06
0.052
0.46
CHCla
0.77
0.074
1.39
0.44
0.59
CH2C12
0.66
0.112
1.13
0.51
0.57
CHaCOCH3
1.39
0.113
1.03
1.05
0.33
CH3CH2OCH2CH3
2.12
0.094
1.13
1.26
0.41
THF
0.92
0.I00
2.32
0.52
0.56
C6H14
3.29
0.302
3.84
0.84
0.405
C6H6
4.83
0.131
3.31
3.21
0.52
C6H12
0.07
0.054
2.65
0.05
0.56
2,2-DMB
0.05
0.052
0.20
0.04
0.60
0.64
For P1 and P4 the polar molecules have Vs values higher t h a n that of

cyclohexane although in many cases their minimum critical dimensions are
larger or similar to that of cyclohexane. It is, therefore, likely that these
molecules are adsorbed in part by chemical surface groups, i.e. by specific
interactions. For P2 the values of Vs are much lower than for the other samples.
This could be related to the pore constrictions in the microporosity and to the
lack of macroporosity and the almost negligible mesoporosity of this sample,
above discussed [55]. For P3 the trend of Vs is different to that of P1 and P4.
Moreover for P3 a plot of Vs versus the mean critical size of all these molecules
shows (Figure 18), with the exception of acetone and diethyl ether, a monotonical
decrease of Vs as the molecular dimension increases.
427
C6HI4
.. C6H6
~
t.,,,i
= THF
H12
o
>
v
C3H60
9
"IxHCCI3
CaHIoO
9
CH2C129
,
0,3
0,4
0,5
2 , 2 - D M B ~ 9 CC14
0,6
0,7
d (nm)
Figure 18. Variation of Vs with the mean molecular size of the adsorbates on P3.
It is, thus, difficult to determine whether adsorption of the polar molecules is

produced as a consequence of specific interactions or of the wider micropore
system of this sample which allows adsorption to occur inside the micropores by a
non-specific interaction. It could even result from a combined mechanism in the
micropores and on the chemical surface groups. It is also a p p a r e n t t h a t the same
molecular sieve behaviour found at high relative pressures for the
chloroform/cyclohexane couple appears at very low vapour concentrations.
The s t a n d a r d enthalpies of adsorption and the liquefaction heats of these
molecules are compiled in Table 17. Comparing the -AHOA values of the
hydrocarbons with their -AHL (liquefaction heats), it is noteworthy t h a t for those
molecules which, according to the values of V~, can reach the microporosity
(n-alkanes and benzene on P1 and P4, and n-alkanes, benzene and cyclohexane
on P3) the s t a n d a r d enthalpy of adsorption is much higher in absolute value t h a n
the liquefaction heat. The -AHOA values are even more t h a n twofold the -AHL
value in m a n y cases. Similar results are always obtained for the adsorption of
hydrocarbons
from diluted atmospheres
on porous carbon materials
[9,10,13,15,56-66]. Thus, in all the above described cases the absolute values of
-AHOA are much higher t h a n the liquefaction heats. The only cases in which the
values of-AH~ and -AHL are very close is when the adsorption occurred in nonporous carbons (V3G and Pyrolitic, Acheson and Degussa graphites) or in the
external surface of the porous carbons. If neither n-alkanes nor cyclohexane can
be considered to be capable of specific interactions, these high values of-AH~
could be produced as a consequence of a very good fit of the molecules inside the
pores [13,52,66], such t h a t the closer the size of the molecule and pore dimension
the higher the absolute values of-AH~ This is a consequence of the, so called,
428
surface curvature effect (SCE) and of the proximity of the pore wall increasing
the adsorption potential [55,67]. In the case of benzene it is generally accepted
t h a t high absolute values of-AH~ are produced either because adsorption occurs
in the slit-shaped pores with dimensions similar to the molecular size or possibly
specific interactions could be taking place due to the existence of ~ electrons in
this molecule [9,67,68-70]. In one of the carbon materials used (P2) the value of
-AHOA for benzene is close to -AHL which means t h a t the specific contribution is
probably very small.
Table 17
S t a n d a r d enthalpies of adsorption on glassy carbons
-AH~176
P1
-AHL
P2
P3
2.9
3.6
36.9
CHC13
38.9
17.4
47.4
43.1
31.4
CH2C12
34.3
25.4
40.5
44.9
31.7
CH3COCH3
49.1
33.5
50.6
53.5
32.0
CH3CH2OCH2CH3
49.9
42.3
51.1
52.6
29.1
THF
44.3
23.4
59.5
49.1
29.8
n-C4H10
29.8
14.0
37.0
27.0
24.3
n-CsH12
45.3
28.5
50.7
52.4
27.6
n-C6H 14
65.2
42.1
65.7
75.9
31.7
n-CTH16
88.1
64.9
82.1
97.8
37.1
C6H6
53.5
36.3
58.8
64.1
34.1
C6H12
6.0
8.9
53.9
16.1
32.8
20.6
4.2
30.4
CC14
2,2-DMB
3.7
3.2
P4
(kJ/mol)
31.9
With regards the polar molecules and the P1, P3 and P4 samples the -AH%
values have a higher absolute value t h a n the liquefaction heats in all cases. This
suggests t h a t for P1 and P4, in which Vs is not related to their molecular sizes,
the adsorption of these molecules is mainly controlled by specific interactions. In
P3, although the interaction could probably also be specific, an a p p a r e n t
relationship between Vs and the molecular size has also been shown (Figure 18).
Therefore, the high absolute values of-AH~ should be produced as a consequence
of the good fit of the molecules in the pores similar to the behaviour observed for
429
hydrocarbons, although some specific contribution, i.e. a combined mechanism of
two contributions: specific + non-specific, can not be excluded.
W h a t is noteworthy from the comparison of-AH~ values of the hydrocarbons
and of the other molecules is t h a t some of the former can be adsorbed more
exothermically t h a n polar molecules capable of specific interactions. To
u n d e r s t a n d these data one should bear in mind t h a t the classification of these
two types of interactions was based [71] on materials which can be considered as
basically non-porous. Consequently, the -AHOA values for the non-specific
interactions were clearly lower in absolute value t h a n the specific ones and very
close to the liquefaction heats because the former were produced on flat surfaces.
However, the situation is different in the case of porous materials because
adsorption can be produced on the external surface, on the chemical groups or
inside the micropores of similar size to the adsorbate. The most plausible of the
three possibilities is the latter since this is t h e r m o d y n a m i c a l l y favoured. It is
worth noting t h a t the n u m b e r of molecules to be adsorbed is very low (zero
surface coverage) hence the probability of finding pores of similar size to the
molecule is very high. However, for polar molecules the interaction produced by
the dipolar m o m e n t can not be excluded and consequently a combined
mechanism of specific + non-specific adsorption should be considered. The data
reported in Table 17 clearly indicate t h a t in porous m a t e r i a l s it is unsafe to
deduce the type of adsorbate-adsorbent interaction exclusively on the basis of the
-AH~ values. In other words, although there can be different driving forces in the
adsorption, the non-specific interactions (see for instance -AH~ for C6H14) are not
necessarily less energetic t h a n the specific ones, at least when adsorption is
produced inside the micropores and at very low coverage.
In the case of a combined (specific + non-specific interactions) mechanism, the
specific component of the surface free energy can be determined [57,59,60,72,73].
The results are collected in Table 18 for all these molecules except for benzene
and carbon tetrachloride because neither carbon tetrachloride nor benzene
Table 18
Specific component of the surface free energy
-AGsp(kJ/mol)
P1
P2
P3
P4
CHC13
1.4
1.3
2.3
2.5
CH2C12
6.2
5.4
6.3
6.8
14.0
8.0
10.3
13.2
CH3CH2OCH2CH3
8.0
3.5
3.8
8.4
THF
7.2
5.0
7.9
6.8
CH3COCH~
430
produce specific interactions. This is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e for carbon tetrachloride
which has no dipolar m o m e n t and can be considered a spherical molecule.
Nevertheless, this behaviour is more unexpected for benzene for which specific
interactions are normally expected, because of the unlocalized ~ electrons. Since
this behaviour of benzene is repeated for the four samples, it can be concluded
t h a t its adsorption is non-specific in all cases and the high absolute values of
-AH~ (Table 17) can be explained because adsorption is produced in slit-shaped
pores of a similar size as the molecule. This finding again supports the previous
suggestion t h a t -AHOA is not a very useful criterion to establish w h e t h e r an
interaction is specific or non-specific.
Very low values of the specific component of the surface free energy can be
observed for CHC13. This suggests t h a t although the adsorption m e c h a n i s m of
this molecule is considered a combined mechanism, the porosity is much more
i m p o r t a n t t h a n the chemical surface groups, because the specific contribution is
never higher t h a n 15 % of the total value of the s t a n d a r d free energy [55]. On the
other h a n d the specific contributions for the adsorption of acetone and diethyl
ether r e p r e s e n t more t h a n 50% of the total value of the s t a n d a r d free energy for
the former and around 40% for the latter. Thus, in the adsorption of these
molecules the interactions with the chemical surface groups seem to be as
i m p o r t a n t as the porosity of the samples which could explain why these
molecules do not follow the general trend shown in Figure 18. The values for the
other molecules are lower t h a n those of acetone and in most cases they represent
less t h a n 30% of the total value.
From a practical point of view, these findings are very i m p o r t a n t because they
indicate t h a t the following points should be t a k e n into consideration when one
a t t e m p t s to increase the capacity of adsorption of these molecules from diluted
atmospheres:
i) Slit-shaped pores are very convenient for the adsorption of benzene. They
can be produced in carbon materials.
ii) Porosity is more i m p o r t a n t for the adsorption of CHC13 t h a n the oxygen
functionalities of the adsorbent.
iii) The importance of the porosity and of the chemical functionalities is very
similar for the adsorption of acetone and diethyl ether.
From these data one can conclude t h a t these glassy carbons have very narrow
micropores distributions which permit t h e m to behave similarly from zero surface
coverage (very low vapour concentration) to high surface coverage. Moreover the
criterion frequently used to discriminate between specific and non-specific
interactions on the basis of the s t a n d a r d enthalpy of adsorption is not useful
when microporous materials are used as adsorbent and when adsorption is
carried out at zero surface coverage.
431
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported by the DGYCIT under project PB94-0754.
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435
S e l e c t i v e a n d r e v e r s i b l e a d s o r b e n t s for n i t r i c o x i d e f r o m h o t
combustion gases
R. Long and R.T. Yang*
Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Michigan
This report provides an updated review and discussion of all selective,

reversible sorbents for adsorption of NOx from combustion gases. The sorbents
must selectively adsorb NOx over other gas molecules that are also contained in
combustion gases: SO2, H20, CO2, 09 and N2.
Removal of NOx from exhaust gases is a challenging problem which has been
extensively studied worldwide in recent years. The NOx emission is a major cause
for the formation of acid rain and for other environmental problems. Selective
Catalytic Reduction (SCR) of NOx has been the most effective means for NOx
abatement. For large power plants, V2OJTiO2 has been the main commercial
catalyst for SCR with NH3 for stationary sources [1]. However, for relatively
small scale combustors, such as diesel-fueled and gasoline-fueled engines in
vehicles, the use of NH3- based SCR technologies is not practical because of the
high cost and NH3 slip. The three way catalyst (Pt-Rh-Pd) is an effective catalyst
for SCR (mainly by CO) used in automobiles under rich-burn conditions [2,3], but
it suffers from severe loss of activity for NO reduction in the presence of excess
oxygen, which is the prevalent condition for diesel or lean-burn gasoline engines.
SCR of NOx with hydrocarbons under excess oxygen conditions has been actively
studied by many groups most recently [4-8]. A large number of catalysts have
been found to be active for these reactions, such as Cu, Fe, Co, Ce, Ga, and
H exchanged zeolites, noble metals supported on 7-alumina, metal oxides,
pillared clay, and so on. A summary of these catalysts has been published
recently by Amiridis et al. [5]. Among them, Cu- and Co-ZSM-5 are the most
intensively investigated; however, they are deactivated rapidly by moisture and
S02 [6-8]. Noble metal based catalysts appear to be free from deactivation by H20
and SO2, but additional problems, such as narrow window of operation
* Address all correspondenceto R.T.Yang
436
temperature, high selectivity for N20 formation and oxidation of SO2 to SO3,
inhibit their application in industry [5]. So successful catalyst development is
necessary before this technology becomes applicable to diesel or lean-burn
gasoline vehicles.
A promising alternative approach for the removal of NOx is NOx trapping, or
adsorption/absorption of NOx. Adsorption is divided into physical and chemical
adsorption. Physical adsorption (surface adsorption and micropore filling) is rapid
and reversible, but is less selective for specific gas species. The amount of
physical adsorption can greatly exceed a monolayer capacity. It usually occurs as
a result of intermolecular forces, such as van der Waals forces and capillary
condensation. The normal boiling points of NO and NO2 are 121 K and 294 K,
respectively. Therefore, NO2 can be easily condensable on microporous solids by
pore filling around room temperature, whereas NO is relatively more difficult. In
the presence of oxygen, NO trap by pore filling can be facilitated by the formation
of NO2. Chemisorption results from the interaction between the adsorbate
molecule and the adsorption site, which is selective to specific gases. The amount
of chemisorption is less than the monolayer capacity. Chemisorption can occur at
low or high temperatures. In order to remove NOx efficiently from exhaust gases,
a very specific sorbent is needed. The sorbent must be able to selectively adsorb
NOx from oxygen-rich combustion gases which contain NOx, 02, H20, SO2, CO2
and N2. The desired temperature range for NOx trapping is 300-400~ although
temperatures outside this range may be prevalent depending on the specific
application. The sorption rates must be high, e.g., suitable for applications at
space velocities > 3,0001/h. The sorption must be reversible either by increasing
temperature or decreasing pressure, so a desorption stream concentrated in NOx
can be obtained [9]. The concentrated stream can be recycled to the combustion
zone for NO decomposition into N2. Alternatively, desorption/decomposition can
be accomplished by injecting a reducing gas. Still another alternative, applicable
to lean-burn engines, is to dope noble metals in the sorbent and to run the engine
with pulses of rich-burn conditions, during which time the adsorbed NOx is
decomposed into Ne [10,11].
There has been a long search for such a sorbent for NOx as reviewed recently
[12,13]. The more promising sorbents have been supported transition metal
oxides [14-18], ZSM-5 or MFI zeolites exchanged by Cu 2 and other cations
[19, 20], FeeO~ dispersed on activated carbon fibers (AFC) [21, 22], zeolite [23],
Y-Ba-Cu-O [24, 25], mixed metal oxides [10, 26-28] and carbon [31]. The two most
promising sorbents, in terms of both NOx capacity and rate of uptake, appear to
be Mn-Zr (1:1 molar ratio) mixed oxides [27] and Ce-doped CuO/TiOe [28],
reported recently. In this paper, the available literature on adsorption of nitric
oxides is reviewed, and the development of NOx removal techniques through
sorption on solid materials is discussed.
437
2. NOx A D S O R P T I O N AT NEAR AMBIENT T E M P E R A T U R E
Iwamoto and coworkers [19,20] studied the adsorption of NO on various metal

ion-exchanged zeolites with a fixed bed adsorption apparatus. In the adsorption
experiment, 1,000 - 2,000 ppm of NO in He was introduced in a stainless steel
column containing the adsorbent.
After each adsorption run, pure He was introduced into the column to desorb
NO from the adsorbent. The amount of reversible adsorption (Qrev) and
irreversible adsorption (Qirr) of NO measured at 273K on various cationexchanged MFI zeolites are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1
NO adsorption properties of various cation-exchanged MFI zeolites
Amount of NO
adsorbed/(cm3g -1)
Adsorbent
Content of
cation/(wt%)
Na-MFI(23.3)- 100
Ca-MFI(23.3)-54
Sr-MFI(23.3)- 105
Ba-MFI(23.3)-80
Mg-MFI(23.3)-46
Cu-MFI(23.3)-157
Ag-MFI(23.3)-90
Co-MFI(23.3)-90
Mn-MFI(23.3)- 127
Ni-MFI(23.3)-68
Zn-MFI(23.3)-96
Fe-MFI(23.3)-62
Cr-MFI(23.3)-41
Ce-MFI(23.3)-8
La-MFI(23.3)-7
H-MFI(23.3)-100
2.81
1.32
5.45
6.44
0.69
5.90
10.85
3.06
4.20
2.41
3.79
2.12
0.87
0.43
0.40
0.13
Qrev
reversible
0.16(0.006) c
1.81(0.246)
2.71(0.195)
1.50(0.143)
0.69(0.109)
4.28(0.206)
3.38(0.150)
1.52(0.131)
1.19(0.069)
1.03(0.112)
1.01(0.078)
0.52(0.061)
0.38(0.101)
0.34(0.496)
0.25(0.388)
0.12(0.004)
Qirr
irreversible
00.(0.000) c
1.56(0.212)
0.20(0.014)
1.44(0.137)
0.22(0.035)
14.90(0.716)
0.54(0.024)
19.69(1.693)
5.81(0.339)
6.64(0.727)
0.50(0.039)
3.08(0.362)
1.16(0.308)
0.34(0.496)
0.24(0.372)
0.32(0.011)
Adsorption time, 45 min; desorption time, 60 min; concentration of NO, 997 ppm;
adsorption temperature, 273K; adsorbent weight, 0.5 g; flow rate, 100cm3 min 1.
bConcentration of NO, 1,910ppm. cUnit, (NO molecules)'(cation) -1.
Reprinted from: Zhang et al. [ 19].
a
438
The Qrev and Qirr changed significantly with the metal ion. For transition
metal ion-exchanged zeolites, the values of Qirr were larger t h a n those of Qrev
except for Zn-MFI and Ag-MFI. In contrast, Qrev was greater t h a n Qirr on
alkaline earth metal ion-exchanged zeolites. The amount of reversible adsorption
per cation decreased in the order
Ca 2+ > S r 2+ > B a 2+ > M g 2+
The order of Qrev was:
Transition Metal Ion - Alkaline Earth Metal Ion > Rare Earth Metal Ion - Alkali
Metal Ion - H Among these zeolites Cu-MFI and Co-MFI showed the largest
Qrev and Qirr, respectively. In CuMFI, Qrev and Qirr were found to be
proportional to the exchange amount of copper ion, but the Qrev and Qirr per
copper ion were constant. IR spectroscopy indicated that most of the reversibly
adsorbed NO was NO + adsorbed on Cu 2 and that the irreversibly adsorbed NO
was in the forms of NO +, nitrate (NO~), nitrite (NO~), and NO~.
The amounts of reversible and irreversible adsorption of NO were also
dependent on the zeolite structure. Table 2 and Table 3 show the results of
copper ion-exchanged zeolites and silver ion-exchanged zeolites, respectively.
Table 2
Effect of zeolite structure on NO adsorbability of copper ion-exchanged zeolites
Adsorbent
Content of
cation/(wt%)
Amount of adsorption
of NO/(cm3.g-1)
Reversible
Irreversible
Cu-MFI(23.3)-68
2.63
2.29(0.247) b
7.46(0.805) b
Cu-OFF/ERI(7.7)-81
5.45
2.28(0.146)
5.55(0.270)
Cu-MOR( 10.5)-76
5.26
2.11(0.114)
6.69(0.361 )
Cu-LTL(6.0)-34
3.22
1.23(0.108)
2.38(0.210)
Cu-FER(12.3)-66
3.89
1.42(0.104)
4.82(0.353)
Cu-FAU(2.6)-60
9.27
1.15(0.035)
0.62(0.019)
Cu-FAU(5.6)-83
7.99
0.86(0.031)
1.52(0.055)
Adsorption time 45 min; desorption time, 60 min; concentration of NO, 1,910 ppm;
adsorption temperature, 273 K; adsorbent weight, 0.5 g; flow rate, 100 cm 3 min-1. bUnit, (NO
molecules) (cation) -1.
Reprinted from: Zhang et al. [ 19].
439
Table 3
NO adsorption properties of various silver ion-exchanged zeolites
amount of adsorption
Adsorbent
Content of
of NO (cma'g -1)
ca tio n/(wt%)
Re versib 1e
Irreversible
Ag-MFI(23.3)-104 b
12.38
6.16(0.240 c)
4.11(0.160 c)
Ag-MFI(23.3)- 104
12.38
5.14(0.200)
4.99(0.194)
Ag-MOR(15.0)-112 b
17.09
5.76(0.162)
2.18(0.061)
Ag-MOR( 15.0-112
17.09
5.02(0.141 )
2.39(0.067)
Ag-FER( 12.3)-76
13.66
4.71(0.166)
1.51(0.053)
Ag-OFF/ERI(7.7)
16.71
1.12(0.032)
0.28(0.008)
Ag-LTL(6.0)-37
13.43
0.28(0.010)
0.16(0.006)
Ag-FAU(5.6)- 101
25.76
0.40(0.007)
0.56(0.010)
Ag-FAU(2.6)-98
37.10
4.12(0.053)
3.99(0.052)
Ag-LTA(2.0)- 103
41.22
3.38(0.039)
0.57(0.007)
5.90
4.28(0.206)
14.90(0.716)
Cu-MFI(23.3)-157 b
a Adsorption time, 45 min; desorption time, 60 min; adsorption temperature 273 K.

bAdsorption time 60 min; desorption time 120 min. cUnit NO-molecule (Ag ion) -1.
Reprinted from: Zhang et al. [20].
The amount of reversible adsorption and irreversible adsorption of NO per

copper ion were found to decrease in the following order:
MFI > OFF/ERI > MOR > LTL > FER > FAU
This result is consistent with the increase in the aluminum content in the
zeolites. From Table 3, one can see that Qrev also changed significantly with the
zeolite structure among the silver ionexchanged zeolites. Ag-MFI and Ag-MOR
showed the highest Qrev. Similar to the Cu-MFI sorbent, Qrev of Ag-MFI and
Ag-MOR increased with the ion exchange level, and Qrev/Ag of Ag-MFI was
constant at different exchange levels of silver ion. The real exhaust gases also
contain various gases such as NO2, 02, CO2, SO2, CO and H20. Iwamoto et al.
[19] further studies their influence on NO adsorption properties in Cu-MFI
zeolite. The effects of each gas is shown in Table 4.
440
Table 4
Effect of preadsorbed gases on the adsorption properties of Cu-MFI(23.3) - 147 a
Amount of adsorption
Preadsorbed gas b
of NO/(cm3-g -1)
Reversible
Irreversible
NO2(4,680 ppm)/He
7.14
2.21
02(99.5%)
4.26
14.38
CO2(20%)/He
4.25
12.19
SO2(2,170 ppm)He
3.92
7.86
CO(1,890 ppm)/He
1.39
4.15
H20(3%)/He
0.22
0.45
None
4.35
17.83
Adsorption time, 60 min; desorption time, 120 min; concentration of NO,

1,000 ppm; adsorption temperature, 273 K; adsorbent weight, 0.5 g; flow rate, 100 cm 3 min -~.
bThe adsorbent was heated at 773 K for 5 h under helium stream (50 cm3"min-~) before
preadsorption treatment. After the preadsorption the sample was purged with helium at room
temperature.
Reprinted from: Zhang et al. [19].
a
The preadsorption of NO2 resulted in an enhancement of Qrev for NO, which

was probably due to the result that the irreversibly adsorbed NO2 provided new
sites for NO molecules to produce N203 [19]. When 02, CO2, or SO2 were
preadsorbed, almost no change in Qrev for NO was found. CO and H20 poisoned
the adsorbability of NO in the Cu-MFI zeolite. The Qirr for NO was also
described by the adsorption of CO and H20.
Kaneko et al. [21,22,32] prepared cz-FeOOH and Fe203 highly dispersed on
ACFs (active carbon fibers), which have very high adsorption capacity for NO
near room temperature. For instance, the amount of NO adsorption was about
160 mg/g on cz-FeOOH dispersed ACF at 303 K and 80 kPa NO pressure. This
type of NO adsorption seems to have both chemisorption and physical adsorption
characteristics. NO was mainly adsorbed by a micropore-filling mechanism,
which was inferred by the measurement of pore volume using N2 adsorption on
ACF-5 after exposure to NO. The highly dispersed cz-FeOOH particles on the ACF
assisted the micropore filling of NO through their chemisorption action. A 13 X
molecular sieve was also reported to have a high capacity for NO adsorption in
the presence of 02 by micropore filling, the NO capacity reached 75 mg/g at 296 K
[23,36]. However, HeO, SO2, COz, all have strong inhibiting effects on this
sorbent.
441
Several other research groups also investigated the adsorption of NO on metal
oxides. The results are summarized in Table 5.
Table 5
Amounts of NO adsorbed on various adsorbents near room t e m p e r a t u r e
Adsorbent
Amount of NO
adsorbed a (rag/g)
Ref.
SnO2
29
CeO2
30
NiO
15
Co304
15
CuO/7 A1203
36
15
NiO/7 A1203
36
15
Co304/~ A1203
15
Fe2OJ7 A1203
45
15
Fe2OJSiO2
16
Fe-Y zeolite
18
17
Fe304
22
18
Fe304
24
14
a- Fe203
14
Jaosites
3-10
33
10-20
34
4-6
35
13
12
a-FeOOH
[3-, 7- FeOOH
r
a At 13 kPa and room temperature. Reprinted from: Kaneko and Inouye [ 12].
It is noted t h a t Fe304 and (z-FeOOH showed the highest adsorption capacity

for NO at room t e m p e r a t u r e among pure oxides. When oxides such as CuO, NiO,
Fe203 were supported on 7-A1203, the adsorption of NO was high. This was due to
the high surface area [12].
442
NO A D S O R P T I O N AT HIGHER T E M P E R A T U R E S FROM
COMBUSTION GASES
Some sorbents exhibited excellent adsorption capacities for NO at high

temperatures [10,11,27,28]. These sorbents are attractive candidates for
application to the automobile industry as well as the power industry. The main
advantage is that the adsorbed NO can be directly converted to N2 on a catalyst
(e.g., the three-way catalyst) under a "rich-burn" condition at the same room
temperature. This can be accomplished by a cyclic operation [12]. Another
advantage is that the sorbents have the high sorption rate at high temperature,
which is suitable for application for the removal of NO from exhaust gases at a
high space velocity.
3.1. S u p e r c o n d u c t i n g b a r i u m and y i t t r i u m - c o n t a i n i n g s o r b e n t s
Misono et. al. [24] reported that NO and CO could be rapidly adsorbed into
superconducting YBa2Cu30~. After pre-evacuation at 300~ the sample adsorbed
approximately 2 mol/mol oxide for NO at the same temperature. The adsorbed
NO molecules were almost completely desorbed when the temperature was
increased to 400~
For these Y-containing oxides, Yamashita and coworkers
found that the NO adsorptivity decreased according to the order [37]:
YSr2Co3Ox > YBa4CosOx > YSr2Mn.3Ox > YSr2V3Ox.
TPD and IR results showed that the adsorbed NO molecules were oxidized to
NO~ by lattice oxygen. The adsorbed NO was desorbed as a mixture of NO/O2.
Ba-Cu-O mixed oxides have also been reported by Arai et al. [38] to have a high
adsorption capacity for NO/N02 at 200~
This adsorption reaction was
accelerated by the presence of oxygen. XRD results indicated the formation of
Ba(NO3)2/CuO. In the presence of 02, a large amount of NOx was liberated from
the sample at temperatures above 500~ However, the NO adsorption capacity
for this sorbent was completely vanished by the presence of 8% CO2 because of
the formation of surface BaCO3.
3.2. Mixed m e t a l o x i d e s
Since the sorbents containing Ba are easily deactivated by CO2, Arai and
coworkers developed materials for NOx adsorption which did not contain rare
earth and alkaline earth metals. Several mixed-oxide sorbents containing Mn
and/or Zr are shown in Table 6 [27].
The uptake of NO in the presence of 02 or absence of 02 was measured at
200~ in a tubular reactor. The presence of 02 promoted the adsorption of NO on
these oxides. The Mn-Fe, Mn-Zr, and Mn-Cu systems exhibited a high uptake of
NO. The Mn-Zr oxide showed the highest uptake of NO both with and without
02. NO was hardly detected in the effluent gas from the fixed bed adsorption
during the initial 60 minutes. After that, the concentration of NO at the outlet
443
gradually increased with time. The Mn-Zr ( 1:1 ) oxide did not show NO removal
after 6 hours on-stream. The total a m o u n t of NO removal in 6 hours of operation
was 0.133 mol-NO/mol-Zr. In order to compare the removal capacity m e a s u r e d at
a fixed gas-phase NO concentration, a gravimetric analysis was also performed
for the NO uptake. The a m o u n t of NO adsorption in Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr = 1)
after s a t u r a t i o n was 1.43 wt % of the original oxide, which corresponded to 0.047
mol-NO/mol-Zr. The NO adsorption a m o u n t m e a s u r e d by the gravimetric
analysis was s o m e w h a t smaller t h a n t h a t from the t u b u l a r reactor by gas phase
analysis. The difference from these two m e a s u r e m e n t s was likely due to the
diffusion resistance. The gas was forced to pass through the oxide particles in the
t u b u l a r reactor, which enhance the diffusion rates.
Table 6
NO removal by mixed oxides containing Mn and/or Zr
NO removala(%)
Oxide
0% 02
10% 02
MnOx'AlzOa
9.9
14.8
MnOx'Cr202
2.2
MnOx'CuO
10.2
MnOx-FezO3
11.9
37.4
MnOx'Mo03
5.9
15.2
MnOx-TiOz
25.0
MnOx ZrOz
100.0
100.0
ZrO2"AlzO3
8.7
ZrO2"CrzO3
14.3
ZrO2"CuO
2.7
27.0
ZrOz'FezO3
0.4
8.7
ZrOz'MoO3
0.3
2.4
ZrO2"TiOz
7.6
17.4
Note. Calcination temperature 450~
temperature 200~ W/F =1 g's.cm 3

aNO removal after 30 rain of use.
Reprinted from: Eguchi et al. [27].
0.1 vol.% NO, 0 or 10% 02, He balance. Reaction
444
Arai et al. [27] also studied the sorption capacities of NO in the Mn-Zr oxides
with different Mn/Zr molar ratios. The results are shown in Table 7.
Table 7
Capacity of Mn-Zr Oxides for NO Removal
Sample
Capacity for NO removal

mol/mol-Zr
Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr = 5)
0.105
Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr =1)
0.133
Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr =1/5)
0.034
Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr =1/9)
0.029
1 wt% Pt/Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr =1)
0.058
1 wt% Rh/Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr =1)
0.035
1 wt% Ru/Mn-Zr oxide (Mn/Zr =1)
0.042
1 wt% Pd/Mn-Zr oxide (Mn-Zr =1)
0.073
900 ppm NO, 10% 02, He balance. Reaction

W/F -1 g s cm-3. Reprinted from: Eguchi et al. [27].
Note. Calcination temperature 450~
temperature 200~
The NO removal was 100% for every Mn-Zr oxide at the start of NO supply
and then gradually decreased after 10 to 60 minutes of operation. The adsorption
capacity of NO was the largest in the Mn-Zr oxide with Mn/Zr = 1. When
decreasing or increasing the Mn/Zr ratio, the amount of NO adsorption decreased.
Addition of noble metals also decreased the adsorption capacity of NO, as shown
in Table 7. The XRD data indicated that the amorphous phase in the Mn-Zr
oxides (Mn/Zr = 1), which had a large surface area, was especially active for NO
removal. The adsorbed NO in Mn-Zr oxides was almost completely desorbed
under an NO/O2/He atmosphere when the temperature was increased to 400~
indicating that the sorption and desorption was almost reversible. The amount of
NO uptake in the Mn-Zr oxides was hardly affected by the presence of CO2 (10%).
The NO removal in the first 130 minutes was only slightly affected by H20 and
the total amount of uptake was enhanced with H20. The reason of the promoting
effect of H20 is not understood [27].
3.3. CuO - based
sorbents
More recently, the sorbents CuO/Ti02 and Ce-CuO/Ti02, which showed higher
adsorption capacities than Mn-Zr oxides, have been prepared in our laboratory
[28]. The CuO/Ti02 sample was prepared by using incipient wetness
445
impregnation with aqueous solution of Cu(NO3)2 on TiO2. The Ce dopant was
added also by the incipient wetness procedure using aqueous cerium nitrate
solution on the CuO/TiO2 sample. The adsorption/desorption experiments of NO
were performed in a thermogravimetric analyzer, equipped with a p r o g r a m m e d
t e m p e r a t u r e control unit. The results of NO2 uptake at 300~ on CuO/TiO2 and
Ce-CuO/TiO2 sorbents are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively.
...
<
m
9
r~
[NO] = 2000 ppm

=4%
.,..~
9 Adsorption at 300~
9 Desorptlon at 450 C
<
z
2:
0~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,I,,,,,,,I
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time (minute)
Figure 1. Adsorption and desorption of NO2 in 5% CuO/TiO2. Desorption was achieved by
heating to 450~ in 2 min in the same gas flow.
Reprinted from: Li et al. [28].
It can be seen t h a t the m a x i m u m NO adsorption on CuO/TiO2 was 6 mg/g
under the conditions NO = 2,000 ppm, 02 = 4%, balance = He. When CeO2 was
added to CuO/TiO2, both the NO2 capacity and the uptake rate increased. The
sorbent capacity was increased from approximately 6 to 7.7 mg/g, or
approximately a 30% increase. The initial sorption rate was increased from 3.4 to
5.0 mg/g, both at t = 10 min, or a 50% increase. The chemisorption rate was
clearly the controlling step in the uptake, and the CeO2 dopant substantially
increased the chemisorption rate. Since the oxidation of NO is involved in the
chemisorption of NO in the presence of 02, the significant increase in both
chemisorption rate and sorption a m o u n t as a result of adding Ce to CuO/TiO2
was a t t r i b u t e d to the unique oxygen storage property as well as the redox
446
property of Ce. Results of desorption of NOx at 450~ over the two sorbents, in
the same gas flow, are also shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Heating from 300~
to 450~ took approximately 2 minutes, during which time a small amount of
NOx was desorbed. The results showed that rapid desorption was accomplished
at 450~
The working capacity of the sorbent, i.e., the reversible amount,
depends on the time of desorption. It is clear from Figure 1 and Figure 2 that well
over 95% of the amount adsorbed was desorbed rapidly.
8
=z
<
o
Z
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Time (minute)
Figure 2. Adsorption and desorption of NOx on Ce-CuO/TiO2 (2% Ce, 5% CuO by wt).
Desorption was achieved by heating to 450~ in 2 min in the same gas flow.
Reprinted from: Li et al. [28].
To make a direct comparison with MnOx/ZrO2 (1:1 molar ratio) sorbent studied
by Eguchi et al. [27], the Ce-CuO/TiO2 was subjected to the same sorption
conditions, i.e. 1,000 ppm of NO and 200~ A lower 02 concentration of 4% was
used, however. The lower 02 concentration would only lower the NOx sorption
rate and capacity [27], hence, the comparison was a conservative one for our
sorbent. The results with the two different sorbents are compared in Figure 3.
The comparison showed that both sorption rate and capacity were significantly
higher for the Ce-CuO/TiO2 sorbent than the Mn/Zr oxides. The initial uptake
rate was more than doubled with our sorbent, while the final capacity was higher
by approximately 15%. The final NOx capacity for the Ce-CuO/TiO2 sorbent
corresponded to approximately 12 A2/NO2 or NO~.
447
18
,.Q
o
rar
16-1412-
<
10-
9
o,..~
8O
[NO] = 1000 ppm
6-
II
.~
4- [ /
or~
<
o
Z
2-
4%
9 Adsorption at 200 C
9 Desorptlon at 450 C
9 K. Eguchi at al's Data
o
10-,
0
20
40
,l
60
,,
l'ii
80
,'
,'i
100
120
,'
,'
i'
~' i"
140
160
Time (minute)
Figure 3. Adsorption and desorption (in the same gas flow) on Ce-CuO/TiO2 (2% Ce, 5%
CuO by wt) compared with the MnO/ZrO2 (1 : 1 molar ratio) sorbent of Eguchi et al. [27]
under the same conditions except 02 = 10% in their work (which yielded larger adsorption
than 4% 02). Reprinted from: Li et al. [28].
The effects of CO2, H20 and SO2 in NOx adsorption were also investigated for
the CeCuO/TiO2 sorbent at 200~ The sorbent was first exposed to a gas flow
containing 13% CO2 and 4% 02 (in He). No uptake or weight change was
observed. However, when 13% CO2 was added to the gas flow containing NO
(1,000 ppm) and 02 (4%), changes in both NOx sorption rate and capacity were
observed. The NOx sorption was changed by CO2 in two ways. First, a small, but
clear, decrease in the initial sorption rate was observed. Second, the NOx capacity
increased by over 25% due to the presence of CO2. Since the uptake rates were
measured only by weight gain, the surface species were not known. No changes
were observed in the desorption due to CO2. The adsorption of H20 was first
measured with 2.7% H20 in He at 200~ the process was performed after 90
minutes, then a flow gas containing 2.7% H20, 1,000 ppm of NO, and 4% 02 was
introduced. The presorbed H20 did cause a reduction in the NOx capacity. The
final amount of NOx adsorbed on the H20 presorbed sample was approximately
72% of t h a t without H20 presorption. However, the rapid uptake of NOx on the
H20 -presaturated sorbent was similar to that without H20 presorption. The
effect of H20 was also investigated by reversing the sequence of adsorption. In
448
this experiment, the Ce-CuO/TiO2 sorbent was first exposed to 1,000 ppm of NO
and 4% 02, followed by the addition of 2.7% H20 in the mixture. The result
showed that NOx and H20 adsorbed nearly independently; that is, they adsorbed
on different sites. When the sample coadsorbed NOx and H20 was heated rapidly
to 450~ in the same gas flow that contained H20, NO, and 02, both H20 and
NOx desorbed rapidly. Therefore, the Ce-CuO/TiO2 sorbent coadsorbed H20 and
NOx both reversibly. When the Ce-CuO/TiO2 sorbent was first exposed to SO2
(1,500 p p m ) + 02, an uptake of approximately 2 mg/g was observed in 90
minutes. Then NO was introduced to the gas flow, a rapid uptake of NOx was
observed. However, the NO adsorption was reduced by the adsorbed SO2. The
NOx capacity was reduced by approximately 20%. Desorption was accomplished
by rapid heating (in 2 min) to 450~ in NO/SO2/O2/He. A significant amount of
adsorbate was not desorbed at 450~ This amount was 2 mg/g, equal to that of
the preadsorbed S02/02. It is known that the Ti02 surface is sulfated by SO2 + 02
in the temperature range of this study and that the surface sulfate can not be
desorbed at 450~ [39]. It seems likely that the irreversible uptake was due to
surface sulfate on Ti02, whereas the NOx was bonded to Cu 2 sites.
An intriguing NOx abatement process is adsorption/desorption and recycle of
high concentration NOx into the combustion chamber. An existing process
designed for the cleanup of coal and oil combustion flue gas containing both SOx
and NOx has been developed as the NOxSO process [40-42]. In this process, a
CuO/A1203 adsorbent is circulated between a fluidized bed adsorber where it
adsorbs and absorbs SOx and NOx, a fluidized bed heater where NOx desorbs and
is catalytically decomposed into N2, a regenerator where strongly bound SOx is
removed by the reaction with H2 or CH4, and a final fluidized bed cooler before
returning to the adsorber. In the NOxSO process, the NOx recycle stream
contains about 3,000 ppm NOx and is returned to the primary combustion stage
of the combustor. About 70% of NOx can be converted into N2 and 02. The process
can be performed because this concentration is higher than the thermodynamic
limit of NOx formation at the temperature of the combustion (about 2,000 ppm)
and the reaction between NOx and fuel can take place in the fuel rich primary
combustion. The adsorption/recycle scheme may be applied to the removal of NOx
in the exhaust gas of vehicles. However, the corrosion caused by the relatively
high accumulation of NOx in the presence of water vapor must be overcome
before this application is possible.
An interesting process involving cyclic adsorption/reduction has been
investigated for automotive applications [10]. It is known that the three-way
catalyst is very effective to remove NO from the exhaust gas from vehicles which
operate with a stoichiometric mixture of air and fuel. However, it is substantially
less effective in reducing the NOx emissions in lean-burn exhaust gases.
Therefore, the technology may be feasible by first storing NOx in the solid sorbent
in the oxidized form during the crusing of an automobile in lean-burn condition,
then the stored NOx is released and reduced by the three-way catalyst when the
atmosphere is changed intermittently to the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Arai et
449
al. [27] reported that the adsorbed/absorbed NOx was more easily desorbed in the
reducing atmosphere than in the oxidizing atmosphere for the MnOx/ZrO2
(1:1 molar ratio) oxides. Brogan and coworkers [11] reported that, with a monolith
substrate absorber combining with a three-way catalyst, a cycle of 30 s lean-burn
and 30 s burn gave an average 94% NOx conversion on a prototype lean-burn
engine.
3.4. Cu 2+- e x c h a n g e d pillared clays

Pillared interlayered clays (PILCs) and their ion-exchanged forms have been
studied extensively in our laboratory both as gas sorbents and as catalysts for the
SCR reaction. At the room temperature, PILC adsorbs NO much more strongly
than CO2, and adsorbs H20 only weakly [43]. For the SCR reaction, we have
found that PILCs have higher activities (as well as poison resistance) than the
commercial SCR catalysts by NH3 [44-46] and by hydrocarbon [47]. In particular,
Cu(II) ion-exchanged pillared clay is approximately five (5) times more active
than the Cu(II) ZSM-5 catalyst for C2H4 - SCR of NO at 300~ [47]. More
importantly, the Cu(II)-PILC is not deactivated by H20 and SO2 (while Cu(II)ZSM-5 is severely deactivated by H20).
Results of TPD experiments for NO adsorbed on Cu(II)-PILC showed that
significant amounts of NOx remained on the Cu(II)-PILC surfaces at 400~ Also,
in comparing different pillared clays (all ion-exchanged with Cu(II)), we have
found that the HC-SCR activity is approximately proportional to the amount of
chemisorbed NOx. The most active PILC (and the PILC with the highest NOx
chemisorption capacity) is Cu(II) exchanged A1203 pillared clay (while ZrO2-PILC
has the least activity). Moreover, chemisorption of NO on Cu(II)-PILC is assisted
by O2, apparently because NO2 is the adsorbed species.
Our results indicate that the Cu(II) ion-exchanged pillared clays should
have high NOx chemisorption capacities at 300~176
Therefore, these sorbents
are also promising sorbents for future applications.
3.5. S u l f a t e d m e t a l o x i d e s
Since combustion gases usually contain various amounts of SO2, the surfaces
of metal oxides are sulfated by SO2 and 02. Hence it is important to consider the
sulfated forms of metal oxides for their NOx sorption. The CuO/A1203 for
simultaneous SOJNOx removal is already discussed in the foregoing. The
sulfated oxides can have high acidities. Much research has been done to
characterize these sulfates, including "superacids".
An interesting sulfated oxide is TiO2. In our work on V2OJTiO2 for NH3 SCR, it
was seen that NO, at 1,000 ppm or below, does not chemisorb on V20~ at
temperatures above 300~ It does, however, chemisorb on TiO2 at substantially
higher temperatures, e.g., above 400~ We have also found that the sulfated
TiOe surface can also chemisorb NOx at high temperatures, e.g., above 400~
[48]. The sulfated TiOz was formed by contacting TiO2 to SOJO2 (as seen in flue
gas) at 300 ~ 400~ where the TiO2 surface was sulfated. Thus, the surface of
TiO2 will always remain sulfated in the combustion gas.
450
F i g u r e 4 s h o w s the N O x u p t a k e a n d d e s o r p t i o n by TiOz (from d e n s i f i c a t i o n of

D e g u s s a P -25 TiO2 powder, B E T surface a r e a - 50 m2/g. F i g u r e 5 s h o w s the NOx
u p t a k e a n d d e s o r p t i o n by s u l f a t e d TiO2.
E(D
12
g.4
10=
<
=
,.o
9
o
C~
E~
[~ 41/~
9 Adsorpt!on at
9
r,~
<
d
z
9 Desorption at 450~
'
'
'
60
'
'
'
120
'
'
'
'
180
'
'
'
'
240
300
Time (minute)
Figure 4. Adsorption/Desorption of NOx on Degussa titania (without sulfation treatment),
both in the same gas atmosphere.
E
8-
..Q
O
6Z
0
<
=
4-
O
r~
C3
"~
O
o,...,
2-
t 9 Adsorption[02]
=4%
at 300~
9 Desorption at 450~
<
oZ
0~,,,i,,,i,,,i,,,i,,,
0
30 60 90
'''1
'''
I ' ' '
120 150 180 210 240
Time (minute)
Figure 5. Adsorption/Desorption of NOx on sulfated Degussa titania, both in the same gas
atmosphere.
451
It is seen that the unsulfated form adsorbed more NOx; however, most of the
NOx was irreversibly adsorbed. The opposite result was seen after the TiO2 was
sulfated, where most of the NOx was reversibly adsorbed, which is a desirable
property.
IR results [49] showed that the NOx adsorbed in the form of bidendate NO3
ions possibly bonded to Ti sites. Thus the TiO2 surface was modified by SO~- ions
possibly by electron transfer which weakened the bond between the neighboring
Ti site and NO~.
3.6. Heteropoly compounds and polymeric sorbents

It has been found in our laboratory that heteropoly compounds, e.g.,
H3PW12040" 6H20
have the unique selectivity for absorption of NOx from a simulated combustion
gas [50,51]. Upon rapid heating, a large fraction of the absorbed NO evolves as
N2. In our work, the NO absorption temperature was limited to approximately
230~
In our search for a sorbent for SO2 removal from combustion gases, it was
found that styrenic polymeric sorbents (commercially available, with surface
areas exceeding 1,000 m2/g) had high selectivities for SO2 over CO2 and H20 [52].
We have also found that the polymeric sorbents had even higher selectivities
toward NOx t h a n SO2 and are extremely hydrophobic. For example, over
100 mg/g of NO was chemisorbed at the room temperature from a simulated flue
gas. The chemisorbed NO forms monomers or dimers on the benzene rings on the
surface of the polymer, possibly by ~-complex bonding with the ~-electrons. The
bonding is strong enough to w a r r a n t an investigation of the polymeric sorbents
for high t e m p e r a t u r e NOx trapping. However, the thermal stability temperatures
for the styrenic polymers are only slightly above 200~
which will be the
temperature limits.
High surface area polymeric sorbents other than styrenic types are also
available, such as the acrylic types. These sorbents also have large amounts of
~-electrons on the surface, and some of them have higher thermal stabilities.
These polymers have a high potential as selective sorbents for NOx from
combustion gases. However, oxidation should be considered before the polymers
can be used.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by NSF CTS-9520328 and DOE DE-FG-22-96PC96206.
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455
Adsorption processes in spacecraft environmental control and life

support systems
L. A. D a l l B a u m a n a and J. E. Finn b
a NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston TX*, USA
b NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field CA, USA
The environmental control and life support system on a spacecraft maintains a

safe and comfortable environment in which the crew can live and work by supplying
oxygen and w a t e r and by removing carbon dioxide, w a t e r vapor, and trace
contaminants from cabin air.
Although open-loop systems have been used
successfully in the past for short-duration missions, the economics of current and
future long-duration missions in space will make nearly complete recycling of air
and water imperative.
A variety of operations will be necessary to achieve the goal of nearly complete
recycling. These include separation and reduction of carbon dioxide, removal of
trace gas-phase contaminants, recovery and purification of humidity condensate,
purification and polishing of w a s t e w a t e r streams, and others. Several of these can
be performed totally or in part by adsorption processes. These processes are good
candidates to perform separations and purifications in space due to their gravity
independence, high reliability, relatively high energy efficiency, design flexibility,
technological maturity, and regenerative nature. For these reasons, adsorption has
historically played a key role in life support on U.S. and Russian piloted spacecraft.
Among the life support applications t h a t can be achieved through use of
adsorption technology are removal of trace contaminants and carbon dioxide from
cabin air and recovery of potable water from waste streams. In each of these cases,
adsorption technology has been selected for use onboard the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Space
Station.
The requirements, science, and h a r d w a r e for these applications are
discussed.
H u m a n space exploration may eventually lead to construction of planetary
habitats. These h a b i t a t s may provide additional opportunities for use of adsorption
This manuscriptwas prepared while L. DallBaumanwas employedat Johnson Space Center. She has sincejoined
AlliedSignal Inc., 50 E. AlgonquinRd., Des Plaines IL 60017-5016USA.
456
processes, such as control of greenhouse gas composition, and may have different
resources available to them, such as gases present in the planetary atmosphere.
Separation and purification processes based on adsorption can be expected to
continue to fulfill environmental control and life support needs on future missions.
1.
INTRODUCTION
A spacecraft's environmental control and life support system (ECLSS) provides a

breathable atmosphere by supplying 02 and by controlling CO2, water vapor, and
trace contaminant levels in cabin air. The system must also supply the crew with
water for drinking, food preparation, and hygiene use. Although operating in space
offers unique challenges, the ECLSS is essentially a network of unit operations in
which chemical reactions, separation processes, and heat transfer play important
roles. An understanding of chemical engineering principles and operations is
therefore essential to the design process. Technologies commonly used in the
chemical process industries, such as distillation and adsorption, have been tailored
for use in space.
A variety of factors drive ECLSS design. First and foremost, equipment must be
safe, reliable and effective in reduced gravity. Certain physical phenomena are
strongly gravity-dependent; for example, separation of vapor and liquid phases is
considerably more difficult in space than on earth. This increases the complexity
associated with any operation in which two-phase flow, condensation, or boiling
occurs. Due to the tight constraints placed on spacecraft and system mass and
volume, hardware must be lightweight and compact and the use of consumables
(e.g., reagents) and expendables (e.g., non-regenerable sorbents) must be minimized.
Limited power is available, so equipment must be energy-efficient. In addition,
process equipment should not require frequent maintenance or a large stock of spare
parts.
Determining the best system for a given mission is essentially an optimization
problem. The objective is to provide the crew with a breathable atmosphere and
potable water while minimizing mass, volume, and power. The relative weights of
the constraints are determined by specific mission characteristics; for example,
power is the dominant driver for the International Space Station (ISS). For very
short missions, an "open-loop" system is generally the best available solution. In
such a system, all water and 02 needed for the mission are stowed onboard prior to
launch while CO2 and wastewater are discarded or stored. No effort is made to
recover useful substances from waste products or to regenerate materials. Power
requirements are relatively low and mass and volume requirements can be reduced
if waste products are discarded rather than being stored.
457
As mission length and/or crew size increases, use of an open-loop scheme becomes
less practical. The problem of supplying water for the crew can be used to illustrate
this point.
For advanced missions (i.e., missions beyond ISS) the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has allocated approximately 23 kg
(50 lb) of water per person per day to meet all needs: drinking, food preparation,
personal hygiene, and laundry. This is a meager allowance by terrestrial standards;
a typical household uses 265 kg (580 lb) per person per day, with up to 95 kg (200 lb)
being used for a single shower [1]. However, at a launch cost of thousands of dollars
per kilogram, supplying all water at launch quickly becomes prohibitively expensive.
In addition, the storage volume available on a spacecraft is limited and does not
allow transportation of large quantities of water.
On long missions, the mass and volume associated with the process equipment in
a regenerative ECLSS can be less t h a n the mass and volume of the 02 and water
required by an open-loop configuration. The first step toward closing the ECLSS
loop has historically been to reduce reliance on expendable materials. For example,
CO2 was originally removed from the atmosphere on all NASA space shuttles by
irreversible absorption on LiOH. The two shuttles designated as extended duration
orbiters have been retrofitted with a cyclic CO2 removal subsystem in which a solid
amine material is used to reversibly sorb CO2. At the end of each half-cycle, the C02
is desorbed to space vacuum so that the amine can be reused. Mass of the LiOHbased subsystem increases linearly with crew size and mission duration, but the
mass of the solid amine subsystem is fixed for a crew of up to seven and is
essentially independent of mission duration.
For a seven-person crew on an
eighteen-day mission, replacing LiOH with solid amine and making the necessary
h a r d w a r e changes reduces the effective mass of the CO2 removal subsystem by
189 kg (416 lb) [2].
System closure can be dramatically increased by recycling waste streams or
recovering useful substances from them.
In a fully closed system, the air
revitalization system (ARS) retains the CO2 removed from the habitat atmosphere
instead of discarding it and ultimately recovers 02 from the CO2. A closed water
recovery system (WRS) recycles wastewater streams including humidity condensate,
spent hygiene water, and urine to produce water suitable for ingestion and hygiene
use. The added mass of equipment required to recover 02 and to purify wastewater
is offset by the reduction of mass needed for storage. The point at which an openloop system's mass and volume become equal to a regenerative system's mass and
volume is determined by mission p a r a m e t e r s including crew size and mission
duration. The source of spacecraft power is another important parameter. The U.S.
space shuttle fleet relies on fuel cells to generate electricity. Since clean water is
generated as a byproduct, there is no potential benefit in adding a WRS to the space
shuttle ECLSS. Because ISS will use solar panels instead of fuel cells, it will not
458
have a built-in water supply and a WRS with a high degree of closure will be
necessary.
2.
SPACECRAFT APPLICATIONS
On earth or in space, adsorption processes can be useful in both air and water
purification. Three spacecraft life support operations that can employ adsorption
are trace contaminant control, CO2 removal, and potable water recovery. The
following sections provide historical perspectives for each application, together with
descriptions of hardware to be used onboard ISS and h a r d w a r e currently in use
onboard the Russian space station Mir. Possible future applications are also
described.
2.1. T r a c e c o n t a m i n a n t c o n t r o l
In the closed environment of a spacecraft or planetary base, trace quantities of
potentially harmful substances can be more deleterious to h u m a n health t h a n
similar levels would be in a less confined space. Crew exposure is constant r a t h e r
t h a n intermittent and in the future will last for weeks or even months. Atmospheric
trace contaminants may be organic or inorganic and may have biological or
nonbiological origins. Some of the compounds found in space shuttle air samples [3],
such as methane, can be identified as being products of crew metabolism. Others,
such as dichloromethane, are likely produced by equipment off-gassing. Still others,
such as 2-propanol, arise from evaporation of cleaning solvents.
Adsorption has played a role in trace contaminant control throughout the U.S.
h u m a n space flight program. Activated charcoal was used to remove contaminants
onboard Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft as well as on Skylab [4]. In these
programs, the primary goal was to control odors rather t h a n to remove specific
contaminants. The early Soviet space program also relied on activated charcoal for
contaminant control in its Soyuz and Salyut spacecraft [5].
More recently, a list of spacecraft maximum allowable concentrations (SMACs) for
some two hundred contaminants has been compiled [6]. The list includes a wide
variety of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, halocarbons, and inorganics. The
compilation of this list has driven a search for methods of removing or destroying
particular compounds and classes of compounds. For example, the air quality
requirements imposed on the space shuttle and Spacelab programs have resulted in
the addition of an ambient temperature catalytic oxidizer intended primarily for
destruction of CO [7].
Efforts to develop a trace contaminant control subsystem (TCCS) to remove
specific compounds as well as odors expected on a space station have been underway
since the early 1970s [8]. A contaminant load model was originally derived from
459
Apollo equipment off-gassing data and h u m a n metabolic studies. Based upon that
model, a multi-step contaminant removal process was proposed in which an
expendable activated charcoal bed would remove irreversibly adsorbed compounds, a
regenerable activated charcoal bed would remove more weakly adsorbed compounds,
and a catalytic oxidizer would convert reactive compounds to CO2, N2, and water
vapor. The contaminant load model was used to optimize the relative sizes and flow
rates for the charcoal beds, with the resulting design calling for a flow rate of
129 m3/hr (76 cfm) through the 14.5 kg (32 lb) expendable bed and a flow rate of
5.1 m3/hr (3 cfm) through the 2.2 kg (4.9 lb) regenerable bed.
As more complete and accurate information became available, the original
contaminant load model was refined and the TCCS design evolved [9-11]. The
design ultimately selected for use on ISS is represented schematically in Figure 1
[12]. It includes an activated charcoal bed, a catalytic oxidizer, and a LiOH bed.
The charcoal bed removes high molecular weight compounds that cannot be readily
desorbed and is therefore an expendable item. It also removes ammonia, which is a
potential catalyst poison. The bed contains 22.7 kg (50 lb) charcoal impregnated
with 10% (weight) phosphoric acid to enhance its ammonia removal capability.
catalytic
,eater
oxidizer '~1
recuperative
heatexchanger
~l activated - - - I ~ Q
charcoal bed
from cabi
''
I
~1 LiOHbed I
blower ~
return
bypass
Figure 1. ISS trace contaminant control subsystem schematic. The activated charcoal bed
removes high molecular weight organics and potential catalyst poisons. The catalytic oxidizer
destroys low molecular weight compounds that are not captured by the charcoal bed. The LiOH
bed removes acid gases produced by oxidation of halocarbons.
460
Cabin air flows through the bed at 15.3 m3/hr (9 cfm). After leaving the bed, the
process stream is split so that 4.6 m3/hr (2.7 cfm) is routed through a catalytic
oxidizer where low molecular weight compounds are destroyed and then through a
post-sorbent bed containing LiOH to remove acid gases produced in the oxidizer [7].
The remainder of the air bypasses the oxidizer and LiOH bed.
The trace contaminant control assembly used onboard Mir relies on both
regenerable and expendable sorbent beds upstream of a catalytic oxidizer. As is the
case with the ISS TCCS, the expendable bed is sized to remove high molecular
weight contaminants. The regenerable beds are used to remove more volatile (and
therefore more readily desorbed) compounds. The expendable bed contains 1.3 kg
(2.9 lb) activated charcoal and each of the regenerable beds contains approximately
7.4 kg (16.3 lb) activated charcoal. Air flow through the assembly is nominally
20 m3/hr (11.8 cfm). Each bed is regenerated after 20 days of operation by exposing
it to space vacuum for 60 minutes and maintaining bed temperature between 170 C
and 200 C (338 F and 392 F) for 90 minutes [13].
2.2. CO2 r e m o v a l
Regardless of whether it is open-loop or regenerative, an ECLSS must remove
CO2 from the habitat atmosphere. NASA has specified that the nominal CO2 partial
pressure shall be 5.0 mm Hg on the space shuttles [14] and that the maximum daily
average CO2 partial pressure shall be 5.3 mm Hg on the ISS [15]. These values are
roughly an order of magnitude higher than the typical atmospheric value of 0.23 mm
Hg [16]. In order to meet these specifications, the ECLSS must remove CO2
generated by the crew at a nominal rate of 1.0 kg/person/day (2.2 lb/person/day).
On Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo missions, CO2 was removed by LiOH. In these
systems, CO2 was absorbed by LiOH and then reacted to form Li2CO3:
CO2 + 2 LiOH
> Li2CO3 + H20
This reaction is essentially irreversible. As noted earlier, the mass of LiOH required
increases linearly with mission length and crew size. While acceptable for relatively
short missions, the mass penalty associated with expendable LiOH canisters was
unacceptably large for the longer Skylab missions of the 1970s. For those missions,
CO2 was reversibly adsorbed on zeolite material.
The Skylab CO2 removal subsystem included two canisters, each containing
molecular sieve 13X for dehumidification and 5A for C02 removal. Air entering the
adsorbing canister contacted the 13X material before the 5A material. Adsorption of
water lowered the dewpoint of the process air and reduced the competition between
water and CO2 for adsorption sites on the 5A material. The subsystem operated
cyclically so that as one bed adsorbed water vapor and CO2, the other was
regenerated by venting to space vacuum [17].
461
The loss of water by the Skylab subsystem is clearly a disadvantage for systems
driven toward loop closure. A design for a "water-save" process was proposed even
before the Skylab missions [17]. In this configuration, the 13X material in the
sorption beds would be replaced with separate desiccant beds containing silica gel.
Space vacuum would no longer be used to recover water from the saturated
desiccant material; instead, the warm, dry process air leaving the adsorbing 5A bed
would be used to strip the water from the desiccant bed before being returned to the
cabin. This concept ultimately evolved into the four-bed molecular sieve (4BMS)
subsystem that will be used onboard ISS. A schematic representation of the 4BMS
is shown in Figure 2.
As was true on Skylab, the ISS subsystem operates continuously and works in a
cyclic fashion so that as one sorbent bed adsorbs CO2, the other bed is regenerated.
Similarly, as one desiccant bed removes water from the saturated air entering the
subsystem, the other desiccant bed is regenerated by dry, CO2-depleted air and
water vapor is returned to the cabin. The desiccant beds contain zeolite 13X and
silica gel, while the CO2 sorbent beds contain zeolite 5A.
~ _ _ _ C02 sorbent
i. . . .
4
desiccant 1
process
air
II
I
I
I
~)-D~~
precooler I
blower
return
to cabin
desiccant3 ]~
()
Q-~
to vacuum
C02 sorbent2
Figure 2. ISS Four-bed molecular sieve subsystem schematic. Darker lines indicate process air
flow during half-cycle described in text: air enters desiccant bed 1, continues through CO2
sorbent bed 2, and exits through desiccant bed 3. CO2 sorbent bed 4 is desorbed to vacuum.
As shown in Figure 2, process air laden with water vapor and CO2 enters the
adsorbing desiccant bed (bed 1), where the water vapor is removed to protect the
downstream CO2 removal bed. Although CO2 is also adsorbed by zeolite 13X, it is
displaced by the advancing water front as the desiccant bed approaches saturation.
The dry air exiting the bed is drawn through the blower and into the precooler which
462
removes the heat introduced by the blower as well as the heat of adsorption
generated in the desiccant bed. The cool, CO2-1aden air passes into the adsorbing
CO2 sorbent bed (bed 2), which selectively removes the C02. The air is then directed
into the desorbing desiccant bed (bed 3), where the CO2-1ean air stream is
rehumidified before being returned to the cabin. During this half-cycle, the second
CO2 removal bed (bed 4) is regenerated by a combination pressure/thermal swing
method. The bed is pumped down at the beginning of the half-cycle and the residual
air is returned to the cabin. The pump is then turned off and embedded electrical
heaters are used to heat the bed. As temperature increases, the CO2 is desorbed
from the zeolite surface and returns to the gas phase, causing the pressure in the
bed to rise. The gas is removed from the desorbing bed by means of a vacuum pump
or by exposure to space vacuum. At the end of the half-cycle, the selector valves
change position, allowing the newly regenerated beds to become the adsorbing beds
and the saturated beds to become the desorbing beds so that the next half-cycle can
begin [18].
NASA has gained understanding of and experience with 4BMS operation through
extensive testing at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). A combination of
subsystem, integrated system, and life testing conducted at MSFC has provided
basic understanding of the subsystem and how its performance is affected by various
cabin and interface conditions [19-22]. During one series of tests, the 4BMS was
challenged by off-nominal flow rates, inlet C02 concentrations, and temperatures
[21]. The MSFC program also included a test of the ISS baseline ARS configuration
in 1996 [22].
Testing of the 4BMS has also been performed at NASA's Johnson Space Center.
In 1992 and 1994, subsystem tests were performed in which inlet CO2 concentration,
flow rate, and half-cycle duration were varied [18]. In addition, a 4BMS unit has
been used extensively in chamber tests at JSC. In 1996, the subsystem was part of
an integrated ARS that provided a breathable atmosphere for a four-person crew
living in a 250 m 3 (8824 ft 3) chamber for 30 days. In a second test in 1997, the unit
was part of a different integrated ARS that supported a four-person crew living in
the same chamber for 60 days. During both tests, the crew participated in normal
activities including exercise. The unit's CO2 removal rate varied with the chamber's
atmospheric CO2 concentration, which in turn varied with the level of crew activity.
The subsystem was able to maintain acceptable C02 levels in the chamber [23,24].
As noted above, the desiccant prevents competition between water and CO2 for
the 5A adsorption sites. In order to reduce hardware mass and process complexity,
several studies have explored the possibility of using hydrophobic sorbents for CO2
removal.
A method of producing amine-functionalized carbon molecular sieves
(CMS) was developed in the late 1980s [25]. The untreated CMS material exhibited
a high degree of hydrophobicity and the addition of the amine groups increased the
material's C02 capacity. The functionalized CMS material has since demonstrated
463
its ability to remove 80% of the CO2 present in a simulated spacesuit air stream
without initial dehumidification [26]. Competition between water and COe can also
be avoided through use of a material that allows (or even requires) the two
compounds to sorb cooperatively. The solid amine used in the extended duration
orbiter and described earlier is an example of such a material [2].
The Mir CO2 removal system also relies on a combination of desiccant beds and
CO2 sorbent beds. Detailed information on the materials used is not readily
available.
2.3. W a t e r r e c o v e r y
As h u m a n space missions have become longer and more complex, the demand for
water has increased. During the Mercury program in the early 1960s, the crew for
each mission consisted of a single astronaut and missions lasted from 15 minutes to
1.4 days. As NASA progressed through the Gemini and Apollo programs to Skylab
and the space shuttle, missions grew longer and included more astronauts. Water
supply requirements increased accordingly.
On Mercury missions, approximately 2.7 kg (6 lb) local municipal water was
supplied for the astronaut's ingestion on each mission [27]. Over the last thirty
years, NASA has developed increasingly stringent water quality standards [15].
Allowable concentrations are now specified for ionic species and for classes of organic
compounds. Comparison of NASA's standards with the Environmental Protection
Agency's (EPA) National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations [28]
shows that for species and compounds appearing in both documents NASA's
standards are equal to or stricter than the EPA's.
Although wastewater has not yet been recycled for use by crewmembers onboard
a U.S. spacecraft, this will occur on ISS. Wastewater streams will include urine,
spent hygiene water, and humidity condensate. These streams have distinctly
different compositions; urine typically contains high concentrations of solids and
ionic species, while spent hygiene water contains large organic molecules
contributed by soap and skin oils. Humidity condensate is a relatively clean stream,
but it contains volatile, water-soluble organics that can be difficult to remove. The
total organic carbon (TOC) concentration of the combined wastewater is expected to
be less t h a n 500 ppm.
Dozens of species will contribute to the TOC, with
concentrations ranging from less than 10 ppb to greater t h a n 10 ppm [29]. In
addition to neutral and charged organic species, a number of inorganic ions will be
present.
In spite of the power penalty associated with phase change operations, they are
attractive options for processing waste streams with high solids content. A vapor
compression distillation (VCD) unit has been chosen to process urine and flush
water onboard ISS. The urine distillate produced by the VCD will be mixed with the
hygiene waste and humidity condensate streams before being processed by a
464
combination of technologies, p r i m a r i l y ion exchange, adsorption, a n d catalytic
oxidation. These technologies will achieve complete recovery of the w a t e r in the
combined w a s t e s t r e a m . A series of ion exchange resins a n d a d s o r b e n t s p a c k a g e d in
Unibeds | will remove a p p r o x i m a t e l y 99% of ionic species a n d 95% of organic species
[30] p r e s e n t in the w a s t e w a t e r . Each of the Unibed | media h a s been chosen because
of its affinity for a specific group of c o n t a m i n a n t s . For example, a w e a k base anion
exchange resin is used to remove organic acids. The media c u r r e n t l y baselined for
use onboard ISS are shown in Figure 3 and described in Table 1.
influenvt~
200 cm3 MCV-RT
iiiiiii
!i !ii,!il
i
iiii! !i!,o
),;/.. .~i,:.i
:::'ii:;,i: !:",~ii:.....i 695 cma INN-77

275 cma IRN-68
630 cm3 580-26
1325 cm3 APA

*****+4 1325 cm3 XAD-4
~ ~ 4
............
tl ...... 200 cm3 IRN-150
effiuen
Figure 3. ISS development unit Unibed | media
465
Table 1
ISS Development Unit Unibed | Media
Sorbent
Description
Function
MCV-RT
(Umpqua
Research)
iodinated anion exchange

resin
introduces bactericidal
iodine into water
IRN-150
(Rohm and Haas)
equal exchange capacity

mix of strongly basic anion
exchange resin (IRN-77)
and strongly acidic cation
removes cations, anions,

and some organics
IRN-77
(Rohm and Haas)
strongly acidic cation exchange resin
removes ammonium and

other cations
IRA-68
(Rohm and Haas)
weakly basic anion exchange resin
removes organic acids
580-26
(Barneby Cheney)
GAC manufactured from

coconut shell
removes organics
APA
(Calgon)
GAC manufactured from

bituminous coal
removes organics
XAD-4
(Rohm and Haas)
polymeric adsorbent
removes low MW solutes
IRN-150
(Rohm and Haas)
equal exchange capacity

mix of strongly basic anion
and strongly acidic cation
removes cations, anions,

and some organics
note: sorbents are listed in direction of flow

Reference: [31]
466
The p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e of using adsorption for this application is the fact t h a t
complete w a t e r recovery can be achieved. Simplicity of operation is an additional
benefit. Due to the complexity associated with regenerating the various media in a
closed w a t e r recovery loop with limited mass and volume allocations, each Unibed |
m u s t be replaced when expended. In this case, the benefits associated with using a
variety of media outweigh the mass penalty associated with replacing the beds.
Since the selected media have different physical and chemical characteristics, the
beds can remove a wide range of contaminants; this gives the Unibeds | the ability to
handle variations in the feed s t r e a m with a high degree of reliability and robustness.
Since each Unibed | will contain identical media, commonality provides an additional
advantage.
The Mir hygiene w a t e r processor relies on a system similar to t h a t described
above for ISS. The specific n a t u r e and sequencing of the sorbents is proprietary
[32].
3.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
NASA is currently studying the possibility of constructing remote bases on the

l u n a r and M a r t i a n surfaces. When the destination of a space mission is a p l a n e t a r y
body, it m a y be more economical to process locally available resources into usable
products t h a n to carry all consumables from E a r t h or to d e m a n d complete closure of
the life support system. This aspect of mission design, called in situ resource
utilization (ISRU), could involve extensive use of adsorption processes to achieve
separations.
The rock and soil on both the moon and Mars are potential sources of oxygen,
minerals, and bulk material, but Mars also has a substantial atmosphere. As shown
in Table 2, the Mars atmosphere is made up primarily of carbon dioxide and
contains significant a m o u n t s of nitrogen and argon.
When s e p a r a t e d and
compressed, the atmospheric constituents can be used to supply m a n y essential
ingredients needed to support life. In addition to being essential for plants, carbon
dioxide can also be an i m p o r t a n t source of oxygen. While oxygen's use in life
support is obvious, its p r i m a r y use on a M a r t i a n base would be as an oxidant for
rockets launched from the planet's surface [34,35]. Nitrogen is needed to make up
for leakage of buffer gas from spacecraft and surface structures; argon m a y also be
used as a component of buffer gas and in electrical propulsion systems [36]. The
atmosphere is presently the only known source of water outside the polar areas, and
although it is quite dilute, it m a y have tremendous value both for life support and as
a source of hydrogen.
467
Table 2
Model Mars Atmospheric Composition and Conditions
Material
CO2
N2
Ar
02
CO
H20
Composition (vol. %)
95.3
2.7
1.6
0.13
0.07
0.03
pressure: 6 torr (range, 4.5 - 11.5 torr)

temperature: 200 - 270 K (range, 130 - 300 K)
Conditions and humidity are highly dependent on latitude and season.
Reference: [33]
The high costs of electrical power and launched mass give sharp focus to the
search for technologies that will perform the separations and compressions needed
to utilize the Martian atmosphere. Adsorption technologies are candidates for the
same reasons they have been chosen for space missions to date. In addition, it
appears possible to take advantage of the large Martian diurnal temperature cycle
(70 K on average over much of the year at low latitudes) to effect adsorption
separations and compressions that use very little electrical power. Instead, the
processes operate as heat engines that take energy from the environment during the
relatively warm M a r t i a n day and dump it to the environment during the cold night.
Pressure-swing adsorption separations and compressions using the Mars diurnal
temperature cycle have been suggested for a variety of potentially important ISRU
applications and have been demonstrated in the laboratory [37]. F u r t h e r work in
this area could lead to a re-examination of the optimum degree of closure for a
surface ECLSS.
4.
SUMMARY
Throughout the history of the U.S. and Soviet (and now Russian) h u m a n
space flight programs, adsorption processes have played an important role in
controlling atmospheric contaminant concentrations. These processes are currently
used in Mir's water recovery, CO2 removal, and trace contaminant control
operations and are expected to play similar roles on ISS. Adsorption can also be
468
expected to play a significant role in ECLS systems on planetary bases, where
sorbents may be used to process habitat air or to recover useful substances from the
local environment.
5.
ACRONYMS
4BMS
ARS
CMS
ECLSS
EPA
ISRU
ISS
JSC
MSFC
NASA
SMAC
TCCS
TOC
VCD
WRS
four-bed molecular sieve

air revitalization system
carbon molecular sieve
environmental control and life support system
Environmental Protection Agency
in situ resource utilization
International Space Station
Johnson Space Center
Marshall Space Flight Center
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
spacecraft maximum allowable concentration
trace contaminant control subsystem
total organic carbon
vapor compression distillation
water recovery system
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s : The authors thank D. L. Carter, C. Finn, M. Kliss, J. Knox,

and J. Perry for their helpful comments on style and content.
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473
P o l y m e r - s u p p o r t e d p h o s p h o r u s - c o n t a i n i n g l i g a n d s for s e l e c t i v e m e t a l
ion complexation
K. P. Ripperger and S. D. Alexandratos
Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Tennessee 37996 USA
Groundwater contamination in the United States is a serious problem with an

estimated three million sites requiring remediation [1]. Heightened environmental
awareness, depletion of high grade ore reserves, and stricter legislation has
generated a strong interest in efficient hydrometallurgical processes [2]. Two
methods for the separation and recovery of metal ions from aqueous solutions are
solvent extraction with soluble complexants and ion exchange with crosslinked
polymer beads. While a wide variety of ligands has been developed for both
techniques, this review will focus on phosphorus-based ion exchange resins due to
their versatility, wide range of applicability, and environmental compatibility.
1.
P H O S P H O R U S - B A S E D COMPLEXANTS IN S O L V E N T EXTRACTION
In solvent extraction one or more substrates (either ionic or molecular) is

transferred from an aqueous phase to a liquid organic phase. The extractant is the
liquid organic phase into which the targeted substrate is separated; it is composed
of the complexant or extracting agent (defined as the compound responsible for
complexation of the substrate) either alone or with a solvent (also known as the
diluent). Several terms are used to describe the effectiveness of the extraction
system. The distribution coefficient, D, is the ratio of the concentration of the
targeted substrate in the organic phase to the concentration in the aqueous phase.
The ratio of distribution coefficients or equilibrium constants of two substrates
under identical reaction conditions is referred to as the separation factor. The
stability constant quantifies the strength of the ligand-substrate complex [3].
Because complexation occurs at the aqueous/organic interface, vigorous mixing of
the two layers is required to provide adequate contact of the two phases [3]. The
advantages to solvent extraction include high throughput and the numerous
complexants that have been developed for many different separations [1].
Disadvantages include complexant loss through dissolution and entrainment by
third layer formation resulting from incomplete separation of the phases. This
additional phase is due to precipitates, also referred to as cruds, or the formation of
474
inseparable microdroplets during the contact period. These emulsions can be very
tenacious and will not separate after hours of centrifugation [2,4].
The choice of ligand is crucial to the success of metal ion separations. Phosphorus
ligands demonstrate a high level of selectivity and are widely used commercially for
extraction of transition metals, lanthanides and actinides [5,6]. These complexants
have a high metal ion loading capacity, are (for the most part) relatively
inexpensive, allow for stripping of the metal ion after separation, have suitable rates
for extraction and stripping, and are stable in most reaction conditions [2]. The
organophosphorus acids, esters, and oxides are thus a popular group of compounds
for solvent extraction applications. The phosphoryl moiety may be combined with
other functional groups, including carbonyls and amines, to yield bifunctional
extractants [6-11]. Complexation with these compounds may or may not involve
chelation [9,10]. Phosphorus ligands can complex metal ions through coordination
or ion exchange [5]. Choice of an appropriate organic solvent is important because
it influences how much of the metal is complexed into the organic phase and the
number of ligands in the ligand/metal complex [8,12-14]. Complexants should have
low solubility in the aqueous phase, be chemically stable and not form complexes
with other components of the aqueous phase which are more stable than the
complexes formed with the targeted metal ion [2]. If the extractant is too soluble in
the aqueous phase, poor separation and recovery can result [15].
1.1. M i x e d e x t r a c t a n t s y s t e m s
Combinations of acidic and coordinating extracting agents are used to increase

metal ion uptake. Synergism is observed if an increased extracting power results
that is greater than the sum of the extracting abilities of the individual reagents [5].
Synergic systems containing phosphoric acids, phosphonates, phosphine oxides,
hydroxyoximes, 8-hydroxyquinoline, and diamines have been prepared [5,16-18].
The di(ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid (DEHPA)/8-hydroxyquinoline system allows for
the extraction of lanthanides from phosphoric acid [16]. A combination of DEHPA
and 5,8-diethyl-7-hydroxy-6-dodecane oxime (LIX63) displays synergism in the
extraction of Cu(II) [17]. The D EHPA/tributyl phosphate (TBP) system is useful for
extraction of lanthanides and actinides. The behavior of this system is dependent
on the organic solvent, temperature and ratio of the reagents [18]. If the ratio of
phosphate to acid is too high, hydrogen bonding between the two compounds
decreases the concentration of the free ligand and a decrease in the distribution
coefficient is observed [5]. Third phase formation is possible with phosphine
oxide/phosphoric acid combinations [18]. Not all extracting agent combinations
display synergism. When di-(2,4,4-trimethypentyl)phosphinic acid (DTMPPA) is
combined with carbamoylmethylphosphine oxide or a diphosphine dioxide,
lanthanide uptake is less than that observed for either of the individual compounds.
When steric crowding is decreased using tri-n-octyl phosphine oxide, the distribution
coefficient increases but with lowered selectivity [19]. Various water soluble
diamines have been used to increase the extraction of U(VI) by D EHPA. The
increased hydrophobicity of the extracted complex increases the distribution
coefficient of the metal ion [20].
475
2.
ORGANIC P O L Y M E R - S U P P O R T E D R E A G E N T S
Soluble phosphorus-based compounds are found to be versatile metal ion

complexants with a wide-ranging applicability. It may thus be expected that
combining these important ligands with the advantages inherent to using
crosslinked polymers for ionic separations can result in the development of new ionselective polymer-supported reagents.
In applying polymer-supported reagents to metal ion separation processes, it is
obvious that extractant loss is eliminated because the ligand is covalently bound to
the polymer. Both batch and continuous processes are possible. After the polymer
is loaded with the targeted metal ion, the metal is recovered by contacting the resin
with a stripping agent. Because the volume of the stripping agent is much less than
the volume of the original aqueous solution, polymeric reagents are ideal for preconcentration applications [21].
An understanding of polymeric ligand-metal ion chemistry, the complexation
kinetics, and the physical properties of the polymer support is important to the
design of a successful process [21]. Cross-linked copolymers are preferred because
they are insoluble and easily separated from the aqueous phase [21]. Divinylbenzene
(DVB) is a common crosslinking agent. Linear polymers, which may be soluble in
the metal ion solution, are used less frequently due to the complexity of polymer
recovery. The polymer support must allow functionalization with the chosen ligand
or else be prepared from functionalized monomers. It should also be physically
stable and chemically inert in the aqueous solution. Because of their physical and
chemical stability, polystyrene and poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) supports are
frequently used. Other supports include acrylic polymers and poly(vinyl chloride)
[21,22].
The behavior of the polymer-supported reagent is dependent on several
parameters including matrix rigidity, particle size and resin morphology [23].
Macroporous (or macroreticular, MR) polymers allow greater accessibility into the
matrix although the volume capacity of the ligand is diminished [23]. Microporous
(or gel) polymers must swell to maximize accessibility. In columns, however,
swelling of the polymer can disrupt the uniformity of the packing unless precautions
are taken [24].
The synthesis and complexation behavior of various organophosphorus polymersupported reagents is described below. They are separated into classes based on the
type of ligand.
2.1. P h o s p h o r i c a c i d r e s i n s
Polymer supported phosphoric acids are prepared by the phosphorylation of

poly(vinylbenzyl chloride), poly(glycidyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl chloride) or
poly(vinyl alcohol) with either phosphoric acid or phosphorus oxychloride (Figure 1)
[22,25-27]. The polymers can also be synthesized via polymerization of the vinyl
phosphoric acid monomer (Figure 2) [26]. The polymer-supported reagents complex
a variety of metal ions including Cu(II), Zn(II), Ni(II), Ag(I), Cd(II), Fe(III), U(VI)
and Al(III) [22,25-27].
476
OH
CI--P-C1
II
0
HO-P-OH
II
0
Figure 1. Phosphorylation of poly(vinyl alcohol).
O-P-OEt
O-P-OEt
I
CI
O
0 -P-OEt
I
CI
OH
Figure 2. Synthesis of a phosphoric acid resin via a functionalized monomer.
2.2.
Phosphonic
acid/aminophosphonic
acid/phosphonate
resins
P o l y s t y r e n e a n d p o l y ( v i n y l b e n z y l chloride) r e s i n s are f u n c t i o n a l i z e d via t h e

F r i e d e l - C r a f t s reaction w i t h PC1JA1C13 to yield immobilized p h o s p h o n i c acid ligands
a f t e r h y d r o l y s i s a n d nitric acid o x i d a t i o n ( F i g u r e 3) [28,29]. P o l y ( v i n y l b e n z y l
--(- C H-~CH --)-1
-(-- C Hz,CH -),-
--(CHIC H ---)-
/P\
HO-P =O
I
OH
CI
--(--C H;CH --)--
CI
~ - CH:,C H -)'
--(- C H:,CH -)-"
CI:P
HO - P
CHiCI
CH21
CI--P-C1
C1
CI
OH
CH2
HO-P =O
OH
Figure 3. Synthesis of phosphonic acid resins via the Friedel-Crafts reaction.
477
chloride) functionalization leads to both phosphonic and methylenephosphonic
ligands [30].
Methylenephosphonic acid ligands are produced exclusively via the Arbuzov
reaction on poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) (Figure 4) [31].
O
9
CHuP-OEt
I
OEt
O
-~
H2
-OH
OH
Figure 4. Synthesis of phosphonic acid resin via the Arbuzov reaction.
Phosphonic acid resins have demonstrated high metal ion uptake and selectivity
toward Yb(III), Fe(III), Hg(II), U(VI), Ag(I), and Mn(II) ions [29,32]. Polymer
supported phosphonic acids have been used in the separation of Mo(VI) from U(VI)
after both metals are loaded on the resin: elution with sodium acetate removes the
Mo(VI) and leaves the U(VI) on the polymer [33].
Alkylphosphonate resins have been prepared from poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) via
the Friedel-Crafts reaction with PC1JA1C13 followed by reaction with ethanol in a
toluene solution (Figure 5) [34]. The resins coordinate metal ions and can have
greater metal uptake t h a n the acid resin given that the phosphoryl moiety of the
diester is more basic due to the electron donating ability of the alkyl groups. The
diester resin is a better complexing agent for Au(I) from alkaline cyanide solution
[34]. The metal is extracted as the Au(CN)2- complex through coordination rather
than ion-exchange [35]. Distribution coefficients can be lower, however, with
phosphonate diester resins relative to the monester analogues (Table 1) [34]. The
monoester ligand may therefore be more useful because it allows for ionic
coordination with greater accessibility.
c1
i
o
OR
R = H, O E t
Figure 5. Synthesis of the phosphonate resin.
478
Table 1
Distribution coefficients for Ag(I) and Hg(II) from 1N HNOd3N NaNOa by sulfomc,
phosphonic, phosphonate monoester and phosphonate diester resins
M n+
SO3H
PO(OH)2
PO(OH)(OEt)
Ag(I)
Hg(II)
6.03
6.76
34.7
22.9
1230
144
PO(OEt)2
9.77
123
Poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) resins containing dialkyl-N,N-diethylcarbamoylmethyl

phosphonates have been prepared with the carbamoylmethyl phosphonate (CMP)
moiety attached to the polymer through the carbon alpha to the phosphoryl and
carbonyl groups (Figure 6). The resins, like the small molecule analogues, complex
lanthanide ions; however, whereas the soluble CMPs show an increase in the
distribution coefficients as the aqueous phase acidity increase, the polymersupported reagents show the opposite trend [36].
NEt2
O ~C NEt2
O.. C,
CH2-CI
"C\
//
C H 2__C
/P
OEt
O
/
"OEt
OEt
OEt
Figure 6. Immobilization of CMP on poly(vinylbenzyl chloride).
CH2-NH 2 +
R 1=
R,C(O)R 2
H, aryl, alkyl
R 2 = H, aryl, alkyl
e l
C HsN =C \
R2
1
O
R 2 OH
Figure 7. Synthesis of the aminophosphonic acid resin.
Aminophosphonic acid resins have been synthesized by functionalization of

vinylbenzylamine with a ketone or aldehyde and phosphorus acid (Figure 7).
479
An a-amino-benzylphosphonic acid resin has been prepared (Figure 8). Resins
crosslinked with 2% DVB have been used for the complexation of calcium; the acid
resin performs somewhat better than the analogous ester resin (Table 2). Similar
polymers have been prepared with a pyridyl rather than a phenyl ring (Figure 9).
They also complex calcium ions, although the difference in uptake between the acid
and ester resins is less significant. The pyridyl resins also demonstrate an affinity
for Co(II) (Table 2). The metal ions are stripped with 6M HC1 with 85% metal
recovery [37]. Poly(aminophosphonic acid) has been used to selectively complex
various metal ions including Pb(II), Mn(II), Mg(II), Zn(II), Ni(II), Fe(III), Cu(II),
Co(II) and Ca(II) from solutions containing alkali metal salts (Figure 10).
Regeneration of the resin with 6 N HC1 allows twenty load/strip cycles without a
decrease in metal uptake or selectivity [24].
CH2-NH C H - P - O H
CH2-NH CH-P-OH
OH
OH
Figure 8. a-aminobenzylphosphonic acid

resin.
Figure 9. a-aminopyridylphosphonic
acid resin.
Table 2
Metal uptake of a-aminobenzylphosphonic acid resins
Resin
Ca 2+ (mmol/g)
Co2+(mmol/g)
0.67
0.33
0.65
0.80
0.00
0.00
0.59
0.26
a-aminobenzylphosphonic acid
a-aminobenzylphosphonate
a-aminopyridylphosphonic acid
a-aminopyridylphosphonate
0
CH2-NH CH-2PI - O H
OH
Figure 10. a-aminophosphonic acid resin.
480
2.3.
Phosphinic
acid resins
Resins with primary and secondary phosphinic acid ligands are synthesized via
a Friedel-Crafts reaction on polystyrene using PC1JA1C13 followed by hydrolysis
(Figure 11) [38]. The polymer shows excellent metal ion uptake and selectivity over
sodium ions (Table 3). The metals evaluated include Zn(II), Mn(II), Fe(III), U(VI),
Th(IV), Am(III), Pu(IV) and various lanthanides [30-32,39]. A plot of log D
(distribution coefficient) versus pH has a slope equal to the charge of the exchanging
ion if ion exchange is the only complexation mechanism [40]. Extraction of Fe(III),
U(VI), and Th(IV) is only slightly dependent on pH [32,39,41]. This indicates a
coordinative mechanism to the extractions, probably through an entropy-driven
coordination [42]. Phosphinic acid polymers have better lanthanide uptake than
phosphonic acid polymers. The percent Eu(III) and Yb(III) complexed by the
phosphinic acid resin is 70% and 82.5%, respectively, from 0.5 N HC1 while the
amounts complexed are 25% and 50%, respectively, for the phosphonic acid resin
[30].
0
P -Cl
I
-~
P -OH
I
C1
Figure 11. Synthesis of phosphinic acid resin.
Table 3
Distribution coefficients at equilibrium from 1 N HNOJ
2.4.
3 N NAN03
solutions
Acid Resin
Fe(III)
Mn(II)
Zn(II)
Co(II)
Phosphinic
Pho spho nic
Sulfonic
14100.
4570.
5.75
4.67
0.98
4.36
1.58
0.58
3.02
I. 70
0.72
2.39
Phosphine
sulfide resins/quaternary
phosphonium
resins
A phosphine sulfide resin has been prepared for the separation of noble metals
from aqueous media [43]. The polymer-supported reagent is prepared by reacting
diethyl phosphonate with isobutylmagnesium chloride, followed by the addition of
cross-linked poly(vinylbenzyl chloride). The polymer-supported phosphonate is
converted to the phosphine sulfide with phosphorus pentasulfide (Figure 12). The
resin complexes both Au(III) (present as
AuCl~) and Pd(II) (present as
481
H;--CI
~_
CiMgP(O)(iBu)2 ~
O
H~P-iBu
" "
S
CHuP-iBu
I
,,
iBu
iBu
Figure 12. Synthesis of phosphine sulfide resin.
PdCI(SCN)2-), although it has a greater capacity for the latter (0.59 vs. 0.70
mequiv/g, respectively). The resin is selective toward both Pd(II) and Au(III) when
evaluated individually in the presence of Pb, Ni and Cu(II) [43].
Complexation of noble metals by phosphines in HC1 solutions occurs via ion-pair
formation between the phosphonium ion and the negatively charged noble metal
chloride complex [44]. A quaternary phosphonium chloride ion-exchange resin has
been prepared by reacting cross-linked poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) with tris(2,6dimethoxyphenyl) phosphine (Figure 13). The resin, evaluated with Au(III), Cu(II),
Fe(III) and Pt(IV) in HC1, has low uptake of Cu(II) and Fe(III) but loading capacities
of 0.24 and 0.30 mequiv/g for Au(III) and Pt(IV), respectively. The selectivity of the
resin allows complete separation of Au(III) and Cu(II). Elution with 0.1 N NH4C1
/ 0.5 N NH3 yields 17% Au(III) recovery [44].
CH~O
~CH2--C!
+ P--(~
cl+CH~O
_~
)3
" ~CHzP--(
CH3O
)3
CH30
Figure 13. Synthesis of phosphonium chloride resin.
2.5. D u a l m e c h a n i s m b i f u n c t i o n a l p o l y m e r s
The synergistic extraction of metal ions observed in solvent extraction chemistry
when complexants capable of ion exchange are coupled with those capable of
coordination, led to the development of a new category of polymer-supported
reagents for metal ion separations. Dual mechanism bifunctional polymers
(DMBPs) are functionalized with two different types of ligands which operate via
two different mechanisms: one ligand, operating via ion exchange, brings metal ions
into the polymer matrix in a relatively non-selective manner while the second
ligand reacts by different mechanisms with the targeted metal ion. It is this second
482
ligand that is responsible for the observed selectivity and defines each of the three
classes of DMBPs [28].
Class I DMBP resins selectively sorb metal ions via a redox reaction. The resin
functionalized with primary and secondary phosphinic acid groups is an example.
It is prepared by reacting cross-linked polystyrene with PC13 in the presence of A1C13
followed by hydrolysis (Figure 14) [28]. Ion-exchange through the P-O-H ligand
allows access of the metal ions into the matrix where they are reduced through the
P-H bond of the primary phosphinic acid. Metals with standard reduction potentials
greater than 0.30 volt, including Ag(I) and Hg(II), can be reduced. Evidence for the
reduction of Hg(II) includes the appearance of liquid mercury in the vial. The resin
extracts significantly more Hg(II) and Ag(I) than the phosphonic acid resin; the
results are compared in Table 4 [28].
Table 4
Percent Hg(II) and Ag(I) sorbed from aqueous solutions by 2% DVB phosphorus acid
resins at constant (4 N NO;) ionic strength
Percent Hg(II) Sorbed
Initial ratio
(mequiv M n
/ acid ligand)
Percent Ag(I) Sorbed
Phosphinic
Acid
Phosphonic
Acid
Phosphinic
Acid
Phosphonic
Acid
99.8
99.8
69.4
60.8
84.7
69.0
52.5
45.8
70.1
75.2
68.5
64.8
30.4
36.0
29.9
26.9
0.10
0.50
1.0
1.5
O
Pl- C I
I,
//
P -C1
Figure 14. Synthesis of phosphinic acid class I DMBP.
P\
OH
483
Class II DMBP resins selectively complex metal ions through coordination. An
example is a resin functionalized with phosphorus monoester and diester ligands.
The resin is prepared by reacting cross-linked poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) with PC13
in the presence of A1C13 followed by reaction with an ethanol/water solution (Figure
15) [45]. The resin has been used to complex a variety of metal ions including,
Hg(II), Ag(I) and Fe(III). The bifunctional resin has a greater Ag(I) uptake than
diester and monoester resins (Table 5). The resin also has a greater Ag(I) uptake
than a mixed bed containing both monoester and diester resins [45].
C!
I
0
II
II
-OH
CH~P H
CI
H~CI
OH
H--CI
Figure 15. Synthesis of phosphonate acid / ester class II DMBP.
Table 5
Ag(I) distribution coefficients from nitric acid solutions
Resin
Class II DMBP
Monoester Resin
Diester Resin
Mixed Bed (Mono+ Diester)
4 N HN03
2924
439
463
630
2 N HN03
2594
680
373
481
Class III DMBP resins selectively remove metal ions through a precipitation
reaction. A representative resin contains phosphonic acid and quaternary
ammonium chloride ligands. The resin is prepared by reacting cross-linked
poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) with PC13 in the presence of A1C13 at a temperature that
allows for partial functionalization. After hydrolysis, the resin is reacted with a
trialkylamine (Figure 16). With chloride as the counterion for the trialkylammonium
ligand, the DMBP can remove Ag(I) from solution by precipitation as silver chloride.
The mechanism probably entails initial ion exchange by the phosphonic acid ligand
followed by the silver cation / chloride anion reaction. The results in Table 6
illustrate the improved Ag(I) uptake of the tributyl ammonium salt/phosphonic acid
484
c1
I~-Ci
Ci
CH-Ci
H~Pl
CH -CI
H 2-
"
"
~
"
"
CHuPIII- O E t
OEt
P,
-
CI
Cl
\
OEt
Figure 16. Synthesis of the quaternary amine/phosphonic acid class III DMBP.
Table 6
Percent Ag(I) sorbed from solution with a class III DMBP at a 5 min contact time
Resin
Percent Ag(I) Sorbed
Monofunctional Phosphonic acid

Monofunctional Quat Amine (C1-)
DMBP Quat Amine (C1-)/Phosph Acid
31.1
17.3
57.7
resin relative to the monofunctional phosphonic acid and tributyl ammonium salt
resins at a 5 min contact time [46].
2.6.
Diphosphonic
acid
polymers
Crosslinked polymers with the diphosphonic acid ligand incorporated into the
polymer backbone have been synthesized by polymerizing tetraethylvinylidene
diphosphonate (Et4VDPA), styrene, acrylonitrile and divinylbenzene. Beads are
prepared with 96.4% incorporation of the diphosphonate monomer. The resin is
sulfonated to yield a polymer with sulfonic acid, carboxylic acid, and diphosphonic
acid ligands (Figure 17) [47]. The sulfonic acid maximizes ionic accessibility to the
selective diphosphonic acid ligand [47,48].
The diphosphonic acid resin, available as Diphonix | from EiChrom Industries,
has been used to extract U(VI), Pu(IV), Np(IV), Th(IV), Am(III), Eu(III), and a
variety of transition metals [47-49]. The distribution coefficients obtained for the
extraction of U(VI), Pu(IV), and Am(III), as well as those of an analogous
monophosphonic acid and the monofunctional sulfonic acid resins, are listed in Table
7 and illustrate the higher uptake possible with Diphonix [48]. The dual
access/recognition mechanism allows faster uptake than the monofunctional
diphosphonic acid resin. The distribution coefficients of the bifunctional and
monofunctional resins for the extraction of Eu(III) at a 0.5 h contact time are
485
c o m p a r e d in T a b l e 8 a n d i n d i c a t e a far g r e a t e r r a t e of c o m p l e x a t i o n by Diphonix
[47].
EtO OEt
P=O
/
--~
EtO
+ -=k
/Px-=-O
OEt
CN
EtO
HO
I
HO
I OH
OH
~ X"l
I
EtO
I OEt
OEt
fi ~'1
~-
~_.H
SO-2OH
Figure 17. Synthesis of Diphonix |
Table 7
D i s t r i b u t i o n coefficients of Am(III), U(VI), a n d Pu(IV) by D i p h o n i x |
acid, a n d sulfonic acid r e s i n s
Resin
Diphonix |
Diphonix |
Diphonix |
P h o s p h o n i c Acid
Sulfonic Acid
Sulfonic Acid
Sulfonic Acid
Metal
0.10 N HNO3
U
Pu
Am
U
Pu
Am
U
Pu
Am
6.5 x
3.0 x
2.0 x
1.6 x
1.5 x
2.7 x
9.3 x
>104
3.8 x
0.10 N HNO3 / 4 N NaNO3
10 5
10 4
10 6
10 4
10 4
10 4
10 3
2.2
2.9
5.6
2.9
1.3
2.4
2.9
2.8
4.9
10 ~
Table 8
P e r c e n t Eu(III) c o m p l e x e d from 1 N HNO3 a t a 0.5 h c o n t a c t t i m e
Resin
Diphonix |
M o n o f u n c t i o n a l D i p h o s p h o n i c Acid
Sulfonic Acid
phosphonic
% Complexed
98.3
32.8
44.9
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
10 4
10 3
10 3
10 3
10 2
10
10 2
102
10
486
Additionally, Diphonix complexes metal ions from high acid concentrations
because of its chelating ability through the diphosphoryl ligand (Table 9) [49].
Water-soluble diphosphonic acids, including l-hydroxy-ethane-l,l-diphosphonic acid
(HEDPA), are effective stripping agents [48].
Table 9
Distribution coefficients of Fe(III) and Cr(III) from 0.10, 1.0, and 10 N HNOa
Resin
Diphonix |
Phosphonic
Sulfonic
0.10 N
Fe(III)
1.0 N
10 N
1.2 x 10 5
6.6 x 104
5.0 x 104
2.4 x 10 5
2.3 x 103
1.3 x 103
2.4 x 10 4
1.1 x 103
1.2 x 102
0.10 N
Cr(III)
1.0 N
10 N
2.8 x 10 3
2.5 x 103
2.3 x 103
8.2 x 101
1.6 x 101
1.9 x 102
3.6 x 10 3
1.1 x 101
6.4
Diphosphonic acid ligands can also be immobilized on a cross-linked

poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) support. The resin is functionalized with the sodium salt
of tetraisopropyl methylene diphosphonate (Figure 18) followed by sulfonation to
yield a resin with diphosphonic and sulfonic acid ligands [50]. The percent
diphosphonate functionalization depends on the crosslink level and the ratio of
styrene (St) to vinylbenzyl chloride (VBC) because of the sensitivity of the reaction
to steric effects. Maximum functionalization is obtained with a 2:1 St/VBC ratio and
2% DVB crosslinking.
The bifunctional diphosphonic acid resin has faster complexation kinetics t h a n
the analogous monofunctional resin (Table 10) [50]. The 2% DVB crosslinked resin
with a St/VBC ratio of 2:1 has a Eu(III) uptake in 1 N HNO3 comparable to
Diphonix | (Table 10) [47,50].
iPrO
OiPr
iPrO
P =0
+ NaCH
'
~
OiPr
P =0
CH-
P =O
/
iPrO
P =O
I \
OiPr
iPrO
Figure 18. Synthesis of the diphosphonic acid resin from poly(vinylbenzyl chloride).
OiPr
487
Table 10
Percent Eu(III) complexed from nitrate solutions by 2% DVB styrene/VBC (2:1) gel
resin
Resin
Monofunct. Diphosph.
Bifunct. Diphosph.
Diphonix *
0.5 h contact time

1 N HNOa 1 N HNOa/0.4 N
NaNOa
25.1
27.8
93.0
95.1
98.3
24 h contact time
1 N HNOa 1 N HNOa/0.4 N
NaNOa
86.0
86.7
92.3
98.1
2.7. T e m p l a t e p o l y m e r s
Template polymers have been prepared using organophosphorus ligands.
Template polymerization, also known as molecular imprinting, is used to produce
cross-linked polymers containing strategically arranged functional groups [51]. The
polymer is prepared by contacting a functionalized monomer with the imprint
molecule (the species to be extracted in subsequent applications) and polymerizing
with other monomers to yield a crosslinked network. Cavities with predetermined
structures remain after the imprint molecule is removed. A high degree of
crosslinking is required to keep the polymer chains in a fixed arrangement [41].
Surface template polymerization, prepared in a water-oil emulsion, is ideal for metal
ion applications because it allows for water soluble imprint molecules (Figure 19)
[41,52-54]. The imprinted resin is used to selectively complex the targeted ion from
solutions containing several metals [52,53]. In a representative example with a
Cu(II)-imprinted resin prepared from copper-complexed methacrylic acid,
R - O , , OP \~
/
R-O
O
o
~'
o
"P"
O ,,\ , O - R
P\
/
-0
O-R
o
"M" "P"
M ,+
"~
R-O
R-O
" "P\ \
/
O
O-R
"M"
""
"P
,,
x
/
0
0
"O-R
o
"x/,..
Figure 19. Template polymerization.
_M,+~
d
,p:
o
o
_ \\p, x).,
488
competition studies were performed with Cu(II) and Zn(II), Cd(II), or Pb(II). The
resin demonstrated high selectivity toward Cu(II) (Table 11). Resins with a random
functional group configuration prepared without the presence of the imprint ion
during polymerization do not demonstrate copper selectivity (Table 11) [53]. It is
important to note, however, that the capacities of the resins are all measured in
terms of micromoles per gram: the need for a high cross-link level leads to a
diminished loading capacity.
Table 11
Competitive loading with Cu(II)-imprinted and non-imprinted resins from acetate
buffer solutions at pH 4.7 and a 2.5 h contact time
Resin
Imprint
Imprint
Im print
Random
Random
Random
M1
M2
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Cu (II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Zn(II)
Cd(II)
Pb (II)
Zn(II)
Cd(II)
Pb(II)
[M1]resin(gmol/g) [M2]resin(gmol/g)
46
49
45
11.9
13.2
6.2
1.4
0.70
2.8
3.1
4.4
12.6
2.8. Solvent i m p r e g n a t e d resins

Solvent impregnated resins (SIRs) were developed in order to combine the
versatility of solvent exchange with the environmental compatibility of polymersupported reagents. SIRs are prepared by sorbing soluble extractants into solid
supports [2]. This type of resin can blend the high distribution ratios and rapid
mass transfer of solvent extraction with the operational simplicity of immobilized
reagents [55]. A variety of supports have been used including lightly cross-linked
gel resins, crosslinked macroporous resins, cellulose, silicate, and polyurethane
foams [56,57]. The chosen support must not collapse during the impregnation
process to ensure good sorption into the matrix [58]. The complexing agent must be
a liquid or form a solution with an organic solvent and have very low solubility in
the aqueous matrix; the ligating properties of the extractant must remain intact
after sorption [58]. Levextrel resins are similar to solvent impregnated resins except
that the extractant is added to the monomer solution before polymerization. The
copolymer is formed around the extractant and the sorption step is no longer
necessary [2,58].
SIRs have been investigated for their metal ion uptake with a variety of organophosphorus extractants including diamyl amylphosphonate, tributyl phosphate
(TBP), 2-ethyhexylphosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (EHPNA), di-(2,4,4trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid (DTMPPA), di(2-ethylhexyl) hydrogen phosphate
(DEHPA), and di(2-ethylhexyl) dithio-phosphoric acid (DEHTPA) (Figure 20)
489
O
II
(CH~):CH CH:CH:--- P --O ~ CH2CH:CH(CH~):
-
C 6I-I13
I
O =P -- C 6I-II3
OH
I
I
CH~CH~CH(CH.~L
Diamyl amylphosphonate
H -C ~P
I
II
- O - C8H17
o-methyl-dihexylp h o s p h i n e oxide o'-hexyl-2e t h y l p h o s p h o n i c acid
GI~.
0
II
H9C4-- O-- P--O--C4H 9
II
H--C--CH;O-P--O--H
C~H~
CH~
O
I
HCsC--C,H ~
GH9
H
EHPNA
TBP
CH~
CIH3
0
I "
II
H~C- C--CH; C--CH~-P-- O--H
"
CH3
CH,
C2~
0
II
H - - C, - - C H :- O - P -] - O - - H
C~H~
0
I
H--C--CH,
CH~
Hs
H3C--C--CH ~
I
CH~
DTMPPA
C4H8
II
H2CI--O--P--O--CIH2I
CI4H8
C2H5
C2H5
H
DEHTPA
F i g u r e 20. E x t r a c t a n t s u s e d in s o l v e n t i m p r e g n a t e d r e s i n s .
DEHPA
490
[15,58-66]. Macroporous polystyrene/DVB is a common support. Diamyl
amylphosphonate resins have been used in the extraction of U(VI) from 6.1 N HC1.
Complete uptake is observed; there is no measureable radioactivity in the aqueous
solution after it is contacted with the resin. Three stripping cycles with 0.025 N HC1
permit essentially complete (>99%) recovery [15]. TBP- impregnated resins have
been used in the extraction of U(VI) from 3 N HNO3; rapid complexation kinetics are
observed (tim=6 min) [58]. Resins impregnated with DEHTPA have been used to
extract Cu(II) from HC1 solutions. Thiourea (0.526 N in 1 N HC1) was used to
regenerate the resin (76% Cu(II) recovery); the complexing ability of the
regenerated resin was maintained (log D values of 2.98 and 2.83 for the initial and
regenerated resins, respectively) [59]. The complexing properties of SIRs are often
described in terms of the equilibrium constant, Kex, because the distribution
coefficient is dependent on both the pH of the aqueous phase and the extractant
concentration in the resin, [HL]r. I~x is described by the following equation for a
divalent metal operating via ion exchange; q is the degree of aggregation of the
extractant and determines the structure of the extracted species.
[.+I =
Kex --D ([HL]!2+q))

The structure of the extracted species was determined from statistical analysis
of the experimental data or assumed to be the same as the solvent extraction system
[57,61,62].
Resins impregnated with O-methyl-dihexyl-phosphine-oxide O'-hexyl-2-ethyl
phosphoric acid have been used to complex Zn(II), Cd(II), and Cu(II) (Table 12); the
extractability of the ions increases with increasing pH [61]. Resins containing
DTMPPA have been used for the extraction of Zn(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) (Table 13).
Quantitative recovery of the metal ions is possible when the resin is eluted with
0.1 N HC1. Zn(II) can be separated from Cd(II) and Cu(II) due to the different pH
Table 12
Kex values for o-methyl-dihexyl-phosphine-oxide o'-hexyl-2-ethylphosphoric acid (HL)
SIRs; 2 h contact time
Metal in O.1 N NaNOa
Zn(II)
Zn(II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Cd(II)
Cd(II)
Extracted species
ZnLe (HL)
ZnL(NOa)
CuL(NOa)
CuL(NOa)(HL)
CdLz (HL)z
CdL(NOa)(HL)
Log Kex
-2.83
0.33
0.27
-0.49
-2.69
0.64
491
Table 13
Kex values for DTMPPA (HL) SIRs; 2 h contact time
Metal in 0.1 N NaNOa
Extracted species
Zn(II)
Zn(II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Cd(II)
ZnL2
ZnL2(HL) 2
CuL2
Cu2(HL)2
CdL2
Log K~x
-1.13
-0.67
-4.51
-3.11
-5.01
values required to strip each metal (> 3.1 for Zn(II), > 5.5 for Cu(II), > 6.0 for Cd(II))
[62]. D EHPA SIRs have been used to complex Zn(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), Co(II), Ni(II)
and Cd(II) (Table 14) [57,60,63-66]. Complexation is dependent on pH and improves
as the pH increases [60]. Separation of metals can be accomplished from aqueous
solutions of appropriate acidity. For example, Zn(II) can be separated from Cu(II)
in solutions with a pH of 2.50 due to the low Cu(II) affinity of the extractant [66].
EHPNA SIRs have been used in Co(II) and Ni(II) complexation although the Kex
values are lower t h a n D EHPA (Table 15) [63].
The complexation rate is directly related to the concentration of extractant in the
resin and the usefulness of a SIR depends on the amount of extractant lost during
complexation and stripping [58,62,65]. The distribution ratio of the extractant
between the organic phase and aqueous phase can be greater for SIRs than solvent
Table 14
Kex values for D EHPA (HL) SIRs
Metal
Zn(II)
Zn(II)
Zn(II)
Zn(II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Cd(II)
Cd(II)
Co(II)
Ni(II)
a20 h contact time
Extracted species
ZnL2 a
ZnL2(HL)2b
ZnL2(HL)2 c
ZnL2(HL)2 c
CuL2 a
CuL2 b
CuL2(HL)2 c
CuL2(HL)2 c
CdL2 b
CdL2(HL)a b
CoL2 a
NiL2 a
b2 contact time
Matrix
H20
0.1 N
0.1 N
0.5 N
H20
0.1 N
0.1 N
0.5 N
0.1 N
0.1 N
H20
H20
NaNO3
SO42.
SO42
NaNOa
SO42
SO42
NaNOa
NaNOa
c24 h contact time
Log Kex
-1.44
- 1.29
- 1.21
-1.77
-2.81
-3.23
-3.56
-4.01
-2.70
-3.10
-3.61
-3.62
492
Table 15
Kex values for EHPNA (HL) SIRs, H20 matrix, 24 h contact time
Metal
Extracted species
Log Kex
Co(II)
Ni(II)
CoL2
NiL2
-4.95
-5.34
Table 16
Distribution ratio of DTMPPA in polystyrene a and tolueneb; 0.05 N NaNO3
Medium
KD
Polystyrene
Toluene
1070
44.7
0.2 g resin/20 mL aqueous phase; 3 h contact time

b 0.01- 0.075 N DTMPPA in toluene; equal volumes of toluene and aqueous phase.
extractant systems because the complexant interacts with the polymer matrix (Table
16) [60,62]. Akita and Takeuchic report negligible DEHPA loss from the SIR with
aqueous HC1 (pH 2.50) elution; the resin was evaluated with a cyclic column
operation using 1 N HC1 as the stripping agent. The decrease in the total sorption
capacity was 7% at the fifth cycle. When the aqueous phase was changed to acetate
buffer with a pH of 4.50, a 25% decrease in the total sorption capacity was observed
at the third cycle due to greater extractant solubility [66]. The importance of
optimizing the solution phase conditions must thus not be overlooked when applying
SIRs to metal ion applications.
CONCLUSION
Phosphorus-based complexing agents have been critical to the development of
solvent extraction. Extension of the analogous ligands to polymer-supported
reagents will play an ever-increasing role in metal ion separation processes. Their
ability to complex metal ions through ion exchange and coordination, depending
upon the solution pH, is indicative of their versatility and continuing utility.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We gratefully acknowledge the support of our research by the United States
Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Division of Chemical Sciences,
Office of Basic Energy Sciences, through grant DE-FG05-86ER13591.
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497
A p p l i c a t i o n of t h e i o n - e x c h a n g e m e t h o d to r e m o v e m e t a l l i c i o n s f r o m
waters and sewages
Z. Hubicki a, A. Jakowicz a and A. Lodyga b
aDepartment of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria
Sklodowska University, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
Curie-
bFertilizers Research Institute, Putawy, Poland
Industries throughout the world are faced with the ever-increasing need to
reduce the heavy metal content of their discharge streams to acceptable levels.
Several methods are available to achieve this objective. Among these methods are
those involving the use of ion-exchange and adsorbent resins. This paper
indicates the types of resins available, some of the main principles involved, and
illustrates the use of a few such methods with specific examples. Particular
emphasis is placed on those methods which achieve selective removal of
relatively low levels of toxic or noble metal ions.
Owing to the ion-exchange method it is possible to remove all ions from the
solution or to separate one substance from another which allows for selective
removal of ionic impurities and complete deionization. Choice of one of the above
possibilities depends first of all, on the composition of the solution and the extent
of required impurities removal.
Used up plating baths and post-production solutions are sewages containing
large amounts of various ions. Such great concentration of contaminating metal
ions constitutes a serious threat for the natural environment. The ion-exchange
method proves to be effective in solution of this problem. Owing to it, the
contaminating ions are removed to such a degree that the used up bath or brine
can be applied again and sewages do not impose any t h r e a t for the natural
environment after the selective removal of the toxic ions [1-7].
Development and broader application of the ion-exchange method proved
possible when modern organic and inorganic ion-exchangers of suitably choosen
physicochemical properties were produced and used [5,8-14]. Main trends in the
development of conventional ion exchangers (polystyrenesulphonic cation
exchangers and strongly basic anion exchangers) referred to great ion-exchange
capacity achievement as well as improvement of chemical, thermal and
mechanical resistance. Better kinetic abilities of ionexchangers were obtained as
a result of macroporous ion exchangers production the seventies [10-13].
498
Rate of ion-exchange and level of concentrations of the purified salts are, as a
rule, much smaller compared with those of extraction. That requires a suitably
large size of industrial device and high operating costs which limits applicabili@
of ion-exchange processes in production of high quality materials and in selective
removal of toxic and noble metal ions from sewages. These inconveniences can be
avoided using various impregnants
(styrenedivinylbenzene copolymers
impregnated by means of liquid ion exchangers or extractants) [15-25]. However,
only the method worked out by the firm Bayer, Germany is applied. The
disadvantage of impregnants is too slow kinetics resulting from the limited
interfacial size and its poor wettability by aqueous solutions. The main drawback
is loss of the active substance during purification. Improvement of ion-exchange
capacity is possible by so called interpolimerization [10, 26]. Better results should
not be expected here. Ion-exchange capacity limitation caused the tendency to
improve ion-exchange selectivity achieved by the synthesis of some selective ion
exchangers characterized by differentiated affinity for definite ions or their
groups.
1.
F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G ION-EXCHANGE S E L E C T I V I T Y
Selectivity is the ability of choosing some ions rather than others. Ionexchange separations are based on selectivity is of significant importance for
predicting the course of ion-exchange reactions and their practical application.
The factors affecting the ion-exchange selectivity are, among others, charges of
ions being exchanged, types of functional groups as well as specific interactions in
the ion exchanger, composition of ion exchanger phase, crosslinking, temperature
and formation of complexes in the solution.
Functional groups of most commonly used strongly acidic cation exchangers
(SOa-) and strongly basic anion exchangers (-CH2-N(R1R2Ra) show poor
complex forming abilities owing to which there are observed ,,normal" affinity
series in which the factors responsible for the position of a given ion are its
charge, radius and hydration extent [10,12,13,27-30].
The affinity of polystyrenesulphonic cation exchangers for cations increases
with the increase of charge. In case of various cations of the same charge their
affinity for ion exchangers generally decreases with the increase of the hydrated
ion radius [10,12,13,27-30], e.g. for the polystyrenesulphonic cation exchanger
affinity of alkali and alkaline earth metals decreases in the series:
Cs + > Rb + > K + > Na + > Li +
Ba 2+ > Sr 2+ > Ca 2+ > Mg2 +
In case of strongly basic anion exchangers with quaternary ammonium groups,
the charge of anion exchanger affects the affinity of the anion exchanger as in the
case of polystyrenesulphonic cation exchangers. The affinity decreases in the
following order:
499
C104- > SCN- > I- > HSO4- > NO3- > Br- > CN- > NO2- > C1- > OH- > FIn case of ion exchangers of different functional groups the problem is more
complicated due to the interaction of counterions, with ion exchanger functional
groups resulting in formation of ion-pairs and even of covalent bonds. A typical
example is very strong affinity of the anion exchangers of the functional groups of
primary-, secondary- and tertiary amines for OH- ions contrary to the strongly
basic anion exchangers for which the OH- ion is situated almost in the end of the
series. The order of affinity of other ions for weakly basic anion exchangers is
analogous to strongly basic ion exchangers [10,28-31]. Carboxylic ion exchangers
are characterized by strong affinity for the H ion contrary to strongly acidic
cation exchangers [10,28-31]. On carboxylic ion exchangers the affinity series for
alkali and alkaline earth metals are as follows:
Li > Na > K > Rb Cs
Mg2 > Ca2+ > Sr 2 > Ba2+
that is contrary to those observed for polystyrenesulphonic cation exchangers.
Carboxylic ion exchangers are characterized by strong affinity for alkaline earth
metals and some transition elements which can be referred to the behaviour of
aliphatic or aromatic carboxylic acids forming sparingly soluble salts with these
ions.
The first resin of the complexing functional groups was synthesized by
Shogseid fifty years ago [32]. It was the ion exchanger with dipicrylamine built in
the matrix and exhibiting selectivity for potassium. Shogseid used this ion
exchanger to remove potassium from the sea water. Based on the solubility series
of dipicrylamine with alkali metals, one can expect that the ion exchanger of this
type should possess stronger affinity for rubidium and cesium ions.
At present there are known several scores of various ion exchangers with
complexing groups built in the matrix and exhibiting selectivity for various ions
or their groups. Table 1 includes well known and commonly applied both on
laboratory and commercial scales selective ion exchangers.
Table 1
Selective ion exchangers
Functional group type
Selective for ions
Alamine
Amidoxime
U(IV, VI) [34-45], Au(III), Ru(III),
Aminoguanidine
2-amine-4-ketothiazole- 3-acetate
Rh(III), Pd(II, IV), Pt(IV), Ir(III, IV),

Cu(II), Fe(III), Cd(II), Hg(II) [46-53]
Au(I) [64,65]
Ag(I), Hg(II) [66]
Cu(II) [33]
500
Table 1
Aminophosphonic
2-amine-4-ketothiazole-3-acetate
Anthranilate
Arsenazo
Arsenic
Chitosan
Chromotropic
Cysteine
Diphenylcarbazide
Diphenylcarbazone
1,8-dihydroxynaphtalene-0,0-diacetate
Dimethylglyoxime
Dipicrylamine
Dithiocarbamate
Dithizone
Fluorene
Formazane
Phosphine
Phosphone
Phosphate
Glyoxal-bis-2-mercaptoaniline
Guanidine
8-hydroxyquinoline
o-hydroxyphenylazobenzoate
Hydrazide
Hydroxamate
Imidazole
Selective for ions

Sc(III) [30,54], Th(IV) [30,33,55],
U(IV,VI) [30,33,56-58], Pb(II),Cu(II),
Zn(II), Fe(III) [59-60], Ga(III), In(III)
[62-63]
Ag(I), Hg(II) [66]
Cu(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Fe(II), Zn(II)
[67,68]
U(VI), Th(IV), Zr(IV), Hf(IV), Ln(III)
[33,69]
U(VI), Th(IV), Zr(IV), Hf(IV), Ln(III)
[30,33]
Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), Ga(III), Ln(III),
Nd(III), Eu(III) [70]
Ti(IV) [71], Fe(III), Cu(II), Zn(II)[33]
Ag(I), Pt(II), Au(III), Hg(II) [33]
Cr(VI) [72-75]
Ag(I), Hg(II) [76]
Zr(IV), Hf(IV) [77]
Ni(II) [78]
K(I) [32]
Hg(II), Ag(I), Cu(II), Se(IV), Cr(VI),
Pb(II) [5,33,79-85]
Au(III), Pt(II, IV), Pd(II), Ir(III, IV),
Ru(III), Rh(III), Ag(I), Hg(II) [86-88]
Sc(III) [89]
Pd(II), Ir(IV), Pt(II, IV), Au(III), Ag(I),
Hg(II), U(VI)[33,90]
Wh(IV), U(VI), Fe(III) [10,33,91]
Sc(III) [30,33,54], Th(IV), U(IV, VI)
[30,33,44,92,93], Zr(IV), Hf(IV) [94],
Fe(III), Zn(II)[30,33,95-97], Ga(III),
In(III) [30,33,62,97], Be(II)[30,33]
Wh(IV), U(VI) [30,33,98,99]
Hg(II) [100]
Pd(II), Pt(IV), Au(I) [33,64,65]
Cu(II), Fe(III), V(V) [33]
Be(II), AI(III), Fe(III) [33]
Ag(I), Hg(II) [33]
U(VI), Fe(III) [33,85,101-103]
Au(I) [104-106]
501
Table 1
Iminodiacetate
Crown or cryptands
8-mercaptoquinoline
Mercaptide
n-methylglucamine
Morine
Nitriltriacetate
r
Nitrosorezorcinole
Oxime
Piridinedicarboxylate
Porphyrine
Pyrocatechol-0,0-diacetate
Rhodamine
Salicylate
Sarcosinate
Tannine
Thiazoline
Thioglycolate
Thiophosphorate
Thiourea
Thionalide
Triazolethiol
2,4,6-triamine- 1,3,5-triazyne
Selective for ions

Cu(II), Pb(II), Ni(II) [10,30,33,107,110],
Cd(II) [30,33,60,107], Fe(III)
[10,30,33,62,107-111], Ln(III)
[30,33,107,112-114], Sc(III) [30,33,54],
Th(IV) [99], U(VI) [33,98,107], In(III),
Ga(III) [30,33,62,115-117], V(IV, V)
[118], Se(IV) [119]
K(I), Ba(II) [30,33,85]
Pd(II), Au(III), Ag(I) [30,33,85]
Ag(I), Hg(II), Au(III) [30,33,85]
B(III) [33]
Hf (IV), Zr(IV), Fe(III) [120]
Cu(II), Ln(III) [33]
Co(II) [33,107]
Fe(III), Cu(II), Co(II), Hg(II)[33]
Cu(II), Mo(VI) [33]
Cu(II), Ca(II)[33]
Ag(I), Cu(II), Co(II), Fe(II)[30,33,84]
Zr(IV), Cu(II) [121]
Ag(I), Au(III), Pd(II), Pt(IV) [122]
U(VI), Fe(III), Cu(II), Hg(II)
[10,33,107,123]
Cu(II) [33,107]
Ge(IV) [33]
Hg(II) [33,85]
Ag(I), Au(III), Hg(II), Bi(III), Sn(IV)
[30,33,85]
Hg(II), Pg(II), Cu(II)[33]
Ag(I), Au(III), Pt(II, IV), Pd(II), Ru(III),
Hg(II) [10,30,33,84,85,107,124],
Cd(II), Cu(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Zn(II)
[126], As(III, V) [127-128], Sb(III, V)
[129,130], Bi(III) [131], Pd(II) [125]
Hg(II), Ag(I), Cu(II), Cd(II)[132]
Cu(II), Hg(II), Cd(II), Ag(I), P(V), As(V),
Cr(VI) [33]
The detailed discussion of physicochemical properties and applications of

individual selective ion exchangers presented in Table 1 can be found in many
502
papers [5,8-11,29,30,32-132]. Of various well known chelating ion exchangers
only a few types are produced on the commercial scale. These ion exchangers are
included in Table 2.
Table 2
Main commercial selective ion exchangers
Type
Resin Name
Manufacturer
Amidoxime
Chelite N
Serva, Feinbiochemica GmbH and

Co., Germany
Rohm and Haas Company, France
Not available former USSR
Aminophosphonate
Dithiocarbamate
Hydroxyoxime
Iminodiacetate
Duolite ES-346
ANKF-2G
ANKF-3G
ANKF-221
AEF-1
AEF-2
AEF-3
Chelite P
Duolite ES-467
Duolite ES-469
Lewatit OC- 1060
Purolite S-940
Purolite S-950
Relite MAC-7
Wofatit ME-55
Nisso ALM-525
Dowex XF-4196
Amberlite IRC-718
ANKB-1
ANKB- 10
ANKB-35
ANKB-50
Chelex 100
Chelite C
Diaion CR- 10
Dowex A-1
Dowex XF-4045
Duolite ES-466
Lewatit TP-207
Lewatit TP-208
Serva Feibiochemica GmbH and

Co., Germany
Bayer, Germany
Purolite International Ltd.,
United Kingdom
Resindion, Italy
Bayer, Germany
Nippon Soda Co. Ltd, Japan
Dow Chemical Co., USA
Not available former USSR
Bio-Rad, USA; Merck, Germany

Serva Feibiochemica GmbH and
Co., Germany
Mitsubishi Chemical Industries
Ltd, Japan
Bayer, Germany
503
Table 2
Main commercial selective ion exchangers
Type
Resin Name
Muromac A- 1
Purolite S-930
Isothiouronium
Relite MAC-5
Unicellex UR- 10
Varion CH
Wofatit MC-50
Wofatit MC-59
Wofatit Y-66
Duolite ES-345
Ionac SR-3
Ionac SRXL
Lewatit TP-214
Monivex
Purolite S-920
Relite MAC-3
Srafion NMRR
Picolylamines
Poliethylenepolyamine
Polietylenepolyimine
Pyridine
Thiol
Dowex XF-4195
Dowex XF-43084
Diaion CR-20
Manufacturer
Muromachi, Japan
Purolite International Ltd., United
Kingdom
Resindion, Italy
Unitika Ltd, Japan
Nitrokemia Ipartelepek, Hungary
Bayer, Germany
Sybron Chemicals Incorporated,
USA
Bayer, Germany
Ayalon Water Conditioning
Company Ltd., Israel
Purolite International Ltd., U.K.
Residion, Italy
Ayalon Water Conditioning Ltd.,
Israel

Ltd., Japan
Sumichelate MC-10 Sumimoto Chemical Co., Ltd,
Japan
Diaion CR-40
Ltd, Japan
Sumimoto Chemical Co., Ltd,
Sumichelate CR-2
Japan
Serva Feinbiochemica GmbH and
Chelite S
Co., Germany
Rohm and Haas, France
Duolite ES-465
Imac TMR
Imac GT-73
The selective ion exchangers are produced in the form of granules, membranes,
discs, fibres, ion-exchange or ionited paper.
As a relatively small number of selective ion exchangers is available
commercially, many authors suggest modification of strongly basic anion
504
exchangers by means of aromatic chelating sulpho-derivative reagents like
Alizarin S [143-146] Arsenazo I [145], Arsenazo III [145], Beryllon II [145],
Bismuthon II [147], Bromopyrogallol Red [143-145], Chromazurol S [145],
Chromotrope 2R [148], Chromotropic Acid [144,145], Ferron [144,145], NitrosoR-salt [144,145,149], Pyrocatechol Violet [145], SPADNS [145], 5-Sulphosalicylic
acid [145], Tiron [145], Thoron [145], Xylenol Orange [145,150] etc. [151-156].
Complexing organic reagents used for modification transform the anion
exchanger into the selective ion exchanger. According to Brajter [143,144] the
modified anion exchanger can be characterized by greater selectivity for definite
ions or their groups than the corresponding ion exchanger with the analogous
functional group built into the matrix. In most cases the separation processes
carried out on these ion exchangers are of analytical (separation of micro or
miligram amounts, sorption of microgram amounts - trace analysis) or
physicochemical character.
2.
S E L E C T I V E REMOVAL OF ION I M P U R I T I E S
It is often sufficient to remove only one type of metal ions from the mixture of
impurities contained in sewages. Owing to the ion exchange it is possible to
replace undesirable ions with others which are harmless for the natural
environment.
2.1. Gold a n d p l a t i n u m m e t a l s
Noble metal recovery is a typical example for application of this method. The
main aim is total recovery of noble metals but not the reuse of the water which is
of less economic importance as the volume of the produced sewages is relatively
small. Some used up plating baths contain gold in the form of the anion complex
[Au(CN)2-]. Both strongly and weakly basic anion exchangers can be applied to
remove this anion from sewages [5,85,105,157]. To remove the complex
[Au(CN)2-] in the whole pH range there can be applied strongly basic anion
exchangers possessing quaternary ammonium groups:
(R4N+)2SO42- + 2[Au(CN)2]- ~
2R4N+[Au(CN)2]- + 3042-
(1)
The working exchange capacities strongly basic anion exchangers for the complex
[Au(CN)2-] are low and equal 55-110 g Au/dm 3 [5,85,105,157]. It is difficult to
strip the complex [Au(CN)2-] from the anion exchanger bed by means of alkaline
metal hydroxide solutions. Due to high prices of gold, the value of that adsorbed
on the anion exchanger exceeds the price of the ion exchanger, ion exchanger
combustion at 1000~ in order to recover metal is quite common.
Also the complex [Zn(CN)4] 2-, acidified thiourea solution or potassium
thiocyanate solution in an organic solvent, can be used for desorption of gold(I)
from the anion exchanger bed. The complex [Zn(CN)4] 2- characterized by stronger
505
affinity for the ion exchanger than [Au(CN)2]-is effective for gold recovery from
the anion exchanger bed. The regeneration process is as follows:
2R4N+[Au(CN)2] - + [Zn(CN)4]2 ~
(R4N+)2[Zn(CN)4]2- + 2[Au(CN)2]-
(2)
To remove gold from effluents cementation by means of e.g. lead can be used
[158]. The cementation process is as follows:
2Au[CS(NHD2]C1 + Pb ~
Pb[CS(NHD2]nC12 + 2Au
(3)
where most probably n equals 4.

For desorption of [Au(CN)2]-from the anion exchanger potassium thiocyanate
solutions in the water-organic solvent mixtures were used as eluents [159]. The
most frequently used mixtures are: water-DMF, water-dimethylacetamide,
water-acetone, water-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidine, water-DMSO, water-tetrahydrofurane, water-hexamethylphosphoramide. The 5 M KSCN solution in 50% v/v
DMF in water is the most frequently used eluent.
The sorption mechanism of the complex [Au(CN)2]- on the weakly basic anion
exchanger can be presented in the following way:
(R3NH+)2SO4 + 2[Au(CN)2]- ~
R3NH
- + SO42
(4)
Weakly basic anion exchangers are selective for [Au(CN)2]-, though sorption of
cyanide complexes of silver(I), copper(II), iron(II, III), nickel(II) and others can be
taken into account [5,85,105,157].
Applicability of some available weakly basic anion exchangers was examined.
It proved that the most effective weakly basic anion exchangers are those whose
pKa values of functional groups are from 9 to 11. These anion exchangers achieve
the maximal sorption of the complex [Au(CN)2]- in the pH range 7-9 which
allows for avoiding the problems connected with HCN removal. Regeneration of
the weakly basic anion exchanger with deposited gold(I) cyanide complexes is
carried out by means of diluted alkaline metal hydroxide solutions. The
regeneration process can be presented by means of the following equation:
(R3NH+)2SO4 + 2[Au(CN)2]- ~
R3NH+[Au(CN)2] - + 3042.
(5)
The two-column system was applied to remove gold from sewages containing
4-5 mg Au/dm 3 after the plating process [160]. In the first column there was the
carboxylic cation exchanger in the H form (Diaion WK-20) which was probably
used to remove other heavy metal ions and to decrease pH. In the second one
there was the weakly basic macroporous anion exchanger Lewatit MP-62 on
which the gold anion complex adsorbed. The NaCN alkaline solution was used for
regeneration of the anion exchanger bed. The regeneration process gave almost
100% gold recovery.
506
In another procedure the post-plating solution containing, besides the gold
anion complex, organic acids and their salts was passed through the weakly basic
anion exchanger at pH equal about 3 in the three-column system [161]. Gold was
adsorbed in the first of them and other substances in the second and third ones.
Moreover, selective ion exchangers of various types are used for selective
removal of noble metals from sewages. Thus the ion exchanger with the cysteine
groups is characterized by high ion-exchange affinity for Au(III) and Pt(II). The
ion-exchange capacities for these ions are as follows: Au(III)=l.22 M/kg and
Pt(II)=0.39 M/kg [162]. The selective ion exchanger with hydroxamate groups is
characterized by great ion-exchange capacity for Au(III) which is 4.0 M Au/kg
(pH=l). This sorbent is recommended for selective separation of Au(III) from
Cu(II), Ag(I) and Fe(III) and also for removal of Au(III) from sea water and KCN
solutions [163]. The ion exchanger with the isonitrosoacetamide groups is
selective for Pd(II) [164]. The sorbent of the azoimidazole functional groups is
used for sorption of noble metal ions from the solutions of copper(II), nickel(II),
cobalt(II), iron(III), aluminum(III) etc. salts [33]. It possesses very great ionexchange capacity for gold which is equal to 660 g Au/kg and is applied for
removal of noble metals from the solutions coming from copper and nickel
hydrometallurgy as well as from past plating sewages [33]. The sorbent based on
polystyreneazorhodamine is stable up to 100~ both in neutral and acidic
solutions. Its sorption capacity for the selected noble metal ions in the 1 M HC1
solution is: Pt(II)-19.5 g/kg, Pd(II)-22.2 g/kg and Au(III)-197 g/kg. This ion
exchanger is characterized by great selectivity for noble metal ions [33]. The
sorbent based on polystyrenazo-8-mercaptoquinoline is stable in the acidic and
neutral media. It exhibits great ion-exchange capacity for Pd(II) (which is 300 g
Pd(II)/kg in the 1 M HC1 solution) and great selectivity for noble metal ions in the
presence of Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), Fe(III) etc. [33].
Great selectivity for the complex [Au(CN)2]-is characteristic for the chelating
ion exchanger of the guanidine and aminoguanidine functional groups built into
various polymer matrices [33,64,65]. It proved that modified hydrophobic
copolymers crosslinked with DVB of the expanded structure are the most
effective for the sorption of [Au(CN)2]- ions. The ion exchanger of formazane
functional groups exhibits great selectivity for gold, silver, platinum metals and
mercury ions. Its ion-exchange capacity in 0.01 M HC1 is following: Au(III)0.9 M/kg, Pd(II)-0.75 M/kg, Pt(II, IV)-0.54 M/kg, Ir(IV)-0.43 M/kg,Rh(III)0.1 M/kg and for Ru(III)-0.03 M/kg. This sorbent is recommended for selective
removal and separation of noble metal ions as well as for separation of Pd(II)
from Ni(II) and Co(II) [33,90,165,166]. Moreover, the selective ion exchangers of
dithiocarbamate, thiamide and thioglycole functional groups exhibit great
selectivity for gold and platinum metals [30,33,85].
The results of the studies on synthesis and physicochemical properties of the
ion exchangers of the dithizone and dehydrodithizone functional groups bonded
to the polystyrene matrix by the sulphur atom are very interesting. The ion
exchanger of the dithizone functional groups exhibits particularly strong ion
507
exchange affinity for Pd(II), Pt(II) and Au(III). The values of distribution
coefficients IQ for Pd(II), Pt(II) and Au(III) in the 0.01-6.0 M HC1 solutions are
very high and equal 104-106. This ion-exchanger can be applied both for
separation of platinum metals and selective separation of noble metal ions from
others [86-88].
Complexes of gold(III) chlorides can be removed from various systems on the
sorbents possessing weak ester groups e.g. on Amberlite XAD-7. In this case two
types of sorption mechanism can be distinguished [10,167,168]:
- solvation: R - CO2 + [nuCl4]- ~ R - CO2[AuC13] + C1-ion-exchange: R - C 0 2 + H20 ~ R - C O O H + + OH-
(6)
(7)
R - C O O H + + [AuC14]- ~
(s)
R-COOH+[AuCI4] -
The mixture of hydrochloric acid and acetone can be used for gold(III) desorption.
The resins containing thiourea or its derivatives built into matrix exhibit great
selectivity for noble metal ions [5,10,30,33,85]. The commercially available ion
exchanger selective for noble metals and mercury ions of the isothiourea
functional groups (Srafion NMRR) exhibits differentiated ion-exchange capacity
for gold and platinum family. Total capacity of this ion exchanger for individual
noble metal ions is as follows: Au-340 g/dm ~, Pt-200 g/dm 3, Pd-120 g/dm 3,
Ir-120 g/dm ~ and Rh-80 g/dm 3. However, the working capacity of Srafion NMRR
for gold ions is small (55-110 g Au/dm3). As the value of the gold retained in the
bed exceeds significantly that of the ion exchager used for its recovery,
combustion of the ion exchanger at 1000~ is a common procedure, though the
5% NaOH + 5% NaCN solution is also used for its regeneration.
The selective ion exchangers of isothiourea groups are used, among others, for
separation of platinum metals from other metals. Depending on pH of the
medium these goups are of the following forms:
P ~ C H ~ - - S ~ J NH
..
"
P~CH~--S~C
\NH 2
(1)
/NH2 (~ X
\NH 2
(9)
(2)
When these groups occur in form (1), they create coordination bonds with
metal cations and in form (2) the platinum metal anion complexes are bonded
according to the exchange mechanism e.g. [PdC14]2-.
508
NH
2 P ~ CH~-- S--C./ @ 2X
[ PdC] ]24
\NH 2
(10)
/ NH
P ~ c g T- S - - C \ |
NH
H2N \
[PdCJ]
2
H N
2
Srafion NMRR is used for the group removal of noble metals from ores,
meteorites, moon, sand, steel, sewages, biological materials etc.[10,33,84,85,124].
2.2. S i l v e r
Silver is another precious metal commonly applied in plating and photographic
industries. In plating processes it occurs as the cyanide complex [Ag(CN)2]- with
various additions. The ion-exchange methods are recommended for silver
recovery from large volumes of sewages of low concentrations of the element
being recovered, particularly from the washings. The first technological system
for this process was installed in Germany at the beginning of the forties. The
silver contained in the washings formed the cyanide complexes which sorbed on
the weakly basic anion exchanger in the sulphate form. The NaOH and H2S04
solutions were used successively for the ion exchanger regeneration. The sorption
capacity of the ion exchanger was relatively small and was equal to 8 g/dm 3 [169].
Some anion exchangers of various types were applied for the selective removal
of silver(I) from cyanide solutions by Riveros [170]. It proved that the anion
exchangers like Duolite A-7, Dowex WGR-2, Dowex MWA-1, Dowex XFS-4195
and Amberlite IRA-35 extract silver(I) in large amounts only at pH<8. However,
at pH>8 the same ion exchangers extract silver(I) from the solution to a small
extent or they do not extract it at all. The comparison of the above mentioned ion
exchangers indicates that Duolite A-7 and Dowex MWA-1 possess the highest
capacity and effectiveness. Strongly basic anion exchangers like Dowex MSA-1
and Amberlite IRA-910 extract silver(I) in the whole range of pH 4-12. Moreover,
it was stated that if the solution under consideration contains only one kind of
metal ions, then the given ion exchangers show the highest extraction degree for
silver(I). However, if in the feeding cyanide solution the metal ion mixture is
present, the percentage of silver(I) removal decreases which depends on the
phase contact time. The extent of silver(I) extraction can be increased decreasing
the concentation of free cyanides in the solution and also by stopping the
extraction before the ion-exchanger reaches the highest saturation [170].
In 1968 Kunin suggested using the strongly basic anion exchanger (type 1) to
recover silver(I) being in the form ([Ag($203)2] m from the photographic industry
sewages. It was Amberlite IRA-400 in the chloride form regenerated with 1 M
509
hydrochloric acid solution [169]. The studies carried out in the USA in the end of
seventies showed that the weakly basic acryldivinylbenzene anion exchanger
Amberlite IRA-68 is characterized by better qualities than Amberlite IRA-400
[171,172]. In the first cycles of sorption Amberlite IRA-400 is much better but
Amberlite IRA-68 shows greater resistance to impurities. However, its
application requires maintaining suitably low values of washings pH (about 5.5).
Of many solutions used for silver desorption, 30% (NH4)2S203 solution proved
to be the best for regeneration. To recover silver(I) from the post-regeneration
solution, the electrolysis was used yielding 98% recovery of silver(I) of 99%
purity. The solution remainig after electrolysis was used for another
regeneration.
The redox ion exchangers were also used for selective removal of silver(I) ions
from the photographic sewages. At first the ion exchangers of the
polythiomethylenestyrene type were used which enabled achieving exceptionally
high capacities (about 22 mmol/g which constitutes about 240% bonded silver in
relation to the ion exchanger mass) as for the ion-exchange method. Regeneration
was carried out using the solutions Na2SO3 or NaHSO~ [173].
Much better results were obtained using hydroquinoformaldehyde resins of the
capacity about 38 mmol/g that is about 400% bonded silver [174]. In this case the
ion exchanger was regenerated electrolytically which made it possible to
reactivate about 85% initial bed capacity. During the electrolysis silver deposited
as pure metal on the cathode after passing into the solution. The sorption effect
was 90-98% initial content of silver.
Many interesting studies were made using the Russian ion exchanger redox
EO-7 which is a polycondensat of sulphonated hydroquinone and phenol with
formaldehyde [175]. By its use separation of silver(I) from copper(II), lead(II),
zinc(II), bismuth(III), nickel(II), cobalt(II) and aluminium(III) was made [176]. In
this case the redox exchange proved to be more selective than the ion-exchange
method. Moreover, it enables removal of other components, even trace amounts of
silver from the polyionic solutions of high concentrations [177].
Hydroquinone-resorcin-formaldehyde resins were effectively applied in the
reactions of various metal ions reduction, among others, of silver(I) ions both in
the acidic and neutral media [178]. Sulphonated 2-vinylanthraquinone, styrene
and DVB copolymers were used, among others, for selective removal of silver
from nitrate solutions [179].
2.3. Tin a n d c o b a l t
Another element used in plating is tin. The sewages containing this element
can be purified using a two-column system. One of them is packed with strongly
acidic cation exchanger and another one with weakly basic anion exchanger. Tin
is retained in the second column and washed with the NaOH solution [5].
Cobalt ions can be recovered from sewages using strongly acidic cation
exchangers [5]. Owing to the application of 2 M HNO3 solution for regeneration of
the ion exchanger bed in the effluent the cobalt ion concentration reaches about
510
25 g/dm 3. To remove cobalt(II) ions from sewages produced during petrochemical
wastes combustion chelating ion exchangers were applied [5]. The chelating ion
exchangers of the functional iminodiacetic groups in the sodium form adsorb
cobalt(II) ions selectively. The ion-exchange capacity of these ion exchangers for
Co 2+ ions is 57 g/kg.
In addition, the ion exchange is applied for removal of vanadium from the
sewages produced during preparation of the zirconium-vanadium pigment [5]. As
well as for recovery of molibdenium ions from sewages using a strongly basic
anion exchanger [5].
2.4. Mercury
Mercury and its compounds are among the chemical impurities imposing the
great t h r e a t for the natural environment due to their ability of translocation in
the environment and accumulation in living organisms. Mercury compounds
attack the nervous system in organisms. Therefore they are considered to be the
most dangerous substances. Its harmful effect consists in inhibiting the protein
synthesis in cells. This process is caused by the presence of thiol groups in
proteins with great affinity for mercury.
Mercury, both metallic and in the form of compounds is widely applied in
industry. It is used, among others, in chemical (electrolysis of NaC1 by the
mercury method, production of acetic aldehyde, production of some pesticides and
plastics), cellulose-paper, pharmaceutical and electronic industries. These
branches of industry produce most sewages containing mercury compounds. In
the fifties in the area close to M i n a m a t a Bay ( Japanese Sea), serious poisoning
with mercury compounds-mainly with methyl mercury took place. Three and
half thousand people were poisoned, of whom over 100 died. It was found out that
the tragedy was caused by the nearby plastic producing factory which used
mercury compounds as catalysts. Post-production sewages with a relatively high
content of mercury were dumped into the bay. It has been estimated that only in
the period 1951-1970 the factory dumped from 200 to 600 tons of mercury into
M i n a m a t a Bay [180]. In the sewages mercury occurs in the forms of metallic,
methyl mercury or most frequently of soluble compounds, among others, as
undissociated molecules, Hg 2 and Hg2 e ions as well as complex ions. All
mercury compounds contained in waters make its self-purification process
difficult due to inhibition of biochemical processes. To remove mercury
compounds from sewages there are used, among others, reduction, precipitation,
extraction and ion-exchange methods [5,10,85,181-196].
Of the above mentioned methods, the ion-exchange is of significant importance
because they are technologically simple and enable efficient removal of even trace
impurities from solutions. They are particularly useful when it is necessary to
treat large volumes of diluted solutions. It is possible to remove mercury(II) from
sewages on various types of ion exchangers e.g. strongly acidic cation exchangers,
weakly and strongly basic anion exchangers as well as on selective ion
exchangers of various types [5,10,85,181-196]. Many West European countries
511
apply the industrial method of mercury ions removal from sewages based on the
licence of the Dutch firm Akzo Zout Chemie using the selective ion exchanger
Imac TMR of functional thiol groups. This ion exchanger is used for selective
sorption of mercury(II) ions from technological solutions, mainly from brines in
case of their electrolysis using the mercury method and also from sewages. Imac
TMR is a styrenedivinylbenzene copolymer of a macroporous structure. It
possesses mainly functional thiol groups and a n u m b e r of sulfone groups
[5,182,183,187,191,192]. Owing to the presence o f - S H groups, strong affinity of
this cation exchanger for mercury(II) ions can be accounted for by the ability of
mercury(II) cations reaction with mercaptans, thiophenols or hydrogen sulfide.
Its capacity for mercury (II) is 240 g Hg/dm 3 ion exchanger. Comparing
effectiveness of various methods used for mercury removal it was stated t h a t
using reduction methods it is possible to decrease the mercury content to
1-3 ppm in sewages, by precipitation of HgS with hydrogen chloride to 1 ppm and
applying the ion exchanger Imac TMR to 0.5-5.0 ppb. [5,10,85,182,183,187,
191,192].
Despite of the fact t h a t in the concentrated brines, mercury(II) occurs mainly
in the form of the complex ions HgC142-, Imac TMR reacts mainly with Hg 2 and
HgC1 ions which are in the equilibrium in the solution [5,182,183,191,192]:
Hg 2 + 4Cl-r
HgC1 + 3C1-r
HgC12 + 2C1- az HgCla- + Cl-r
HgC142- (11)
However, Imac TMR does not react with metallic mercury which can occur in the
dispersed form in brines. In this case, metallic mercury should be oxidized with
chlorine and then the solution should be deprived of the oxidizer excess before
introducing on the column containing Imac TMR as the thiol ion exchanger is
readily oxidized according to the reaction:
2 R - S H + oxidizer --> R - S - S - R
+ 2H
R - S - S - R + oxidizer-~ x R - SOH + yRSO2H + 2 R - SOaH
(12)
(~3)
Where R is the styrenedivinylbenzene copolymer thus losing its precious

properties of selective ion exchange. The former reaction can proceed reversibly
due to resin reactivation by means of reducing agents but the l a t t e r one gives the
ion exchangers of different functional groups which are not selective for mercury
(II) ions.
Mercury(II) ions sorption on the ion exchanger Imac TMR can be described by
m e a n s of the following reactions:
2 R - S H + Hg 2+ -~ R - S - H g - S - R
+ 2H +
R - S H + HgC1 + -~ R - S - H g C 1
+ H+
(14)
(15)
512
After the mercury(II) ions sorption, the ion exchanger Imac TMR can be
regenerated by means of the concentrated hydrochloric acid solution according to
the following reactions:
R-S-Hg-S-R
+ 2HC1 -> 2 R - S H + HgC12
(16)
R-S-HgC1
+ HC1 -~ R - S H + HgC12
(17)
Besides the discussed ion exchanger Imac TMR, the following ion exchangers:
Duolite ES-465 (Dia-Prosim, France), Chelite S (Serva, Germany) and Duolite
GT-73 (Rohm and Haas, France) possess thiol groups. Of them at present only
Duolite GT-73 (Imac GT-73) is produced on a commercial scale [197].
The first industrial system using Imac TMR for mercury ion sorption of
15 m~/h effectiveness was introduced in Delfizji, Holand in 1973. At present the
system of 2-60 m3/h effectiveness are in the use in many countries e.g. in Cuba.
Akzo Zout Chemie is generally considered to be a leading firm as far as removal
of mercury(II) ions from sewages is concerned.
Another group of ion exchangers exhibiting great selectivity for mercury(II)
are those of isothiourea functional groups [5,10,85] like Ionac SR-3, Imac SRXL
(Ionac, USA), Lewatit TP-214 (Bayer, Germany), Monivex (Ayalon, Israel),
Purolite S-920 (Purolite, UK), Srafion NMRR (Ayalon, Israel), Sumichelate Q-10
(Sumitomo, Japan), Relite MAC-3 (Residion, USA). Srafion NMRR is most
commonly applied for mercury(II) removal from sewages. Its sorption capacity for
mercury(II) is 545 g Hg/kg ion-exchanger. 5% thiourea solution containing 0.22%
HC1 is used for desorption of mercury (II) from its bed.
The ion exchangers of the thiocarbamate functional groups are characterized
by strong affinity for heavy metal ions. They allow for the reduction of the ion
level from 20-30 ppm to the amount below 1 ppb. Of this type ion exchangers,
Nisso ALM-125 ( Society of synthetic Organic Chemistry, Japan) is most
commonly applied for selective mercury (II) removal from sewages. Its sorption
capacity for mercury (II) is 680 g Hg/kg ion exchanger in the aqueous solution but
340 g Hg/kg ion exchanger in 10% H2SO4 solution. In the continuous process it
decreases the mercury (II) content in sewages to 0.1 ppb. The sodium sulphide
solution is used for mercury (II) desorption from its bed. In case of the ion
exchanger Nisso ALM-126 it was stated that its sorption capacity for mercury(II)
ions can be increased by the increase of operating temperature to maximum
50~
However, the bed regeneration is no longer possible. Mercury can be
recovered as vapour by the ion exchanger calcination. The ion exchanger with
mercury(II) deposited on it can be also mixed with cement in order for its
immobilization and storage in such a form.
Moreover, it was stated that the macroreticular polystyrene-based resins with
the functional aminothiazole, iminothiazole or thiazoline groups exhibit a high
selectivity for mercury(II). A thiazoline resin column has been used to
concentrate mercury(II) from the sea water adjusted to pH=l with hydrochloric
acid. Maximum sorption capacity for mercury(II) was found to be 2.8 M/kg. The
513
sorbed mercury(II) is recovered quantitatively by elution with 5% thiourea
containing 0.1 M HC1 [36].
The results of studies on removal of mercury(II) ions from sewages on the
anion exchangers modified with complexing organic sulpho-derivative reagents
being prototypes of new selective ion exchangers are of significant importance.
Immobilization of this type compounds in the ion exchanger phase is possible
owing to the affinity of these reagents for anion exchangers. This results from
both their aromatic structure and the presence of sulfonate groups [143,144]. For
example, strongly basic anion exchangers in the azothiopyrine sulfonate [151],
dithizone sulfonate [154] forms and Chromotrope 2R [148], can be effectively
applied for removal of mercury(II) ions trace amounts from waters and sewages.
Differentiation in mercury(II) ions retention compared with other metal ions on
the obtained selective ion exchangers due to their modification is a result of:
- affinity of mercury(II) ions for atoms in a ligand,
- conditions of proper complexes formation,
- stability of the complexes with mercury(II) ions in the ion exchanger phase.
These ions exchangers owing to their high selectivity for mercury(II) ions trace
amounts can be applied in mercury monitoring in the natural environment.
2.5.
Lead
Lead as a serious pollutant appears from the following sources [3,5]:

- waste sludges from petroleum refineries,
- waste sludges from the manufacture of alkyl lead compounds,
waste solvent-based paint sludges and paint residues,
- waste sludges from the manufacture of lead acid batteries,
- solvent and water washes from the painting ink production.
High toxicity of lead requires that its contents in sewages should be reduced to
a minimum (ppb level). For this aim chelating cation exchangers with functional
phosphonic or aminophosphonic groups are used [3,5,59,60]. They are selective
for lead(II) ions. For example the values of lead(II) distribution coefficients for
the aminophosphonic ion exchanger K-AMF depending on the value of pH of the
outer solution are as follows: Kd=122 (for pH=2.5) and Kd=1900 (for pH=5)
[59,60]. However, the results concerning the kinetics of lead(II) sorption are not
very interesting.
Weakly basic anion exchangers in the free base or sulphate form can be also
applied for selective removal of lead(II) chloride complexes from the solutions of
4-6 pH [3,5].
A cation exchange process combined with precipitation is frequently used for
lead removal from sewages [200].
The studies by Dudzinska and Pawlowski [201-204] concerning simultaneous
removal from the aqueous solutions of lead(II) and cadmium(II) as well as
organic ligands i.e. aminopolycarboxylic acids mainly EDTA in one process on
anion exchangers of various types are of significant importance. The anion
exchangers Amberlite applied by them differed in basicity of functional groups-
514
strongly basic types 1 and 2 as well as weakly basic ones, matrix porosity: microand macroporous as well as matrix structure: polystyrenedivinylbenzene and
polyacrylic copolymers. It was stated that the anion exchangers of functional
weakly basic groups exhibit stronger affinity for lead(II) and cadmium(II)
complexes with EDTA than strongly basic anion exchangers and that the anion
exchangers of a polyacrylic matrix exhibit stronger affinity for the above
mentioned complexes t h a n those of the same type with a polystyrene matrix. The
authors determined working capacities of selected anion exchangers for lead(II)
and cadmium(II) complexes in the presence of various anions. Relatively high
values of ion exchange capacity for the above mentioned complexes, their great
affinity for the anion exchanger, as well as effective and economical regeneration
by means of 1 M NaC1 solution make it possible to use this method in technology
of waters and sewages.
2.6. C o p p e r
Copper ions due to their toxicity disturb the operation of biological t r e a t m e n t
plants and exert a negative effect on self-purification of water and on some
organisms living in water reservoirs. Therefore these copper ions should be
removed from wastewater by precipitation, electrolysis, ion-exchange and
extraction.
A very important example of ion exchange application is recovery of copper(II)
from sewages formed during leaching which is one of copper production stages.
Due to small pH (below 2) of sewages, conventional chelating ion exchangers of
functional iminodiacetate and aminophosphonic groups do not practically adsorb
copper(II) ions. Special chelating ion exchangers characterized by much greater
affinity for copper(II) than for other metal ions were synthesized [5,10,205-208].
These ion exchangers are obtained from N-(hydroxyalkyl)picoliamines. One of
them i.e. Dowex XFS-4195 can remove copper(II) even from 1.5 M H2SO4 solution
but 5 M sulfuric acid is required for regeneration.
Using another chelating ion exchanger Dowex XFS-4196, copper(II) ions are
removed from less acidic solutions (pH over 1.5). Dowex XFS-4196 can be easily
regenerated by means of sulfuric acid of the concentration 100 g H2SOjdm 3. The
post-regeneration liquid contains 33 g Cu2+/dm 3 and 40 g H2SO4/dm 3 and can be
applied for copper production using the electrolytic method. Moreover, there was
obtained the chelating ion exchanger Dowex XFS-43084 of physicochemical
properties similar to those of Dowex XFS-4196 but of stronger affinity for copper
ions t h a n for iron ions [5,10,205-208].
Liquid chelating ion exchangers i.e. hydroxyoximes are applied for removal of
copper(II) from mine waters, copper ores coming from the mines in P a n g u a n a in
New Guinea, Bougainville Copper Ltd [209]. In Germany Copper(II) was also
recovered by means of extraction with hydroxyoximes on the commercial scale
from the mine waters as well as from the pyrometallurgical processes [210]. Such
a recovery was economically justified and financial costs comparable to those of
cementation and sorption processes on solid ion exchangers.
515
Copper recovery from the aqueous solutions obtained after adsorption of
evaporated off gases originating from chloride calcination of pyrite ashes was
proposed [211]. After solution neutralization to p H = l by means of calcium
hydroxide and filtering off the sediment, copper(II) was removed using the
extraction with hydroxyoximes.
Gonczarowa et al. [212] used the ion exchange amphoteric fibres to remove
copper(II) ions from acidic sewages. Their structure was based on partially
hydrolized polyacrylnitrile and polyethyleneimine. The greatest ion exchange
capacity was obtained when the solution pH was increased to 4.5.
Ion exchangers of various types were applied for selective removal of copper
ions from the ammonium sewages [213-215]. There was studied copper(II)
sorption from the ammonium sewages on the following ion exchangers:
phenolsulphone, polystyrenesulphone (microporous and macroporous), carboxylic
based on acrylic, methacrylic and phenolcarboxylic acids, polyphenol type
(Duolite S-30), thiole, chelating ion exchangers of functional iminodiacetate and
amidoxime groups as well as on weakly basic anion exchangers of various types.
Of the examined ion exchangers, polimerization carboxylic ion exchangers proved
to be the most effective for selective removal of copper(II) ([Cu(NH3)4] 2 from the
sewages containing ammonium. It was stated that the maximum concentration of
copper(II) 50-70 g Cu(II)/dm 3 in the effluent was obtained during regeneration of
these ion exchangers with 2M sulfuric acid solution.
Some sewages contain a few grams of ammonium sulphate in a litre and a
small number of copper(II) ions. These sewages can be used as fertilizers but
copper(II) ions should be removed earlier. The ion exchange method makes it
possible to remove copper(II) sulphate solution which can be reused [216].
Carboxylic ion exchangers are most frequntly used for this aim.
2.7. N i c k e l a n d v a n a d i u m
Utilization of sewages produced during sulphur removal is another significant
example of ion exchange. The contain, among others, nickel and vanadium which
can be recovered. Sewages are oxidized, their pH is established from 5 to 10 and
then they are passed through the chelating ion exchanger bed on which nickel
ions are adsorbed. The solution pH is smaller than 5 after this operation. Then
the solution is passed through the chelating ion exchanger bed to adsorb
vanadium ions [5,10,216]. Regeneration of beds leads to obtaining concentrated
solutions of nickel and vanadium ions which are a source of useful side products.
The most serious environmental problem concerning nickel(II) occurs in the
metal t r e a t m e n t industry. Nickel is frequently used in the sulphate form. Thus
for its removal from sewages there are applied polystyrenesulphone cation
exchangers and for their regeneration sulfuric acid. It was stated that under the
optimal conditions of cation exchanger bed regeneration with the sulfuric acid
solution, a nickel concentration in the effluent can be several scores grams/dm 3.
However, ammonium carbonate is used for regeneration of ion exchangers
516
applied in nickel recovery from sewages originating from the nickel refinery
[5,10,216].
Polymetallic sewages require chelating ion exchangers e.g. nickel(II) can be
selectively removed from ammonium
molybdate on the aminophosphonic
ion
exchanger (Russian ion exchanger ANKF-80). It was stated that its sorption
capacity for nickel(If) ions is 19 times as large as that of the conventional cation
exchanger. Moreover, chelating ion exchangers are applied in the process of
nickel ions selective recovery from the sewages originating from nickel plating
and nickel compounds production [5,10,216].
Carboxylic ion exchangers also exhibit great selectivity for nickel(II) ions.
Halle et al. [217] applied the macroporous carboxylic cation exchanger Wofatit
CA-20 in the sodium form for selective nickel(II) ions removal from washings
formed during the nickel plating.
For the separation of nickel(II) from metallurgical waste solutions the highest
separation efficiency was obtained with an inorganic ion exchanger with sodium
titanate, Na4Ti9020 [218,219], which is a layered material, the exchangeable
sodium ions being located in the titanium oxide layers. The exchanger takes up
nickel(II) at pH values over 5 very efficiently. Column experiments with three
types of nickel-containing waste solutions from a metal plating plant showed
good performance for sodium titanate in the purification of real waste solution.
Metal loadings obtained varied in the range of 0.65 meq/g to 2.7 meq/g and
nickel(II) level in the effluent prior to the breakthrough was very low 0.0030.009%.
2.8. C h r o m i u m
Removal of chromium(II, VI) from waste waters is absolutely necessary due to
toxicity of its compounds [5,10]. Chromium(VI) compounds are believed to be
particularly toxic, though all chromium compounds are belived to be carcinogenic.
A m a i n source of w a t e r contamination with chromium are sewages from the
surface metal t r e a t m e n t plants and from tannery. Sewages coming from baths
used for chromium plating, metallic coating passivation and washing already
coated surfaces are characterized by low pH caused by the presence of free acids,
brown-yellow colour and small transparence. Chromium(VI) concentration in
such sewages ranges 5 to 50 mg Cr(VI)/dm 3 (during the periodical change of
plating baths it reaches even 200 mg Cr(VI)/dm3). Purification of such a solution
consists in passing it through the strongly acidic polystyrenesulphonic cation
exchanger and then through strongly basic anion exchanger. Metal ions and
other cationic impurities are removed on the cation exchanger and chromates are
removed on the anion exchanger:
nRSO3H + M + ~-> nRM n+ + nH+
2ROH + CrO42. ~ R2Cr04 "~- 2 0 H R2CrO4 + Cr042 + H + <--> R2Cr207 + OH-
(18)
(~9)
(20)
517
The NaOH solutions are applied for anion exchanger regeneration.
To remove chromium(III) from the used up tannery bath (composed of Cr(III)8000 mg/dm 3, Mg(II)-1700 mg/dm ~, Ca(II)-950 mg/dm 3, Na(I)-37000 mg/dm 3,
SO42-40000 mg/dm 3, C1-15000 mg/dm 3, HCOO-12000 mg/dm 3 and pH=3.5) there
can be applied the polystyrenesulphone cation exchanger Amberlite IR-120. The
ion exchange capacity of Amberlite IR-120 does not depend on pH in the range
from 1 to 11 and is equal to 35 mg/g. The used up tannery bath contains large
number of various ions. Besides chromium(III) ions there are a large quantities
of sodium cations. Studies of adsorption selectivity on the cation exchanger
Amberlite IR-120 in the H form showed that the above mentioned cations
compete with one another in the process of binding with the ion exchanger
functional groups, whereby the ion-exchange capacity of the cation exchanger
decreases rapidly with the increase of Na(I) ion concentration in the solution.
When the concentration of Na(I) in the solution is about 25 g/dm ~ then the ion
exchange capacity of Amberlite IR-120H decreases to about 5 mg Cr(III)/g, i.e. it
decreases by 85% compared with the initial value. The problems of separation
selectivity of Na(I) and Cr(III) were overcome using the differences in oxidation
reduction properties of both cations. It was shown that the presence of the strong
oxidizer which are Cr2072- ions does not cause the loss of ion-exchange capacity
by the cation exchanger. The method proposed for removal of chromium(III) from
the used up t a n n e r y bath consists of four stages. In the first stage chromium(III)
is oxidixed to chromium(VI) by means of sodium persulphate. The obtained
solution is passed through the column with Amberlite IR-120 in order to remove
sodium, calcium and magnesium ions. Then Cr(VI) is reduced to Cr(III) in the
effluent by means of methanol. The last i.e. the fourth stage consists in
adsorption of chromium(III) ions on the cation exchanger Amberlite IR-120
which is regenerated with 2 M H2SO4 solution resulting in practically total
desorption of chromium(III) [220].
The process of chromium(III) recovery from sewages known as IERECHROM
[221] worked out by Petruzzeli et al. is of significant importance. Macroporous
carboxylic cation exchangers (Purolite C-106) which, besides chromium ions,
retain also trace amounts of other metal ions, among others, of aluminum and
iron are used in this process. The regeneration process of the carboxylic ion
exchanger with deposited chromium ions proceeds in stages. In the first stage the
alkaline H202 solution (pH=12) is used for desorption. As a result the anion forms
(chromates and aluminates) being created are quantitatively washed away from
the cation exchanger and separated. In the second stage which is purification of
the bed in order to wash away iron ions. As a result, iron and aluminum
sulphates are formed which are returned into the process as flocculating factors.
The remaining chromate solution is then used in the plating industry or in the
same t a n n e r y process after reduction of chromium(VI) ions to Cr(III).
The ion exchanger of the polyvinylebenzene matrix was synthesized. 1-(4pyridinyl)-2-(1-piperidinyl)ethyl ester of 4-aminobenzoic acid was bonded to this
518
matrix. The ion exchanger is characterized by high selectivity for chromium(VI)
ions [222].
The best exchanger for all chemical forms of chromium was found to be a
fibrous exchanger FIBAN AK-22 [223]. This selective exchanger contains both
carboxylic and imidazole functionalities on polypropylene fibres. This means that
the selective exchanger acts both as a cation and an anion-exchanger as well as
chelating ion exchanger. At pH=3 Fiban AK-22 removed more than 99.3% of both
Cr 3 and Cr2072 and in the pH range of 5-8 more than 99.6% of CrO42 from
5 ppm Cr solutions. Fiban AK-22 columns took up efficiently chromium from real
waste effluents from a metal plating plant. From a lmM solution with pH=6.1
the level of chromium in the effluent was only 0.006% prior to breakthrough. The
loading was, however, rather modest 0.4 mmol/g.
Liquid anion exchangers of the tertiary amine type can be applied for selective
removal of chromium(VI) from the acidic sewages [5,10]. The ion exchangers of
this type are produced, among others, by the firms Henkel Co, USA (Alamina
304, Alamina 336), Hoechs, Germany (Hostarex A-324, Hostarex A-327) and
others. The mechanisms of Cr2072- ions removal by these ion exchangers is as
follows:
2R3N + Cr2072 + 2H --~ (R3NH)2Cr207
(21)
The liquid ion exchanger and its combination with Cr2072- ions are soluble in
kerosene and other organic solvents but in water only in trace amounts. It follows
from the above that Cr2072 ions can be extracted from large volumes of the
aqueous solution to a small amount of the organic phase by means of such an
anion exchanger dissolved in kerosene or in another solvent. Removal of Cr(VI)
ions from the organic phase is not difficult. The mechanism of liquid anion
exchanger regeneration (removal of Cr2072- ions from the organic phase) is as
follows:
(RaNH)2Cr207 + 4NaOH -> R3N + Na2CrO4 + 3H20
(22)
Chromium(VI) in the alkaline medium passes back into the aqueous phase. In
this way there is obtained a concentrate of the post-regeneration solution
Na2CrO4 of the content about 20 g Cr(VI)/dm 3 and the organic solution of liquid
anion exchanger is suitable for a direct reuse.
Extraction in the liquid-liquid system by means of the liquid cation
exchangers like D2EHPA (di(2-ethylhexyl)-phosphoric acid) and Cyanex 272
(di(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl)phosphinic acid) was used for chromium(III) removal
from the aqueous solutions of the composition corresponding to the used up
tannery bath. The preliminary studies showed that the solutions D2EHPA or
Cyanex 272 in kerosene do not extract chromium(III) from the aqueous phase of
pH<3. The maximum amount which can be removed from the aqueous phase of
pH=5 by means of extraction with 25% D2EHPA solution in kerosens is 35%
519
chromium(III). At higher pH of the aqueous phase there is observed chromium
hydroxide removal which has an unfavourable effect on kinetics and extraction
yield. These difficulties are omitted using the mixture of D2EHPA and its
ammonium salt (1+1) as an extractant and undecanol as a modifier. It was
shown that at the phase ratio (O/A=I), extracion with 15% D2EHPA solution in
kerosene containing 10% decanol allows for removal of over 95% chromium(III)
from the aqueous phase of pH=5 after two minutes. It was stated that under
similar conditions, in the presence of p-nonylophenol as a modifier, extraction
with the solution Cyanex 272 and its ammonium salt (1+1) makes it possible to
remove chromium(III) with about 86% yield.
D2EHPA was also used to remove chromium(III) from sewages (composition:
1.4 mg Cr(II), 1.4 mg Fe(III), 1380 mg Mn(II), 820 mg Co(II), 1.4 mg Ni(II),
410 mg Na(I), 127440 mg CH3CO0- of pH=3.1) formed during production of
terephtalic acid. The method proposed for chromium(III) recovery from sewages
of this type and checked in the semi-technical scale was extraction in the
emulsion systems. In extraction there was used the emulsion of W/O type
composed of 2 M H2SO4 solution (W) and organic phase ( O ) - m e m b r a n e ,
containing 90% kerosene, 3% Span 80 (sorbitan monooleate), 5.5% D2EHPA and
0.5-2.9% TBP. The phase ratio W/O in the prepared emulsion was 1/2. The
emulsion was dissolved in the solution under studies maintaining an unchanged
voluminal ratio. It was found that equilibrium is reached in the studied system
after 20-30 minutes and the yield of chromium(III) extraction depends on TBP
concentration in the membrane. Maximal yields of chromium(III) extraction from
the studied solutions were obtained with the content of 0.5% TBP. The yield of
chromium extraction from sewages reached the value over 70% [220,224].
2.9. Zinc
Production of artificial fibres using the viscose method requires during their
formation acidic baths whose main components are zinc sulphate, sulfuric acid
and sodium sulphate. The sewages containing zinc(II) are the most toxic of all the
sewages produced by the viscose fibre industry. The damages caused by their
disposal into rivers exceed many times the value of zinc(II) contained in them
[5,10,225].
Winnicki et al. [225] carried out the studies of zinc(II) sorption on weakly
acidic carboxylic cation exchangers. These ion exchangers exhibit great affinity
for hydrogen ions, that is why they cannot be used for zinc(II) sorption in the
acidic medium and in the hydrogen form. For such reasons washings must be
neutralized before passing through the cation exchanger bed. Regeneration of
zinc(II) from the carboxylic cation exchanger proceeds readily which allows for
application of acidic baths as a regenerator. However, washing the ion exchanger
with water and its transformation from the hydrogen form into a sodium one are
necessary. The attemps to apply the carboxylic cation exchanger of the
methacryldivinylbenzene KB-4 (Russian) of the total ion-exchange capacity was
520
as high as 6.4 mval/g independently of the zinc and sodium ions concentration
ratio [225].
Zinc(II) sorption on polystyrenesulphonic cation exchangers proceeds relatively
readily. However, the problem consists in the fact that regeneration should be
carried out in such a way that the solutions after the regeneration could be
applied in the most economical way [5,225].
The studies of Winnicki et al. [225] are of significant importance. Regenerating
zinc from the cation exchanger Amberlite IR-120 with 10% sulfuric acid solution
he obtained 72.6 g ZnSO4/dm 3 solution. While using a strongly acidic cation
exchanger to remove metal ions from the solutions containing many alkaline
metal ions, the interrelation of the amount of the ions adsorbed by the ion
exchanger can make recirculation of the post-regeneration liquid impossible.
That happens during zinc recovery from the sewages originating from the
artificial fibre production (zinc concentraction is 540 mg/dm 3 and that of sodium
is 10300 mg/dm 3. To use recylculation the sodium sulphate content should be
reduced below 20% of the sum of all cations which can be reached by means of the
two-step regeneration: desorption with 7% H2SO4 solution to remove sodium for
washing away zinc ions from the bed [225]. A similar effect can be achieved by a
preliminary action on the bed with the solution containing Zn(II) ions which
remove sodium ions from the cation exchanger and thus improve Zn2+/Na +
relation in the bed.
Of commercially available ion exchangers selective for zinc(II), only chelating
ion exchangers of the functional aminophosphonic groups are produced at
present. They are suitable for selective zinc(II) removal from the solutions of pH
greater than 4. In the decontamination of waste solutions Duolite C-467 column
worked very well. From an alkaline metal plating waste solution having 153 ppm
of zinc(II) as a cyanide complex a loading of 1.78 meq/g was obtained and the
removal efficiency prior to breakthrough was 99.5% [226, 227].
The Swedish Industrial Plant Svenska Rayon Co. in Valberg along with the
Department of Nuclear Chemistry, Chalmers Technical College, Goteborg worked
out and applied practically the technology of zinc(II) removal with the yield over
90% from the weakly acidic sewage formed during the artificial silk production
using zinc extraction by means of the liquid cation exchanger D2EHPA (so-called
Valberg process) [228]. This process makes it possible to recover zinc(II) from the
diluted solution about 0.2 g Zn(II)/dm 3 and to improve the environmental
protection by reducing heavy metal contents in sewages. Reextraction is carried
out with HeSO4 solution and the obtained reextractant is directly returned into
the industrial process (into the spinning bath to regulate the speed of cellulose
coagulation) or is concentrated to obtain crystalline zinc sulphate. In the process
conditions when pH of the water vapour is>2, extraction is very effective and
quick remaining below 2 ppm Zn(II) in the raffinate. Iron is the most serious
competitor for zinc(II) in the extraction process and can be washed away from the
extractant using NaOH. The Valberg process became depreciated within 4-5
years [228].
521
Lately dialkylthiophosphonic acids are of great interest (Cyanex 301 and
Cyanex 302) of the following formulae:
R\fs
R\
/ \
R
. . R\
/ \
SH
Cyanex 301
pKa=2.61
/P
OH
\SH
Cyanex 302
pKa=5.63
where R is 2,4,4-trimethylpentyl. Liquid cation exchangers like Cyanex 301 and

Cyanex 302 will probably replace D2EHPA used for the extractive removal of
zinc(II) ions from the weakly acidic sewages formed during the artificial silk
production [229].
Zinc salts are also present in the sewages originating from the ceramic
industry. A strongly acidic cation exchanger in the sodium form can be applied
for their removal [3,5,10]. Regeneration is carried out by means of the NaC1
solution of the ion exchanger concentration 300 g/dm ~. The ion-exchange capacity
of the cation exchanger for zinc(II) ions is 32-40 g Zn(II)/dm~.
Zinc(II) removal from the solutions used in cooling towers is also troublsome.
Then cation exchangers can be also used [3,5,10]. Scott et. al. Suggest application
of phosphonic ion exchangers (Duolite ES-63 or Duolite TSAP-40) for selective
adsorption of zinc(II) ions from cooling waters.
Strongly basic anion exchangers in the chloride form are used for selective
adsorption of zinc(II) chloride complexes [ZnCI4]2-. Pure ZnC12 can be obtained
washing the used up anion exchanger with water [3,5,10]. The outline of the
process makes it possible to isolate zinc(II) from the postregeneration liquid
containing the metal ions mixture. A mixture of chlorides is obtained as a result
of regeneration of strongly acidic cation exchanger (used to remove metal ions
from mixed plating baths). From the obtained postregeneration liquid [ZnCI4] 2 is
selectively removed on the anion exchanger. Anion exchangers are used to
recover zinc chloride from digesting solutions used in the steel industry.
3. NEW TRENDS IN ION-EXCHANGE METHOD DEVELOPMENT

Though removal of metal ions from the given sewage is not difficult from the
economical point of view, the applicable methods are those which make the
process economical. The same refers to ion-exchange as a method for the sewage
components reuse. In this case effective separation of sewages into concentrated
salts and water is often too expensive, particularly when the amounts of sewages
are large. Thus, besides new technological systems, the efficiency of unit
operations, as well as synthesis of new or improvement of physicochemical
properties of already known ion exchangers are important.
522
Keeping this in mind, the scientist from CSIRO [5] worked out magnetic ion
exchangers which have many advantages. Their commercial names are
Sirotherm (e.g. Sirotherm IR-20 contains weak acid and weak base groups) and
Siromag (e.g. Siromag 17-strong acid resin, sulphonic acid type and Siromag 57strong base resin, quaternary ammonium type 1) and they are produced by ICI
Operations Pty Ltd., Australia. Application of small ion exchanger grain size
(about 200 pm.) caused significant improvement of adsorption rate. As the
process rate increases, the same effects can be achieved using a smaller number
of ion exchangers in smaller systems. Magnetized ion exchangers can be readily
separated from the waters purified from metal ions and translocated which
creates perfect conditions for their applications in the flow contact apparatus. In
this type of apparatus a continuous transport of the ion exchanger was possible
and which, in most existing processes, has a periodical character.
Very simple devices from the fluidal counter-current bed to the parallel
current tube reactors can be applied to work with magnetic ion exchangers.
Studies for removal of various elements particularly of uranium(VI) (about
3 pg/dm 3) from the sea water on the ion exchangers of various types are of special
importance [34-45]. In case of the amidoxime ion exchanger [36,45] kinetics of
uranium sorption and desorption was studied. Of various type ion exchangers
tested for uranium(VI) removal from the sea water, the chelating ion exchanger
of functional amidoxime groups Duolite ES-346 (3.6 mg U3Os/g) possesses the
greatest working capacity for [U02(C03)3] 4-. The working capacity constitutes
about 3% total capacity for uranium(VI) and is several times greater than that of
hydrated titanium dioxide used in the English and Japanese experimental
systems [36,45]. Contrary to hydrated titanium dioxide Duolite ES-346 is
characterized by high mechanical resistance as proved by over six month tests of
work in the system fluidal bed using the sea water. According to the preliminary
economical analysis, the price of i kg U3Os recovered from sea water by sorption
is about 5-10 times higher due to great amounts of uranium in the sea water
(about 1000 times greater than the ground resources) its recovery on Duolite E S 346 or on another selective sorbent should be expected [36,45].
Barnes et al. applied the synthesized amidoxime and polydithiocarbamide ion
exchangers together with the ISP or ASA method to determine trace amounts of
several elements in the sea water, fresh water, biological materials, urea, serum,
bones, peritoneum dialysis solutions, D-glucose, high purity graphite as well as
NaC1, Li2CO~, H3BO~ [47,80-83]. The chelating amidoxime ion exchanger proved
to be very effective for removal of metal ions trace amounts [47-48].
Of new selective ion exchangers Diphonix resin is very important. It is a
polyfunctional ion exchanger of the structure:
523
0
HO~ lip/OH
~CH2"'-cH~CH2"cH~CH~::~ 2.~
SO3H
H~CH2~CH~
SO3H
It is characterized by high selectivity for some metal ions including lead(II). The
properties of Diphonix resin are a result of introducing the additional functional
groups into the matrix of the resin. Examples of modified Diphonix resins are the
already mentioned Diphonix-A resin containing the same geminally substituted
diphosphonic acid groups bonded to a styrenie-based polymer matrix as the
regular Diphonix resin, plus strong base anion exchange groups such as the
tetraalkylammonium (Diphonix-A, type 1 resin) or the quaternized pyridinium
(Diphonix-A, type 2 resin) groups [230].
In our opinion the future development of these ion exchangers will make it
possible to decrease ion-exchange costs as a method for recovery and reuse of the
sewage components.
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Technol., 32 (1997) 1.

533
P h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l b y slag: e x p e r i m e n t s a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l
modeling
S. Vigneswaran a and H. Moon b
Faculty of Engineering, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123,
Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia
b Faculty of Applied Chemical Engineering, Chonnam National University,

300 Yongbong, Kwangju 500-757, Korea
1. INTRODUCTION
Phosphorus is one of the essential nutrients needed for the growth of plants
and animals. When plants and animals excrete wastes or die, microorganisms
mineralize the various forms of organic phosphorus in the decaying matter. Both
Sewage Treatment Plant(STP) effluent and urban run-off also lead to phosphorus
enrichment to the waterways. In country sides, where agriculture and animal
husbandry are main industries, wastes from these activities contribute to the
accumulation of P in soil and water bodies. These phosphorus compounds
dissolved in surface or ground waters are responsible for the eutrophication in
the closed water system, especially in lakes and highly enclosed bays where
water is stagnant.
At present, chemical treatment, biological processes, and land treatment are
used to remove phosphorus from water and wastewater. Among them, the land
treatment is an attractive solution if the substratum has significant adsorptive
capacity of phosphorus [1-3]. Sydney Water, Australia, recommended the land
application of sewage effluent in areas where there are serious eutrophication
problems (for example in Richmond area in New South Wales, Australia). On the
other hand, a constructed wetland system has been suggested as an appropriate
technology for P treatment in many parts of the world [4]. In this respect,
phosphorus removal by slag media (waste by-products from steel industries) may
be a good solution.
Several researchers have investigated the utilization of natural soils and
amended sand with iron oxides for phosphorus removal [1,5]. These studies were
confined mainly to investigate the removal efficiency using those materials. No
study, however, have attempted to deal with the P transport in substrata to
provide basic information for the design of efficient land treatment facilities.
534
A detailed study on the phosphorus removal using soil and slag media from steel
industries [6,7] indicated that slag media have higher sorption capacities for P
compared to other substrata, such as natural soils. In particular, the batch and
column experiments conducted with natural soil and slag media showed that
adsorption was dominant at low pH values less than 6 while chemical
precipitation, dominant at higher pH values over 8. The slag particles contain
significant amount of soluble metal ions such as magnesium and calcium. Those
metal ions are responsible for chemical precipitation and complexation at high
pH.
The section 2 of this chapter presents the results of column experiments to
show the dynamic behavior of P in the column with slag at various operating
conditions. Non-equilibrium dynamic models based on surface or pore diffusion
inside slag media were used for simulating the adsorption behavior of P.
Comparing simulated results with experimental breakthrough curves of P
assessed these models. In particular, the effect of kinetic model parameters on
breakthrough behavior will be rigorously discussed.
At high pH, the phosphorus retention by chemical precipitation is significant.
The soluble metal ions react with phosphorus in the solution to form insoluble
precipitates such as calcium phosphate. A number of early researches on P
chemistry postulated the formation of various insoluble inorganic phosphates of
Fe, A1, Mg, and Ca through precipitation reactions. Aluminum ions combine with
phosphate ions to form aluminum phosphate. Both ferrous (Fe 2+) and ferric (Fe 3+)
ions are also responsible for the precipitation of phosphorus. With Fe a the
reaction is similar to that of aluminum ion. Fe 2 shows more complicated
reactions, which are not fully understood. In the case of Fe 2 ferrous phosphate
is usually formed at pH values about 8. The precipitation of phosphate from
wastewater by calcium is common.
The batch precipitation experiments conducted by Lee [7] indicated that a
considerable precipitation of P was observed at pH greater t h a n 8. Further, the
contribution of precipitation was found to increase with the increase of pH.
According to Lee [7], the dominant removal mechanism of P at pH greater than
10 is precipitation. Jenkins et al. [8] observed species such as PO43-, HP042-,
P30105-, and P2074- at high pH. Aulenbach and Meisheng [9] showed that calcium
present in the wastewater enhanced precipitation of P as a crystal of hydroxy
apatite:
3PO34- +5Ca 2+ + O H - --+ Ca5(PO4)3OH
At high pH, when phosphorus removal is both by adsorption and precipitation,
in order to obtain the exact adsorption isotherms, one has to use the real
adsorption amount after subtracting the amount of precipitation from the total
uptake. One can also use equilibrium data obtained with washed slag media. In
535
the washed slag media most of most soluble metal ions are removed ( or washed
out ) from the adsorbent particles.
Because of the presence of the reactive species in the solution, the adsorption
model has to incorporate the chemical reaction to calculate the phosphorus
removal in slag media.
For simplicity reasons, in the present work, the precipitation reaction of
phosphate with soluble cations was represented by a simple bimolecular reaction.
Since the precipitation reaction occurs both in the bulk solution and in the pore
solution, a pore diffusion model incorporates the chemical reaction was developed
to interpret the kinetic data of P in batch and column adsorption experiments.
The model details are given in Section 3.
2.
PHOSPHORUS
A D S O R P T I O N : C O M P A R I S O N OF K I N E T I C M O D E L S
2.1. K i n e t i c m o d e l s
2.1.1. D y n a m i c m o d e l b a s e d o n s u r f a c e d i f f u s i o n
A surface diffusion model(SDM) with external mass transfer resistance was
used because of its simplicity and adequacy in describing the adsorption of P from
aqueous solutions onto slag media. For model formulation, we assume an
isothermal adsorption column, packed with porous spherical particles. The flow
pattern is described as an axial dispersed plug-flow model. Another assumption
involved in the model is the fast intrinsic adsorption kinetics, resulting in instant
equilibrium between the solid phase and liquid phase concentrations at the
external surface of particle [10].
If the surface diffusion is dominant, the mass balance inside a spherical
porous particle can be described by the following equation:
at
~r--2 + -r-~r-r
(1)
with the initial and boundary conditions:

q(r,t=0)=0
(2)
aq
=0
a r r=0
(3)
aq
: kf(C-Cs)
DsPp-~-r
r=Rp
(4)
536
where D~ is the surface diffusion coefficient, pp is the particle density, and kf is
the external film mass transfer coefficient.
The mass balance equation and the relevant initial and boundary conditions
for the liquid phase in the column are as follows:
_Da x 02C
0(uC) 0C ( 1 - ~ ; b ) 3 k f ( c C ) 0
+
+
- s =
0z
0t
~b Rp
a--~ +
C(z,t = 0)= 0
(5)
(6)
- - (Clz o -Clz 0+)
Dax-~-z z:0
aC
=0
8z z=L
(8)
The final term

surface of particles
concentration, Cs,
equilibrium theory
of Eq.(5) represents the mass transfer rate to the external

which is proportional to the driving force, C - Cs. The surface
can be evaluated from the corresponding isotherm or
[11].
2.1.2. Pore diffusion model(PDM)

If pore diffusion is dominant inside the particle, the intraparticle diffusion
model can be represented by the following equations
aCp
aq
+ pp
aCp
~pDp Or
=~
lO(
r2Dp
aCp)
=kf(C-Cs)
r
(9)
(10)
=Rp
aCP I
=0
a r r=0
(II)
Cp(r,t : 0 ) : 0
(12)
where Dp is the pore diffusion coefficient and % is the particle porosity.
537
2.1.3. Simplified m o d e l
A simplified model can be formulated from the postulate that the uptake rate
by a pellet is linearly proportional to a driving force, defined as the difference
between the surface concentration and the average adsorbed-phase
concentration. This is called "Linear Driving Force Approximation(LDFA)".
According to this approximation, the intraparticle diffusion can be simplified as
follows [12]:
0~ = 3k____L(C_Cs)= ks(q s _ ~ )
0t
Rppp
(13)
Here, ks is the solid-phase mass transfer coefficient. For spherical particles, the
average adsorbed-phase concentration, ~, is defined as
Rp
_
q=
3
Rp
]rr2qd r
(14)
In the case that the surface diffusion is the controlling mechanism of

intraparticle mass transfer, this can be estimated from the following equation.
ks
15Ds
~
Rp 2
(15)
This relationship has been mathematically derived based on the assumption

that the adsorbed-phase concentration profile is parabolic. When adsorbent
particles are very small, this simplified version has been successfully applied.
The coupled parabolic second-order partial differential equations, Eqs. (1) and
(5), can not be solved analytically. Thus, a numerical method must be employed.
In this work, a method based on orthogonal collocation [13-15] was used. The
method of orthogonal collocation was used to reduce these coupled second-order
partial differential equations to a set of first-order ordinary differential equations
using several interior collocation points. This technique combines the classical
procedure of orthogonal collocation with the high accuracy of the finite element
method. The entire column was divided into a finite number of elements, in
which the space variables are discretized. The set of ordinary equations was
integrated using an integrator named LSODI. LSODI employs the variable-step
size, variable-order, and the predictor-corrector techniques that are suitable for
stiff equations.
538
2.2. E x p e r i m e n t a l
Slag media (dust and cake - waste materials obtained from a steel industry)
were used as adsorbents in column experiments. The dust was t a k e n from the
secondary bag house deducting system used to control fugitive emissions from
vessels in the steel industry while the cake is the gas scrubbing slurry from the
blast furnace. In the steel production process, they are produced independently.
Slag media were air dried at 105~ for a day and the fraction less t h a n 2 m m size
was obtained by sieving. Slag samples were mixed well before being used in the
experiments. P solution was prepared by dissolving Na2HPO4 in distilled water.
The properties of dust and cake were analyzed by s t a n d a r d procedures [16]. A
pycnometer was used to determine the particle and bed densities. Permeability
was d e t e r m i n e d by the constant head method. The surface area and pore size
were m e a s u r e d by a nitrogen adsorption method (BET, Micromeritics ASAP2400). Total element concentrations were determined in an acidified solution by
ICPAES (Inductively Coupled P l a s m a Atomic Emission Spectrometer).
Field conditions were simulated in the laboratory-scale column packed with
slag media. Column experiments were carried out mainly to find the
concentration b r e a k t h r o u g h p a t t e r n under various conditions. A phosphorus
solution was supplied to the columns under gravity from overhead containers
(each with a capacity of 20 liters). Constant head was m a i n t a i n e d by providing an
overflow tube above the adsorbents. Effluent flow was controlled by a flow meter.
Concentration of POn-P in the tap w a t e r was less t h a n 0.05 mg/L. Forty liters of
the tap w a t e r was infiltrated through the column prior to the introduction of the
P solution to ensure a uniform compactness of the adsorbents. Care was t a k e n
not to allow any air bubbles in the under drainage section and in the media layer.
It is evident t h a t the solid phase concentration (q) and the liquid phase
concentration (C) m u s t coexist in equilibrium at the b r e a k t h r o u g h point. The pH
of the P solution in the influent was m a i n t a i n e d in the range of 6 to 7. Six
columns of 9 cm d i a m e t e r were packed with the dust and cake adsorbents to
thickness of 1 and 3 cm, respectively. Depth of the media was m a i n t a i n e d shallow
to achieve an early breakthrough. The entire effluent concentration history was
recorded.
To e s t i m a t e the solid phase concentration, the soil and slag in the column was
t a k e n out for air drying at the b r e a k t h r o u g h stage of the adsorbents. It was
further dried in an oven at a t e m p e r a t u r e of 105~ for 24 hours. Then the preweighed a m o u n t of the adsorbents was extracted using nitric acid. After
extraction, they were diluted with a required volume of distilled w a t e r and the
solution was decanted. Then the samples were analyzed for P concentration using
a spectrophotometer (Milton Roy Spectronic 20D).
2.3. E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s and m o d e l v e r i f i c a t i o n
2.3.1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the a d s o r b e n t s
Physical and chemical properties of the adsorbents were m e a s u r e d since P
t r a n s p o r t is influenced by the intrinsic characteristics of the media. The physical
539
characteristics of the slag media tested are listed in Table 1. The chemical
properties are also shown in Table 2. More detailed properties are given
elsewhere [7]. The values of the permeability of slag media are in the range of
1.8 - 3.2"10 .7 m/s. These values are very low so t h a t the slag media are not
suitable in rapid infiltration systems. This result would be expected because two
slag media used in this study have slit (<0.06 mm) fraction more t h a n 80 %. For
rapid infiltration, larger particles with high permeability are recommended as
s u b s t r a t a [17].
Table 1
Physical properties of dust and cake
Average particle d i a m e t e r
Particle density
Packing density
Bed porosity
Surface area x 103*
Average pore radius *
Permeability x 107
Dust
Cake
Unit
18
2,780
1,029
50
1,950
760
0.63
22.0
20.0
3.2
~m
m3/kg
m3/kg
0.61
m2/kg
nm
m/s
7.0
9.22
1.8
* from BET method based on N2 adsorption
Table 2
Chemical properties of dust and cake
Constituents
Dust
Cake
Exchangeable cation I (cmol/kg)

A1
Mg
Ca
K
Na
CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity)
0.22
0.32
67.96
1.88
3.00
73.40
<0.01
20.92
27.53
1.80
46.88
97.10
Total Elements 2 (%)

P
A1
Fe
0.07
0.19
17.70
0.05
0.21
34.40
1 Exchangeable cations in a 0.01 M BaC12 leachate, determined by ICPAES

(InductivelyCoupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometer). Exchangeable A1 is
determined only if pH < 5.04
2 Total elements determined by acid digestion and ICPAES
540
The BET analysis based on N2 adsorption shows t h a t dust and cake have very
small surface area, which is comparable to those of metal oxides [18]. Their
average pore diameters are in the range of 9.2 - 22.3 nm, which can be classified
into mesopores.
2.3.2. Adsorption i s o t h e r m s
Equilibrium data of P on dust and cake were fitted with two well-known
isotherms, L a n g m u i r and Freundlich equations as shown in Figure 1.
qmbC
q=~
l+bC
(16)
q : KC 1/n
(17)
10
Dust
Cake
......
7//o
~
Langmuir
/~.,..
Freundlich
.-"
"""
, -""
~:r 4
iO
20
30
40
50
60
C (mg/L)
Figure 1. Isotherms of P on cake and dust at 20~
Equilibrium data were obtained from column experiments. Their isotherm

p a r a m e t e r s are given in Table 3. According to the average percent deviations
given in Table 3, the Freundlich equation gives better fit t h a n the L a n g m u i r
equation. This fact can be justified by the high surface heterogeneity of slag
media. Since slag media used in this study contains a lot of metal compounds
541
that are responsible for effective cation exchange capacity (CEC). The major
contributing factors for CEC are calcium for dust (68 cmol/kg) and sodium for
cake (46.9 cmol/kg). Large proportions of metals exposed on external and pore
surface may enhance the adsorption of P.
Table 3
Adsorption equilibrium parameters of P on dust and cake
Type
Langmuir Equation
Freundlich Equation
---N--k=l
qexp
qm
b
E(%)
k
n
E(%)
Dust
Cake
21.82
0.0104
2.69
0.263
1.130
0.140
10.28
0.0072
1.82
0.083
1.094
0.100
The adsorption capacities of dust and cake are found to be much higher than
that of a sandy loam soil obtained from North Sydney (0.019 - 0.033 mg/g in the
same concentration range) [7] even they were washed thoroughly prior to use.
The dust has approximately 200 times of capacity for P uptake comparing with
the soil (if the effect of precipitation is included). These results imply that slag
media from steel industries are very suitable adsorbent for P removal from water
bodies.
2.3.3. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f k i n e t i c p a r a m e t e r s
In addition to equilibrium isotherms, information on sorbate transport is
essential for analyzing the dynamic behavior in the adsorption-based facilities.
Lee [7] used a simple dynamic model to predict his experimental breakthrough
curves of P obtained from column experiments. His model is quite similar to the
simple model described in this paper, which contains two kinetic parameters, an
axial dispersion coefficient and a solid-phase mass transfer coefficient. He
extracted two parameters directly from one set of his own data and predicted all
other breakthrough curves successfully. Since these kinetic parameters can
compensate each other during their optimization process, it is not easy to get
reliable parameters simultaneously from a set of data. In this work, the axial
dispersion coefficient and the external film mass transfer coefficient were
estimated from proper correlation reported in the literature. Therefore only the
surface diffusion coefficient was obtained from a set of experimental data.
542
The Reynolds n u m b e r calculated from experimental conditions used in this
study is in the order of 10 .4 - 10 -5. For low Reynolds number, one can approximate
the axial dispersion coefficient from the fact that the axial Peclet n u m b e r is of the
order of 0.3 - 1.0 [12]. However we use a correlation suggested by Wakao and
F u n a z k r i [19] since this correlation has been used successfully for a liquid-phase
system [20].
Dax = Re Sc +
2~Rp
(18)
The external film mass transfer was also estimated from Wakao-Funazkri
equation [12].
Sh =
2k
fR_________=~p2 + 1.1Re ~ Sc ~
(19)
Dm
where Sc and Re denote Schmidt and Reynolds numbers, respectively and Dm is
the molecular diffusion coefficient that was estimated by Wilke-Chang equation
[21]. Under the experimental conditions used here, the estimated molecular
diffusion coefficient of P (as PO3) is 1.34"10 .9 m2/s.
The surface and pore diffusion coefficients of P in dust and cake were
calculated from a set of column data (Run No. Dust 30 and Cake 30 in Table 4) by
minimizing the object function defined as
lOO FlOex,call]
E(%) = ~
j=l
C exp
(20)
Figure 2 clearly shows a minimum of the object function in terms of the

surface diffusion coefficient. When the simplified version was used, the solidphase mass transfer coefficient, ks, is required. This value was calculated from Ds
using Eq.(15). All kinetic p a r a m e t e r s obtained are listed in Table 4 with column
conditions. The axial dispersion coefficient estimated is about 2.70.10 -s m2/s,
which is very low. This could be due to small particle size and low interstitial
flow rate. Consequently, it can be expected that the effect of axial dispersion is
negligible under these experimental systems. The external film mass transfer
coefficient obtained is in the range of 0.54 - 1.57.10 .4 m/s. These values are much
larger t h a n those of other system, namely organic species on activated carbon
and resins [18]. This implies that the mass transfer resistance through the
external film is small. The low value is due to relatively small particle size.
The surface diffusion coefficient is very small (10 -15 m2/s) compared to that of
phenols in activated carbons [18]. This result may be explained using the concept
of an activation process for P transport in dust and cake. In fact, the adsorption
543
Table 4
Kinetic p a r a m e t e r s * e s t i m a t e d at 25~
R u n No.
Co
[mg/L]
L
[m]
u'106
[m/s]
Dax'108
[me/s]
kf'104
[m/s]
D~-1015 Dp.10 la
[me/s]
[me/s]
ks" 105
[l/s]
Dust
Dust
Dust
Dust
Dust
Dust
05
10
20
30
40
50
5
10
20
30
40
50
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
35.3
35.3
35.3
35.3
4.28
4.98
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.69
2.68
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.57
1.51
1.52
0.229
4.50
4.25
Cake
Cake
Cake
Cake
Cake
Cake
05
10
20
30
40
50
5
10
20
30
40
50
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
1.18
1.18
1.81
5.32
6.25
6.94
2.69
2.69
2.70
2.70
2.71
2.71
0.54
0.54
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.56
5.25
9.50
7.25
i000
I00
%,
I0
0
~
l
l
0.I
!"
i,
r
Dust
"r
~
~--
_,u
~2
'i'
'I'
i.
..
I ~
-
.... Cake
:
-+
.
.
.
.
.
.
" : : : '
0.01
I0
-16
I0
-15
Surface diffusion coefficient, D~, m2/s
Figure 2. Determination of Ds from experimental data.
i0
-14
544
35
25 -
~o
~176176176176176176176176176176176176176
.....................
0 15
s
"/
10
.... Dax = I0 ~
,"'/~
. . . . Dax
= 1 0 "9
5
0
20
40
60
80
I00
T i m e (hr)
Figure 3. Sensitivity of axial dispersion coefficient on BTC.

35
30
..'" ........................................
25
~,20
"m
~Z5
ro
1~ I
5 I/
0 ,- .....
0
/;
- - - - D s =10 -16
.'"
- ' - " Ds :10 "17

I
20
40
60
80
i00
Time (hr)
Figure 4. Sensitivity of surface diffusion coefficient on BTC.
545
of P on dust and cake is likely to be chemisorption r a t h e r t h a n physical
adsorption. Therefore the u p t a k e rate is usually very slow. The pore diffusion
coefficient is also small (10 -13 m2/s). In batch systems, it was confirmed t h a t more
t h a n 100 hours is required to reach its equilibrium state [7].
Figure 3 and 4 show the sensitivities of Dax and Ds on the b r e a k t h r o u g h curve
of P in dust column (Run Dust 30). To check the sensitivity of each kinetic
p a r a m e t e r , the value was varied by one order less and more t h a n t h a t of the
determined one. As expected above, the effect of Dax was negligible on the
b r e a k t h r o u g h curve. On the other hand, the variation of Ds affected the
b r e a k t h r o u g h curve significantly. This result implies t h a t the diffusion controls
the sorption rate and its d e t e r m i n a t i o n is crucial in s i m u l a t i n g the dynamic
behavior of P sorption.
2.3.4. S i m u l a t i o n o f c o l u m n d y n a m i c s
Finally, b r e a k t h r o u g h curves (BTC) of P from dust and cake columns were
simulated using the three models described in section 2.1. Figures 5 to 8 show the
experimental data and the predicted b r e a k t h r o u g h curves. The solid and broken
lines r e p r e s e n t the prediction by the full dynamic models based on surface or
pore diffusion mechanism, respectively, and the dotted lines represents those by
O0
0
O0 O0
0
o.'"'"~176
......................
~176
.-i
00
0
0"" 0'''"
~ 3
vE
o
o/~
,~,
......Simple
S DM
,-'I' o
"~^0 0
PDM
..................
20
40
Time
60
Figure 5. Breakthrough curves of P (Run Dust 05).
80
I00
546
35
3o
-1-
20
./j
oOo o
15 [
,~/
,q/
Exp. Data
. . . . . . Simple
5
0 ,-,
0
20
40
60
80
i00
Time (hr)
Figure 6. Breakthrough curves of P (Run Dust 30).
~176
.................................................
5
~
4
i
0
9"
~03
0
0
9
9
0
0
9
t
9
o
,
~SDM
O O
Exp. Data
. . . . . . Simple
//~r
PDM
0
O0
0
to
0
20
4O
Time (day)
Figure 7. Breakthrough curves of P (Run Cake 05).
60
80
547
3O
~176176176176176
.........
.o"0~
0
25
--
(5"
~20
",~/
~15-
Exp. Data
...... Simple
SDM
i0-
PDM
5-
i0
15
Time (day)
Figure 8. Breakthrough curves of P (Run Cake 30).
the simplified version. It is very interesting to note that the full models predict
all b r e a k t h r o u g h curves satisfactorily while the simplified model could not
predict the adsorption behavior of P in the column of cake, particularly at low
concentrations. At first, it was anticipated that both models predict all
b r e a k t h r o u g h curves since the particle sizes of dust and cake are small and the
intraparticle diffusion is extremely slow. This unexpected result may be due to
the low flow rates r a t h e r t h a n low concentrations. Other cases, which are not
shown here, revealed also the same tendency at low flow rates. In Figures 5 - 8 ,
all b r e a k t h r o u g h data are somewhat scattered, showing multiple stages which
are typical for multiple species systems [22,23]. Phosphorus has a very complex
chemistry [8]. Even one used an orthophosphate to prepare the solution; many
different ionic species can be formed in the solution depending on the solution
pH.
They have different affinities eventually competing with each other for specific
adsorption sites. This may be a reason why b r e a k t h r o u g h data show multiple
stages. If a proper solution characterization technique is available and the
fraction and isotherm p a r a m e t e r s of individual ionic species are known, one can
predict these abnormal b r e a k t h r o u g h curves more accurately [23,24]. However
such an approach would not be so important from the engineering points of view.
548
3.
A D S O R P T I O N OF P A C C O M P A N Y I N G WITH P R E C I P I T A T I O N
REACTION
3.1. T h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t
3.1.1. P o r e d i f f u s i o n m o d e l for b a t c h s y s t e m s
The rate of chemical reaction between P (denoted by 1) and the cation (namely
Ca 2+, denoted by 2) is t a k e n into account as a simple bimolecular reaction [10].
r 1 = krCblCb2
(21)
r 2 = krVCblCb2
(22)
where kr is the reaction constant and v is the stoichiometric ratio between P and
Ca e If the precipitation reaction forms mainly hydroxy apatite, the
stoichiometric ratio is 1.667. In this work, it was assumed t h a t precipitation
occurs both in the bulk solution and the pore fluid at the same time.
When the solution with a known initial concentration is contacted with a
given a m o u n t of adsorbent particles, the mass balance of P in the bulk solution
can be written as follows
V dCbl = - V k r C b l C b 2 - k f l a f ( C b l - C s l )
dt
(23)
Cbl(t =0) = C 0bl
(24)
where V is the volume of solution, kfl is the external film mass transfer, and af is
the external surface area of adsorbent particles, af can be represented by the
following equation
3w
af = - ppRp
(25)
Here, w is the mass of adsorbent, Rp is the particle radius, and pp is the particle
density.
The mass balance for the cation is also represented by a similar equation.
V dCb2 = -VvkrCblCb2 - kf2af(Cb2 - C s 2 )
dt
(26)
0
Cb2(t = O) = Cb2
(27)
549
When the intraparticle mass transfer is due to only the diffusion of adsorbate
molecules through the pore fluid, the macroscopic conservation equation of P
inside a spherical adsorbent particle is given by
OCpl t P P 0 q l . Dpl
. c3. ( r 2. 0 C p l /
0t
gp 0t
r 2 Or ~,
)0r
krCplCp2
(28)
with two following boundary conditions
c3Cpl Ir=R = kfl(Cbl -Csl )

p
epDpl ar
0Cpl I =0
Or r=0
(29)
(30)
The corresponding initial condition is given by
Cpl (t = 0) = C ~
(31)
Similarly, the conservation equation for the cation is given by
c3Cp2 + ~ ~ Pc~q2
P
0t
gp 0t
0Cp2
epDp2 Or
c3Cp2 I
0r
= DP----~2
r 20r
c32 (
r
r=Rp
=0
c3Cp2
l-krVCplCp20r
= k f2 (Cb2 - Cs2 )
(32)
(33)
(34)
Ir=0
Cp2(t = 0) = C~
(35)
where Dpi is the pore diffusion coefficient of the i th species and ~p is the particle
porosity.
3.1.2. Dynamic model for column adsorption
When the flow through the column is assumed to be axially dispersed and a
chemical reaction is involved in the adsorption system, the mass balance
550
equation and the relevant initial and b o u n d a r y conditions for the i th species in
the liquid phase of the column are also r e p r e s e n t e d as follows:
92
aCbl
3(1- gb)kfl
c3Cbl = Dax Cb-------!-I- u
-krCblCb2 (Cbl - C s l )
0t
az 2
0z
~bRp
(36)
Cbl(t=0)=0
(37)
Dax c3Cbl z = - u ( C b l Iz:0--Cbl[z=0+ )

c3z
=0
(38)
~Cbl
=0
c~z
(39)
z=L
where Dax is the axial dispersion coefficient, v is the interstitial flow rate, ~b is
the bed porosity, and L is the bed length.
Similarly, the mass balance equation for the cation becomes
c3Cb2 _ Da x c32Cb2
~ - t )
c3t
c3z 2
0Cbl
3(1 - gb)kf2
- krVCblCb2 (Cb2 - C s 2 )
0z
~bRp
Cb2(t =0) = 0
DaxC3Cb20z z=0 =
0Cb2
0z
(40)
(41)
-"(Cb2z:0--Cb21z:0+)
=0
(42)
(43)
z=L
3.1.3. N u m e r i c a l s o l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e
To obtain dimensionless model equations, some dimensionless variables were

introduced as follows
s = -L
x = -Rp
(44)
(45)
551
t)t
=~
L
(46)
Cbi
Ybi = CO
(47)
Cpi
(48)
Ypi = Co
where Co is a unit concentration. Then, the dimensionless model equation for

column becomes
c3Ybi
0x
1 02Y bi
Pe c3s2
c3Ybi
c3S
~iYblYb2 - ~
- Ysi)
Ybi(l: = O) = 0
Ybil
(?s [s=O
(49)
(50)
--Pe( bi s-O- - Ybits_-O+)
(51)
OYbi
=0
8s s=l
(52)
Also, the dimensionless equation inside the particle is given by

{1 + qf, (Ypi)}0Ypi
O~ =7i
02
}
Ypi + .2 .C3Ypi
. .
2
X C3X
Ox
~iYplYp2
(53)
C3Ypi
= Ki(Ybi-Ysi)
Ox x=l
(54)
CgYPi ]
=0
Ox x=O
(55)
Ypi(X =0) = y 0pi
(56)
Here, dimensionless groups are defined as follows
552
Pe
uL
Dax
(57)
Ppqo
(58)
- - - ~
q _ . _
EpC0
~i =
krLC0vi
(59)
3(1- ~:b)kfL
~bRpO
(60)
DpiL
Rpu
(61)
Rpkfi
~i
(62)
spDpi
The derivative of isotherm is defined as

d~gi
f' (Ypi): dypi
(63)
where the dimensionless solid phase concentration, ~pi,is defined as

~gi = q__L
qo
(64)
Here, qo represents a unit concentration. All the parabolic second-order partial

differential equations above can not be solved analytically. In this work, a
numerical method based on orthogonal collocation was used as in the section 2.1.
The method of orthogonal collocation was used to reduce these coupled secondorder partial differential equations to a set of first-order ordinary differential
equations using several interior collocation points [13,14]. The entire column was
divided into a finite number of elements, in which the space variables are
discretized. According to a collocation technique, the first and second partial
derivatives can be represented as follows
ayb /
t, as )i
NF+2
~A~,jybj
j=l
(65)
553
/
NF+2
a2yb = Z Bi,JYbJ
0s2 i
j=l
(66)
Here Ai,j and Bi,j are the first and second derivative coefficients.
From a boundary condition of the column at s = 1
/
(sb
NF+2
NF+I
= ZANF+2,JYbJ = ZANF+2,JYbJ + ANF+2, NF+2ybNF+2 = 0
NF+2
j=l
j=l
(67)
Then, the dimensionless concentration at s = 1 is obtained as

NF+I
YbNF+2 = - E
ANF+2'J Ybj
j=l ANF+2, NF+2
(68)
After substituting this relation into Eqs. (65) and (66), one obtains
/
NF+I .
0Yb = Z Ai,JYbJ
~S i
j=l
(69)
NF+I .
02yb = Z Bi,JYbJ
0 s2 i
j:l
(70)
Here, two modified derivative coefficients are defined as

Ai,j = Ai,j -
Bi, j = Bi, j -
Ai,NF+2ANF+2,j
(71)
ANF+2,NF+2
Bi,NF+2ANF+2,j
(72)
ANF+2,NF+2
From the inlet boundary condition,

/
NF+I .
.
NF+I .
OYb = Z A I , j Y b j = A I , l Y b l + Z A l , j Y b j = - P e ( C i n - Y b l )
as 1
j=l
j=2
From this equation, one can evaluate the concentration at the inlet section as
(73)
554
Ybl = -
NF+I
PeCin
1
~
*
.
- .
Al,jYbj
A1,1-Pe A1,1-Pe 9
(74)
The set of first-order ordinary differential equations is obtained by

substituting Eqs. (71), (72), and (74) into dimensionless partial differential
equations. Equations for the radial direction are not listed here. The detailed set
of equations are elsewhere [25]. This set of ordinary equations was integrated
using an integrator, LSODI as in the section 2.1.
3.2. E x p e r i m e n t a l
Series of batch sorption experiments were conducted to study the P sorption in
the static system. The batch adsorbers were 500 mL conical flasks. In each flask,
400 mL of a known concentration of P solution was mixed with a known amount
of adsorbent (0.4 g for dust and 2 g for cake, respectively). The mixture was kept
in a completely static condition without stirring throughout the experiment. The
experiments were carried out at various initial concentrations.
The column experiments were carried out mainly to obtain the breakthrough
curves of P under various conditions. A phosphorus solution was supplied to the
columns under gravity from overhead containers. The constant head was
maintained by providing an overflow line.
3.3. E x p e r i m e n t a l results and m o d e l v e r i f i c a t i o n
3.3.1. C o n t r i b u t i o n of p r e c i p i t a t i o n
It is known that the precipitation contributes to the removal of phosphorus
when slag media are used as adsorbent, particularly at high solution pH. As
mentioned in Section 2, original slag particles contain a lot of soluble cations,
namely magnesium and calcium ions which are responsible for chemical
precipitation and complexation. However, it is not simple to separate the
contribution of precipitation from the total P removal because of its complex
chemistry [8]. In designing the efficient land treatment facility for P removal, it is
very important to quantify the precipitation or complexation effect. In order to
account for only the contribution of adsorption, one can use washed slag media,
from which all soluble cations are extracted to eliminate the contribution of
precipitation. In Section 2, we determined adsorption isotherms of P on dust and
cake from equilibrium data obtained from the column packed with washed slag
media. Using these isotherms, we can predict the concentration history curve of P
in the batch experiments. Here only the adsorption contributes to P removal.
Figure 9 shows experimental and predicted concentration curves when dust was
used as an adsorbent for P removal (in the batch experiments). This experimental
data were obtained by contacting 400 mL of the P solution of 20 mg/L initial
concentration with 0.4 g of dust (Run BD-20). The dotted line represents only the
contribution of adsorption, calculating from the isotherm of P determined in
555
Section 2. The solid line denotes the variation in P concentration when
adsorption and precipitation occur at the same time. In this calculation, the
a m o u n t of soluble cations (equivalent to Cae+), which was d e t e r m i n e d from
experimental d a t a and isotherm, was used. The difference between two curves
m a y be a s s u m e d to be the contribution of precipitation or complexation of P.
According to the results shown in Figure 9, it can be concluded t h a t the
contribution of precipitation is equally i m p o r t a n t as t h a t of adsorption.
25
20
15
i0
O
o
5
Exp. Data
. . . . . . Adsorption
--
Ads + Pre
0
50
i00
150
200
Time (hr)
Figure 9. Contributions of adsorption and precipitation to P removal by dust.
3.3.2. E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f s o l u b l e c a t i o n s
The a m o u n t s of soluble cations were e s t i m a t e d from static batch experimental
data and corresponding isotherm as mentioned above. All experimental
conditions for batch experiments are listed in Table 5. Figure 10 shows how the
a m o u n t of soluble cations affects the concentration history curve of P for Run BD20. Since it is a s s u m e d t h a t the precipitation of P follows an irreversible
bimolecular reaction, the final (or equilibrium) concentration in the batch
adsorption decreases almost linearly with the a m o u n t of soluble metal ions in the
batch adsorption. For Run BD-20 as shown in Figure 9, the a m o u n t of soluble
ions dissolved from 1 g of dust was 15.67 mg/g (or 0.39 mol/kg). This value is
much lower t h a n the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of dust, 0.734 mol/kg shown
556
in Table 2. This result implies t h a t all metal ions dissolved from dust are not
responsible for precipitation.
Similarly, the a m o u n t of soluble cations on cake was e s t i m a t e d by comparing
the experimental data for Run BC-20 with the calculated result. In the case of
cake, the a m o u n t was 3.34 mg/g (0.083 mol/kg). In Figure 1 l, the broken line
represents only the adsorption contribution while the solid line accounts for the
total removal a m o u n t both by adsorption and precipitation.
Table 5
E x p e r i m e n t a l conditions for batch adsorption
Run No.
Type of adsorbent
V x 103 (m 3)
w x 103 (kg)
BD-10
Co (mg/L)
10
BD-20
Dust
0.40
0.4
20
BD-30
30
BC-10
10
BC-20
Cake
0.40
2.0
20
BC-30
30
24
20
16
"'\\
\\
"'-. .................................................
-....
c,.)
0 mg/g
5 mg/g
. . . . . . 10 mg/g
....
15 mg/g
50
i00
150
200
Time (hr)
Figure 10. Effect of initial amount of soluble cation on concentration curve.
557
24
20
16
6"'~......................................................
o
8
Data
4 +
. . . . . . Adsorption
~
0 I
Ads + Pre
200
400
600
Time (hr)
Figure 11. Contributions of adsorption and precipitation to P removal by cake.
3.3.3. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t
Prior to d e t e r m i n i n g the reaction rate constant, kr, one needs to check the
effect of kinetic p a r a m e t e r s on the corresponding concentration curve. In this
work, the pore diffusion coefficient of P was e s t i m a t e d from a b r e a k t h r o u g h curve
(Run Dust-30 in Section 2) by comparing with results predicted from the dynamic
model based on the pore diffusion mechanism. The pore diffusion coefficient of
the ion was a s s u m e d to be the same as t h a t of phosphate ion. This assumption is
reasonable because two ions have similar effective sizes in aqueous solution.
Figure 12 shows the sensitivity of the pore diffusion coefficients on the
concentration decay curve. When one order of m a g n i t u d e was t a k e n less or more
t h a n the pore diffusion coefficient of P, the variation in concentration curve is
significant. This implies t h a t the effect of the pore diffusion coefficient is very
critical within this range. However, the sensitivity of reaction rate constant for
dust is relatively small as shown in Figure 13. In this calculation, the order of
m a g n i t u d e in the reaction rate constant was also changed. According to the
simulated results, the reaction rate constant for the bimolecular reaction between
P and the cation is approximately of the order of 10 .2 for dust. The sensitivity of
the reaction rate constant for cake is shown in Figure 14. Exact values of the
558
24-
20\
\
16-
~12-
8--
~Dp=4.5xl0
12
. . . . . . D p = 4 . 5 x l 0 -13
_
....
I
0
50
D p = 4 . 5 x l 0 -14
100
150
200
Time (hr)
12. Effect of pore
Figure
diffusion coefficient on concentration curve.
2ll
20
16
. . . . . . Kr = 3.0x 10 -1
Kr = 3.0xl 0 -2
__
Kr = 3.0x 10 .3
0
50
100
150
200
T i m e (hr)
Figure 13. Effect o f reaction rate constant on concentration curve o f P on dust.
559
24
20
16
. . . . . . Kr = 6.3x10 -3
Kr = 6.3x10 -4
4 --
Kr = 6.3x 10 -5
0
0
200
400
600
T i m e (hr)
Figure 14. E f f e c t o f r e a c t i o n rate c o n s t a n t on c o n c e n t r a t i o n cu rv e o f P on cake.
i00
g
o
10
b
m
i
0.0001
0.001
0.01
Kr
Figure 15. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r e a c t i o n rate constant,
kr,
on dust and cake.
560
reaction rate constant can be obtained by minimizing the object function t h a t is
defined as the average percent difference between experimental and predicted
concentration curves. In this work, we obtained 3.10 .2 and 6.3"10 .4 L/mg s for dust
and cake, respectively. Figure 15 shows the average percent error in t e r m s of the
reaction rate constant to find a minimum. It should be noted t h a t two o p t i m u m
reaction rate constants for dust and cake are quite different since they have
different types of metal ions incorporated in them.
3.3.4. S i m u l a t i o n
of concentration
curves
When both adsorption and precipitation contribute to the P removal, it is

essential to check their relative effect on the total uptake. According to the
calculation, the precipitation reaction is quite fast compared to the rate of
adsorption. This is due to the fact t h a t most metal ions released from slag
particles were consumed at early stage of P removal process. W h e n the a m o u n t of
P is over the limiting value (which is defined as the stoichimetric a m o u n t for
reaction), the concentration of cations was extremely low or not detectable as
shown in Figure 16. For an initial P concentration of 10 mg/L, the concentration
of cations in the bulk solution was not detectable throughout the experiment.
However, in the case of low P concentration (7.5 and 5 mg/L), the concentration of
1 2
- -
. . . . . . 10. m g/L
10-
7.5 mg/L
_
5.0 mg/L
c..)
~".
Cation
~ i~ ~ .~.....'"""
................
.
--2
'/"~9
o. o. o
50
i00
150
200
Time (hr)
Figure 16. Concentrations of P and cation in terms of Co of P.
561
cations increased monotonously with time after consuming all P. This results
show t h a t the precipitation is very fast and dominates the initial stage of P
removal in the batch adsorption. This is a reason for initial steep decrease in the
concentration curve. If the kinetic p a r a m e t e r s of P removal processes are
evaluated without introducing the precipitation effect, the m a g n i t u d e of the
p a r a m e t e r s will be u n r e a s o n a b l y high compared to the real value.
Using the a m o u n t of soluble cations and the reaction r a t e constant, the
concentration history curves of P in the batch adsorption were evaluated.
Figure 17 shows the results for P removal with dust. Even there is a slight
deviation between the experimental and predicted results, all experimental
concentration curves could be predicted satisfactorily by the adsorption model
which incorporate a precipitation reaction term. Similarly, the concentration
curves of P with cake were also predicted and their results are shown in
Figure 18. There are deviations between experimental and predicted results after
a certain time of about 20 hours in Figure 18. These discrepancies may be
resulted from the r e t a r d a t i o n of pore diffusion since precipitates formed in pore
fluid can block pores.
35
o
30
[] 20 mg/L
zx 30 mg/L
Prediction
25"
A A
~~ 1 5 ~
i0
10 mg/L
[]
[]
_
5
0
0
i
50
I00
150
200
Time (hr)
Figure 17. Experimental and predicted concentration curves of P on dust.
562
35
o 10 mg/L
o 20 mg/L
A 30 mg/L
30
25
~20
Prediction
.~
[]
i0 5 ~
5
"0
0
0
200
400
600
Time (hr)
Figure 18. Experimental and predicted concentration curves of P on cake.
3.3.5. S i m u l a t i o n o f c o l u m n d y n a m i c s
Some breakthrough curves of P from columns which were packed with dust or
cake were also predicted by the proposed model in order to simulate the effect of
precipitation on the breakthrough behavior of P. This is very important because
the wet-land system will usually use the unwashed slag media. The simulated
breakthrough curves of P with kinetic parameters obtained show that the
precipitation contributes significantly the total P removal even in column
systems unless the reaction rate constant is extremely low or the pore diffusion
coefficient of cations are extremely high.
Figure 19 shows the effect of pore diffusion coefficient on breakthrough curves
of P in the column in which dust particles are packed. The solid line denotes the
predicted breakthrough curve with a pore diffusion coefficient of 4.5.10 -13 m2/s.
When this value was increased by one order, the breakthrough curve becomes a
steep but S-shaped curve which is typical for fast adsorption. However, the
predicted breakthrough curve with a low pore diffusion coefficient represents a
little complicated phenomenon, a steep increase at earlier stage and a
progressive increase later on. These unusual results may be due to a combined
effect of diffusion and reaction kinetics. In other words, the dominating
563
35
30
o
25
~20
................
--
~15"%)
0-12
I0--
....
4.5x10 -13
5--
d/
0
0
.':
20
40
60
80
i00
Time (hr)
Figure 19. Effect of pore diffusion coefficient, Dp, on breakthrough curve of P.
30
25
"-
o,"~176176
20
10
....
Kr=0.03
.003
20
40
60
80
i00
Time (hr)
Figure 20. Effect of reaction rate constant on breakthrough curve of P.
564
mechanism can be changed during the process. One may conclude that the
reaction dominates at earlier stage but the diffusion becomes dominant later. The
effect of reaction rate constant on breakthrough curves of P was also studied
here. In Figure 20, the breakthrough curves calculated with different reaction
rate constants are shown. Comparing with the effect of pore diffusion coefficient,
the reaction rate constant does not affect much. When the reaction rate constant
is over a certain limiting value, the corresponding breakthrough curve does not
change because of diffusion limitation.
Finally, two experimental breakthrough curves of P (Run Dust-30 and Cake-30
in Section 2) were simulated using dynamic model in conjunction with
precipitation term (Figures 21 and 22). The broken lines denote the breakthrough
curves predicted by the model when the precipitation term is incorporated. When
the effect of precipitation was taken into accounts, the breakthrough time
increased significantly. This means that the slag media with soluble cations have
longer lifetime for P removal in constructed wetland systems. However, this
results is valid will be valid only when precipitates formed are insoluble and
retained in the pore or interparticle structures.
-[-
30-
25-
~20-
ooo%~ ...'""
o~ % /../-""
~15-
S
10-
. ' " . . . o Exp. Data
c9~
/.-""
oJO
....'"
'
I .........
20
"
Adsorption
...... Ads + Pre
40
60
80
I00
Time (hr)
Figure 21. Experimental and predicted breakthrough curves of P from dust column.
565
30a
25"
Exp. Data
Adsorption
20-
15-
10-
i0
15
Time (day)
Figure 22. Experimental and predicted breakthrough curves of P from cake column.
4.
CONCLUSIONS
Equilibrium data of P on dust and cake were found to fit well both by
Langmuir and Freundlich equations. Even dust and cake were washed, the
sorption capacities were observed to be more than 20 - 50 times that of a sandy
roam soil. This implies that slag media from steel industries can be used as
effective adsorbents to remove P from water and wastewater.
The axial dispersion coefficient and the external film mass transfer coefficient
appearing in the model presented in Section 2 were estimated from the
experimental conditions using correlative relationships given in literature. Only
the intraparticle diffusion coefficient was obtained from breakthrough data. From
the sensitivity analysis, it was found that the intraparticle diffusion is a very
slow process that is the rate-controlling step.
In column experiments, all breakthrough data were observed to be somewhat
scattered, showing multiple stages that are typical for multicomponent systems.
566
These results may be due to the fact that different phosphate ions are present in
the solution according to a complex chemistry of phosphorus. They can compete
with each other for specific adsorption sites.
Breakthrough data of P obtained from dust and cake columns were predicted
from the dynamic model based on the intraparticle diffusion. They can
successfully be used in the design of adsorption-based P removal facilities packed
with slag media. The simplified version, on the other hand, could not predict the
breakthrough curves from the column of cake, particularly at low flow rates.
The precipitation was observed to be significant at high pH values. In this
study, the precipitation was represented by an irreversible bimolecular reaction
and the total amount of metal ions released from slag media was represented in
terms of an equivalent amount of Ca 2 The amount of metal ions was evaluated
by subtracting the predicted amount by isotherms (those were measured from
column experiments packed with washed slag media)from the total uptake. The
amount of soluble metal ions from 1 g of dust was 15.67 mg/g while that from
cake was 3.34 mg/g. These values are much lower than the cation exchange
capacities of slag media. This implies that not all metal ions dissolved from dust
or cake are responsible for precipitation. The pore diffusion coefficient of the
cation was assumed to be equal to that of phosphate ion and the reaction rate
constants were obtained by minimizing the deviation between experimental and
predicted concentration curves. The reaction rate constants obtained are 3-10 -2
and 6.3"10 -4 L/mg s for dust and cake, respectively. The reason for the difference
in the reaction rate constant may be explained by the fact that two slag media
have different types of soluble cations (as shown in Section 2).
The model predicted all concentration history curves of P in batch adsorption
satisfactorily. The model was formulated based on pore diffusion mechanism by
combining the effect of precipitation as well as adsorption. According to
calculated results, it may be concluded that the precipitation is very fast and
signifies the initial stage of P removal processes. The model prediction shows that
the dominating mechanism changed from reaction to adsorption during P
removal processes.
The column experiments were also simulated by the proposed model. As
observed in batch systems, the effect of pore diffusion coefficient was also larger
than that of reaction rate constant in column systems. When the contribution of
precipitation as well as adsorption was considered, the breakthrough time
increased significantly. However, these results will be valid, when precipitates
formed are insoluble and remained in the column. If unwashed slag media are
used as adsorbents for P removal, at the initial stage, the precipitation can
contribute to P removal more than the adsorption. This model forms an excellent
first step in the simulation and design of the constructed wetland systems.
567
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Australian Research Council (ARC) as a joint
program between ARC and Korea Science and Engineering Foundation(KOSEF).
H. Moon gratefully acknowledges the support of ARC as a 1996 international
research fellow at University of Technology, Sydney.
NOMENCLATURES
af
Aij
b
Bij
C
Dax
Dp
Dm
Ds
E
f
K
kf
kr
ks
L
n
N
Pe
q
qm
r
Rp
Re
s
Sc
Sh
t
T
V
w
x
external surface area defined in Eq.(25) (m 2)

first order derivative coefficient
Langmuir constant (L/mg)
second order derivative coefficient
concentration in the fluid phase (mg/L)
axial dispersion coefficient (m2/s)
pore diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
molecular diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
surface diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
percent error (%)
derivative of isotherm
Freundlich constant
film mass transfer coefficient (m/s)
reaction rate constant (L/mg s)
solid phase mass transfer coefficient (l/s)
bed length (m)
Freundlich constant
number of data point
Peclet number defined as vdp/Dax
concentration in particle phase (mg/g)
monolayer coverage (mg/g)
radial distance (m)
particle radius (m)
Reynolds number defined as 2vRp/v
dimensionless axial coordinate
Schmidt number defined as v/Din
Sherwood number defined as 2kfRp/Dm
time (s)
temperature (~
volume of solution (m 3)
weight of adsorbent (kg)
dimensionless radial coordinate
568
dimensionless concentration
axial distance (m)
Greek Letters
~b
@
Y
2
I/
V
pb
Pp
T,
dimensionless group defined in Eqs.(60)

dimensionless group defined in Eq.(59)
bed porosity
particle porosity
kinematic viscosity or stoichiometric coefficient
interstitial velocity (m/s)
bed density (kg/m 3)
particle density (kg/m 3)
dimensionless time defined in Eq.(46)
dimensionless adsorbed phase concentration defined in Eq.(64)
Super and subscripts

0
b
cal
exp
i,j
p
s
-
initial or inlet values

bulk or bed
calculated
experimental
species
pore or particle
surface or interface
average
REFERENCES
1. R.J. Bruce, C.R. Martin and A.F. George, Water Environ. Res., 64 (1992) 699.
2. H. Yamada, M. Kayama, K. Saito and M. Hara, Wat. Resour. Res.,
20 (1986) 547.
3. H. Yamada, M. Kayama, K. Saito and M. Hara, Wat. Resour. Res.,
21 (1987) 325.
4. R.A. Mann and H.J. Bavor, Wat. Sci. & Tec., 27 (1993) 107.
5. G.E. Ho, M. Kuruvi!la and R. Gibbs, Water Resour. Res., 26 (1992) 295.
6. S.W. Lee, S. Vigneswaran and H. Moon, Separ. Purif. Technol., 12 (1997) 109.
7. S.H. Lee, Ph.D Thesis, University of Technology, Sydney (1995).
8. D. Jenkins, T.F. Ferguson and A.B. Menar, Wat. Resour. Res., 5 (1971) 369.
9. D.B. Aulenbach and N. Meisheng, J. Wat. Pollu. Control Fed., 60 (1988) 2089.
569
10. S.W. Park, H.S. Park, W.K. Lee and H. Moon, Sep. Tech., 5 (1995) 35.
11. H. Moon and C. Tien, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 26 (1988) 2042.
12. C. Tien, Adsorption Calculations and Modelling, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Boston (1994).
13. J. Villadsen and M.L. Michelsen, Solution of Differential Equation Models by
Polynomial Approximation, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1978).
14. E. Suwondo, L. Pibouleau, S. Domenech and J.P. Riba, Chem. Eng. Comm.,
102 (1991) 161.
15. N.S. Raghavan and D.M. Rutheven, AIChE J., 29 (1972) 922.
16. A. Klute, Am. Soc. of Agronomy, Inc., Soil Sc. Soc. of Am., Inc. Madison,
Washington, USA (1986).
17. G.S. Steiner and R.J. Freeman, Configuration and Substrate Design
Considerations for Constructed Wetlands Wastewater Treatment,
ID. Hammer (ed.), Lewis Publishers Inc., Michigan, (1989) 363.
18. D.M. Ruthven, Principles of Adsorption and Adsorption Processes,
John Wiley & Sons, NewYork (1984).
19. N. Wakao and T. Funazkri, Chem. Eng. Sci., 33 (1978) 1375.
20. J.W. Lee, H.C. Park and H. Moon, Separ. Purif. Technol., 12 (1997) 1.
21. R.C. Reid, J.M. Prausnitz and B.E. Poling, 4th ed., The Properties of Gas and
Liquids, MaGraw-Hill Co., New York (1994).
22. H. Moon, H.C. Park and C. Tien, Chem. Eng. Sci., 46 (1991) 22.
23. H. Kage and C. Tien, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 26 (1987) 284.
24. M.C. Annesini, F. Gironi and L. Marrelli, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
27 (1988) 1212.
25. J.W. Lee, Ph. D. Dissertation, Chonnam National University, Kwangju, Korea
(1996).

571
Adsorption and chemisorption of organic pollutants on solid aerosol

surfaces
V. A. Pokrovskiy ~, V. I. Bogillo a and A.D~browski b
aInstitute for Surface Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of Ukraine,
Prospect Nauki 31, 252022 Kiev, Ukraine
bFaculty of Chemistry, M. Curie-Sklodowska University, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
1.
INTRODUCTION
Up to date m a n y sources of environmental pollution are not well understood.

This is valid, in particular, for solid aerosols of industrial origin, and for toxic
organic chemicals adsorbed on their surface. T h e r m a l and photochemical
reactions of adsorbed and chemisorbed species m a y result in their
transformations into more toxic forms. Those can be delivered to the h u m a n
organism with the respirable fraction of aerosols or through drinking water.
In the W e s t e r n Europe t r a n s p o r t aerosols receive most of the attention while in
Central and E a s t e r n Europe the industrial dust is dangerous atmosphere
pollutant posing h a z a r d for h u m a n health. The distribution of industrial dust
pollution in Europe, showing two m a x i m a at G e r m a n - P o l a n d boarder and at
E a s t e r n U k r a i n e with dust concentration about 20-40 ~g/m ~ and more [1],
confirms the suggestion t h a t industrial dust microparticles originate mainly from
burning coal. In Ukraine, for example, energy production provides about a half,
heavy i n d u s t r y about a q u a r t e r of industrial dust pollution.
During the initial stage of formation in the fire-chamber, the fly ash particles
are h e a t e d to several h u n d r e d s centigrade and then they are exposed to visible,
ultraviolet and particle-beam irradiation while wandering in troposphere. The
surface of fly ash microparticle is covered by incomplete combustion products
known as precursors to synthesis of strong toxins, carcinogens and mutagens.
Such a system seems to be an ideal catalyst chamber and close attention should
be paid to results of uncontrolled catalytic reactions on the aerosol surfaces.
Migration of solid aerosols to areas with other types of organic and inorganic
pollutants can create unexpected combinations of chemicals in the atmosphere.
The systematic study of the adsorption and chemical reactions of organic
pollutants on the solid aerosol surfaces was not performed till now, and the
present methods of solid aerosol control are limited mainly by monitoring of its
inorganic components. In addition, the effect of industrial solid aerosols on the
572
h u m a n organism has not been studied in detail. Recently the renewed interest in
the health risks of aerosols has been generated by the finding of a correlation
between increased mortality and the concentration of fine airborne particles in
the urban atmosphere of USA [2]. But detailed mechanisms by which this trend
is realized are not clear. It is known that adsorption of drugs on the solid surfaces
cause their prolonged action [3-5]. In the same vein, adsorption of the toxic
compounds on dust microparticle surface may lead to prolonged exposure to
toxins.
There has been recognized that the fine fraction of the atmospheric aerosols is
probably much more involved in the health effect of the general population than
previously thought. A number of epidemiological studies has been published over
the past 5 years which reported an association between low ambient particle
concentration and acute morbidity and even mortality in the elderly. It was
hypothesized that the ultrafine anthropogenic atmospheric aerosols with particle
sizes less and much less than 1 pm present in the urban atmosphere at high
number concentrations may be causally involved. Some recently published model
animal inhalation studies support this hypothesis.
The growing concentration of industrial solid aerosols in the stratosphere has
raised concern about their potential impact on the ozone cycle. Although some
modeling studies have considered in case of the heterogeneous chemical reactions
of atmospheric reservoir species on solid propellant rocket motors-exhaust
particles, little attention has been paid to the possibility of gas phase atmospheric
species reacting directly with solid aerosol surface. Considering that most metal
oxides contain a variety of acid/base active sites that contact with organic
pollutants, such as halogenated hydrocarbons, the solid aerosols could very well
promote the decomposition of the important trace species in the stratosphere. The
high flux of solar ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere may possibly provide a
photochemical mechanism for generating reactive surface sites of solid aerosols.
Since halomethane photolysis is the rate-limiting step in the entire halogencatalyzed ozone depletion cycle, surface-mediated processes promoting carbonhalogen bond cleavage could potentially have a profound impact on the ozone
cycle. The adsorption and surface reactions of organic compounds on the solid
aerosols are of great interest lately as a possible means of deposing of stockpiles
of these compounds in the atmospheric processes, particularly of chlorofluorocarbons whose production has been banned by international treaty. In addition,
the surface reactions may be the reason for appearance of anomalous high
concentrations of some organic compounds, such as formaldehyde, which origins
cannot be explained in usual manner.
Heterogeneous reactions of gaseous molecules on aerosol particles have
recently been recognized to significantly alter the chemistry of the atmosphere.
However, the actual reaction mechanisms and their rates are still poorly
quantified. Because of very complex processes in atmosphere it is impossible to
distinguish between single reaction steps. Many processes run parallel, and may
influence each other or depend on meteorological conditions (e. g. the relative
573
humidity), on season, on origin of aerosols and pollution level. The theoretical
evaluation of single processes is only possible by comparing the individual rate
and equilibrium constants of these reactions.
In the proposed chapter the main regularities in the organic compounds
adsorption and surface reactions on various inorganic oxides and carbonaceous
materials are discussed. Similar study of adsorption and surface reactions on the
model components of solid aerosols is a commonly employed approach in
heterogeneous atmospheric chemistry. Main attention is directed to the
relationships between the structure of important organic pollutants and main
constituents of solid aerosols, on the one side, and their activity and reactivity in
the adsorption processes and surface reactions, on the other. Because the reviews
devoted to problems of heterogeneous atmospheric organic chemistry are absent,
this paper presents one of attempts to connect various fields, such as analytical
chemistry of atmosphere, theories of adsorption equilibria and surface reactions
on the heterogeneous solids, quantitative "structure-activity" and "structurereactivity" relationships in these processes, in order to estimate and predict the
adsorption behavior and reactivity of atmospheric organic pollutants with the
surface of solid aerosols, mainly of industrial origin. The results presented here
are also of interest for other fields of adsorption, in particular to applications in
environmental sciences, such as development and choice of selective adsorbents
for removing organic pollutants from air, adsorption of organic substances by
soils, etc.
2.
SOLID AEROSOLS COMPOSITION
Particles in the atmosphere boundary layer have a direct impact on climate and
weather. They influence the radiation budget of the atmosphere because of their
ability to absorb and scatter solar radiation. The rise of atmospheric pollutions
and related entire changes in E a r t h climate attend the great interest to
composition and structure of atmospheric aerosols, as main components of
atmospheric pollutions. Main sources of solid atmospheric aerosols and their
efficiencies are presented in Table 1.
The aerosols may be separated in small (fine, 0.1 - l~m) and coarse
(1 - 100 ~m) particles and exhibit a characteristic distribution. The fine particles
mainly originate from chemical processes, whereas the coarse particles are
caused by wind soil erosion and sea spray. The composition of the aerosols
depends on the production mechanism and the chemical environment. The
aerosols may be considered as complicated mixture of natural and anthropogenic
chemical substances, containing sulfates, soluble inorganic compounds, including
solid minerals and carbon containing compounds. Some data about the aerosols
composition are given in Tables 2 and 3.
574
Table 1
Range for a m o u n t of p r i m a r y solid aerosols in the E a r t h atmosphere (in million
tons per year) received from various sources (taken from [6])
Source
Soils and rocks
Troposphere
130
+ 8000
Ocean (mainly NaC1)
300
Volcanos(ashes)
200
+ 1000
Forest fires (carbon black)

Cosmic dust
Stratosphere
-
1300
4.0
3 - 360
0.25
+ 14
+ 50
-
0.25
+ 14
Industrial plants
5 + 27
Plowed fields
2 - 80
10 + 133
Fuel consumption plants

Transport
1.0
0.01
+ 0.1
Aerosols contain salts and such insoluble particles as metal oxides. Iron,
aluminum, manganese, calcium, silicium, zinc, cobalt, copper are the most
a b u n d a n t metals in the atmosphere. In the case of such mixed particles as
atmospheric dust and fly ashes, their composition is a dominant factor t h a t
influences the overall surface transformations of inorganic or organic
atmospheric gases and volatile substances. The black and organic carbons are
also included as i m p o r t a n t constituents of the atmospheric aerosols. Some data
on composition of the organic carbon in the aerosols originated from various
sources are given in Table 3. The p r i m a r y fraction of the organic carbon is
essentially emitted by combustion processes. Also, the analysis of the organic
material in the aerosols shows strong evidence of secondary organics resulting
from the condensation, adsorption and catalytic transformations of gaseous
volatile organic compounds, produced frequently from photochemical oxidation
reactions in the atmosphere. It is evident t h a t the higher molecular weight
organics in atmospheric aerosols are predominantly of polar nature. The fatty
acids are mainly present in the marine aerosols, whereas phenols were found in
the continental samples. P r i m a r y compounds as alkanes, alkenes and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons constitue the major organic fraction in u r b a n aerosols.
Heterocyclic compounds, alkenes, mono and polycyclic aromatic and alcohols
constitue the major fraction in biomass burning aerosols. Secondary compounds
as esters, dicarboxylic acids and ketones are the major fraction in the polar
aerosols.
The humic-like substances are also i m p o r t a n t constituents of the organic
carbon present in atmospheric particulates. During the lifetime of aerosols a
certain a m o u n t of metal ions can be leached from the particles by the polar
575
organic substances, and participate

oxidation processes.
in homogeneous
transition
metal-catalyzed
Table 2
C h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of s o l i d a e r o s o l s (in ~ g / m 3) f r o m v a r i o u s s o u r c e s . ( A v e r a g e d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t h e c o m p o n e n t s a r e t a k e n f r o m d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n [6])
Component
Organic
carbon *
Si
A1
Fe
Ti
Zn
Cd
Ca
Sr
Mg
Na
K
Mn
Cu
Cr
Ni
Pb
Hg
Mo
Th
Ce
Ta
Br
C1
As
NH4
NO3
304
1.4 + 70
0.1+0.7
0.01+0.02
0.01+0.07
0.02+0.1
0.1 + 1.8
2+10
0.1 + 4.0
0.9 + 15
0.1 + 1.0
0.06 + 5
0.2+40
0.3 + 15
1.0 + 3.0
300+2000
100+ 400
50 +180
0.5+16
1.7+6.0
0.1 + 0.3
0.1 + 2.1
30+200
1.0 + 7.0
0.1 + 1.2
0.5 + 70
0.5 + 29
0.5 + 44
0.0003
0.2 + 3.8
0.2 +1.5
0.15 + 12
0.2 + 50
0.7+150
0.06+14
1.0 + 26
1 . 7 + 7.3
0.4 + 1.8
0.04 + 7
0.05+10
0.05+ 0.3
0.2+0.7
0.1 + 3.2
0.02 + 7
0.5 + 5.0
0.2 + 0.5
0.3
1.0
0.01+0.05
3+25
0.03+0.5
0.006+1
0.003
0.07+0.3
0.4+3.0
0.3+9.7
0.5 + 4.8
3+25
0.06+0.1
0.1+0.43
0.2+1.2
0.04 + 0.1
0.5+20
1.0+25
5.0
0.03 + 2
0.006+6
103+ 0.6
0.01+1.0
1.6 + 3.4
1.9 + 3.2
0.7+2.8
0.1 + 2.6
0+0.003
0.007
0+0.04
0+3.4
0.03 +0.1
0.02+ 0.5
0.03+5
0.01+ 0.1
0.02+ 0.5
0.1+0.2
0 . 0 7 + 3.
0.1 + 0 . 8
0.05+0.2
< 0.04
0.005+0.1
0.01
0.01
+
0.4
0.3 + 0.8
0.3+0.7
0.2
0.4 + 1.9
Definition of columns in the Table" (1) Stratosphere; (2) Urban atmosphere; (3) Near ground
layer; (4) Volcano (Kamchatka); (5) Near water layer (Atlantic ocean); (6) Troposphere;
(7) Industry dusts in troposphere (Leningrad region).
Data are taken from [7].
576
Table 3
Organic components of solid aerosols
Group of organic
compounds
Near w a t e r layer
n -alkanes:
2.7 + 10 ng m -3
C26H54 + C35H72
[9,10]
Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons
Alcohols: C 12t-12~0 H
-
C34H690H
Fatty acids
C,TH35COOH
+
C3zH65COOH
Esters of aromatic
and fatty acids,
aromatic
hydroxyderivatives
Urban
atmosphere
Forest atmosphere
4 + 150 ng m -3
[11]
5.5 + 405 ng m -3
[11, 12]
0.01 + 10 ng m -3
[10, 13, 14, 15]
0.001 + 30 ng m -3 50 + 200 ng m -3
[10, 13, 14, 15]
[161
*[17]
198 +1930 ng m -3 [7]

90 + 390 ng m -3 [7]
*[17,18]
*Presence of these substances in solid aerosols is conformed by data of qualitative analysis in

[17,18].
In Table 4 the chemical composition of fly ashes of several electric power

stations in Ukraine is presented which allows to estimate
the
chemical
composition of oxide component of industrial dust microparticles.
It is clear from the Table 4 t h a t the oxide component of fly ashes of electric
power stations is silica accounting for more t h a n half, alumina about a q u a r t e r of
the total mass. Fe oxides occupy the third place. As a whole, the industrial dust
microparticles should be considered as alumina silicates, with admixture of some
other oxides. Among them, presence of titanium dioxide known as efficient
photocatalyst is to be emphasized, in a m o u n t of up to 1% in some samples.
In view of possible surface reactions on the aerosols, their specific adsorption
area is an i m p o r t a n t parameter. The surface area of most fly ashes is in the
range of about 1 - 30 m 2 g-l, which limits the adsorption capacity toward organic
pollutants. At the same time, the low adsorption capacity of the aerosols toward
various atmospheric inorganic gases is explained frequently as occupation of their
active sites by adsorbed large organic molecules.
Accordingly, main attention in this paper will be given to the surface processes
taking place on various solid parent and mixed inorganic oxides and
carbonaceous materials modified by grafted organic groups, as main model
constituents of solid aerosols. The adsorption, chemisorption and some
photochemical transformations of organic pollutants on the surface of these solids
will be considered in the forthcoming paragraphs.
577
Table 4
Oxide composition of fly ashes and slams of electric power stations in Ukraine, in
wt % [8]
K20
Power station
SiO2 A1203 Fe203
FeO
CaO MgO
+
SO3
Na20
Burshtynskaya
46.3
22.4
15.9
5.3
2.7
2.5
2.6
0.8
49.4
23.1
6.1
12.3
4.4
1.6
2.2
0.2
Pridneprovskaya
46.8
25.9
15.4
2.3
2.5
2.3
2.7
0.3
49.4
21.7
4.4
16.4
3.9
1.0
2.2
0.4
Dobrotvorskaya
45.7
26.7
11.5
2.0
4.1
2.8
1.2
1.1
55.5
23.1
3.0
10.4
2.3
2.0
2.3
0.5
Zaporozhskaya
43.8
23.3
18.7
2.9
4.4
2.2
1.8
1.0
53.6
21.8
12.1
9.2
2.8
1.0
3.2
Ladyzhynskaya
44.8
22.7
14.5
4.5
6.6
2.9
2.3
0.9
52.2
25.0
5.2
10.7
3.0
1.0
3.3
Starobyshyvskaya
46.8
21.5
14.8
4.8
6.3
2.5
2.0
1.2
55.4
26.8
- 11.0
1.8
0.7
3.2
Dzerzhinskaya
47.7
24.9
11.9
2.9
3.7
1.9
3.6
0.8
53.6
24.4
3.3
9.5
2.9
2.1
4.3
Mironovskaya
47.0
20.3
11.0
2.2
5.4
1.2
2.5
1.8
56.0
24.1
0.4
10.1
2.8
1.8
2.3
0.7
Voroshilovgradskaya
43.6
24.8
10.8
2.0
7.7
2.2
2.1
2.0
55.5
23.1
3.0
10.4
2.3
2.0
2.3
0.5
A D S O R P T I O N OF ORGANIC C O M P O U N D S F R O M GAS P H A S E ON
HETEROGENEOUS AEROSOL SURFACE
All components of solid aerosols such as silica, alumina and other metal oxides,
metal salts, carbonaceous parts in the presence of adsorbed inorganic anions
(SO 2- , NO~, CI-, Br- etc.) and long-chain organic compounds possess surface and
structural heterogeneities, which play a dominant role in adsorption and
reactions of organic pollutants on their surface especially at low pressures. The
main sources of the surface heterogeneity are as follows: different types of
functional groups on the inorganic oxide and carbonaceous material surfaces,
various types of crystal planes, edges and corners, irregularities in
crystallographical structure of a surface and impurities strongly bounded with
the surface [19]. The assumption of solid heterogeneity introduces considerable
difficulties in the theoretical description of adsorption equilibria, chemisorption
kinetics and surface reactions on solid aerosols. We present here relatively simple
expressions for physical adsorption from gas phase on heterogeneous solids,
578
which allow to provide a semi-quantitative description of this phenomena on
complex aerosol surfaces.
Let us consider solid surface having L-types of adsorption sites. The overall
adsorbed from gas phase amount, nt, is equal to
L
n t = ~ ni
i=1
(1)
where ni is amount adsorbed on adsorption sites of the i-th type with an

adsorption energy Ei. Defining O~i as a ratio of the number of adsorption sites of
the i-th type (noi) to the total number of adsorption sites (no), the equation 1 can
be written as follows
L
O(P, T)= Z O~i0i(P' T, E i )
i=1
(2)
where 0i = ni/noi, is relative coverage of adsorption sites of the i-th type and
| = nt/n0 is relative monolayer coverage of the entire surface, P and T are
equilibrium pressure and temperature of the adsorbate, respectively. Equation 2
defines the overall adsorption isotherm for surfaces with a discrete energy
distribution. This normalized distribution may be expressed as
L
z(E)=Z
(3)
- Ei )
i=l
where
5(E_Ei)=fl
forf~
(4)
The normalization condition is

L
Z ( x i =1
i=1
(5)
Let us assume that ~ i quantity is related to the relative concentration of i-th

component of the solid aerosol surface. Strictly speaking, the surface of the most
components (subsurface) also is heterogeneous and the adsorption energy Ei
579
presents the first initial moment (average adsorption energy, E(av)i) of the
adsorption energy distribution for surface of i-th component (i-th subsurface).
Then, the patchwise topography of the adsorption sites on the aerosol surface is
supposed. Also, the simplest localized Langmuir adsorption model without lateral
interaction between adsorbed species on the surface is taken for description of
relative coverage of adsorption sites of the i-th type [20]
0i(P):
KiP
1+KIP
(6)
where Ki is the Langmuir's constant for i-th type of the surface sites. This
constant may be expressed as
K i = K0 (T)exp/R~ /
(7)
where K0(T) is pre-exponential factor which depends on rotational, vibrational

and translational degrees of freedom of adsorbed polyatomic molecule [21]. In
present case, simple Jaroniec equation may be used in order to estimate this preexponential factor [22]
K0 = Ps exp
AHvap /
RT
(8)
where AHvap is the heat of vaporization of the adsorbate and Ps is its saturated
vapour pressure at temperature T.
Therefore, problem for prediction of relative monolayer coverage of entire
surface for solid aerosol with known surface composition reduces to the
estimation of the adsorption energy Ei or adsorption free energy, AGi - - RT ln(Ki)
for a given pair: i-th subsurface/organic pollutant. The routes for estimation of
these quantities will be given below. It should be noted that usually adsorption of
organic pollutants on an aerosol surface results from multicomponent gas
mixture in the atmosphere. Above approach based on the Langmuir equation and
adsorption energy discrete distribution may be extended to adsorption from
multicomponent gas mixtures in accordance with [23]. The total relative surface
coverage for adsorption of the m-component gas mixture on a homogeneous
surface, 0m, is
m
0m - E O j
j=l
(9)
580
where 0j is partial relative coverage by j-th component of the gas mixture. The
partial and total adsorption isotherms on the discrete heterogeneous surface may
be expressed as follows
rn
ZKjiPj
0i m(P,T)=
,
j=l
(10)
1 + Z KjiPj
j=l
and
L
O(P, T)= Z (zi~ m (P, T)
i=1
(11)
where Zji is the Langmuir constant for interaction of j-th component of gas
mixture with i-th subsurface and pj denotes the partial pressure of j-th
m
component at temperature T, P =
Pj.
j=l
4. "STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY" RELATIONSHIPS IN ADSORPTION OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ON INORGANIC OXIDE AND
CARBONACEOUS MATERIAL SURFACES
Two main routes exist for estimation of stability of adsorption complexes on the
solid surface. Those are computation of formation heats of the complexes by
quantum chemical and molecular mechanics methods, and application of various
empirical quantitative "structure-activity" relationships for this purpose.
Precision data for the structure of surface sites and for the potentials of
intermolecular interactions are needed to use the first route. This restricts its
application to the calculation of these quantities for the interaction of relatively
simple small compounds (noble gases, n-alkanes, etc.) with well-characterized
solid surfaces (single crystals of metals, their simple oxides and graphite).
However, the surface of solid aerosols is heterogeneous. This heterogeneity is
caused by their amorphous nature, possible microporosity and of the existence of
several types of adsorption sites. It is extremely difficult to perform correct
quantum chemical and molecular mechanic calculations of the adsorption
processes due to the presence of large scale surface defects, impurities and
especially a large number of different molecular configurations. It is evident that
because the surface of various atmospheric solid aerosols has very complex
composition these methods cannot be used in prediction of the adsorption complex
581
stability on their surface. In such a case various correlative approaches based on
the combination of the thermodynamic functions of adsorption equilibria with
physicochemical properties of adsorbates by simple relationships can be applied.
Quantitative
"structure-activity"
relationships
(QSAR)
studies
are
unquestionably of great importance in chemical engineering. To obtain a
significant correlation, it is crucial that appropriate descriptors should be
employed, whether they are theoretical, empirical, or derived from readily
available experimental characteristics of the structures. There are two groups of
descriptors for possible relationships of those with thermodynamic functions of
adsorption equilibria on the components of the solid aerosol surfaces. One of them
is the group of empirical descriptors. They are derived from the experimental
data for standard processes in solutions or in gas phase. However, for most
organic compounds, these empirical parameters are lacking. An additional point
to emphasize is that the correlations with these parameters are poorly justified
theoretically and the intrinsic relationships exist between them. Second group of
parameters is the quantum chemical or molecular mechanic descriptors. There
are parameters of frontier orbitals (energies of high occupied (EHoMO) and lowest
unoccupied (ELuMO) molecular orbitals, their maximum coefficients; aHOMOand
aLUMO), electrostatic parameters (maximum positive and negative charges in
the molecule (q+maxand q-max), electrostatic field averaged on the van der Waals
surface of the molecule; FA1), electronic polarizability ((Ze) and dipole moment (~)
[24]. In the case of physical adsorption, the coefficients of QSARs reflect the
activity of surface sites for certain types of adsorption interaction, for example,
their acid/base characteristics, polarizability or dipolarity.
Most of quantitative results for adsorption of organic compounds on the surface
of various inorganic oxides and carbonaceous materials (Henry constants,
adsorption free energies and adsorption heats) have been evaluated from data of
inverse gas chromatography at infinite dilution and at finite concentrations.
Inverse gas chromatography is one of the most convenient methods for the
determination of the surface properties of powders [25-29]. This method allows to
examine a given material in terms of surface free energy and acid/base
characteristics.
When non-polar probes (n-alkanes) are used only London interaction exist
between adsorbate and solid surface. The dispersive component of the surface
free energy of any solid in Henry region may be determined through the
measurements of the adsorption free energies for n-alkane series. This method
was applied in the examination of several inorganic oxides, polymers and fibres.
The adsorption energy (EA) and adsorption free energy (AGA) determined from
retention data by this method for given pair polar adsorbate/polar solid surface
may be presented as the sums of non-specific (mainly dispersion) and specific
(donor/acceptor or acid/base) contributions
F.nsp +EAsp
EA ='~A
(12)
582
(13)
AG A : A O ~ sp + A G ~
Accordingly, the problem of EA estimation reduces to calculation of these

contributions.
4.1. D i s p e r s i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s
Dispersive forces are common to the adsorption interaction of all molecules
whether or not they possess a p e r m a n e n t dipole moment. For non-polar
adsorbates, e. g. aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, dispersive forces are sole
interacting forces between them and functional groups of solid surface. The
London's dispersion term of intermolecular interaction between unidentical
molecules 1 and 2 can be expressed as follows [30]
3
z
vI v 2
wd = --:h
Vl + V2
(101(102
NA
(4~0
(14)
G
where (10 is the molecular deformation (induction) polarizability, h is the Planck's

constant, ~o is the permitivity of vacuum, r12 is the distance between spherical
molecules 1 and 2, NA is the Avagadro' number, v is the characteristic vibrational
frequency of electron expressed by [31]
lle2
v=~
2~
(15)
a0m e
e and me the elementary charge (1.602x10 -19 coulomb) and mass (9.109x10 -31 kg)
of electron, respectively. The distance of separation of molecules is nearly equal to
0.3 nm when the heat of vaporization of given adsorbate has the order of
magnitude of 31 kJ mo1-1 or more. Therefore, energy of dispersion interaction
between organic molecule (1) and functional groups of an solid surface (2) is
proportional to term (hv 1)1/2(1ol. However, this p a r a m e t e r is u n k n o w n for most
organic compounds. In such a case the molar deformation polarization (PD)
calculated using a simple additive scheme for examined compounds can be used
PD =I0
M(n -l)
(16)
d(n~ + 2)
where M is the molecular weight in g, d is the liquid density at 293 K in g cm -3
and nR is the refractive index of the liquid at 293 K. The p a r a m e t e r PD for most
583
popular organic solvents is related to t h e (hvl) 1/2 a 0 1
quantity by a simple
relationship [24]
PD
(4.21+0.32)(hVl) 1/2 0~01 - ( 9 . 3 +- 2 . 6 ) cm
(17)
(N=ll;(~=0.545cm3"R=0.975),
Therefore, non-specific interaction contribution into adsorption free energy of
polar and non-polar adsorbates on solid surface may be written as follows
-
sp = K p
(18)
PD +
where Kp coefficient is proportional to average polarizability of the surface

adsorption sites and ~ is a constant characteristic for a given solid surface. The
Kp and ~ parameters for solid surface may be determined using adsorption free
energies for n-alkanes series undergoing only dispersion interaction with a given
solid surface. Let us consider an approach to estimate these parameters. It is
based on use of known dispersive components of surface free energies for various
solids evaluated from data of inverse gas chromatography at infinite dilution (in
the Henry region).
The dispersive component of surface free energy of solid (7~) in the Henry
region may be evaluated from gas chromatographic measurements of the
adsorption free energy for n-alkanes series on a examined solid surface [32]
d.
~'S
1[
.
.
.
4~/CH2 NAaCH2
(19)
where 7CH2 is the surface energy of methylene group (35.6 mJ m -2 at 293 K). The
variation of 7CH2 with temperature is given by 7CH2 = 35.6 + 0.058
- T), (in
mJ m -2) [28]. " a C H 2 " is the area occupied by a methylene group (aCH2 = 0.06 rim2),
NA is the Avagadro' number and AGA(CH2) is the difference between adsorption
free energy of n-alkane having nc+l carbon atoms in its molecule and n-alkane
with nc carbon atoms, i. e., adsorption free energy of a methylene group. Eq. 19
may be transformed in the following relationship between the adsorption free
energy at infinite dilution for n-alkanes series and their carbon number (nc)
- AGA = n c 2NAacH2
(Td~/2
S
)1/2 +b
(7CH2
(20)
where b is a constant depending on the choice of a reference state of the adsorbed

substance. From the other side, the molar deformation polarization for n-alkanes
series (C5-C10) at 293 K is related to their carbon number as follows
584
PD = (46.83 + 0.31)n C + 16.25 + 2.427 cm3
(21)
(N = 6; (~ = 1.313; R 7= 0.9999)
Substituting Eq. 20 and 21 into Eq. 18, the expressions for Kp and ~ p a r a m e t e r s
may be written as
Kp = NAaCH2 (YCH2)1/2 (Td ~ /2
23.42
(22)
and
= b - 0.694 NAaCH2
CH 2
(23)
The constant b depends on the choice of standard adsorption state,

b = RT ln(ps,g/n), where ps,g is the adsorbate vapor pressure in gaseous s t a n d a r d
state and n is the s t a n d a r d pressure. In the case of definition of L a n g m u i r
constant in cm a per gram of an adsorbent, denominator of later expression
contains the product of specific adsorption area of the surface multiplied by the
weight of examined adsorbent. Various choices exist for the definition of standard
states. De Boer and Druyer [33] define the standard surface pressure as that
when the distance of separation between molecules in the adsorbed state equals
that in the s t a n d a r d gaseous state, i. e. ps,g 1.013x105 Pa; n = 3.38x10 -4 N m -1,
whereas Kemball and Rideal [ 3 4 ] suggested a different value for
= 6.08x10 -4 N m 1. Because the values of molar deformation polarization for
most organic molecules exceeds 100 cm 3, effect of (y~) quantity on the ~ value is
low in comparison with its effect on the product PDxKp. It leads to a simple
relationship (18) between AGA and PD quantity. Example of such plots for
adsorption of n-alkanes series and polar organic compounds on the surfaces of
rutile and mixed Ti, A1 and Si oxide is given in Figure 1. Therefore, Eq. 18 may
be used for calculation of specific interaction contribution into adsorption free
energy of polar organic compounds on the examined solid surface
=
AG~polar ) = AGA(polar) - Kp x PD(polar) -
(24)
It should be mentioned that most frequently used descriptors of polar organic

compound in correlation with the contribution of its dispersion interaction to the
heat of adsorption or adsorption free energy are logarithm of s a t u r a t e d vapor
pressure (log Ps) or vaporization heat (AHvap) [27]. However, the use of log Ps or
AHvap quantities for polar compounds leads to overestimation of this interaction
due to the considerable contributions of dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonding
interactions between the probe molecules by itself to these quantities. Then,
585
30
~- ~
25
"7
Polar probes
~-
O
,at
TiOJA1203/Si~
20
~"
~ r
~f
C10
~',
<
r~
<1
15
10
,/,
100
C9j/
%/
CVsgf
c6.,
TiO
,
200
300
400
5t
PD (cm3)
Figure 1. Plot of adsorption free energies for n-alkane series and polar probes on the surface of
rutile and titania/alumina/silica vs. molar deformation polarizability of the adsorbates. Figure
is taken from [43].
more correct molecular descriptors for this purpose are to be the molecular
induction polarizability or the molar deformation polarization. In addition, the
sum of indexes of dispersion interactions for functional groups in the examined
polar molecule, ID = EKsxPD -6 where Ks is the coefficient of the intramolecular
screening and r is the van-der-Waals' radius of this group, may be used in the
calculations of the Esp or AG~p quantities for polar adsorbates [35,36]. The AHvap
quantity for n-alkanes and polar adsorbates may be used for prediction of the
lower limit for their Ensp value.
Let us consider the data about Ys values for various initial and modified
inorganic oxides as well as for some carbonaceous materials which are possible
components of solid aerosol surfaces. These data are shown in Table 5.
From this Table it follows that dispersive components of surface free energies
for various nonporous and mesoporous solids lie in the range 30 + 130 mJ m -2, i.
e. slope of plot AGA vs. PD may vary twofold. The dispersive components of
surface free energy are proportional to overall polarizability of surface sites,
their ionization energy and to maximum partial charges on atoms of these sites.
Maximum y~ values are observed for graphite, graphitized black (Carbopack) and
most parent and mixed Fe, Zn, Mg, A1, Ti oxides. This may be explained by high
polarizability of extended graphite planes consisting of condensed aromatic nuclei
and high partial charges on Lewis acid/base sites of the parent and mixed metal
oxide surfaces. Pyrogenic silica possess minimum Ys among the inorganic oxides.
586
Table 5
Dispersive c o m p o n e n t s of surface free e n e r g y of various solids d e t e r m i n e d by
u s i n g the i n v e r s e gas a d s o r p t i o n c h r o m a t o g r a p h y at infinite dilution for
n - a l k a n e s series
Solid
T, oC Yds'
Ref.
m J m -2
B a r i u m sulfate
Silochrom $120
(S = 102 m 2 g-l)
C a r b o n a t e d $120
(S = 96 m 2 g-l)
Carbopack
(S = 8.7 m 2 g-l)
Silica gel
(S = 80 m 2 g-l)
Aminosilica gel
(S = 72 m 2 g l )
G u a n i d i n o e t h a n t i o l - s i l i c a gel
(S=75 m 2 g-~)
Fluorinated graphite
Carbopack B
(S = 100 m 2 g-l)
Pyrogenic silica
(S = 170 m 2 g l )
Pyrogenic a l u m i n a
(S = 140 m 2 g-l)
Pyrogenic t i t a n i a
(S = 70 m 2 g")
Pyrogenic alumina/silica 30 wt% A1 in SiO2 (S - 170 m 2 g-l)
Pyrogenic titania/silica 20 wt% Ti in SiO2 (S = 72 m 2 g-l)
T i t a n i a (rutile)
(S = 12 m 2 g-l)
T i t a n i a / a l u m i n a / s i l i c a (4 wt% A1 a n d 2 wt% Si on the rutile
surface)
( S - 14 m 2 g-l)
150
180
180
180
130
130
130
150
321
130
130
130
130
130
100
35.5 a
26.3 a
55.1 a
106.2 a
22.5 a
24.4 a
30.6 a
90.6 a
247.4 a
28.6 c
51.8 c
35.2 c
32.5 c
44.9 c
43.1
37
38
38
38
39
39
39
40
41
42
42
42
42
42
43
100
56.1
43
U n t r e a t e d c a r b o n fiber
Oxidized carbon fiber
Oxidized c a r b o n fiber coated with a n epoxy r e s i n
C a r b o n black
Graphite
Calcium c a r b o n a t e
Zinc oxide
M a g n e s i u m oxide
Smectite
y-Fe203
y-Fe2Os, modified by stearic acid
7-Fe20~, modified by o c t a d e c y l a m i n e
Pyrogenic silica (Aerosil 130)
),-A1203
Pyrogenic silica (Aerosil 200)
B o e h m i t e (A1OOH)
Pyrogenic silica (Aerosil A130)
M e t h o x y l a t e d silica (Aerosil A130)
H e x a d e c y l a t e d silica (Aerosil A130)
100
100
100
30
44.5
30
25
25
180
100
100
100
110
100
100
80
20
20
20
53
56
36
42.8
129
44.6
85.3
95.6
159
91.7
44
44
44
45
46
47
48
48
49
a
50
31.0
50
35.0
50
46.5
115
65
172
75
70
38
32
51
51
51
52
52
52
587
Table 5
Dispersive components of surface free energy of various solids determined by
using the inverse gas adsorption chromatography at infinite dilution for
n-alkanes series
Solid
T, ~
7ds'
mJ m -2 Ref.
Precipitated silica (Spherosil XOB 75)

Alumina/silica (1050 ppt SiO2 in AleO3)
Alumina/silica (45 ppt SiOz in A120~)
Synthetic activated carbon obtained by carbonization of
polyfurfuryl alcohol
(S = 408 m 2 g-l)
20
100
100
80
42
100
60
560.5
55
(37.9) b
53
54
54
S is the specific adsorption area of the solid surface

Calculated from dependence of adsorption free energies for n-alkane series on the number of
carbon atoms in these n-alkanes; the adsorption free energies were calculated on basis of the
retention volumes or Henry constants for n-alkanes presented in cited studies.
b Dispersive component of surface free energy for flat surface, evaluated from original ,/ds
value taking into account radius of the carbon micropores and the adsorbate molecule size
[55].
c Average dispersive component of surface free energy in the monolayer region was
determined from data of inverse gas adsorption chromatography for n-alkanes series at their
finite concentrations [4.2].
a
Mixed Ti, A1 and Si oxides in some cases exhibit positive synergistic effect, i.e.
they show more high polarizable properties in comparison with parent oxides.
Modification of the inorganic oxide surfaces by organic functional groups gives
decrease of the ),~ value and this effect increases with elongation of alkyl chain in
the grafted group. From the other side, carbonization of grafted organic groups
leads to increase of the surface polarizability. Oxidation of the carbonized layer
enhances the 7sd value, whereas its coating by organic polymer leads to decrease
of the polarizability. The most high 7~ values are observed in the case of
microporous inorganic oxides, such as smectite and boehmite and carbonaceous
materials, as activated carbons and Carbopack B. It was shown that these high
values may be explained by effect of the average micropore radius on the
apparent ysa values [55]. The dispersive components of surface free energy for the
flat activated carbon surface (7~ (0)), evaluated from original 7as values taking
into account average radius of the carbon micropores and the adsorbate molecule
size correspond to the usual 7~ range for nonporous solids. However, in the
predictions of Kp values for microporous solids, the apparent y~ values are to be
used.
588
It is known that the ~,~ values also depend on the temperature of preliminary
treating the inorganic oxide surface. This temperature determines concentration
of highly polarizable Bronsted and Lewis acid/base sites on the oxide surfaces.
For example, when the number of silanol groups diminishes monotonously upon
increasing the heat treatment temperature of pyrogenic silica surface from 100 to
700 ~ C, ~,~ changes quite unexpectedly from 75 mJ m -2, going through a
maximum at 500 ~ C (y~ - 95 mJ m 2) [56]. This was explained by maximum
concentration of three member and highly polarizable siloxane rings generated at
about 500 - 600 ~ C under silica dehydroxyllation Mechanisms of these rings
formation are considered in [57] and references cited therein. Beyond this
temperature, the rings transform into 4 membered, non-polar siloxane rings and
~ value decreases to 80 mJ m -2 at Tp - 700 ~ C. Therefore, depending on the
humidity of atmosphere, the y~ values may be varied in the range of 20 mJ m -2
or higher.
It should be noted that formation and interaction of solid aerosol particles take
place in a humidic atmosphere. Then the hydration of the surface and formation
of water droplets or ice patches on the aerosols are universally present in the
native atmospheric processes. This effects the optical properties of solid aerosols.
The theory of the formation of water droplets on aerosol particles consisting of
inorganic and organic compounds was developed in [58]. The theory links
interfacial free energies of the surfaces and chemical characteristics of the
compounds with the ability of the aerosols to form water droplets. However this
theory takes not into account perturbing action of the solid surface on the
properties and structure of the interfacial water layers. It is known that the
freezing temperature of water near the solid surface of various parent and
composite inorganic oxides (of Si, A1, Ti and Zn) and carbonaceous materials
(activated carbons, carbon black, carbonized silicas) is lowered from 273 K up to
190 K. From X-ray diffraction studies of adsorbed water molecules it follows that
the number of nearest-neighbor molecules of the adsorbed water is less than that
of bulk liquid water and that the adsorbed water has a long-range ordered
structure compared with bulk liquid water [59]. This freezing temperature
depression depends on the surface free energy of solid and on the distance of
adsorbed water molecules from solid surface [60-66]. The higher value of
interfacial free energy, the thicker is water layer susceptible to the action of the
surface forces. The thickness of the unfrozen water layer reflecting the perturbing
solid surface effect on the structure of the interfacial water varies from 3.0 nm
(pyrogenic silica) up to 20 nm in case of some carbonized silicas with minor
contain
of carbon
patches
on the
silica
surface
and
composite
titania/alumina/silica (4 wt% A1 and 2 wt% Si on the rutile surface). The
dependence of water free energy versus thickness of the unfrozen water layer
near the surface of rutile and mixed Ti, A1, Si oxide is shown in Figure 2. One of
the main reasons for the long-range surface forces is the polarization property of
589
3.0
2.5
~
2.0
<~
1.5
TiOffA12OffSiO 2
1.0
0.5
0
7.5
15.0
d (nm)
Figure 2. Dependencies of water free energy change on the thickness of unfrozen water layer
near the surface of rutile and titania/alumina/silica. Figure taken from [65].
solid surface. The polarizability of the adsorption sites on solid surface gives
contribution to the total polarizability of the particles. Such tendency in the
change of polarizability of the metal oxides series can be derived from the
comparison of the dispersive components of the oxides surface free energy.
Similar correlation between 7~ values and Hamaker' constants for solid surfaces
is well known [67]. The relationship between logarithm of the average water
layer thickness on the surface of parent and mixed Si, Ti and A1 oxides, evaluated
from data of 1H NMR spectroscopy with bulk freezing and the 7~ values for these
oxides is given in Figure 3.
The increase in the dispersive component of metal oxides surface free energy
leads to enhancement of the thickness of water layer perturbed by solid surface.
Hence, presented in Table 5 dispersive components of surface free energies for
various solids allow to estimate the contribution of the non-specific interaction to
the overall adsorption free energy of organic pollutants on the surface of solid
aerosol constituents and to predict the thickness of water layer perturbed by solid
surfaces as well as the freezing temperature depression for water droplets on the
aerosol surfaces.
The dispersive components of surface free energy for organic fraction of solid
aerosol surface may be predicted from additive functions, for example, from
molar parachor (Pp) [68]. If the group contributions of Pp and molar volume of
organic fraction (VM) are known, the y~ value results from the expression
590
Ti AO21203//A1203/SiO2zs
25
35
45
55
7d , (mJ m -2)
Figure 3. Relationship between logarithm of average water layer thickness on the surface of
inorganic oxides and dispersive components of surface free energy of oxides. Figure taken
from [65].
pp = (Td~/4M
d
(25)
where M and d are the molecular weight and density of organic fraction,
respectively. Also, the 7~ value for the organic fraction can be estimated on the
basis of dispersive contribution into its solubility parameter (5 d) [69]
7S = 0.75x
(26)
These approaches were applied with profit to estimation of ),~ values for
polystyrene, its co- and tert-polymers below their glass transition temperatures
[29]. Calculated data agreed satisfactorily with experimental 7sd values,
evaluated from data of inverse gas chromatography for n-alkanes series on the
examined polymers. Similar way may be used for prediction of 7sa values for
carbonaceous aerosols containing large amount of organic carbon.
One of unresolved problems is prediction of non-specific interaction
contribution into adsorption free energy for geometrical isomers on the solid
surface. For example, cis/trans olefines have the same PD values. However, their
591
adsorption energies on various solids are dissimilar. The adsorption heat of
organic compound is determined more by its molecular structure t h a n the bulk as
a whole. Hence, the application of graph theory in this connection may be of some
merits, though the structures here are approximately represented by graphs
without taking into account of the geometrical details [70]. For example, one
graph theoretical index (~(q)) is discriminative between geometrical isomers,
such as cis-trans alkenes and includes the influences of different hydrogen atoms
in molecules [71]. Adsorption heats (AQA) in the Henry region for cis- and transalkenes on the graphitized black surface from [72] are related to these ~(q)
indexes as follows
AQA = (9.3 + 1.3) F~(q) + (14.3 + 2.3) kJ mo1-1
(c~ = 0.73 kJ mol-1; R = 0.971)
(27)
Also, topological indexes taking into account the differentiation of heteroatoms

in the molecular graphs (~ [71] and H' [73]) can be used for description of
nonspecific adsorption of alkyl halides and ethers on the graphitized black
surface from [72]
AQA = (9.1 + 1.4) ~ + (14.2 + 3.2) kJ mo1-1
((~ = 1.86 kJ mol-1; R = 0.934)
(28)
as well as for nonspecific adsorption of halogen substituted methanes and

ethanes on the graphitized black surface from [72]
AQA = (1.3 + 0.4) H' + (23.5 + 2.9) kJ mo1-1
((~ = 3.9 kJ mol-1; R = 0.863)
(29)
Other examples of relationships between adsorption data of various

halogenhydrocarbons C1-C5 on a modified silica surface in the Henry region and
graph theoretical indexes for these compounds are given in [74].
One of the most important problems in the qualitative description of organic
pollutants adsorption on aerosol surfaces is the prediction of adsorption energies
of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons on solid surfaces. Unfortunately, there are
few studies devoted to this problem. Crude estimation of the adsorption energies
may be performed using the PD quantities for adsorbates and 7~ values for solid
subsurfaces as well as by using above discussed H' and other graph theoretical
indexes for these compounds. More simple relationship between adsorption
energies of 17 hydrocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, ethers and sulfur hexafluoride
adsorbed onto porous Carbopack B was obtained in [41]. The authors have found
that adsorption energies of these compounds are related to their critical constant
ratio - critical temperature (Tc) divided by square root of critical pressure (Pc) as
follows
592
nsp
819.27
(30)
(N = 17; R = 0.984)
where Ensp and Tc are in K, and Pc is in bars.
Other important problem in this field is related to prediction of adsorption
energies for low-volatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are main
part of the organic carbon in the solid aerosols .Their sublimation heats or PD
values may be chosen to estimate the lower limit of the adsorption energies on
the solid surfaces. PAH possess highly polarizable n-electron system, low
ionization potential (IP) and they interact with OH groups of inorganic oxide
surface forming H-complexes or through complete H transfer from these groups
to PAH molecule, while with Lewis acceptor sites of the surfaces they interact
with formation of charge transfer complexes with these sites or products of
complete electron transfer from PAH molecules to these sites, radical-cations
[75,76]. Some adsorption characteristics for PAH on the parent and modified
silica gel surfaces are found from data of inverse liquid chromatography [77, 78].
The logarithms of adsorption distribution coefficients of 13 PAHs from n-hexane
onto parent silica gel, and silica gels with grafted CN and NH2 groups are related
to the molecular descriptors of the compounds as
fn{n,
(31)
where n~ is the number of n-electrons in the PAH molecule, 1 is the length of the
molecule, no(in) is a number of "intrinsic" carbon atoms in PAH, while fn and A are
empirical coefficients. Then, the terms n~/1 and nc(in) must be taken into
consideration in possible relationships between the adsorption heats of PAHs
series on the metal oxide surfaces and their PD and IP quantities.
The contribution of dipole-dipole interaction between polar organic compound
and element-oxygen bonds of inorganic oxide surface to overall adsorption heat
must be taken into consideration in the QSARs for adsorption on dehydroxylated
inorganic oxide surfaces [24]. For example, the differential adsorption heat of
polar organic compounds on the surface of dehydroxylated SiO2 depends on the
dipole moment of the adsorbates (~, in Debye) and their molar deformation
polarizability as follows
AQA = 1.41 PD + 5.36 ~t
(N = 12; a = 1.39 kJ mo1-1)
(32)
593
4.2. Donor/acceptor (acid/base) interaction

The main contributions to the AG~ and Esp quantities give formation of
hydrogen-bonding or donor-acceptor complexes between polar organic adsorbate
and polar adsorption sites of solid surface. The Bronsted and Lewis acid-base
sites are main types of adsorption sites for polar organic compounds on the
surface of metal oxides, salts and various oxidized carbonaceous materials. The
quantitative description of the hydrogen-bonding and donor-acceptor interactions
of the sites with adsorbed organic compounds is very important for determining
of acid~ase characteristics of the surface sites and prediction of the adsorption
characteristics. Among possible approaches the E&C equation of Drago and
Wayland [79] is applied for description of specific interaction contribution into
adsorption heat (AQ~), or adsorption energy Esp in the Henry region
sp = EAEB + CACB
AQA
(33)
where EA and EB are the electrostatic and CA and CB a r e the covalent

contributions of acid (A) and base (B) in the heat formation of donor/acceptor
(acid~ase) adduct. Also, more simple Gutmann's approach has been widely used
for determining the acid/base characteristics of various solid surfaces [80]
AQSP K A x D N K B
=
+
A
100
100
(34)
where DN and AN are donor and acceptor of a polar adsorbate and KA and KB
coefficients denote the acceptor and donor numbers of solid surface. Similar to
Eq. 34 the relationship between AG~ and DN, AN quantities for probe polar
adsorbates is used for characterization of solid surfaces by means of inverse gas
chromatography. The coefficients of Eq. 34 are easily determined using the leastsquares method from the plot of AG~/AN vs. DN/AN for the series of polar
adsorbates characterized by different DN and AN values. However, different DN
and AN values for the probe adsorbates are usually used for the evaluation of the
KA and KB quantities for solid surfaces. Riddle and Fowkes [81] have shown that
31p NMR spectrum of triethylphosphine oxide used in determining the AN values
for polar compounds, is appreciably shifted downfield due to van der Waals
interactions with the solvents. Hence, AN values were corrected for the van der
Waals contribution to the chemical shift. The corrected AN values for polar
adsorbates are designated as AN*. The corrected K~ values are found from Eq. 35
by analogy to Eq. 34
AQ~
KAXDN K ~
+
100
100
(35)
594
The tendencies between such empirical quantities of organic compounds as E, C
parameters, donor n u m b e r and q u a n t u m chemical indexes, such as m a x i m u m
positive and negative charges in the organic molecule as well as with energies of
highest occupied molecular orbitals (EHoMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular
orbital (ELuMO) for these compounds have been found in [83]
C A = -(8.9 + 8.1) x ELUMO + 0.8 + 0.1
( N - 18; ~ - 4.9; R - 0.263)
(36a)
C B = (2.3 + 0.7) x EHOMO + 29.9 + 7.9

( N - 14; a - 103.4; R - 0.671)
(36b)
E A = (8.2 + 2.3) x qmax + 2.4 + 0.9
(36c)
( N - 18; ~ - 77.9; R - 0.668)

m
E B = (0.70 + 0.67) x qmax + 0.8 + 0.2
(36d)
( N - 14; ~ - 0.91; R - 0.289)

DN = (44.1 + 35.0) x qmax + 7.3 + 8.9
(36e)
( N - 7; ~ - 17.4; R - 0.510)
These relationships allow to predict the E, C, DN quantities for unstudied polar
adsorbates.
In recent it was shown that solvation equation developed by A b r a h a m [84, 85]
may be used with profit for description of polar organic compounds adsorption on
the surface of fullerene and various carbonaceous materials [86, 87]
log(SP)=c+rxR 2 +sx~H +ax 2a2H +bx2p
H + I x l o g L 16
(37)
where SP is property of a series of solutes in a fixed phase, R2 is an excess molar

refraction, ~H is the solute dipolarity/polarizability, 2 a H and 2 p H are the
solute hydrogen-bond acidity and basicity, respectively, and log L 16 is derived
from the solute/hexadecane partition coefficient at 293 K. As the descriptors in
Eq. 37 refer to particular properties of the solutes, the coefficients a and b
correspond to the hydrogen-bond basicity and acidity of solid surface,
respectively. It should be mentioned that some intrinsic relationships exist
between various scales of the acid/base characteristics of polar organic
compounds discussed above. For example, acceptor and donor numbers of organic
compounds from Table 6 are related to the solvatochromic solute effective or
overall hydrogen-bond acidity and hydrogen-bond basicity as follows
595
AN-
(73.6 + 6.6) E aH + 9.39 + 1.54
(38a)
(N = 11; c = 4.17; R = 0.966)

DN-
(23.7 + 9.9) E ~ H + 3.53 + 3.89 kcal mo1-1
(38b)
(N = 12; (~ = 6.27; R = 0.603)

Also, following t e n d e n c i e s exist b e t w e e n t h e c o v a l e n t a n d e l e c t r o s t a t i c
c o n t r i b u t i o n s of acid (A) a n d b a s e (B) to h e a t of a c i d / b a s e i n t e r a c t i o n a n d t h e
h y d r o g e n - b o n d a c i d i t y a n d h y d r o g e n - b o n d b a s i c i t y of t h e o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s from
T a b l e 6.
Table 6
P o l a r o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s in t h e E a r t h a t m o s p h e r e , t h e i r h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
in u r b a n a n d forest a t m o s p h e r e a n d t h e i r a c i d / b a s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Group of
Highest concentration, Representative
Acid/base characteristics
compounds
~g m -3
Aliphatic
CH3OH (81) [88]
CH3OH
a = 0.43; 13 = 0.47
AN = 41.5; AN* = 12.0;
alcohols
C2HsOH (140) [88]
DN = 19.0
C1-C4
C4HgOH (1470) [89]
Aliphatic
HCOOH (39) [ 9 0 ]
CH3COOH
a = 0.61; 13= 0.45
AN = 52.9; AN* = 21.16;
organic acids
CH~COOH (16) [91]
DN=20
C1-C2
Aliphatic
(CH3)2C=O (620) [ 9 2 ]
(CH3)2C=O
CB = 2.33; EB = 0.937
ketones
CH~(C=O)C2H5 (45)
a = 0.08; 13 = 0.48 AN=12.5;
AN* = 5.0; DN = 17.0
C2-C6
[93]
A N = 1 3 . 4 ; D N = 18.9
Aliphatic
H2C=O (67) [ 9 7 ]
CH~C(=O)H
aldehydes
CH~C(=O)H (188) [90]
C1-C4
Aliphatic
(C2H5)20 (> 0.01) [ 9 8 ]
(C2H~)20
CB 3.25; EB - - 0 . 9 3 6
= 0; [3 = 0.45 AN= 3.9;
ethers
AN* = 1.56; DN = 19.2
C2-C4
CB = 1.74; EB = 0.975
Aliphatic
C4H802 (> 0.01) [ 9 9 ]
CH~C(O)O
a = 0; [3 = 0.45 AN = 9.3;
esters of acetic C5H1002 (> 0.01) [104]
-C2H5
AN* = 1.5; DN = 17.1
acid C1-C5
Aliphatic
CH3CN (> 0.01) [100]
CH3CN
CB = 1.34; EB = 0.886
nitriles
c~ = 0.04; 13= 0.33
AN=18.9; AN*= 4.7;
DN = 14.1
Aliphatic
(CH3)2NH(>0.01) [101]
(CH3)2NH
Cs = 8.73; EB = 1.09
amines
C2HsNH2 (>0.01) [101]
a = 0.08; [3 = 0.66
AN = 9.4; DN = 40
C6HsSH
AlkylCHzSH (> 0.01) [102]
CA = 0.198; EA = 0.99
mercaptanes
CH~SCH3
CB =7.46; EB =0.343; IP=
Dialkylsulfides CH3SCHz (1.4) [94]
8.69
596
Table 6
P o l a r organic c o m p o u n d s in the E a r t h a t m o s p h e r e , t h e i r h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
in u r b a n a n d forest a t m o s p h e r e a n d t h e i r a c i ~ b a s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Group of
Highest concentration,
Compounds
~g m ~
Representative
Acid/base characteristics
Dialkyldisulfides
Cyclic ethers
CHaS-SCHa (> 0.01)

[103]
1,4-C4HSO2 (> 0.01)
[98,99]
C2H~S-SC2H5
IP = 8.27; (CB = 10.9)
1,4-C4Hs02
Alkyl furanes
2-CH3-C4HaO (> 0.01)

[104]
3-CH3-C4H30 [105]
C6H5OH (> 0.01) [163]
o-CH3C6H4OH (> 0.01)
[106]
(CHa)2N-N=O(0.76)
[95]
CFCla (6 ppb) [107]
CF2C12 (2.4 ppb) [107]
CFaCCla (25 ppt) [108]
CCI4 (1.4 ppb) [109]
CHaC1 (7.7 ppb) [110]
CHCla (225 ppt) [110]
CH2C12 (12 ppb) [111]
CH3CC13 (10 ppb) [18]
C2HC13 (4 ppb) [104]
C2C14 (3.7 ppb) [108]
C4H4O
CB = 2.38; EB = 1.09
a = 0; 13= 0.37 AN=10.8;
AN*=4.32; DN=14.8
CB = 3.16; EB = 1.38
AN = 3.3; DN = 3.3
(C2H5)4Pb (0.7) [ 9 6 ]
(CH3)2Hg [112]
CH3HgC1 [112]
C6H6 (714) [113]
CH~C6H5 (642) [113]
AI(CH3)3
CloHs (12) [114]
C10Hs
Aromatic
hydroxyderivatives
Nitrosoamines
Halogenhydrocarbons
Organometalli
c compounds
Aromatic
hydrocarbons
C6H~OH
CsHsN=O
CC14
AN = 8.6; AN* = 3.44; DN =

0
CH2C12
CA = 0.01; EA = 1.66;
a = 0.10; 13= 0.05 AN= 20.4;
AN* = 8.16; DN = 1
CHC13
(CH3)3SnC1
C6H6
(AH)
Polycyclic AH
CA = 0.44; EA = 4 . 3 3
(z = 0.60; 13 = 0.31
D N = 11
C B = 4.52; EB = 1.34
CA = 0.16; EA = 3.02
(z = 0.15; 13= 0.02
AN=25.1; AN* = 9.24; DN=4
CA = 1.43; EA = 16.9
0.03; EA = 5 . 7 6
CB =1.4; EB = 0.11;a = 0;
= 0.14; IP = 9.25
AN=8.2; AN* =3.28; DN=0.1
I P = 8.12
CA =
CA, CB, EA, EB are the covalent and electrostatic contributions of acid (A) and base B) into
heat of acid/base interaction, in (kcal moll) I/2 from [115]
cz = E ctn and [3 - E [3H are the solvatochromic solute effective or overall hydrogen-bond
acidity and hydrogen-bond basicity parameters in arbitrary units, from [84, 85].
IP is first ionization potential of the compound, or its EHOMOwith opposite sign, in eV, from
[116].
AN and DN are acceptor and donor numbers of the compound, in arbitrary units and in kcal
mol -l, respectively, from [80].
AN* is acceptor number corrected for the van der Waals contribution, in kcal mol l, from [81].
597
CB = (12.8 + 4.6) E ~ n - 2.2 +_2.0 (kcal mol-1)1/2
(39a)
(N = 7; a = 1.79; R = 0.780)
E B - (1.73 + 0.56) E ~ n + 0.15 + 0.25 (kcal mol-1)1/2
(39b)
(N = 7; a = 0.22; R = 0.807)
CA- (0.77 + 0.20) E aH - 0.014 + 0.074 (kcal mol-1)u2
(39c)
(N = 3; (~ = 0.08; R = 0.966)
E A - (4.4 _+2.0) E aH + 1.76 + 0.75 (kcal mol-1)1/2
(39d)
(N = 3; a = 0.81; R = 0.903)
The above acid/base characteristics are known for m a n y polar organic
compounds observed in the E a r t h atmosphere. The highest concentrations of
these compounds in the u r b a n and forest atmosphere and acid/base
characteristics of representative compounds from these groups are given in
Table 6. In case of absence of these p a r a m e t e r s for some groups of the
compounds, such as for N-nitrosoamines, the characteristics for compounds
containing similar functional groups are given in Table 6.
Therefore, using the acid/base characteristics for representative compounds
from Table 6 and acid/base characteristics for components of solid aerosol
surfaces from forthcoming Table 7, one may predict the specific interaction
contributions into adsorption free energy or adsorption heat. By adding them to
non-specific interaction contribution calculated from PD and y~ data for these
pairs, L a n g m u i r constants and relative concentrations of these pollutants on
aerosol surface may be obtained. These acid/base characteristics for other
members of groups are given in cited papers. In the of u n k n o w n characteristics
for a member, they may be approximately equaled to those from Table 6, or
estimated from extrapolation or interpolation of the plot for characteristics vs.
n u m b e r of carbon atoms in the compound for a given group. Such examples for
dependencies of molar transition energy of 2,4,6-triphenylpyridinium-4-(2,6diphenyl)-N-phenoxide (ET) reflecting the acidic characterictics of the adsorbates
for series of aliphatic n-alcohols and fatty acids vs. carbon n u m b e r in their alkyl
substituents are presented in Figure 4. The ET values are determined for more
great n u m b e r of organic liquids t h a n other acid/base characteristics from Table 6.
This quantity for 21 organic solvents is related to their acceptor n u m b e r (AN) as
follows: AN = 1.29
- 40.52 [82].
The a c i d ~ a s e characteristics of inorganic oxide and carbonaceous material
surfaces which may be the components of solid aerosol surfaces are derived from
microcalorimetric data, calorimetric and adsorption titrations method, infrared
spectroscopy, inverse gas chromatography, and zetametry of polar organic
598
Table 7
A c i d / b a s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i n o r g a n i c oxide a n d c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t e r i a l s u r f a c e s
Donor and
Q u a n t u m chemical and
Solid
acceptor
E and C contributions
other descriptors
n u m b e r s (IGC)
-EHoMO -- 11.2; -ELuMO -- 2 . 0
EA = 4.39; CA = 1.14
Silica
K A - 11.7; K~
EA(ad)= 0.31 for s-SiOH
(MC/IR) [117]
= 21.8 [1261
[83,122]
EA
=
2.30;
CA
=
2.48
K B - 5.8 [126]
(strongest sites) (CalELUMO(est) = - 0 . 1 ; q+max ---0.78 [24]
Ad) [121]
EA = 8.8; CA = 1.67 (MC) ELUMO(est) ---- 0 . 0 6 ; q+max -- 0.3
[24]
[123]
Ed = 772 [132]
EA = 4.86; CA = 0.28
ET(30) = 58.0 [133]
(MC) [124]
Ed = 1068 (I);
Ka=13; KB = 29 EA = 5.67; CA = 1.02
Titania
789 (II) [132]
(MC) [117]
[42]; Ka = 12;
KB = 22.5 (ZA)
[127]; KA = 24;
Ks = 19 [127]
KA = 23; KB =
Titania/silica
29 [42]
(20 wt% Ti in
silica matrix)
K A - 36; K B Titania/alumin
33 [43]
a/silica 2 wt%
Si and 4 wt%
A1 on rutile
surface
EA = 4.50; CA = 0.8 (MC)
~-Fe203
[118]
EA = 0.5 e 1.0; CA = 1.1
~-Fe203
(MC) [119]
E A = 0 . 5 ; C A = 0 . 0 2 ; EB =
E glass
0.2; CB=0.39 (MC) [117]
K a - 34; K B Untreated
40 [130]
glass fiber
EA = 6.0; CA = 0.7 (IGC)
Glass beads
[120]
ET(30)- 51.4 [133]
EA = 0.62; CA = 1.60
APS t r e a t e d
(IGC) [120]
glass beads
E d - 1249 (I); 1155 (II)
Magnesium
6.5; K ; =
[132]
oxide
54.3 [125]
Zinc oxide
7-Alumina
K A - 19.8; K~
= 9.6 [125]
K a - 16.8; K ;
= 46.7 [126]
K s - 12.4 [126]
E d - 1077 (Ib); 940 (Ia);

889 (IIb); 761 (IIa)[132]
ET(30) - 65.0 [133]
599
Table 7
Acid/base characteristics of inorganic oxide and carbonaceous material surfaces
Solid
Donor and
E and C contributions
Quantum chemical and
acceptor
other descriptors
numbers (IGC)
a-Alumina
KA = 21; KB =
15 [127]
KA = 23; KB =
15 (ZA) [127]
Alumina/silica
t ~ - 32.9; K
(30 wt% A1 in
= 34.4 [126]
silica matrix)
Ks = 9.6 [126]
Alumina/silica
EA = 22.3; CA- 3.7 (MC) E L U M O ( e s t ) - - - 0.3;
(0.23 wt% A1 in
q+max= 2.4 [24]
[1231
silica matrix)
Carbonized
KA = 1.0; Ks =
carbon fiber
1.4 [128]
Stabilized
KA = 1.5; KB =
carbon fiber
1.3 [128]
Carbonized
KA = 6.5; K~ =
pitch-based
8.0 [129]
fiber
Graphitized
KA = 3.6; KB =
pitch-based
5.2. [129]
fiber
Untreated
KA = 1.8; KB =
carbon fiber
3.4 [131]
Oxidized
KA = 9.2; Ks =
carbon fiber
10.0 [131]
MC is microcalorimetry, IR is infrared spectroscopy, IGC is inverse gas chromatography, CalAd is calorimetric and adsorption titrations method, ZA is zetametry.
ET(30) is molar transition energy (in kcal mol 1) of 2,4,6-triphenylpyridinium-4-(2,6-diphenylN-phenoxide [ 133].
Ea is difference between formation energies of surface conjugate base (s-O) and surface OH
group (s-OH) (in kJ mol l ) computed by ab initio ECP-ST method [132].
ELUMO(est) is energy of lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of surface site (in eV), estimated
from relationship between ELUMO(and CA [24].
q+max is maximum positive charge in the surface site (in atomic units), estimated from
+
relationship between q maxand EA [24].
EHOMOand ELUMOare energies of highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals
of surface cluster for OH group, in eV, in MNDO approximation [6,7].
EA, EB and CA, CB are electrostatic and covalent contributions of acceptor (acid) and donor
(base) surface sites into the adsorption heat, in (kcal moll) 1/2.
KA (in arbitrary units) and KB (in kcal tool l ) are acceptor and donor numbers of surface sites;
K~ is the donor number of surface sites (in arbitrary units) calculated using acceptor numbers
for probe adsorbates corrected for van-der Waals contribution (AN*).
600
50
Aliphatic n-alcohols
"
55
c acids
50
6
nC
Figure 4. Dependencies of ET acceptor parameter for series of n-alcohols and fatty acids on the
number of carbon atoms in their alkyl substitutients.
compounds on the examined solid surfaces and from quantum chemical

calculations. These characteristics are presented in Table 7.
It is evident from this Table that carbonized carbon fiber which may be chosen
as the model of carbon subsurface of a solid aerosol has minimal donor (KB) and
acceptor (KA) properties. Its graphitization leads to decrease of these quantities,
whereas its oxidation gives enhancement of the acid/base characteristics. The
latter process may be occurred at interaction of the carbonized part of the aerosol
surface with different inorganic acids (HNO3, H2S04, HC1) and acidic gases (SO2,
NO2 and C12) in the atmosphere.
The electron donor ability or basicity of adsorption sites of the inorganic oxides
in accordance with the change of their KB and K~ values increases in the order
MgO > TiO2/A1203/SiO2 >A1203 > TiO2//SiO2 > TiO2 > ZnO ~ A1203/SIO2 > SiO2
and the electron acceptor ability (acidity) of the inorganic oxides, as it follows
from their KA values, varies as follows:
TiO2/A1203/Si02 > Ti02/SiO2 > A1203/Si02 > ZnO > A1203 > TiO2 > Si02 > MgO
From the comparison of CA and EA contributions for the oxides it follows that
they have more high EA than CA values, i.e. they exhibit "hard" acidic properties.
This was explained by a large contribution of the electrostatic field effect of the
oxide solid matrix to the adsorption heat of test bases [24]. The most high EA
601
quantity was estimated for alumina/silica with 0.23 wt% A1. This may be due to
formation of strong Lewis acid sites and enhancement of the acidity of OH groups
which are bound to trigonal aluminium cations on the boundaries between
patches of A1203 and SiO2 lattice. Modification of inorganic oxide surface by "soft"
organic groups, as in the case of grafted 7-aminopropylsilylated glass beads, gives
high decrease of the EA contribution, whereas the CA contribution even increases
after the surface treatment.
Some q u a n t u m chemical indexes of inorganic oxides and acceptor
characteristics (ET) are presented in the last column of Table 7. The q:a.~ and
ELUMO quantities were estimated in [24] for silica and alumina/silica surfaces
from the relationships between these indexes and CA, and EA contributions. The
range of these indexes is close to those computed by quantum chemistry. The
experimentally derived ET parameter reflecting the acidic properties of solid
surface increases with transition from silica to alumina and decreases in the case
of 7-aminopropylsilylated silica in comparison with untreated silica. This order
coincides with one determined from change of KA and EA for these solids. In
addition, the proton affinities of conjugated bases of the oxide surface OH groups
computed by q u a n t u m chemistry (Ea) are presented for some oxides. This
quantity characterizes the acidity of the surface OH group in gas phase. The
acidity of OH groups of the metal oxide surfaces determined by such manner
decreases in the following order
7- A1203 > SiOffamorph) > TiO2(rutile) > MgO
It may be seen that this order is close to one determined from change of KA
quantity for the metal oxide surfaces.
Crude estimation for ability of inorganic oxide surface to interact with organic
compounds as acid or base can be found from mean electronegativities of these
solids [70]. The mean orbital electronegativities of a solid ()~s) can be calculated
using following expressions
~:S =
n i x 7~i
Z ni
~i = IPi + EAi
(40)
(41)
where ~i is the Mulliken' orbital electronegativity, first ionization potential and

electron affinity of i-th atom in an inorganic molecule, while ni is the number of
these atoms in the molecule. These quantities for various inorganic oxides, salts
and some minerals are presented in Table 8.
602
Table 8
Mean orbital electronegativities (~) of various solids (taken from [70]
Solid
Z, eV
Solid
Z, eV
K20
Na20
CaO
SrO
BaO
Ca3SiO5
MnO
CaSiO4
4.06
4.34
4.81
4.87
4.96
5.41
5.44
5.58
MgO
5.68
Ca~Si207 5.71
La203
5.75
A1203
5.82
PbO
5.88
CaSiO3
5.89
Mg2SiO4 6.08
CaCO3
6.19
Solid
)~, eV
Solid
ZnO
B203
TiO2
Fe203
MgSiO~
ZrO2
V205
A1PO4
6.14
6.18
6.21
6.22
6.24
6.24
6.44
6.50
Talc
MgCO3
Mo3PW1204o
SiO2
Kaolinite
MoO3
WO3
~, eV
6.51
6.54
> 6.56
6.61
6.61
6.69
6.72
The acidity of the solid surface increases as mean solids electronegativity

increases, whereas basic properties change in the opposite direction. Actually, it
is known that alkaline, alkaline-earth metals, Mg and Zn oxides exhibit mainly
basic properties in various catalytic transformations whereas Zr, Ti, Si, Mo
oxides, clays and heteropoly acids typically display acidic properties. The
conclusions from Table 8 coincide with observed order of KB change at transition
from SiO2 to MgO. Then, a strong interaction should be expected between typical
organic bases (ethers, amines, nitriles, etc.) and surface sites of last group of
inorganic solids from Table 8.
It should be mentioned that the behavior of OH groups at oxide surfaces
depends strongly on the composition of oxide and on local chemical environment.
It is known that OH groups of the alumina surfaces display wide spectrum of
Bronsted acidic and basic properties [134]. The single OH groups of the surfaces
exhibit mainly typical basic properties, whereas the bridged OH groups bounded
to trigonal aluminium atom behave as typical Bronsted acid sites [135]. On
partially dehydroxylated surfaces, they have various acid/base character and
interact with organic adsorbates according to their own characteristics (IP, EA
quantities, proton affinity and partial charges on the atoms in the surface
clusters).
Therefore, the acidic and basic properties of oxide surfaces depend on the
temperature of surface pretreatment, surface coverage of adsorbates and
concentration of physically adsorbed water which effects on the stability of
adsorption complexes between organic adsorbates and the surface sites [136-137].
So, the Gutmann' and Drago-Weyland' parameters for different inorganic
oxides and carbonaceous materials allow to predict the specific interaction
contributions to the adsorption energies of organic compounds on solid surfaces.
Also, these parameters may be useful for prediction of the reactivity of surface
sites towards various reagents from gas phase. In contrast to descriptors of the
molecular structure of organic compounds, which can be computed by quantum
chemistry methods or taken from various quantitative relationships derived in
603
the processes, taking place in the solutions or gas phase, similar procedures for
q u a n t u m chemical computation or evaluation of experimental descriptors for
solid surfaces often run to various serious problems and uncertainties.
The G u t m a n n ' and Drago-Weyland' parameters may be useful descriptors
reflecting the reactivity of surface sites in various surface acid~ase reactions,
including catalytic transformations of adsorbed compounds. For example, OH
groups on the silica surface manifested as nucleophiles at interaction with most
organosilicon compounds. This reaction causes the substitution of proton of this
group by organosilicon residue. On the hypothesis that the reaction mechanism
(SEi) is invariant in going from SiO2 to parent and mixed Ti and A1 oxides, one
would expect decrease of chemisorption barrier at enhancement of the KB for
oxides series. Actually, the chemisorption activation energy of an organosiloxane
decreases as the KB of the metal oxide surface increases [83].
5
ZnO
9
~O
"*=
3 -
~ 3 / S i O
.a
2 -
A1203
10
~'TiO2
15
20
25
30
35
-1
K a (kcal mol )
Figure 5. Ozone lifetime on the surface of inorganic oxides as a function of acceptor number
for these oxides.
Second example is related to ozone lifetime on the metal oxide surfaces and it
presents great interest for heterogeneous atmospheric chemistry. As ozone
molecule possess weak basic properties [138], the decrease of ozone lifetime on
the solid surfaces determined in [139] should be expected with the increase of the
metal oxides acidity characterized by KA quantity. As it follows from Figure 5, the
ozone lifetime on the parent A1, Zn, Mg, Ti oxide and alumosilicate surfaces
decreases in going from basic ZnO and MgO to more acidic AleO3, TiO2 and
A1203/SIO2 surfaces. This may be explained by adsorption of ozone molecule onto
604
stronger Lewis acid surface sites causing the ozone dissociation into free dioxygen
and a surface oxygen atom, which remains attached to the metal cation in the
oxide lattice.
The acidYbase characteristics for other metal oxide surfaces which are absent in
Table 7 may be estimated crudely from comparison the sequences for change of
KA, KB, E and C parameters for series of metal oxides with order of change of the
acid/base parameters determined in other scales or from quantitative
relationships between these scales for a given series of solid surfaces.
The different methods are proposed for the estimation of the order for relative
acidity and basicity of inorganic oxide surfaces. The basicity of oxides increases at
enhancement of negative charge on lattice oxygen atom in the following order
[140]
MgO > MgA1204 > A1203 > Zr02 ~ TiO2
Above basicity order coincides with that determined from increase of the positive
charge on metal cations in the oxides lattice
A1203 > ZrO2 ~ TiO2
Desorption energies determined from TPD experiments or differential
adsorption heats of SO2 possessing acidic properties on the oxide surfaces may be
chosen as a measure of their basicity
MgO>CoO2 >ZrO2 >MgA1204 >A1203 >TiO2
The Lewis basicity of metal oxide sites decreases as [140]
MgO > ZrO2 > TiO2 (rutile) > TiO2 (anatase) > MgA1204 > y- A120~
The temperature-programmed desorption of preadsorbed acidic carbon dioxide
is frequently used to measure the number and strength of basic sites. The
strength of basic sites determined from temperatures for maximum of the CO2
desorption peak in TPD spectra is in the increasing order of [141]
BaO > SrO > CaO > MgO
whereas the metal oxide basicity evaluated from differential adsorption heat
distributions of C02 varies as [142]
7- A1203 > TiO2 (rutile)
Other different spectroscopic (XPS, UV adsorption and luminescence

spectroscopies of the solid surfaces, IR spectroscopy of adsorbed CO2 and pyrrole)
605
and other methods (TPD of hydrogen, titration of solids by typical acid]base
indicators, 1so exchange between carbon dioxide and surface oxygen) are
proposed for characterization of the basic surface sites. They are reviewed in
detail in [143].
Different techniques have been developed to determine the solid acidity and
they are briefly described in recent review [144]. Among them the temperatureprogrammed desorption, microcalorimetry and IR spectroscopy of preadsorbed
base molecules (NH3, CO, acetonitrile, pyridine, n-butylamine, quinoline, etc.) are
widely used in determination the strength of Bronsted and Lewis acid surface
sites. In accordance with these data, the acidity of Lewis sites on metal oxide
surfaces varies as [140]
y- A1203 > TiO2 > ZrO2 > CeO2
The acid/base characteristics of the metal oxide surface sites are changed at
addition of minor concentration of extraneous ions. This may be a typical
situation in the case of solid atmospheric aerosols having complex surface
composition (Table 2). From data of microcalorimetry of base (NH3) and acid
(SOD probes on 7-alumina, silica and magnesium surfaces at adding small
amount (0.1 wt%) of ions (Ca 2 Li Nd 3 Ni 2 Zr 4 SO~-) it was found that the
modification of 7-A1203 surface properties changed moderately its amphoteric
properties [145]. More substantial changes are observed on MgO which consisted
in formation of sites of moderate and weak basic strength. The number of
acid/base sites on doped SiO2 is strongly affected by the presence of introduced
ions. The acidity of modified oxides increases at enhancement of generalized
electronegativity of the metal ions, (Xi), expressed as X i = (l + 2Z) X,,, where X0
is the electronegativity of neutral atom (Z = 0) given by Pauling and Z is the
charge of metal ion [146]. This behavior is much more pronounced on silica series
than on alumina series oxides. The cation electronegativity is a parameter
determining the ionicity percentage of cation-oxygen bond in oxides. Then the
ratio of the oxidation degree to the ionic radius of doping ions is also
representative of the Lewis acid strength of cations. It is observed that acidity of
modified oxides increases while the charge/radius ratio grows. The Lewis basicity
of the modified oxides is associated with the electric charge of the oxygen
adjacent to cation [147]. The average heat of SO2 adsorption per basic site
increases as the partial oxygen charge associated with the cation grows. This
tendency is much more evidenced on the doped silica samples which, because of
very weak acidic character of this oxide, reflect much more the doping effect of
inorganic ions.
Most of organic compounds (alcohols, ethers, nitriles, amines, thio- and
phosphor-derivatives, organometallic) are irreversibly adsorbed on most metal
oxide surfaces at low temperatures after heat pretreatment of surfaces at
moderate and high temperatures. Preliminary partially dehydroxylation of
nonreactive cristobalite and pyrogenic silica surfaces at 1073 K also gives the
606
irreversible adsorption of methanol and tert-butanol on the surfaces at 303 K,
and their initial differential heats of adsorption increase in comparison with that
for the solids pretreated at 423 K [148]. The physical adsorption of gas phase
reagent onto solid particle surface and formation of surface H- or donor/acceptor
adducts is a first stage of its chemisorption and different surface reactions. The
subsequent transformations of the adducts are affected by way of temperature or
reagent concentration enhancement as well as by presence of third base or acid
component (catalyst). Because different inorganic gases possessing high acid/base
characteristics (SO2, HC1, C12, NH3) are adsorbed on the surface of atmospheric
solid aerosols, the reactivity of the surface Bronsted and Lewis sites grows and
formed H- or donor-acceptor complexes between these sites and organic
pollutants are close to the transition state of the chemisorption. Various problems
which arise in connection between chemisorption kinetics and adsorption
equilibrium of organic compounds on metal oxide surfaces are discussed in [83].
The simple expression for apparent chemisorption activation energy (Ec~hem) with
consideration of the H- or donor/acceptor complex formation prior to slow
chemical reaction on the solid surface may be derived using the steadyconcentrations assumption for such a complex
~
(ESp + E nsp )
Eapp = E chem-
(42)
where Ec~hemis the activation energy of the chemical reaction between interacting
gas and solid surface. Therefore, the apparent reaction barrier reduces with the
increase of preliminary adsorption complex stability, and overall reaction rate
grows. The overall adsorption energy can be estimated by means of methods
discussed above. Moreover, the increase of preliminary adsorption complex
stability gives increase of the reagent concentration on the surface and
effectiveness of its following monomolecular processes or bimolecular LangmuirHinshelwood surface reactions is grower. Most descriptors of organic compound
structures used in their relationships with adsorption energies are also available
for quantitative description of chemisorption and surface reactions. However,
because of cleavage and formation of new chemical bonds during chemical
reactions and large differences between the structure of reagents in the initial
and transition states, other descriptors, including the bond dissociation energies,
relaxation energies of reagents in an transition state, are proposed for estimation
of reaction barriers on metal oxide surfaces [24].
C H E M I S O R P T I O N AND S U R F A C E REACTIONS OF ORGANIC

C O M P O U N D S ON METAL OXIDES
The reactions of solid aerosols (NaC1, sulfuric acid-coated solid-propellant

rocket motor-exhaust particles, a-A1203, ice, soot particles) with atmospheric
607
gases (NO2, N205, C1ONO2, CO2, SO2, HC1, O2, O3, H20) have been studied for
many years [149-159]. However, little attention has been paid to the possibility of
organic atmospheric species reacting directly with solid aerosols. These reactions
are of interest as a possible means of disposing of stockpiles of organic compounds
or products of their photochemical and thermal transformations in
Earth
atmosphere.
Main mechanisms of organic compounds interaction with Bronsted and Lewis
acid/base sites of metal oxide surfaces, stages of chemisorption reactions, kinetic
equations taking into consideration the chemical and structural heterogeneities
of the metal oxide surfaces and some quantitative "structure-reactivity"
relationships (QSRRs) for these transformations have been discussed in our
recent review [137]. However, most of experimental data considered in [137] are
concern to the best investigated reactions of various organosilicon compounds
with OH groups of parent and mixed Si, Ti and A1 oxide surfaces. Considered
regularities for effects of substituents in these compounds, dissociation energy of
bonds and structure of oxide surfaces on the chemisorption activation barrier can
be extended to the chemisorption of organic pollutants on solid aerosol surface.
But in this case the difference in the electronegativities of Si in the organosilicon
compounds and C atoms in most organic pollutant molecules is to be taken into
account, as well as the fact that last reactions are more complex and their
kinetics is far less studied than that for former processes. Most of quantitative
data for products of C, N, O, S, C1, F-containing organic compounds interacting
with various metal oxides are derived from FTIR, and X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopic, mass-spectrometric and chromatographic studies on the surface
and in the gas phase in course of these transformations, whereas main body of
kinetic results in this field is derived from temperature-programmed desorption
experiments. We will make an attempt to consider here the main mechanisms of
possible reactions of organic pollutants with active sites of metal oxide surfaces,
experimental kinetic data derived from TPD measurements, kinetic equations,
and possible QSRRs in these transformations.
5.1. M a i n m e c h a n i s m s o f c h e m i s o r p t i o n on t h e m e t a l o x i d e s u r f a c e s
The Bronsted acid (various types of OH groups) and base sites (oxygen atom in
these groups and M-O bonds of lattice) as well as Lewis acid (metal cations M n
surface free radical, e. g. = Si ~ and base sites (ones, similar to Bronsted base
sites and O 2-, surface radicals - S i O ~ etc. ) are the main reaction sites of the
inorganic oxide surfaces. The organic compounds (RX, RH, where R is an
hydrocarbon moiety and X is a polar functional group) interact with these sites in
accordance with following mechanisms [137, 143-144, 160].
5.1.1. R e a c t i o n s w i t h B r o n s t e d a c i d / b a s e s i t e s
i. Electrophilic substitution of the surface OH group proton by an organic residue
(SEi)
608
MO-H + R-X --+ MO-R + H-X
ii. Nucleophilic substitution of OH group by an organic residue (SNi). W h e n RX is
an alcohol, the grafted alkoxy groups m a y be intermediates in its subsequent
acid-catalyzed reactions
M-OH
R-X -~ M-R
X-OH
iii. Dissociative electrophilic or nucleophilic addition to a metal-oxygen bond (AdEi

or AdNi)
M-O-M + R-X -~ M-OR + M-X
iv. Proton transfer from acid site to organic compound (AHi). The formed onium
cations m a y be i n t e r m e d i a t e s in subsequent acid-catalyzed reactions, e. g.
dehydration of alcohols and hydration of olefins, etc.
M-OH + R-X -+ Mn+O2- + [RXH]
v. Proton transfer from organic compound to base sites of oxides (EHi) and
subsequent base-catalyzed reactions, e. g., double bond migration in olefines
CH2=CH-CH2-CH2X + Mn+O 2- ---> [ C H 2 - C H - C H - C H 2 X ] - + Mn+O - H + --+
CH3-CH=CH-CH2X + Mn+O 2vi. Reactions of u n s a t u r a t e d compound with paired Bronsted acid sites
M(OH)-OH+ >C=C< --+ >(HO)C-CH< + Mn+O 25.1.2. Reactions
with
Lewis
acid/base
sites
i. Redox reactions of Lewis sites with formation of organic radical-cations,

radical-anions or addition of lattice oxigen to an organic compound
R + Mn+O2- --> R X +" + M(n+l)+O2-
R + Mn+O2- - , R X " + Mn+O RH + Mn+O 2- --> RHO + M(n-1)+Dii. Dissociative adsorption on the Lewis acid/base pair with formation of Bronsted
acid site (Adi)
R-H + Mn+O2" -> R-M-OH
Formed surface complexes and grafted organic groups undergo to subsequent
monomolecular and bimolecular transformations. For example, n-complexes
609
formed between olefins or aromatic hydrocarbons and Lewis acid sites are turned
to c-complexes. These complexes may be oxidized by Lewis acid surface sites up
to products of their complete oxidation, carbon dioxide and water. Mutual surface
diffusion of adsorbed organic free radicals gives their dimerization,
polymerization or addition to adsorbed initial organic compounds or to reactive
surface sites.
It should be mentioned that surface of solid aerosols contains various metal
cations, inorganic anions and inorganic salts. Because small size of aerosol
particles, strong electric fields arise on their surfaces nearby charged sites.
Electronic and spatial structure of organic molecules and products of their
interfacial reactions: ions, free radicals, adsorbed on solid surface differ from the
structure of these species in gas phase. As a result, the activation barriers of
their reactions with other gases or adsorbed components will change and
composition of reaction products will differ from those of similar processes in gas
phase or in solutions. The charged surface sites induce orientation of reagent
molecules. Conformation transitions being possible in molecules, the
conformations with higher dipole moment are mainly formed on solid surface.
Regioselectivity of the further reactions of adsorbed products is determined by
their conformations on solid surface. The influence of electric field on the
structure and reactivity of molecules and ions localized nearby solid surface, and
the mechanism of interface reactions was exhibited theoretically and confirmed
by some experiments on the surface of various heterogeneous oxide catalysts,
especially in the zeolites cavity ([161] and references therein). These effects
clearly can be manifested by the action of strong electric field with intensity
varied from 0.005 to 0.06 a. u. Also, the intensity of non-uniform electric field
near solid rough surface of ultrafine particle exceeds the value for flat surface, as
F = U/(A r), where U is the outer potential difference and r is the radius of
divided crystallites or roughness of the surface. The effects of intensity and vector
direction of the electric field on activation barriers of unimolecular interfacial
reactions of simple organic compounds were studied by semiempirical quantum
chemistry method for orientation of molecules and radical-anions, heterogeneous
electron transfer to adsorbed molecules, dissociation of radical-anions, cations
and molecules, inversion of anions and molecules, cis-trans isomerization in
olefines and chair-boat conformational transition of cyclic molecules in [161]. It
was found t h a t electron and spatial structure of neutral particles and ions, height
of activation barriers of their reorientation, dissociation, isomerization and
conformation transition, the configuration stability to change as affected by the
field in the range 0.01 + 0.05 a. u. These effects are to be taken into account at
explanation of the surface reaction kinetics and the products composition on the
surface of atmospheric solid aerosols.
As is evident from Table 2, the surface of most solid atmospheric aerosols
contains marked amount of such acidic components, as adsorbed gases NO2,
N205, C1ONO2, SO2, and HC1, and their corresponding acids or salts. It is known
that sulfate t r e a t m e n t of oxides such as Fe203, A1202, SnO2, TiO2, ZrO2, etc.,
610
gives high increase in the surface acidity and in the catalytic activity, for
example, in dehydration of alcohols, olefins hydration, esterification, acylation
and isomerization reactions [162]. These solids were claimed to present superacid
sites with acid strengths up to Ho < - 16.04. These sulfated metal oxides usually
are prepared from their hydroxides by treatment with H2SO4, SO2, SO3 H2S or
(NH4)2304 and following calcination [163]. The nature of the high acidity of the
sulfated metal oxides is still controversial. It was proposed that the very strong
acidity is due to the increase in number and strength of Lewis acid sites [164].
More realistic structure for active site implies the formation of Bronsted acid
sites which would allow catalytic reactions to occur at much lower temperatures
with the same rate as they occur at higher temperatures without the presence of
the Bronsted sites [165].
Also, the addition of chlorine to alumina enhances the activity of solid for
skeletal transformations of hydrocarbons [166]. The role of halogen promoter at
the surface is to enhance the Lewis or Bronsted acid environments, respectively,
through an electroattractive effect of the halogen atom from an adjacent OH
group [167]. Quantum chemical studies indicate that the stabilization of LUMO
energy occurs with a narrowing of the energy gap, by the substitution of chlorine
for oxygen or OH groups in T-alumina cluster models [168]. The Bronsted acid
character of the cluster also increases after substitution. Similar enhancement of
surface acidity and reactivity in the chemisorption of various organic bases has
been observed after substitution of OH groups on silica surfaces by chlorine [169].
Therefore, the oxide surfaces of solid aerosols in the presence of acid additions
can exhibit much more high acidity and catalytic activity in the reactions of
adsorbed organic compounds than their one-off surface acidity and reactivity
suggests.
5.2. K i n e t i c s of c h e m i s o r p t i o n a n d s u r f a c e r e a c t i o n s
The rate of adsorption of gas-phase species, Va can be written as [170]
Va : s r ( o ) x F
(43)
where F is the flux of gas reagent and Sr(O) is the sticking coefficient. The
superscript r is 1 for non-dissociative and 2 for dissociative adsorption
(chemisorption). For direct adsorption (chemisorption) from gas phase,
s r ( o ) = sr (0)x (1- O)r
(44)
where Sr(0) is the sticking coefficient at zero coverage O. In accordance with

Arrhenius equation
(Ea)
sr(o)= S~ xexp - ~ -
(45)
611
where
S~ and Ea are the pre-exponential factor and activation energy for
adsorption. The normal pre-exponential factors for these reactions according to

e s t i m a t e d from transition state theory are varied from 10 -lo to 1 0 1 7 c m 3 s -1 at
r = 1 and 2 [171].
The overall non-dissociative adsorption (chemisorption) rate of gas-phase
species onto solid aerosol surface (Va(over)) c a n be described by using the simple
model for discrete heterogeneous surface [172]
Va(over )
F x S Ox
Ea(i)
Oti exp - Ea(i)
kT x exp - S O x x x exp - kT
i1
.
(46)
where Oti i s the relative concentration of i-th subsurface, Ea(i) is the chemisorption
activation energy on i-th subsurface and x is the reaction time. Because, in the
case of dissociative and associative surface reactions, the consideration m u s t be
given to correlation effects between E(i) on different sites, the later kinetic
equations will be given only for surface reactions t a k i n g place on uniform surface.
W h e n chemisorption is a s s u m e d to proceed via the precursor state (H- or donoracceptor surface complexes) discussed above, then rates of non-dissociative and
dissociative chemisorption can be written as [173]
V a = qxFA x k a ( 1 - O A )
kd* + k a*(1 - | A )
Va
ka(1-|
(47)
(48)
k~ + k a ( 1 - O A ) 2
where ~ is the t r a p p i n g probability from the gas phase into the precursor state,
k a is the rate constant for transition from the precursor state into the
chemisorbed state, and k d is the rate constant for desorption of the reagent from
precursor state.
The rate of desorption for a randomly distributed adsorbate can be written as
r@r
Vd = kd
(49)
where k~ is the r a t e coefficient for desorption, obeying to Arrhenius equation

r
kd = ~d xexp -~-~
(50)
612
where v~ and Ed are the pre-exponential factor and the activation energy for
desorption, respectively. The desorption pre-exponential factors range from 1013
to 1019 s 1 for r = 1 and from 1011 to 1019 s -1 for r = 2.
Surface bimolecular reactions are classified into L a n g m u i r - H i n s h e l w o o d a n d
Eley-Rideal processes. The first includes reactions between two adsorbed species
(A and B) or an adsorbed species and a vacant site (V)
V 1 - k l A B , or V! = k 1 A V
(51)
where kl is the rate coefficient, 0i is the surface coverage of species i a n d 0v is the

fraction of v a c a n t sites. The kl value is obeyed to A r r h e n i u s equation
k 1 = v 1 x exp - ~
(52)
The pre-exponential factor for this reaction varies from 10 -n to 104 cm 2 s -1.
The second type of the reactions includes the direct interaction of gas-phase
species with adsorbed species and the reaction rate can be w r i t t e n as
Ve = ke0APB
(53)
where pB is the partial pressure of r e a g e n t B. The ke value can be r e p r e s e n t e d

t h r o u g h t reactive sticking coefficient, So
/ Ee)
S~
)1/2 exp k e - (2~mBk T
(54)
where as is the area per reaction site, and mB is the molecular weight of species
B. The pre-exponential factor for these reaction varies from 10 .6 to 10 -17 cm 3 s -1.
5.3. Quantitative "Structure-Reactivity" relationships in surface

reactions of organic compounds
The Evans-Polanyi relation between the activation b a r r i e r (Ea) and the
reaction e n t h a l p y (AH) is most often used for description of reaction kinetics on
the solid surface
Ea = (~ AHr + ~
(55)
where (z is the t r a n s f e r coefficient (0 _< a < 1) and ~ is close to the intrinsic

reaction barrier.
As is shown [174], this relation may be useful for prediction of Ea values for
chemisorption of some organic compounds on hydroxylated silica surface. Also,
the bond-order-conservation-Morse-potential (BOC-MP) method [175] t a k i n g into
account reaction enthalpy, adsorption h e a t s and bond dissociation energies in
613
reagents and products may be used for prediction of activation barriers for
various surface reactions. The Ea value for dissociative adsorption from the gas
phase can be written as
QAQB
E a =0.5 I DAB-(QA +QB)+ QA
+QB _QABI
(56)
where QA, QB and QAB are the adsorption heats of species A, B and AB,
respectively. For non-dissociative desorption, Ed is given by
Ed = QA or Ed = QAB
(57)
whereas for associative desorption, Ed is

QAQB +AH)
E d = 0.5 QA + QB
(58)
where the enthalpy change for the surface reaction is given by

AH = DAB + QAB- QA- QB
(59)
In the case of disproportionation reaction A + BC -~ AB + C, the activation

barrier is
Ed=0"5/QABQABQC
+ + Q c AH)
(60)
where the enthalpy change in the reaction is

AH = DBC- DAB- QAB + QA- Qc + QBC
(6~)
However, the attempts to estimate the activation energies for the interaction of
organosilanes with hydroxylated silica surface using Q values computed by
quantum chemistry (Eq. 60) lead to Ea values rather than on 50 +: 100 kJ mol 1
higher than experimental values. Above expressions apparently are suited for
surface reactions, which occur through only nonpolar or weakly polar transition
state. The static quantum indexes of reactivity may be used for description of the
double exchange reactions, which occur through the transition state with high
charge separation. If barrier height is controlled by frontier orbital interactions
(interaction of a soft acid with a soft base) then the following relationships may
be written for SEi reaction
Ea = al/(EHOMO(1) - ELUMO(2))+ a2
(62)
614
where a l and ae are coefficients for given series of organic reagents. For the
reactions discussed compound 1 is the MOH group of inorganic oxide surface and
compound 2 is an organic compound. Actually, the most relationships are
observed between the reactivity of organosilicon compounds toward OH groups of
hydroxylated silica surface and ELUMO (electron affinity (EA) with an opposite
sign) or p a r a m e t e r s which include the EA value for these compounds [137]. For
example, the following tendency is observed between activation energy of
organosilicon compounds interaction with OH groups of hydroxylated silica
surface corrected for preliminary adsorption complex formation, and their
electron affinity (EARsix)
Ea = - (1.5 + 0.9) 105/(IPsioH - EARsix) + 251 + 84 kJ tool -1
(63)
where IPsioH is the ionization potential of silica surface cluster of OH group

(IPsioH = 9.4 eV).
As the Ea value is controlled by charge transfer, the choice between SNi and SEi
mechanisms can be done by comparison of reagents electronegativity
(~ = IP + EA). If inequality ~M-OH> ~RX is satisfied, t h a n the organic compound is
a nucleophil, but at ;~M-OH< ~RX, this compound is an electrophil. With allowance
for these inequalities and the ionization potential (IP) and EA values of
organosilicon compounds, and C, B, Ti, Ge, Sn halides ()~RX = 11 - 14 eV), and
clusters of OH groups of silica surface ()~M-OH= 8.8 + 11.7 eV), it follows t h a t these
compounds are electrophils in the reactions with OH groups. The ~RX values for
ammonia, aliphatic amines, aliphatic alcohol's, phenol and water fall within the
range 5.9 + 8.6 eV. According to the first inequality these compounds are
nucleophiles in substitution reactions with the SiOH groups. The crude
estimation for ability of inorganic oxide to interact with an organic compound as
acid or base can be found also from comparison of mean electronegativities of
these solids (Table 8) and gas-phase reagents.
It was found t h a t the activation energy of organosilanes ((CH3)3SiX) interaction
with silica OH groups decreases with lowering the Si-X bond energy (Esi-x) and
with enhancement of the inductive coefficient of the substituent X (~I)
Ea = 0.29 Esi-x - 274.5 ~i + 62.9 kJ mo1-1
(64)
Then above conclusion about SEi mechanism for the reactions agreed with sign of
coefficients in Eq. 64.
The main p a r a m e t e r s determining the organic compounds ability to interact
with OH groups of inorganic oxide surfaces are bond dissociation energies of
reagents and products as well as the energies of frontier orbitals of the reagents.
So, simplified Marcus-like equation for the activation energy of the SEi reaction
at varying the substituent X in (CH3)3SiX compounds was found [24]
Ea = 0.08 (IPHx - EARsix) + 0.025 (DRsi-x - DHX) - 24.7 kJ mo1-1
(65)
615
where DRSi-X and DHX a r e the Si-X and H-X bond dissociation energies in the
gaseous reagent and product. First term in this equation takes into account the
relative redistribution of electron density between gas-phase species and surface
groups for series of species.
Several linear relationships for change of Ea in SEi, SNi and AdEi reactions by
varying the structure of organic reagents RX and sites of inorganic oxide surfaces
(M-OH, M-O-M and M-Y) can be derived using simple thermodynamic cycle and
taking into account the difference in the electronegativities of reagents and
products [24]. These equations present the combination of kinetic (first term in
right side of Eq. 65) and thermodynamic (second term in this Eq.) contributions
to the height of the activation barrier for surface reactions. For example,
variation of substituents R in RX changes the activation energy for SEi reaction
as follows
AEa =- a3(EARx + EAROM) + a4(DR-x - DR-OM)
(66)
The change in influence of metal M on the reactivity of M-OH group varies as

AEa = a5(IPMoH - EARoM) + a6(DMO-H - DR-OM)
(67)
In the case of interaction RX compound through SNi mechanism with surface MOH group the activation energy changes at varying the substituent X as
AEa = aT(IPRx - IPMR) + as(DR-x - DM-R)
(68)
and effect of metal M on the reactivity of M-OH group in this reaction leads to
following variations of activation energy
AEa = ag(IPRx - EAMoH) + al0(DM-oH - DR-X)
(69)
The reactivity of oxide surfaces grows after replacement of surface OH by more

active Y group, where Y = C1, SOn, NH2, NR'R", etc. The change of activation
energy for next SNi reaction at varying of this group Y is
AEa = al I(EAMY + EAHY) +
a12(DM_Y -
DHY)
(70)
As it seen, the reactivity of surface groups M-Y is determined by electron acceptor

ability of substituent Y and difference in strengths of M-Y and H-Y bonds. These
factors may be reasons for weak reactivity of Si-F groups on the fluorinated silica
surface towards typical organic nucleophiles (alcohols, amines) in comparison
with more reactive Si-C1 groups of chlorinated silica.
Difference between the activation energies of SEi and AdEi routes at varying
substituent X in RX is
616
AEa = a13(IPMx - EARx) + a14(DR-x - DM-X)
(71)
As it follows from [174], the AEa values for AdEi route to the Si-O bond of SiO2
surface at the interaction with (CH~)3SiX (X = N3, NCS and NCO compounds, are
10 + 20 kJ mol 1 lower than the activation energies of SEi reaction of these
reagents. From comparison of relations (65) and (71) it is obvious that the
maximum AEa value can be observed in the case of lowest reactivity in the SEi
reaction. This explains the observed maximum of AEa at the interactions
(CHs)sSiNCO and (CHs)sSiN3 as compared with (CH3)3SiNCS.
Because most of inorganic oxides-constituents of industrial solid aerosols are
active catalysts in various processes of partial or complete catalytic oxidation of
organic and inorganic compounds, the activation energy of these transformations
is related to bond energy of oxygen in these oxides (Ebo) in accordance with
known relationship [176]
Ec - a15 Ebo + a16
(72)
As it follows from comparison of oxygen bond energies and activation energies of

methane, carbon oxide and hydrogen complete catalytic oxidation, the catalytic
activity of metal oxides in these transformations decreases in the following order
Co304 > MnO2> NiO > CuO > Cr203> Fe2Os> ZnO > V20~> MgO > A12Os>> SiO2
The expressions presented here may be used as a basis for possible QSRRs
between change of the activation barriers for reactions on the solid aerosol
surfaces and descriptors of surface sites as well as gas-phase organic species.
5.4. C h e m i s o r p t i o n of o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s on the i n o r g a n i c o x i d e
s u r f a c e s and t h e r m a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n of the surface s p e c i e s
Experimental aspects of temperature-programmed desorption with mass
spectrometric registration of volatile reaction products as a tool of investigation of
disperse oxide surface and reaction mechanisms has been discussed elsewhere
[176-180].
Let us consider some experimental results for chemisorption of organic
compounds on the inorganic oxide surfaces and for thermal decomposition of
surface species. The type of oxide, chemisorbed substance, desorption product,
heating rate (~) and temperatures of peaks maxima (Tin) in TPD spectra are
presented in Table 9. The position and relative intensity of the peaks depend on
the heating rate. In order to compare these spectra, desorption activation
energies (Ed) (given in last column in Table 9) have been calculated using Tm and
parameters by simple Redhead's peak maximum method [181] at normal preexponental desorption factor Vd = 1013 s 1.
617
Table 9
Products of organic compounds decomposition preadsorbed or bound to inorganic
oxide surfaces, temperatures of peak maximum in their TPD spectrum and the
apparent desorption energies estimated using the Readhead's method
Product of
~(K s -1) decomposition
Substance
Oxide
CH3OH
SiO2 [186] 0.1
n-CnHgOH
SiO2 [187] 0.067
C6Hs(CH2)2OH SiO2 [188] 0.1
CH3OH
TiO2 [185] 0.2
C2HsOH
0.2
n-C3H7OH
0.2
i-C3H7OH
TiOe[185]
0.2
CH3OH
C=O
H2C=O
CH3OCH3
CH3C(O)H
CH4
CH2CHCH2CH3
C6Hs(CH2)2OH
C6HsCH=CH2
C6H6
C6H5 C6H5
C6HsCH3
CH3OH
CH3OCH3
H2C=O
C=O
H2
CH4
C2HsOH
C2HsOC2H5
CH3C(O)H
H2
C4Hs
CO2
n-C~HTOH
C3H7OC3H7
C3H7C(O)H
C~H6
H2
C=O
i-C3H70H
CH3COCH3
C3H6
He
C=O
COe
Tm (K)
Desorption
energies
(kJ tool -1)
763
723
473, 863*
323, 583*
323, 600*
923
823
573
743
823
823
573
390,645*
635
675
675
675
675
390, 590*
590
600
630
640
710
390, 575*
590
620
625
600
620
390, 490*
540
560
550
560
710
224
212
137, 254**
93, 170"*
93, 175"*
272
245
167
218
242
242
167
110, 185"*
182
194
194
194
194
110, 169"*
169
172
180
183
204
110, 164"*
169
177
179
172
177
110, 139"*
154
160
157
160
204
618
Table 9
Product of
~(K s -1) decomposition
Substance
Oxide
HCOOH
HCOOH
ZnO [189] 5
ZnO [189] 5
C6HsOH
ZnO [136] 10
FeO[136] 10
SiO2 [191] 0.1
(CH3)eCHNHe
Fe203
0.1
MgO
0.1
CaO
0.1
A1203
0.1
cyclo-C6H11NH2 A1203[191] 0.1
Fe203[191]
0.I
HCOOH
CO2
C=O
H2
C6HsOH
C6HsOH
(CH3)2CHNH2
CH3CH=CH2
CH3CN
CH4
CH3CN
CH4
(CH3)eCHNH2
CH3CH=CH2
NH3
CH3COCH3
COz, H20
(CH3)2CHNH2
CH3CN
CH4
(CH3)zCHNH2
HCN
(CH3)2CHNH2
CH3COCH3
CH3CN
CH4
C6H11NH2
NH3
C6H12
C6HsNH2
1,3-C6H12
C6HIINH2
NH3
c6H12
C6H10=O
CH3CH=CH2
C6HsNH2
Desorption
energies
(kJ mol 1)
180
45
550
142
550
142
500
129
520
132
556
141
403,703* 116,206"*
803
236
843
248
843
248
698
204
698
204
423
122
523
152
523
152
523
152
638, 708* 186, 207**
413
119
548
159
548
159
413
119
883
260
433
126
588
171
548
159
548
159
433
125
598
174
598
174
673
197
653
191
423
122
513
149
513
149
523
152
513
149
533
155
Tm (K)
619
Table 9
Product of
Substance
Oxide
[~(K s -1)
decomposition
Tm (K)
Desorption
energies
(kJ mo1-1)
718
210
COz
HzO
533,698* 155,204"*
C6HsNHz
SiOz [192] 0.1
C6H5NH2
413,638" 119,186"*
443,603* 128,176"*
A1203
0.1
C6H5NH2
423
122
CaO
0.1
C6H5NH2
423
122
MgO
0.1
C6H5NH2
433,553* 125,161"*
Fe203
0.1
C6HsNHz
718
210
CO2
HzO
693
203
403,703* 116,206"*
(CH3)3CNH2
SiO2
0.1
(CH3)3CNH2
843
248
(CH3)2CH=CHe
NH3
843
248
443
128
A1203
0.1
(CH~)3CNH2
598
174
(CH3)2CH=CH2
NH3
598
174
Fe203
0.1
(CH3)~CNH2
433
125
573
167
(CH3)zCH=CH2
NH3
573
167
638,688* 186,201"*
CO2
H20
638,688* 186,201"*
CC14
AlzO3[197] 5
CC1
155
39
300
76
CO2
CFC13
5
CC1
130
32
130
32
CFzCI2
5
CC1
360
92
CO2
CF~C1
5
CC1
120
30
390
100
CO2
*Temperature of the second peak maximum in the TPD MS spectrum of this product.
**Apparent desorption energy related to the second peak in the TPD MS spectrum of this
product.
5.4.1. Oxygen-containing compounds

The decomposition of alcohols has been widely used as the probe of the
acid~ase properties of metal oxide catalysts [182]. While it is generally assumed
that acidic oxides catalyze dehydration and basic oxides catalyze
620
dehydrogenation, recent studies have shown that the selectivity of alcohol
decomposition on metal oxides is a function of reagent and surface structures.
Oxides which act as solid bases to abstract protons from alcohols can also produce
net dehydration products via alkoxide decomposition [183]. It was found that the
decomposition kinetics and selectivity of alkoxides on the TiO2 (anatase) surface
are dependent upon the alcohol structure [184]. The decomposition temperatures
of surface alkoxides are in the order MeO > EtO > n-PrO > i-PrO. The desorption
sequence for the decomposition products from ethanol and l-propanol TPD
exhibited a common pattern: dialkyl ether (bimolecular interaction) - aldehyde
(a-H abstraction) - olefin (~-H abstraction and oxygen deposition). For methanol
TPD, aldehyde was followed by methane due to the absence of ~-H. The absence
of dialkyl ether formation from 2-propanol TPD again suggested steric
constraints on secondary alcohol adsorption and decomposition. The dehydration
selectivity increased in the order MeO < EtO < n-PrO < i-PrO.
The TPD MS and IR studies on TiO2 (rutile) single-crystal surfaces have
suggested that product distributions in the reactions of primary alcohols and
carboxylic acids are governed primarily by the coordination environment of
individual surface cations. This model would suggest that the reactivity of
adsorbed alcohols should be insensitive to bulk structure. In order to test this
hypothesis, methanol, ethanol, and 2-propanol were adsorbed at room
temperature on anatase and rutile powders [185]. The alcohols were
dissociatively adsorbed to form alkoxides and surface hydroxyls. The alkoxide
species were removed via two channels, recombination with surface OH groups at
400 K and decomposition at higher temperatures. Dehydration and
dehydrogenation pathways are observed for all of the alcohols, with only the
primary alcohols yielding bimolecular reaction products. The similarities in
product distribution and peak temperatures from aliphatic alcohols on anatase
and rutile, particularly with regard to the selectivity for diethyl ether formation
from ethanol, indicate that the bulk crystal structure of the oxide does not have a
significant influence on the reactions of these molecules.
The products of methanol chemisorption on SiO2 surface pretreated at 1020 K
were studied by TPD MS method in [186]. Dimethyl ether, acetaldehyde and
carbon oxide were observed in the temperature range usual for the effective
alcohol chemisorption on the silica surface (~650 K). Their formation may be
explained by following reactions
-SiOCH~ + CH3OH --+ -SiOH + CH3OCH3
2 -SiOCH3 -+ -SiOH + - S i l l + CH3CHO
Thermal decomposition of the grafted methoxy groups in the range from 820 to
1070 K gives formaldehyde, methane, hydrogen and carbon oxide in accordance
with supposed reactions
621
-SiOCH3-->-Sill + H2C=O
2 -SiOCH3 --> -SiOH + -Sill + CH4 + CO
-SiOCH3 + H -~ -SiO + CH4
H2C=O ~ CO + H2
The decomposition reactions of alkoxide groups -SiO(CH2)3CH3 on dispersed
silica surface were examined by TPD MS and quantum chemistry methods in
[187]. Main desorption channel corresponds to the elimination of l-butene above
600 K. The TPD data suggest that this reaction is of first order and that it can be
viewed as "unimolecular".
Chemical transformations of phenylethanol bound to silica gel surface were
studied by TPD MS method after the previous partial carbonization of the grafted
groups [188]. The main decomposition products of the groups are C6H5(CH2)2OH,
C6HsCH=CH2, C8H6, C6HsC6H5 and C6H5CH3. The formation of phenylethylene is
due to the unimolecular decomposition of grafted groups with H transfer from
CH2 group (nearest to aromatic ring) to O from SiOR group. The formation of
benzene and biphenyl was explained by surface migration of intermediate phenyl
radicals and H abstraction from surface groups and associative desorption,
respectively.
The adsorption and reactions of formic acid on the oxygen-terminated
ZnO(001)-O surface have been studied by TPD MS and XPS method in [189].
Small amounts of formic acid dissociate at defect surface sites to yield surface
formate (HCOO). The surface HCOO decomposes to yield nearly simultaneous
CO2 (37 %), CO (63 %) and H2 TPD peaks at 560 K.
5.4.2. Nitrogen-containing compounds

The chemical transformations of various amines adsorbed at oxide/vapour
interfaces (SIO2, A1203, Fe203, MgO and CaO) were studied by IR spectroscopy
and TPD MS methods in [190-192]. It was found that with primary aliphatic
amines the main high-temperature reaction on oxides possessing Lewis-acid sites
is nitrile formation, but secondary aliphatic amines additionally show CN bond
breakages causing desorption of NH3 and propylene (isopropylamine),
cyclohexene (cyclohexylamine) as dehydrogenation (cyclohexylamine -~ aniline;
isopropylamine ~
adsorbed imine species), and C-C bond breakage
(isopropylamine: adsorbed imine species --> desorption of CH4 and acetonitrile).
At beam temperature surface complexes formed between aniline and
t-butylamine on the oxide surfaces are similar to those in the case of other
amines: there is hydrogen bonding and dissociative adsorption on SiOe, and
formation of coordination bonds between amine molecules and Lewis sites on the
other oxides. With increasing temperature, in the case of aniline only aniline
itself desorbs, whereas when t-butylamine is used, in addition to the unchanged
amine, isobutene and NH3 are detected as desorption products, indicating the
occurrence of CN bond breakage. With amines examined oxidation reactions take
place on the surface of Fee03.
622
5.4.3. A r o m a t i c h y d r o c a r b o n s
Spectroscopic data about structure of surface complexes formed after
adsorption of aromatic hydrocarbons on the metal oxide surfaces are absent. The
detailed scheme of toluene transformations on oxide surfaces was proposed in
[193] on the basis of reaction products of their partial and complete catalytic
oxidation
C6H5CH3 + 02 --->C6H5CHO + 02 ~ C6H5COOH --> C6H6 + CO2
C6H6 + H20 --->C6H50H + 02 ~ 0=C6H4-0 + 02 ~ C4H203 + 02 --> CO, CO2, H20
Also, benzophenone is formed in the oxidation transformations with participating
two toluene molecules.
5.4.4. H a l o g e n - c o n t a i n i n g c o m p o u n d s
The reactions of several atmospherically relevant halomethane compounds
(CF3C1, CF2C12, CFC13, and CC14) with heat-treated 7-alumina powders at 1000 K
have been investigated in situ FTIR spectroscopy in an attempt to assess the
impact of alumina exhaust particles from solid-propellant rocket motors on
stratospheric chemistry [194]. The powders were dosed at 100 K with
halomethanes and then gradually heated to promote reaction; infrared spectra
were recorded as a function of temperature. The spectral features, which appear
at temperatures as low as 120 K, are attributed to adsorbed carbonate,
bicarbonate, and/or formate species (COn, n = 2, 3), indicating that halomethanes
dissociatively chemisorbs on heat-treated 7-alumina at temperatures below that
of the lower midaltitude stratosphere. These COn species are stable in the range
250 - 400 K, depending on the degree of chlorination of the halomethane. The
decomposition ~eactions apparently proceed through C-X (X = F, C1) bond rupture
and AI-X and C-O bond formation and involve the participation of surface active
sites such as A13 ions and AlxOy clusters that are produced during
dehydroxylation.
The IR adsorption experiments provided no information about absorption
features associated with AI-X or O-X bonds, and reaction products that are
released into gas phase. Such information is crucial, however, to assessing the
impact of surface-mediated decomposition of halomethanes on solid-propellant
rocket motor-alumina particles on the stratospheric ozone cycle. The XPS studies
suggested that under certain conditions, halogen-containing species are evolved
from 7-alumina surfaces exposed to halomethane compounds at stratospheric
temperatures [195, 196]. The reactions of CF3C1, CF2C12, CFC13, and CC14 with
heat-treated y-alumina powders were studied using TPD MS and XPS methods in
[197]. Desorbing species were monitored as a function of substrate temperature
using a line-of-sight quadrupole mass spectrometer. Hydrogen chloride and
halomethyl fragments, which are indicative of halomethane dissociative
chemisorption were observed to desorb below 150 K. Carbon dioxide began to
desorb between 240 and 320 K. The CO2 most likely arises from COn (carbonate
and/or formate) species which are formed via the low-temperature dissociative
623
chemisorption of the halomethanes. In situ XPS analysis of heat-treated powders
t h a t had been dosed at 150 K with halomethanes revealed the presence of both
organic and inorganic forms of fluorine. Halogen uptake probabilities, which are
estimated to be - 10 .5 from the data, increased as the degree of chlorination of the
halomethane increased. These results indicate that halomethanes will probably
decompose on solid-propellant rocket motor-alumina particles in the stratosphere,
forming adsorbed A1-X (X = C1, F) and COn species and releasing gas phase HC1
and CFxCly fragments. However, the impact of these processes on global
stratospheric halomethane and ozone concentrations is likely to be minimal. The
localized depletion of halomethanes may occur in the vicinity of the exhaust
plume of a booster rocket where particle loading is much larger.
The adsorption and thermal decomposition of the polyperfluorinated ether
(C2F5)20 on 7-A1203 has been studied by IR spectroscopy in [198]. This ether
interacts with the isolated surface OH groups, forming an increasing number of
associated OH groups from 150 to 600 K. Surface fluoroacetate and surface
fluoroformate species are also formed from the thermal decomposition of the
(C2F5)20 layer. At T > 300 K, the surface fluoroacetate converts to surface
fluoroformate in accordance with following scheme
(C2Fs)20~ds (150-200 K) -~ CF3COOads + FCOOads + HF + A1-F + OH (assoc)
(C2F5)2Oads (200-300 K) -~ FCOOads + HF + AI-F + OH (assoc)
CF3COOads (300-600 K) ~ FCOOads
Oxidation of the ether also occurs on surface preadsorbed with pyridine,
indicating t h a t Lewis acid A13+ sites, blocked by pyridine adsorption, are not
involved in fluoroacetate and fluoroformate formation.
5.4.5. Organometallics
XPS, FTIR spectroscopy and TPD MS methods were used to study the
chemisorption and decomposition of trimethylaluminium (TMA) on silica under
high vacuum [199]. By annealing series of silicas from 425 to 1573 K prior to
TMS exposures at 300 K, the distribution of chemisorption products as a function
of the relative concentration of various OH groups types was examined. It was
proposed t h a t the monomethylaluminium surface complex and methyl groups
bonded to silicon are the majority species on the surface at 300 K. Decomposition
of the monomethylaluminium complex begins above 373 K and increases the
population of methyl groups bonded to silicon on the surface. The methyl groups
react to form methane, ethane and adsorbed hydrocarbon fragments. In addition,
methyl groups also react further with the surface to form tetramethylsilane.
Small amounts of gas-phase TMA and carbon-contaminated aluminosilicate
surface are observed.
The mentioned above organic compounds, products of thermal decomposition of
the species preadsorbed or bound to inorganic oxide surfaces, temperatures of
624
peak maximum in their TPD spectrum and the apparent desorption energies
estimated using the Readhead's method are listed in Table 9.
From comparison of Eo data for products of halomethanes chemisorption on
y-A12Oz in Table 9 it follows that Eo value for CO2 desorption from A12Oz surface
increases as the C-C1 bond dissociation energy in the chemisorbed halomethane
grows.
This dependence is presented in Fig. 6. Also, the Ed value for desorption of
primary aliphatic and aromatic amines from the AlaOz and Fe2Oz surfaces
increases with reducing the ionization potential of the amine (Figure 7). This
observation agrees with proposed mechanism of the amines adsorption on the
oxide surface, including the adsorbate interaction with Lewis acid sites of the
oxide surfaces. The amine desorption energy decreases as the acceptor number of
oxide surface (KA from Table 7) reduces at transition from A12Oa to SiO2.
Ea (kJ mo1-1)
110
Ed (kJ mo1-1)
130
A1203
O
100
CF2C12
90
80
125
[ Cfl4o
70
300
319
338
357
Ec_cl (kJ mol-l)

Figure 6. Plot of desorption energy of
carbon dioxide from alumina surface vs
C-C1 bond dissosiation energy in
halometanes.
120
7
7.5
8.5
9
IP (eV)
Figure 7. Desorption energy of aromatic

and aliphatic primary amines from oxide
surface as a function of amine ionization
potential.
The quantum chemical computations of energies for surface reactions taking

place on the model clusters of active sites and grafted groups on inorganic oxide
surfaces may be useful tool for prediction of activation energies for the examined
decomposition reactions. The heat of unimolecular decomposition of n-butyloxy
group grafted to the silica surface yielding to the surface OH group and 1-butene
(260 kJ moll), computed by AM1 method is close to desorption activation energy
625
for this reaction from Table 9 (245 kJ mol-1). Also, the desorption activation
energy of various gas-phase species in thermal decomposition of grafted
phenylethoxy groups on the silica surface from Table 9 increases as the enthalpy
of the reactions, computed by this method grows [188]. This agrees with
expressions 57 and 58, derived for non-dissociative and associative desorption by
using BOC-MP method.
5.5. P h o t o c h e m i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i n g t h e o r g a n i c s on
solid a e r o s o l s u r f a c e s
The photochemical reactions of organic pollutants adsorbed on solid aerosol

surface with various small atmospheric species, as gases and free radicals in their
ground or excited state are of great importance for heterogeneous atmospheric
chemistry. The solid surfaces are classified into two categories: (i) nonreactive
surfaces, such as silica or alumina which provide an ordered two-dimensional
environment for effecting and controlling photochemical processes more
efficiently than can be attained in homogeneous phase; (ii) reactive surfaces, such
as titania or metal chalcogenides, which directly participate in photochemical
reactions by absorbing the incident photon and transferring charge to an
adsorbed molecule or by quenching the excited state of this molecule [200]. It is
known that aromatic compounds adsorbed on nonreactive solids exhibit a longlived excited state which is beneficial in enhancing the efficiency of such
photochemical reactions, as .their photoionization [201], bimolecular electron
transfer between adsorbed molecules [202], hydrogen abstraction, etc. The
dispersed quartz surface covered by aromatic compounds, e. g. anthracene or
organic dyes, offers a scavenger of singlete oxygen 102 (lAg) formed after
illumination of the surface by visible light during 2 - 10 minutes at low
temperature (273 K or low) [203]. The desorption activation energy of the 102
species from such surfaces varies from 90 to 130 kJ mo1-1. The freezing out of the
adsorbent at temperatures from 273 to 323 K gives release of the 102 species into
gas phase. Because most of industrial solid aerosols consists of inorganic nuclei,
covered by layer of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons mixture, the observed effect
of the singlete oxygen conservation by dispersed particles may occur in the
atmospheric heterogeneous processes, e. g. in depletion of the ozone layer.
The presence of reactive subsurfaces is possible on the aerosol surfaces
consisting such semiconductor nanoparticles as TiO2, ZnO, ZnS, CdS and other
metal chalcogenides. Their role in initiating and controlling such surface
transformations of organic compounds as oxidation of olefins, arenes, alkanes,
amines, alcohols and the degradation of chlorinated organics, phenols, and
haloaromatics has been reviewed recently [204-206]. The reactive oxygen species,
such as free radicals HO2, RO2, OH, may be formed on the illuminated
semiconductor surfaces in the presence of air via dioxygen reduction by a
conduction-band electron in the presence of a suitable adsorbed species
possessing electron donor properties. Also, by virtue of producing these radicals
via photochemical processes and high concentration of reactive ozone in the
626
stratosphere, they may interact in ground or excited state with organics adsorbed
on the solid aerosols via Eley-Rideal or Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism. Since
ozone transformations have great importance in environmental atmospheric
chemistry, let us consider its possible reactions on the solid surfaces.
Despite the great importance in environmental chemistry, the ozone adsorption
has been studied by IR spectroscopy at low temperature (70 K) on the silica,
titania and alumina surfaces only in recent years [138,157,207]. Ozone molecules
are shown to form weak hydrogen bonds with OH groups of silica and titania
surfaces. Adsorbed ozone reveals comparatively high basicity, close to t h a t of CO
and is bound to silica OH group r a t h e r via one of terminal oxygen atoms, t h a n via
the central one. The isotope substitution experiments provide evidence for strong
deformation of ozone molecules adsorbed on the titania surface, which are bound
to titanium ions also via one of terminal oxygen atoms. Although alumina is more
acidic t h a n TiO2, IR spectroscopy did not detect 03 species adsorbed on strong
Lewis A13+ sites. However, 03 decomposition occurred and pyridine specific
poisoning evidenced that such sites are involved in the decomposition. Quantum
chemistry calculations confirmed such a result and specified that the remaining
O specie resulting from the decomposition, in addition to physisorbed 02, was
attached to the aluminum ion constituting the Lewis sites. The oxygen molecules
would then gradually be desorbed. Whereas the 102 (lAg) species pruduced via
ozone photodecomposition (~ < 1180 nm) possess slow reactivity toward organic
molecules, the formed via this process more active oxygen atom O(1D) may
abstract hydrogen atom from the organics, surface OH groups or adsorbed water
yielding to reactive hydroxyl radicals. The subsequent interaction of these
radicals with ozone, organics, carbon oxide or nitrogen oxide gives active species
HO2, R, H, and HONO, respectively [208]. These species are responsible for main
chemical transformations of organic compounds in the atmosphere. In addition,
the ozone decomposition on the solid aerosol surface is possible via its basecatalyzed route (OH-) over basic surface sites: 03 + OH- -> O~- + HO2, with the
rate coefficients varying from 70 to 370 1 mo1-1 s 1 [209, 210].
6.
CONCLUSIONS
The considered here problems in heterogeneous atmospheric organic chemistry

are far from such traditional fields as surface science which deals with surface
processes on well-characterized solids, as single crystals of metals and their
oxides, graphite, etc., industrial adsorption, where main interest is directed to
various microporous and mesoporous solids, such as zeolites, activated carbons,
silica gels, and industrial heterogeneous catalysis dealing mainly with supported
catalysts containing noble metals, zeolites, etc. In contrast to these fields, the
study of organic pollutants interaction with solid aerosol surfaces is of no interest
for industry. However, the importance of this field for the health and
environmental sciences is beyond question. The studies in the heterogeneous
627
atmospheric organic chemistry are initiated only in recent years and methods
developed in the surface science and catalysis have given impetus to
understanding those complex processes.
It is clear that the reactivity of organic pollutants toward the solid aerosol
surfaces is controlled by the surface chemistry of the individual constituents of
the particles. Significant advances have been made recently in the field of the
powders surface characterization due to the development of theory and
techniques in inverse adsorption gas chromatography. The dispersive components
of the surface free energy and acid/base components of specific interaction'
contribution to the adsorption energy of test polar adsorbates on various parent
and modified inorganic oxides and carbonaceous materials, determined by this
method make possible to estimate the adsorption energies and relative
concentrations of nonpolar and polar organic compounds on the complex aerosol
surfaces. The quantitative "structure-activity" and "structure-reactivity"
relationships between the descriptors of organic compounds, solid surfaces and
their activity in adsorption equilibria and reactivity in surface reactions
presented here may be used to predict the direction and relative rate for these
transformations on solid aerosols.
The modeling of industrial aerosols, such as fly ash microparticles through the
use of chemically modified pyrogenic metal oxide microparticles of controlled
composition and surface structure offers a clearer view of detailed mechanisms
for the formation of these aerosols and their interaction with atmospheric organic
species. This interaction is the main reason for appearance of secondary organic
carbon in the solid aerosols. The study of thermal decomposition of adsorbed
organic species or the grafted groups on the model microparticles by temperatureprogrammed desorption mass spectrometry provides the comprehensive
information on kinetics and mechanism of the surface reactions and gives insight
to the mechanism of formation of fly ash particles.
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to thank Professor P. F. Gozhyk (Ukrainian Antarctic Center) for
fruitful discussions. One of the authors (V.A.P.) is indebted to Swiss National
Science Foundation (Grant 7UKPJ048657) for financial support.
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635
C o n t r o l of s u p e r c r i t i c a l g a s e s w i t h solid n a n o s p a c e - e n v i r o n m e n t a l
aspects
K. Kaneko
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiba University
1-33 Yayoi,Inage, Chiba 263, J a p a n
1.
SUPERCRITICAL GASES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
There are many important supercritical gases whose critical temperature is

lower than an ambient temperature. 02, N2, NO, CO2, CO, H2 and CH4 are
representatives of a supercritical gas near room temperature. 02, N2, CO2, CH4
and NO are intricated with important bioreactions. 02, H2, CH4 and CO2 play an
indispensable role in energy technology. The control of CO2, C H 4 and NO is
necessary to preserve our earth environment. Thus, these gases are essentially
important to h u m a n and earth. Even inert gases such as Ar and Xe play an
important role in modern technology.
These supercritical gases have been deeply associated with gas separation, gas
storage, catalysis, supercritical extraction, supercritical drying, pollution control
and life science. The chemistry of supercritical gases should contribute to
establish an energy-saving technology of high performance. Accordingly, control
of a supercritical gas is strongly requested for establishment of the future
technology.
Adsorption of supercritical gases by micropores can offer a hopeful control
method. Here micropores are the pores whose width is less t h a n 2 nm according
to the IUPAC classification, which is shown in Table 1. In this article, we will use
the term of nanospaces for micropores whose width is less than about 1 nm. In a
nanospace the molecule-pore wall interaction is markedly enhanced, as
mentioned later. The adsorption science for a supercritical gas with the
nanospace can support the development of fluid chemistry and technology in
future. Therefore, we need to understand the nature of adsorption of the
supercritical gas by nanospaces. Also we must know molecular properties of these
supercritical gases in order to search the best nanospace system for each fluid
gas.
The above-mentioned molecules have different properties and structures. 02,
N2, NO, CO2, CO and H2 are linear molecules and their point groups are C~v and
D~h ; only CH4 has Td symmetry. Although their molecular orbitals for valence
electrons other t h a n H2 are composed of 2s and 2p atomic orbitals, occupation of
636
Table 1
Classification of pores
Micropore
w<2nm
Ultramicropore
w < 0.7 nm
Supermicropore
0.7 n m < w < 2 n m
Mesopore
2 nm < w < 50 nm
Macropore
w > 50 nm
(Nanopore is not recommended by IUPAC, but it is often used for pore whose width is less
than 10 nm).
the molecular orbitals by electrons are different from one molecule to another,
providing different intermolecular interaction energy, electrostatic s t r u c t u r e and
magnetic strucuture, as shown below. Their molecular sizes and interaction
energies are different from each other. L e n n a r d - J o n e s p a r a m e t e r s (~ff and ~ff )
give good m e a s u r e s of the size and interaction energy. H2 of ~ff = 0.292 nm is the
smallest molecule, while CO2 of aff = 0.376 nm is the greatest of these molecules.
However, aff, being the one-center L e n n a r d - J o n e s p a r a m e t e r , is obtained by the
a s s u m p t i o n of the spherical shape and it is not the exact m e a s u r e of the
molecular size. Each molecule has a different ~ff value; CO2 has the greatest
interaction energy. NO and CO have a small p e r m a n e n t dipole moment. O2, N2,
CO2 and H2 have the quadrupole moment, while NO and CO have the quadrupole
m o m e n t too. Only CH4 has the octapole moment. Although the p r e d o m i n a n t
intermolecular interaction stems from the dispersion interaction, these multipole
m o m e n t s contribute to the intermolecular interaction, determining their m u t u a l
orientation. 02 and NO are paramagnetic, whereas others are diamagnetic.
Hence 02 and NO can interact with magnetically. Thus, these molecules have
different properties. Table 2 s u m m a r i z e s physical properties of these molecules.
We can use the physical property difference.
Here Tb, Tc and Pc are the boiling t e m p e r a t u r e , critical t e m p e r a t u r e and
critical pressure, di, qu and oc denote dipole, quadrupole and octapole moments.
The units of di and qu are Cm and Cm 2, respectively. Although NO and CO have
the quadrupole m o m e n t in addition to the dipole moment, their quadrupole
m o m e n t s are ommitted, d i a and p a r a denote d i a m a g n e t i s m and p a r a m a g n e t i s m .
637
Table 2
Physical properties of i m p o r t a n t molecules
Molecule
H2
Tb
K
Tc
K
Pc
MPa
(~ff
nm
s~f/kB
K
20.3
33.0
1.29
0.292
38.0
Multipole
moment
Magnetism
qu
dia
+2.1.10-40
02
90.2
154.6
5.04
0.338
126.3
qu
para
-1.33.10-4o
N2
77.3
126.2
3.39
0.363
104.2
qu
dia
-4.90" 10 -40
NO
121.4
180
6.48
0.347
119
di
para
0.158-10 -3o
CO
81.6
132.9
3.50
0.359
110
di
dia
0.112.10-3o
CO2
194.7
304.2
7.48
0.376
245.3
qu
dia
-14.9.10-40
CH4
2.
111.6
190.5
4.60
0.372
161.3
oc
dia
W H A T IS A S U P E R C R I T I C A L GAS ?
The state of m a t t e r is described in terms of the pressure P, the molar volume

Vm and the t e m p e r a t u r e T. Then three phases of gas, liquid and solid are
expressed by the P-Vm projection, as shown in Figure 1. The P-Vm projection
indicates the presence of the coexistent region of gas and liquid in equilibrium,
which is designated by ( 1 + g ). The broken line parallel to the abscissa of the
P-Vm projection at a t e m p e r a t u r e T1 denotes the coexistent region. The coexistent
region becomes narrower, as the t e m p e r a t u r e is raised. Finally the coexistent
region is reduced to a mere point whose t e m p e r a t u r e is called critical
t e m p e r a t u r e Tc. The critical t e m p e r a t u r e Tc is the m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e at
which a gas can be liquefied and above Tc liquid cannot coexist. Above Tc there is
no vaporization curve and no distinction between liquid and gas. Therefore, we
must distinguish the gaseous states above and below Tc. The term vapor is used
to describe a gaseous substance when its t e m p e r a t u r e is below Tc and the vapor
can be condensed to liquid by pressure alone. However, the gas above Tc, which is
called a supercritical gas, cannot be liquefied even at quite high pressures. Vapor
has own s a t u r a t e d vapor pressure Po. Then we can use the relative pressure P/P0
for description of adsorption of vapor. On the other hand, the supercritical gas
638
P
1
"'criticalpoint V ~
T
V,
Figure 1. Phase diagram.
has no s a t u r a t e d vapor pressure. The relative pressure expression cannot be used

for description of adsorption of a supercritical gas.
Recently not only liquid but also supercritical gas has been used as solvents
[2]. The solvent power of a supercritical gas increases with density at a given
t e m p e r a t u r e and it increases with t e m p e r a t u r e at a given density. A supercritical
gas exhibits physicochemical properties of an intermediate between a liquid and
a gas. The relatively high liquid-like density at high pressure affords good solvent
power and the mass transfer in the supercritical gas is rapid relative to a liquid.
Also the extremely low value of surface tension of the supercritical gas allows
better penetration into the sample matrix relative to liquid solvents. The critical
t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure of CO2 are 304.21 K and 7.477 MPa, respectively and
thereby CO2 has been widely served in supercritical fluid technology. However,
the fundamental u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the supercritical state is not necessarily
sufficient yet. The supercritical state in the bulk phase has been studied with
small angle Xoray scattering, showing the presence of inherent clusters around
the critical point for CO2 [3]. The researches on the bulk supercritical state
should stimulate the adsorption study on supercritical gases.
3.
NANOSPACE SYSTEMS
The most representative microporous solids are zeolites and activated carbons.
Both have different pore structures and adsorptive properties each other.
Recently new porous solids have been developed to accelerate the progress in
nanopore fluid chemistry.
There are two types of pores of intraparticle pores and interparticle pores [4].
The intraparticle pore is in the primary particle itself, while the interparticle
pore originates from the interparticle void space, although there is an ambiguous
639
distinction between both types of pores in some systems. Zeolites have welldefined intraparticle pores which arise from the intrinsic crystalline structure
[5]. The pore geometry and pore connectability are evaluated by their crystal
structure. Aluminophosphates [6] also have cylindrical intraparticle pores
inherent to the crystal structures. Even the hydrophobic phosphates [7] having
the straight pore of triangular column were synthesized. On the other hand, a
new family of mesoporous zeolites [8-11] such as MCM (Mobil Composition of
Matter) or modified kanemite FSM (Folded Sheets Mesoporous Material), which
have straight cylindrical mesopores, were developed recently. Furthermore, the
mesopore size can be controlled by the surfactant molecular size. These
mesoporous silica has a regular honeycomb structure, although the pore walls are
noncrystalline. The mesoporous silica provided a new problem that the
adsorption hysteresis depends sensitively on the mesopore size [12,13]. The
classical capillary condensation theory cannot explain the dependence of the
adsorption hysteresis, but Inoue et al. gave a new approach to this problem with
the extended Saam-Cole theory [14].
The carbon nanotube [15] has also the intraparticle pore stemming from the
intrinsic crystalline structure; the tube-wall is composed of graphitic structures.
However, the so-called carbon nanotube has a both end-closed cylindrical pore.
On the other hand, the catalytic method can produce the one end-open pore in
which gas adsorption is available [16]. The CVD technique using the template
porous solids produces mesocarbon tubes [17]. Activated carbons are the most
popular adsorbent [18-20]. Activated carbons are mainly composed of
micrographitic units. The edge carbon atoms of the micrographite are more
reactive than carbon atoms on the basal plane, developing pores along the basal
plane of the micrographite. Activated carbon fibers (ACFs) [21] have only uniform
micropores, while the conventional granulated activated carbons have a wide
pore size distribution from micropores to macropores. In particular, pitch-based
ACFs have less amount of surface functional groups and the pore width can be
well controlled. Superhigh surface-area carbons [22,23] obtained by KOH
activation have considerably uniform micropores whose pore width is greater
than that of ACFs. The activated carbon film from Kapton film has the oriented
structure of slit micropores [24]. The carbon aerogel has uniform mesopores and
micropores can be donated to the carbon aerogel [25,26]. Also graphite
intercalated compounds can offer micropores [27]. In addition to the above porous
systems, pillared clay minerals [28,29] and pore-size controlled glasses [30] can
be available for controlling a supercritical gas. Microporous BN is also an
attractive solid [31]. An organic metal complex is a new hopeful nanopore system
of which width can be variable [32].
As these porous solids have different pore geometry and chemical nature
(Table 3), we can choose the best fit nanopore system for control of each fluid.
640
Table 3
Nanoporous s y s t e m s
Surface
component
Compound
Zeolite
A l u m i n o p h o s p h a t e ALPO
Si, A1, O
Pore shape
nm
Pore width
nm
cylinder, cage
0.3 - 1
cylinder
0.8-1.3
A1,P, O
[SAPO: Si, A1, P, O; TAPO: Ti, A1, P, O; FAPO: Fe, A1, P, O, etc]
Aluminiummethyl phosphonate
A1, CH3PO3
cylinder
< 1
triangle prism
Mesoporous zeolite
Si, O
cylinder
2 - 10
[A1, Zn, Ti, Zr, W, Pb etc can be doped]
activated carbon fiber
carbon aerogel
activated carbon aerogel
pore-oriented carbon film
carbon n a n o t u b e
carbon mesotube
graphite i n t e r c a l a t i o n comp.
microporous BN
pillared clay
porous glass
organic m e t a l complex
4.
C
C
C
C
C
C
C, Ketc
B, N, H
Si, A1, O
Si, O
Organic group
slit
i n t e r g r a n u l a r void
slit + void
slit
cylinder
cylinder
slit
slit
slit
cylinder
void
0.6 - 1.3
5 - 30
1, 5-30
< 1
> 2
30 - 200
< 0.5
< 1
> 0.5
5 - 104
variable
DEEP POTENTIAL WELL OF NANOSPACE
We will discuss the interaction of a molecule with the graphitic slit pore of the
micropore model of activated carbon. The interaction b e t w e e n a molecule and a
surface atom as a function q)(r) of the distance r between t h e m can be expressed
by the L e n n a r d - J o n e s potential,
(I)(r) = 4~sf [(asf/r) 12 - ( a s f / r ) 6 ]
(1)
where ~sf and asf are the well depth and effective d i a m e t e r for the moleculegraphitic carbon atom. These cross p a r a m e t e r s are calculated according to the
Lorentz-Berthelot rules, ~sf = (~ss ~ff )l/e ; asf = (ass + aff )/2. Here, (ass , ~s) and
(aff, ~ff ) are the L e n n a r d - J o n e s p a r a m e t e r s for a surface atom and a molecule,
respectively. The interaction potential (I)(z) for a molecule and a single graphite
slab is given by the Steele 10-4-3 potential [33],
641
(I)(z) = 2rtPCg sf (~2sfA{(2/5)((~sf/z)10 - ((~sf/z }4 _(~4sf/bA(0"61A + z)3 ] }
(2)
where z is the vertical distance of the molecule above the surface, A is the
separation between graphite layers (=0.335 nm), pc is the n u m b e r density of
carbon atom in a graphite layer (=1i4 /nma). As the micropores of activated
carbon can be approximated by the slit spaces between the p r e d o m i n a n t basal
planes of nanographitic units, the whole interaction potential ~(Z)p of a molecule
with the micropore of an inter-graphite surface distance H can be given by eq. (3).
: |
(a)
Consequently, we can evaluate the potential profile of the molecule adsorbed in

the graphitic micropore. Here H is not the effective pore width w determined by
the adsorption experiment. The difference between H and w is a function of ~sf
and ~ff [34].
(4)
H - w = 0.85~sf - ~ff
5O0
-500
1
s'
~" -1500
-2500
'
'
-0.4
-0.2
0
z/rim
0.2
0.4
Figure 2. The potential profile

pore width w.
of a N2 molecule in the
graphite slit pore as a function of the
In the case of the Ne-graphitic slit pore system, w is equal to H - 0.24 nm. Figure
2 shows potential profiles of N2 in a slit-shaped graphite pore as a function of w
using the one-center approximation. Here, the molecular position in Figure 2 is
expressed by a distance z from the central plane between two surfaces. The
broken line shows the potential profile for the single graphite surface. The
642
potential becomes deeper with decrease in the w value. The potential profile has
double minima for w > 0.6 nm, but a narrower pore has a single potential
minimum. Thus, micropores have stronger adsorption fields t h a n flat or
mesoporous surfaces. The depth of the potential well for vapor is enough great to
give the Type I adsorption isotherm, i.e. an enhanced adsorption at a low relative
pressure range, being characteristics of micropore filling [35].
Activated carbon has a b u n d a n t micropores and their adsorption field can be
approximated by the above mentioned graphite-slit space model. The depth of the
potential well of nanospace is not enough for a supercritical gas to be sufficiently
adsorbed, but chemical modification of the pore-walls can deepen the potential
well for the supercritical gas, leading to a marked micropore filling. Furthermore,
supercritical gas molecules tend to be adsorbed in micropores of the deep
potential well and their intermolecular interaction is enhanced to form an
organized structure, as if molecules were compressed by a high pressure. For
example, when adsorbed molecules of supercritical gas form the dimer in a
chemically modified micropore, the interaction profile of the dimer with the
micropore becomes completely different from that of the monomer. Hence, the
adsorption property for the supercritical gas can be changed dramatically by use
of a chemically modified micropore.
F U N D A M E N T A L P R O B L E M S IN A D S O R P T I O N OF
S U P E R C R I T I C A L GAS
The supercritical gas which has no concept of the s a t u r a t e d vapor pressure

cannot be sufficiently physisorbed on the flat surface, macropores and even
mesopores with physical adsorption. The adsorption of vapor by micropores,
which is called micropore filling, is enhanced at a very low pressure region due to
overlapping of the molecule/pore-wall interactions. The deep potential well of the
micropore gives rise to adsorption of the supercritical gas to some extent. Still the
micropore cannot adsorb a b u n d a n t amount of the supercritical gas. That is, the
quite narrow micropore whose width is fit for the size of the adsorbate molecule
has a very deep molecular potential well and is effective even for adsorption of
the supercritical gas. However, the amount of adsorption by such a narrow
micropore is limited to much less t h a n the micropore volume due to the diffusion
problem; molecules adsorbed near the entrance in the micropore are bound too
strongly to migrate to the inner pore position. Accordingly, the supercritical gas
is not an objective gas for a predominant micropore filling [36]. In case of
micropore filling of vapor, the potential well of the micropore whose width is even
more t h a n trilayer thickness of the molecular size is enough deep for vapor
molecules to be sufficiently filled at a low pressure region without any obstacle
for the intrapore diffusion.
The analytical method for physical adsorption of a supercritical gas by
micropores is much less advanced compared with physical adsorption of vapor
643
[37-39], although molecular simulation [40-42] based on the Lennard-Jones is
effective for description of adsorption of supercritical gases by micropores.
However, we need a simple description method like Dubinin-Radushkevich (DR)
equation for adsorption of supercritical gas in micropores, as given by eq.5 [43].
W = Wo exp[-(A/~ E) 2 ]
A : RT ln(P/P 0), E = 13E o
(5)
Here, W0 is the pore volume, E the energy constant, Eo the characteristic

adsorption energy and 13 the affinity coefficient. The DR equation includes the
saturated vapor pressure Po and thereby it cannot be applied to micropore filling
of supercritical gas. As the interaction potential at the mid-point of the slit-pore
is the deepest in the pore of w < 0.6 nm and it is not seriously different from the
double minima even for w > 0.6 nm, molecular potential for a molecule in the
micropore can be approximated by the potential at the mid-point of the slit-pore.
The molecular potential indicates the presence of the inherent micropore of the
volume of WL for each adsorptive. Here the inherent micropore must have a
sufficiently strong molecular field in comparison with the thermal energy at a
measuring temperature. The inherent micropore volume WL for vapor molecules
is almost equal to the micropore volume Wo obtained from N2 adsorption at 77 K
(Gurvitch rule). WL for a supercritical gas which depends on the molecule-pore
interaction can be evaluated as the saturated amount of adsorption from the
Langmuir plot and WL is less than Wo in general. The supercritical gas is
transformed into a quasi-vapor in the micropores of which pore volume is WL.
Then, the quasi-saturated vapor pressure Poq can be defined for the quasi-vapor.
Both of WL and Poq are determined experimentally, as described using the
following supercritical DR equation [37].
[ln(WL/W 0 )]1/2 : (RT/~E 0 )0n Poq _ l n P )
(6)
The plot of [ln(WL/Wo)] 1/e vs. In P leads to both of Poq and ~Eo. This supercritical
DR plot is quite useful to obtain the important information on adsorption of
supercritical gas. This supercritical DR equation can describe the adsorption
isotherm of the supercritical gas using the concepts of Poq and WL, which are
related to the intermolecular interaction of supercritical gas in the quasi vapor
state and the molecule-pore interaction, respectively. Also adsorption isotherms
at different t e m p e r a t u r e s can be reduced to a single isotherm with the aid of
these reduced quantities of WL/W0 and P/Poq Hence we can predict the adsorption
isotherm at an arbitrary temperature by use of the reduced isotherm.
644
CONTROL OF MICROPORE FILLING AND NANOSPACE

REACTIVITY OF SUPERCRITICAL GASES
As micropore filling is governed by both geometry of pores and chemical nature

of the micropore-wall, we can control it with chemical modification of the
micropore-walls. The chemical modification with substances having a weak
chemisorptive activity for molecules is ~ffective for enhancement of micropore
filling of a supercritical gas; this is called chemisorption-assisted micropore filling
[44]. A marked enhancement of micropore filling of supercritical NO and CH4
with the chemical modification is described in this article.
Micropores have stronger adsorption fields due to the deep potential well than
flat or mesoporous graphitic surfaces. We can estimate the effective pressure
from the potential profile; molecules confined in the slit-pore of I nm in width are
presumed to be exposed to the high pressure of 100 MPa. Therefore, the graphitic
micropore can offer the high pressure field from the macroscopic view. The quasihigh pressure effect was evidenced in the disproportionation reaction of the NO
dimer and hydrate mediated micropore filling for NO and CH4, as shown later.
Hashimoto et al. [45] reported the presence of the quasi high pressure effect even
in an electrochemical reaction using ACF.
6.1. Iron o x i d e - d i s p e r s i o n i n d u c e d m i c r o p o r e filling of s u p e r c r i t i c a l NO

The critical temperature of NO is 180 K and NO is a supercritical gas at
ambient conditions. Almost all microporous adsorbents cannot sufficiently adsorb
supercritical NO, although NO of the representative atmospheric pollutant is
desired to be removed with a good adsorbent. Table 4 summarizes NO
adsorptivities of activated carbon, zeolite and silica gel at 303 K. Although
activated carbon can adsorb more NO than representative zeolites and silica gels,
the maximum adsorption does not cope with the saturated adsorption which can
be estimated from the pore volume. Zeolite is not a good adsorbent for NO
regardless of presence of micropores. Mesoporous silica gel is also not fit for
adsorption of supercritical NO. Only activated carbon is considerably effective for
NO adsorption due to the assistance by the surface functional groups. Hence the
control of surface chemistry of activated carbon is quite essential with the
relevance to control of the dimerization of NO.
An NO molecule has an unpaired electron and gaseous NO shows
paramagnetism. It is well-known that NO molecules are dimerized and show
diamagnetism at the condensed phase at low temperature [46]. Consequently, we
can understand the molecular state of NO molecules adsorbed in micropores of
ACF by the magnetic susceptibility measurement. ACF having less surface
functional groups shows diamagnetism, giving a reliable result. The magnetic
susceptibility ~ of ACF with adsorbed NO was negative near room temperature
irrespective of the adsorption of NO which has a large paramagnetic (positive)
susceptibility. The ~ value calculated from the c values of both gaseous NO (of the
same amount as adsorbed NO) and ACF was positive and decreased with the
measuring temperature. Thus, the calculated temperature dependence of ~ was
645
clearly different from the observed one. This is because the adsorbed NO does not
exhibit p a r a m a g n e t i s m ; the negative )~ of ACF with adsorbed NO arises from the
dimerization of NO in micropores. The fraction of dimers determined from the
a m o u n t of NO adsorption, the observed magnetic susceptibility and the
diamagnetic susceptibility of the NO dimer in the literature is 0.98 at 298 K and
it is still about 0.9 even at 373 K [47-49]. If we can accelerate the dimerization of
NO, NO adsorption can be enhanced, because NO dimer is vapor.
Table 4
Amounts of NO adsorption of activated carbons, zeolites and silica gel at 303 K
under the equilibrium NO pressures of 13 and 80 kPa
Surface NO
mg g-1
area
adsorbed 80kPa
Substance
m2g -1
13kPa
1100
15
28
coconut shell-based activated carbon
860
17
47
molecular sieve carbon (pore width: 5/k)
500
28
60
1100
15
28
860
17
47
g r a n u l a t e d coal-based activated carbon
g r a n u l a t e d coal-based activated carbon

coconut shell-based activated carbon
500
28
60
cellulose-based activated carbon fiber(CEL-ACF)
1400
36
65
pitch-based activated carbon fiber
1530
10
55
molecular sieve carbon (pore width: 5/k)
polyacrylonitrile-based activated carbon fiber
830
65
115
iron hydroxide dispersed CEL-ACF
820
120
150
1070
260
320
iron oxide dispersed CEL-ACF

molecular sieve 3A
0.6
molecular sieve 4A
0.6
molecular sieve 5A
24
Na-mordenite
22
molecular sieve 13 X
iron hydroxide dispersed molecular sieve 13X
12
Silica gel
680
2
6
iron hydroxide dispersed silica gel
600
14
20
Iron oxide*
-50
20
50
*) NO is chemisorbed on iron oxide.
646
NO is weakly chemisorbed on transition metal oxides near room temperature.
The electrical conductivity of n-type iron oxides decreases very rapidly upon
chemisorption of NO near room temperature [50]. Although NO forms the
nitrogen oxide with surface oxygens of iron oxides, almost chemisorbed NO
molecules are desorbed by evacuation. The weak chemisorption of iron oxide can
assist micropore filling of supercritical NO on microporous carbons; the
dispersion of iron oxides near the entrance of micropores of ACF should enhance
physical adsorption of supercritical NO due to the concentration increase of NO
near the dispersed oxide particles. Figure 3 shows adsorption isotherms of NO on
iron oxide-dispersed ACF (Fe-ACF) at 303 K. As iron oxyhydroxide decomposes to
iron oxide by heating, iron oxide-dispersed ACF was prepared from iron
oxyhydroxide-dispersed ACF by heating at different temperatures. The NO
adsorption depends on the preheating temperature of dispersed iron
oxyhydroxides. Heating of iron oxyhydroxide dispersed ACF at 873 K for 15 h in
vacuo gives the greatest amount of adsorption. The dispersed iron oxides was
characterized by EXAFS spectroscopy, showing the presence of ultrafine iron
oxides. Fe-ACF can adsorb great amount of NO (maximum: 320 mg/g-adsorbent)
in the dimer form at 303 K. Thus, dispersion of ultrafine iron oxide particles
enhances markedly NO adsorption. The adsorption isotherm shows a remarkable
hysteresis; the adsorbed NO cannot be removed by evacuation with a high
300 (
1 : - . O " ~
200
,~ 100
NO pressure / ~a
Figure 3. The adsorption isotherms of NO on iron oxide -dispersed ACF at 303 K as a
function of heating temperature of dispersed iron oxyhydroxides in vacuo. (A, A) : 573K,
(V,V): 673 K, (O,Q) : 773 K and ( ~ ,'00:823 K. Solid and open symbols denote
adsorption and desorption branches, respectively.
647
vacuum pump at 303 K, but it can be desorbed with the ultrahigh vacuum
system. This irreversibility arises from dimerization of NO in micropores. As NO
dimer is vapor at an ambient temperature, supercritical NO can be adsorbed by
micropores through the dimerization with the aid of the electronic interaction
and magnetic perturbation due to the high spin Fe a ions in the dispersed oxide
[51-53]. The importance of the magnetic interaction was evidenced by application
of the strong external magnetic field. The application of the magnetic field of 1 T
to the adsorption system increased instantaneously NO adsorption on ACF by 1%
[54]. Not only the magnetic perturbation but also a weak chemisorptive
mechanism should be associated with the enhancement of the NO micropore
filling.
160
~" 140
0
Z
120
o
lOO
I
DopedTi IFe 1 %
Figure 4. The saturated amount of NO adsorption per unit micropore volume at 303 K against
the amount of Ti dopant.
Doping of Ti 4 increases the electrical conductivity of n-type iron oxyhydroxide

fine crystals or iron oxide thin film due to formation of a quasi-free electron
[55,56]. Hence, the mixed valence formation in the dispersed iron oxides with
doping of Ti 4 enhanced the micropore filling of NO [57]. The adsorption isotherm
of NO on Ti-doped iron oxyhydroxide dispersed ACF at 303 K is Langmuirian,
which is described by the Langmuir equation. The saturated amount of NO
adsorption (WL) from the Langmuir plot as a function of the amount of Ti dopant
(Ti/Fe: 0 - 3.6 %) is shown in Figure 4. Ti doping increases markedly WL; Ti
doping of 3.6 % enhances WL by about 40 %. Ti doping should be associated with
NO dimerization. The NO adsorption isotherms are described by the supercritical
DR equation (eq.6). the quasi-saturated vapor pressure P0q can be defined for the
648
quasi-vapor. The determined Poq was in the range of 215 to 480 kPa. Ti doping
lowers the P0q value so that the NO micropore filling is enhanced. The
supercritical DR plot gives the isosteric heat of adsorption at the fractional filling
(~ of e -1 (qst,~=l/e). The qst,~=l/e values (23-28 kJ mol 1) are higher t h a n the
dissociation enthalpy of the NO dimer (12-16 kJ mo1-1 ) in the condensed bulk
phase at a low temperature. Thus NO dimers are stabilized in the micropores of
these ACF samples. If the supercritical DR equation is correctly applicable to the
description of the micropore filling for supercritical NO, all adsorption data of
different doping samples must be expressed by a single reduced adsorption
isotherm having the abscissa of the relative pressure P/P0q. Figure 5 shows such
a reduced adsorption isotherm for NO vaporized in the micropore. Almost all the
observed points form one curve. Thus, the supercritical DR equation can describe
well the micropore filling of supercritical NO. The above facts show a typical
chemisorption-assisted micropore filling of supercritical NO.
12o
,N.
80
o.,-~
4o
9
Z
I
0.2
0.4
P/P0q(NO)
Figure 5. Reduced adsorption isotherm of supercritical NO for iron oxyhydroxide dispersed
ACF having different amounts of Ti dopants at 303 K. Ti/Fe %: o none, A 0.2, [] 1 and * 3.
6.2. R e d u c t i o n o f NO to N2 in n o b l e m e t a l - t a i l o r e d n a n o s p a c e
Oxides of nitrogen NOx is the inevitable by-products of high temperature
combustion and the representative atmospheric pollutants. Increasing
automobiles have emitted greater amounts of NOx, giving rise to a serious
atmospheric pollution problem in urban areas in particular. Although NO2 can be
649
easily absorbed in soils or dissolved in surface water, a diluted NO is kinetically
extremely stable in the absence of suitable catalysts in atmosphere.
Consequently an ~fficient removal of NO or reduction of NO to N2 has been
desired. There are active studies on catalytic reductions of NO to N2 all over the
world [58-60]. The most noticeable catalyst for the decomposition of NO to N2 is
Cu-ZSM-5 developed by Iwamoto et al. [60]. This Cu-ZSM-5 decomposes NO into
N2 and 02 near 750 K, but coexistent SO2 strongly poisons the catalytic activity.
Recent efforts are done on the development of the catalyst for selective catalytic
reduction with N-free reductants [59]. NO is quite i m p o r t a n t as not only the
atmospheric pollutant but also a biological molecule; recently it is elucidated that
NO plays an important role in biomolecular organisms of n a n o m e t e r size [61].
Thus reactivity of NO in nanospace has gathered much attention.
The nanospace can work as the high pressure field, as mentioned before. The
disproportionation reaction of (NO)2 given by Eq. (7),
3(N0)2 = (N02)2 + 2 N 2 0
(7)
is known as the high pressure gas phase reaction above 20 Mpa [62]. NO
molecules dimerized in the micropore of ACF at a subatmospheric pressure of NO
give rise to the high pressure disproportionation reaction of the NO dimer in
micropores [63]. Furthermore, the produced N20 is reduced to N2 at 423 K with
the aid of dispersed transition metal oxides [64]. However, the NO reduction
reaction is very slow; it takes more t h a n 10 h.
Ru fine particles exhibit a high catalytic activity for NO. Ultrafine Ru particles
can be dispersed in micropores of ACF. The Ru fine particle-dispersed ACF is
designated Ru-ACF (Ru content: 4 wt. %). The surface areas and micropore
volumes determined by N2 adsorption are 1130 m2g-1 and 0.51 mlg-' for Ru-ACF
and 1100 m2g-1 and 0.52 mlg -1 for ACF, respectively. The average slit-shaped
widths of Ru-ACF and ACF are 0.94 and 0.90 nm, respectively. The reaction
extent was determined by the compositional changes of the gas phase with FT-IR
and Mass spectrometers.
Figure 6 shows the FT-IR spectral change of the gas phase over Ru-ACF at
303 K. The intensity of NO at 1876 cm -1 decreases rapidly; it becomes less t h a n
15% of the initial intensity after 9 min. On the other hand, the bands of NO2 and
N20 appear at 1618 cm -1 and 2224 c m -1, respectively. As the absorption intensity
of NO is noticeably weak compared with that of the NO2 and N20 bands, the
concentration of produced NO2 and N20 after 18h corresponds only less than
0.3% of the residual NO; evolution of CO2 was much less t h a n that of NO2 or
N20. IR cannot detect N2, then the whole gas after 10 min and 18 h was analyzed
by the mass spectroscopy. The mass analysis elucidated the formation of N2
corresponding to the 77 % yield. Hence, NO is rapidly changed into N2 over RuACF at 303 K. Figure 7 shows the change in the NO concentration ratio vs the
initial concentration determined from the corrected IR absorption band intensity
of NO at 1876 cm -1. NO is rapidly reduced to N2 at 303 K and 323 K and then the
650
I.)
o
a
O
raej
<
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
W a v e number(era")
Figure 6. FT-IR spectral change of NO over ultrafine Ru particle-tailored ACF with the
reaction time at 303 K. a: before reaction, b" 3 min, c" 9 min, d" 60 min and e" 180 min.
1.0
0.8
O
.,..,
.o
0.6
0.4
9
Z
0.2
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time/min.
Figure 7. Change of NO concentration ratio with the reaction time for ultrafine Ru particletailored ACF at different temperatures. []" 303 K, ~" 323 K and 9 423 K.
651
NO decomposition, almost finishes within 7 min. Raising the reaction
temperature to 423 K lowers the reaction rate. The first order plot for the initial
reaction gives a half-life of 3 min. Thus the NO reduction reaction in the Rutailored micropore space is remarkably fast even near ambient conditions. RuACF has much greater rate than ACF. The NO reduction reaction at 323 K is
almost similar to that at 303 K. As the amount of NO adsorption at 303 K is
greater t h a n that at 323 K, the removal ratio of NO at 323 K (0.92) is slightly
smaller t h a n that at 303 K (0.96). The CO2/N2 ratio of Ru-ACF is almost zero
below 323 K. Although the NO reduction reaction at 423 K produces not only NO2
and N20, but also CO2, the reduction of NO at the ambient conditions produces
negligible amounts of NO2, N20 and CO2.
The dimerized NO is in an equilibrium with NO2 and N20 in the micropore of
ACF even at ambient conditions, as given by eq. 7. The dispersed Ru fine
particles in the micropore should accelerate the decomposition of N20 into N2 and
the produced oxygen should be chemisorbed on the carbon pore wall. If we can
produce oxygen from this reaction, this reaction should be a hopeful method for
NO removal [65].
6.3. Oxide-dispersion induced enhancement of micropore filling of CH4

Methane is the main constituent of natural gas. Adsorption of methane at
ambient temperature has been studied with a special relevance to methane
storage [66,67]. However, methane is a spherical molecule and the intermolecular
interaction is weak. Furthermore, the bulk critical temperature is 191 K. It is
quite difficult to adsorb methane sufficiently at ambient conditions. The
adsorption conditions of CH4 by activated carbon have been studied with
molecular simulations [66,68,69]. The chemisorption-assisted micropore filling
concept was applied to adsorption of supercritical CH4. As the intermolecular
interaction of CH4 is quite weak compared with that of NO, the CH4 adsorption
must be examined at high pressure region. Basic metal oxides such as MgO, CaO,
A1203, NiO and Cr203 have a catalytic effect o n CH 4 at high temperature, they
and their hydroxides were dispersed on ACF in order to improve adsorptivity for
supercritical CH4. The microporosity of these oxide-dispersed ACFs is not
seriously changed.
The oxide dispersion enhances remarkably the amount of CH4 adsorption at
303 K. The dispersion of NiO fine particles is the most effective for improvement
of CH4 adsorptivity. The saturated amount of adsorption of NiO-dispersed ACF is
greater t h a n that of ACF by 50 % [70-72]. However, the enhancement of
supercritical CH4 adsorption with chemisorption-assisted micropore filling still
needs high pressure. We must search another new mechanism for supercritical
CH4 adsorption near ambient conditions.
6.4. Hydrate-mediated micropore filling of supercritical gas

Recent in situ X-ray diffraction study showed that water molecules confined in
the micropores of activated carbon have an organized structure close to the ice
structure r a t h e r t h a n the bulk liquid one [73,74]. Recent molecular simulation
652
studies show the hydrogen-bonded network structure of w a t e r molecules in wide
carbon micropores [75] and a special bilayer structure of w a t e r molecules formed
in the slit space by application of the high pressure [76]. The guest molecules can
be intricated in the organized water structure in the micropores without
application of the high pressure due to the quasi-high pressure effect. Desorption
isotherm of NO with the progress of H20 adsorption in micropores of iron oxidedispersed ACF strongly indicates the formation of NO-H20 clathrate under the
subatmospheric pressure [77]. The formation of the bulk NO-H20 clathrate
requires more t h a n 100 M P a according to the literature [78]. This fact clearly
suggests a new method of controlling the adsorption of supercritical gases with
coexistent w a t e r vapor. This idea can be applied to m e t h a n e storage problem [79].
Vast deposits of n a t u r a l gas exist in the form of clathrate h y d r a t e s under the
oceanbed and in the permafrost regions. The physicochemical properties of the
clathrate h y d r a t e s have gathered much attention due to their special relevance to
new energy resources and conservation of the earth's e n v i r o n m e n t [80].
Crystallographic studies on m e t h a n e h y d r a t e s show t h a t the lattice constant of
structure I is 1.20 nm [78,80,81]. The stable formation of bulk m e t h a n e h y d r a t e s
needs both lower t e m p e r a t u r e s and higher pressures due to the weak bonding
between a m e t h a n e molecule and the hydrogen-bonded cage structure of water; a
m i n i m u m 80 M P a at 303 K is necessary for the formation of the m e t h a n e
hydrate. M e t h a n e h y d r a t e s are formed in mesopores of silica gel of 14 nm in pore
width at an equilibrium pressure at 276.1 K of 5.186 MPa, which is higher t h a n
t h a t for the bulk hydrates [81]. The role of porous media in the formation of
m e t h a n e h y d r a t e under the oceanbed is suggested [82], leading to the necessity of
basic chemical research on m e t h a n e hydrate.
ACF was used as the microporous adsorbent of the quasi-high pressure effect.
The micropore volume and total surface area of ACF d e t e r m i n e d by high
resolution nitrogen adsorption isotherm at 77 K are 0.95 ml (g-adsorbent) -1 and
1800 m 2 (g-adsorbent) -1. The average slit-pore width is 1.1 nm. CH4 was adsorbed
on ACF having preadsorbed water in the micropore at 303 K under the
subatmospheric pressure of CH4. As m e t h a n e is a supercritical gas at 303 K, only
a small a m o u n t of m e t h a n e is adsorbed on ACF without application of high
pressure above 101.32 kPa. The gas phase content of water is kept constant
within + 5 % during the mixed gas adsorption; the adsorption i n c r e m e n t on
introducing CH4 to the mixed gas system is attributed to the m e t h a n e adsorption.
The volume fractional filling Ow of the pore volume by the preadsorbed w a t e r
varied in the range of 0.2 to 0.65. The adsorption rate of CH4 on waterpreadsorbed ACF at 303 K upon introducing CH4 of different pressures was
examined for 25 h. The adsorption proceeds rapidly and noticeably at the initial
stage in the presence of the preadsorbed water. The adsorption increment
reaches a m a x i m u m 1 to 2 h after introduction of CH4 and decreases gradually to
reach a steady value after 10 to 25 h. This adsorption uptake is caused by the
adsorption of only CH4 because of the above-mentioned gas analysis results.
653
Hence the adsorption increment upon introducing CH4 is expressed as the

a m o u n t of adsorbed CH4 in the following descriptions.
Figure 8 shows adsorption isotherms of m e t h a n e on the water-preadsorbed
ACF (Ow = 0.40) and ACF at 303 K. Here we used the steady values as the
a m o u n t of CH4 adsorption. The a m o u n t of CH4 adsorption is almost nil in the
absence of the preadsorbed water, while a b u n d a n t CH4 of more t h a n
180 mg (g-adsorbent) -1 is adsorbed on the water-preadsorbed ACF even below
10 kPa. If we presume the liquid densities of m e t h a n e and water molecular
assemblies in the micropore, the total filling of micropores with water and
m e t h a n e is 0.85 for Ow = 0.40. When water is not preadsorbed, the amount of
adsorption even at the CH4 pressure of 10 MPa on the same ACF is only
160 mg (g-adsorbent) -1. Thus, the presence of preadsorbed w a t e r gives rise to a
r e m a r k a b l e e n h a n c e m e n t of CH4 adsorption at subatmospheric conditions. The
m e t h a n e adsorption enhanced by the preadsorbed water at the subatmospheric
pressure briefly corresponds to t h a t under 10 MPa. This noticeable uptake of CH4
in partially water-filled micropore indicates the presence of a strong interaction
between w a t e r and CH4 molecules such as the clathrate formation. The cluster of
water molecules having the solid-like structure should form a new type of
n a n o h y d r a t e of CH4.
200
v~o
150
!00
50
0
0
I0
15
CH 4 pressure/kPa
Figure 8. The adsorption isotherms of CH4 on ACF having preadsorbed water of the fractional
filling ~w - 0.40 and ACF without preadsorbed water at 303 K. e: d~w= 0.40 and A: d~w-0.
7.
F U T U R E P O S S I B I L I T Y OF F L U I D C H E M I S T R Y IN N A N O S P A C E
The both of design of a fit porous system and e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the control

method of supercritical gas should develop a new technology of Nanopore
654
Molecular Engineering in the area of gas separation, gas storage, gas
purification, supercritical drying, catalysis [83] and adsorption heat pump etc.
However, the nanopore molecular engineering needs a fundamental
understanding of the interaction of a molecule with the solid nanopore much
more and the state of the fluid molecular assembly in the confined space. It is
believed that the critical temperature shifts to a lower temperature with the
decrease of the pore width until mesopores [84]. Recent structural studies [85-88]
show that fluid molecules form an organized structure in nanospaces. How must
we consider the critical behavior in the micropore system? Can we apply the
phase concept to such nanodimensional molecular assembly? We have no definite
idea on this question. Still we have many important unresolved problems relating
to fluid chemistry in the nanospace. A new technological application of fluid
chemistry should stimulate this field.
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77. K. Fujie, S. Minagawa, T. Suzuki and K. Kaneko, Chem. Phys. Lett.,
236 (1995) 427.
78. K. A. Sparks and J.W. Texter, J. Phys. Chem., 96 (1992) 11022.
79. J. Miyawaki, T. Kanda, T. Okui, M. Saito, T. Suzuki and K. Kaneko,
J.Phys.Chem., in press.
80. E.D. Sloan Jr.,, Clathrate Hydrate of Natural Gases, Marcel Dekker,
New York, 1990.
81. F.Fleyfel, K. Y.Song, A.Kook, R.Martin and R. Kobayashi, J. Phys. Chem.,
97 (1993) 6722.
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85. Z. M. Wang and K.Kaneko, J. Phys. Chem., 99 (1995) 16714.
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100 (1996) 10331.

659
Application of natural adsorbents and adsorption-active materials

based thereon in the processes of water purification
Yu.I.Tarasevich
Institute of Colloid C h e m i s t r y and Chemistry of Water, U k r a i n i a n National
Academy of Sciences, 42 Vernadsky avenue, Kyiv (Kiev), 252680, Ukraine
1.
INTRODUCTION
N a t u r a l sorbents are increasingly widely used in w a t e r purification processes

due to their frequent occurrence in nature, low cost as compared with synthetic
materials, r e m a r k a b l e properties with respect to adsorption, ion exchange and
filtration, and also due to the fact t h a t efficient methods are developed to
regulate the geometric structure or these materials and chemical n a t u r e of their
surface [1,2]. Most i m p o r t a n t steps in w a t e r purification are the removal of
disperse impurities and the elimination of substances dissolved as molecules and
ions. The present chapter d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t n a t u r a l sorbents of various types, as
well as adsorption-active materials based thereon, can readily be used for the
removal of three above-mentioned groups of impurities from water.
The structure and properties of a n u m b e r of n a t u r a l and modified sorbents and
their application as filtering materials, adagulants, ion exchangers, and the
sorbents proper are discussed in this communication.
2.
S T R U C T U R E A N D P R O P E R T I E S OF N A T U R A L S O R B E N T S
Three m a i n types of n a t u r a l sorbents can be distinguished with respect to the

features of their structure, chemical composition, porosity and physicochemical
properties: silica, layer and layer-ribbon silicates, framework aluminosilicates
(zeolites).
2.1. D i s p e r s e s i l i c a
These are the m a t e r i a l s of s e d i m e n t a r y origin which comprise 60-95% of
amorphous SiO 2. Three types of siliceous rock can be distinguished: diatomites,
tripolies and silica clays. They differ from each other in origin and physical and
physicochemical characteristics. Diatomite, sometimes still called kieselguhr or
infusorial earth, is of phytogenic origin. It consists of fossilised residues of
simplest unicellular organisms - shells of diatomaceous algae (diatoms). Their
660
n u m b e r in 1 cm 3 of diatomite varies from 2 to 30 million, depending on particular
deposit [3].
Table 1 s u m m a r i s e s the data of our publications [1,4] concerning chemical
composition and structural-sorption characteristics of diatomites from various
deposits. Specific surface area of samples S was determined by nitrogen t h e r m a l
desorption; average effective macropore radius rma and total pore volume V~ were
estimated from mercury porosimetry.
Table 1
Chemical composition and structural-sorption characteristics of various
diatomites
Chemical composition, %
Diatomite
Inzensk
(Russia)
Kisatibi
(Georgia)
Nurnus
(Armenia)
SiO 2
A1203 Fe203 MgO
CaO
Adsorption
properties
Calcination S,
V~,
rma,
lOSS
m2/g cm3/g ~m
82.66 4.55
3.21
1.23
0.47
4.78
17.2
1.03
0.49
94.14 1.98
0.28
0.17
0.85
2.93
14.5
1.60
0.66
95.11 0.15
0.23
0.20
0.60
3.52
12.0
2.15
0.70
Djradzor
(Armenia)
87.90 6.30
1.64
0.52
1.20
1.64
10.5
2.40
1.00
Batkovitsy
(Bulgaria)
81.80 9.40
2.90
1.00
1.20
3.80
11.8
1.70
1.58
Lompok
89.30 4.00
0.70
0.40
0.40
5.00
16.0
(USA)
The results of chemical (Table 1) and X-ray analysis show t h a t diatomite is a

h y d r a t e d amorphous SiO2 with small admixture of metal oxides. This sorbent is
characterised by large n u m b e r of macropores (V = 1.0-2.4 cm3/g) with
reff = 0.5-1.5 ~tm. Mesopores with p r e d o m i n a n t pore radius 20-60 nm also exist in
diatomite structure, and contribute ca. 10-15% to the total pore volume [1];
therefore diatomites are mainly macroporous formations.
The porosity of the material is calculated from the equation:
P(%) = 100(d t _ y) / d t
(1)
where d t and Y are the true density and bulk density, respectively. The density of
amorphous silica is d t - 2.2 g/cm3; bulk density of diatomite is y = 0.4-0.5 g/cm 3 in
661
piece and 0.27-0.30 g/cm 3 in powder. For best grades of diatomite the porosity can
range up to 90-92%.
Tripoly usually exists in the form of weakly cemented, very light and porous
rock, quite similar to diatomite in its external appearance, but r a t h e r
distinguishable from it under the microscope. Tripoly has predominantly mineral
origin and consist of round particles of opal silica 1-2 ~m in diameter. Bulk
density of tripoly powder varies in the range 0.5-0.8 g/cm3; its porosity is lower
t h a n t h a t of diatomite, and amounts to 60-70%.
Table 2 s u m m a r i s e s
the
data
[1,4]
concerning
structural-sorption
characteristics of tripolies taken from selected industrial deposits: specific
surface area determined from benzene adsorption (assuming C~H 6 molecular area
co - 0.4 nm2), limiting pore volume V s with respect to benzene vapour, total pore
volume V~ and effective mesopore rme and macropore rma radius calculated from
mercury porosimetry data. Chemical composition of these samples was: SiO 2 65-82%, A1203 - 5 - 1 5 % , Fe203 -2-3.5%, M g O - 0.3-0.7%, C a O - 1-2%, Na20 and
K20 - 0.6-2.0%, calcination loss - 6-9.5%.
Table 2
Structural-sorption characteristics of tripolies and silica-clays
Adsorbent
Tripoly
Pionersk (Russia)
Kirovograd (Ukraine)
K a m e n s k (Moldova)
Silica-clay
Zikeevka (Russia)
K a m e n n o y a r s k (Russia)
Saratov (Russia)
S,
m2/g
rme,
nm
V s,
cm3/g
V z,
cm3/g
rma,
~m
33
45
75
6.2
5.4
7.2; 15.2
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.74
0.65
0.70
1.0
0.70
1.6
90
80
88
5.8
3.2
2.4; 15.8
0.33
0.25
0.43
0.44
0.44
0.50
The analysis of the results presented in Table 2 shows t h a t macropores with

rma~ 1.0 ~m are also present in the structure of tripoly. However, it can be
concluded from the value of total pore volume that the n u m b e r of these
macropores is lower, as compared with diatomite structure. In fact, average
fraction of macropores in the total pore volume of tripoly is 70-75% (cf. with
85-90% in the case of diatomite). The remainder of sorption space volume
corresponds to the porosity, for which pores with radius of approximately 5-7 and
15-65 nm [5,6] are mainly responsible.
Silica-clays are regarded in the geological literature as siliceous rocks
accompanying tripoly and diatomite. Silica-clays are h a r d light porous materials,
with colour varying from pale-grey to greenish-black or black. Dark colour of
662
silica-clays is strongly indicative for the presence of impurities, namely iron
oxides (3-5%) and organic substances. Usually these materials are comprised
mainly of finest particles of opal silica; in some cases they include significant
amount of diatom shells which, however, are much more damaged than in
diatomites. Persistent components of silica-clays are quartz, mica, feldspar, and
glauconite.
The advantage of silica-clays over tripolies and diatomites is their greater
Mohs' scratch hardness (3-6 according to [3]) and nonsoftening in water.
Nevertheless, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between silica-clay and
tripoly; therefore it was agreed that rocks with a bulk density exceeding 1 should
be referred to as silica-clays. High density of silica-clays is associated with their
lower porosity. The total pore volume of these materials does not exceed
0.45 cm3/g (Table 2). Less than 50% of the total porosity of silica-clays goes for the
fraction of mesopores, among which the pores predominate with r = 2-6 nm.
Significant role of mesopores in what regards structural-sorption properties is
indicated also by the increased (about 100 m2/g) specific surface area inherent in
them (Table 2).
Table 3 summarises structural-sorption properties of natural silica.
Table 3
Structural-sorption characteristics of natural silica
Vma/VE,%
Silica
S, m2/g
Vz, cm3/g
100
Diatomite
Tripoly
Silica-clay
10-20
30-70
80-100
2.4-1.0
0.8-0.6
_<0.45
95-90
80-70
_<50
2.2. Layer and layer-ribbon silicates

With respect to features of porous structure, layer and layer-ribbon silicates
can be divided into three types [7]: layer silicates with expanding structural cell
(montmorillonite, hectorite, saponite, vermiculite), layer silicates with rigid
structural cell (kaolinite, hydromica, glauconite, pyrophyllite, talc), and layerribbon silicates (palygorskite and sepiolite). The physicochemical characteristics
of individual minerals of Ukrainian and Russian (vermiculite) industrial deposits
(the capacity of cation exchange E at pH 7; heat of wetting with water for
samples dehydrated at 200~ Q; specific surface area S determined from the
adsorption of hexane and water vapours assuming their molecular areas to be 0.5
and 0.108 nm 2, respectively; limiting volume of pores V s and total volume of
secondary pores V~; particle size d estimated from electron microscopy data) are
presented in Table 4.
663
Table 4
Physicochemical characteristics of layer and layer-ribbon silicates
Sorbent,
deposit
Montmorillonite,
Pyzhevsk
Montmorillonite,
Cherkasy
Vermiculite,
Kovdor
Kaolinite,
Glukhovets
Kaolinite,
Glukhov
Hydromica,
Cherkasy
Glauconite,
Karachievo
Palygorskite,
Cherkasy
E,
Q,
mg-equiv/g J/g
Hexane
Water
S,
V s,
m2/g cm3/g
S,
V s,
m2/g cm3/g
VE,
cm3/g
d,
~m
1.05
149
36
0.05
428
0.37
0.12
0.05-0.5
0.71
101
60
0.07
311
0.30
0.13
0.05-0.3
1.60
194
14
0.03
471
0.18
0.01
5.5
10
11
0.04
1.0-1.5
0.25
40
60
0.17
94
0.23
0.36
0.02-0.5
0.27
59
125
0.25
157
0.25
0.05-0.1
0.14
54
0.07
112
0.13
0.26
156
153
0.29
302
0.45
0.48
0.01-0.2
Layer silicates with expanding structural cell are characterised by high

adsorption ability with respect to water and other polar s u b s t a n c e s - alcohols,
amines, nitriles [7] (Table 4). In the process of adsorption of these substances,
structural cells of these minerals increase along C axis by 0.3-1.4 nm and their
interlayer spaces can be regarded as slit-shaped micropores whose dimensions
undergo changes during adsorption process. In addition to primary microporosity
inherent to their crystal structure, montmorillonite and vermiculite also possess
secondary porosity, mainly due to mesopores formed by spaces between
contacting particles. Measurements of adsorption of hexane and other non-polar
substances show that the surface area of secondary pores of layer silicates with
an expanding structural cell is much lower than that of primary micropores.
Layer silicates with rigid structural cell are characterised by the presence of
external adsorbing surface only, and their porosity is due to spaces between
contacting particles. The specific surface area of minerals for this group of layer
silicates is determined mainly by the degree of dispersion of particles (see data in
Table 4 for Glukhovets and Glukhov kaolinite), which in t u r n depends on the
perfection of mineral crystal structure.
Adsorption properties of layered silicates palygorskite and sepiolite are
determined both by zeolite channels which exist in mineral structure and possess
a size of 0.37x0.64 and 0.37x1.10 nm respectively (primary pores), and by porous
664
space of stacks into which needle-like or fibrous mineral particles are aggregated
(secondary porosity). The surface and volume of secondary pores of these
minerals are quite large, which results in high adsorption properties with respect
to hydrocarbons.
Layer silicates also possess the ability for cation exchange. Among them,
montmorillonite and vermiculite are characterised by largest cation exchange
capacity, E = 1.0-1.6 mg-equiv/g.
We have studied the nature and quantity of various types of active centres,
which exist at the surface of the main representatives of layer and layer-ribbon
silicates [8]. Obtained results are generalised in Table 5.
Table 5
Active centres of layer and layer-ribbon silicates
Sorbent,
SiO-Me + Total
mmol/g
A1-OH,
Mg-OH,
mmol/g
1.45
< 0.17
1.60
0.13
0.03
0.015
0.90
0.15
1.05
0.17
0.07
0.04
0.17
0.10
0.27
0.42
0.18
0.22
0.03
0.25
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.14
0.12
0.26
0.41
0.17
0.15
Exchangeable cations, mg-equiv/g
deposit
Vermiculite,
Kovdor
Montmorillonite,
Pyzhevsk
Hydromica,
Cherkasy
Kaolinite,
Glukhov
Palygorskite,
Cherkasy
Isomorphism
Si-OH,
Unsaturated
A13+,Mg2+,
mmol/g
In Pyzhevsk montmorillonite which contains virtually no isomorphous

substitutions of silicon by aluminium according to measurements of the exchange
capacity of the Li form of the mineral before and after heating at 300~ [9], we
have managed to determine separate contributions of isomorphous substitutions
of aluminium by magnesium in octahedral layers and o f - S i O - H groups which
exist at crystal edges, into total cation exchange capacity. For palygorskite, the
quantities of the exchangeable cations due to heterovalent isomorphism in the
structure and -SiO-H groups was assessed from conductometric titration curves
for NH 4- and Cu- forms of the mineral by alkali [8]. Study of ion-exchange
sorption of tetra-ammine-copper ion at NHn-vermiculite enables one to calculate
the quantity of cation-exchange centres which exist at external surfaces of this
mineral. The quantity o f - SiO-H groups at vermiculite taking part in cation
exchange obviously does not exceed this value. The number of exchangeable
-SiO-H groups at Glukhov kaolinite E ~ 0.03 mg-equiv/g was determined from
665
empirical equation proposed by Brindley [10]. We have observed in [8] that the
exchange capacity of Li-saturated Glukhov kaolinite decreased to approximately
the same value when the sample was heated to 300~
Acidic - S i O H groups at dry hydromica and palygorskite surfaces were
determined using the reaction [11]:
-SiOH + CH3MgI -->--Si-O-MgI + CH 4
(2)
The quantities of acidic -SiOH groups existing at other mineral surfaces, and
the number of basic =A1OH a n d - M g O H groups present at all surfaces were
found by reverse conductometric titration of aqueous suspensions of the sorbents
by alkali and acid [12]. The concentration of co-ordination-unsaturated A13 and
Mg 2 ions at the external surfaces was given by the amounts of pyridine and
acetonitrile strongly held by Rb- or K- forms of the mineral when heated to 150200~
The data showh in Table 5 indicates the different roles played by various
active centres in determining the surface chemistry of individual types of layer
and layer-ribbon silicates. Thus surface properties of palygorskite are largely
determined by co-ordination-unsaturated Mg 2 and A1~+ cations, and also by
numerous surface SiOH groups. Studies of infrared spectra [13] indicate that
these groups are rapidly exchanged for deuteroxyl groups when exposed to heavy
water vapour. Organoderivatives of palygorskite and sepiolite [14,15] can be
readily obtained because of the high reactivity of surface hydroxyl groups.
The main active adsorption centres of expanding layer silicates
montmorillonite and vermiculite are the exchangeable ions. It was shown in [7]
that the interaction of adsorbed water and other polar molecules with the
exchangeable cations involves the formation of surface co-ordination compounds.
In elucidating the structure of such complexes, optical electronic spectroscopy in
the ultraviolet, visible and near infrared regions and electronic paramagnetic
resonance spectroscopy are informative [8].
As a result of the polarisation of OH group, water molecules co-ordinated by
multiple-charge exchangeable cations in layer silicates possess pronounced acidic
properties. This is indicated by pyridinium ion formation when pyridine is
adsorbed at partially hydrated montmorillonite and kaolinite [7]. The acidity of
water molecules firmly bound to the exchangeable cations of layer silicates may
be estimated quantitatively by studying the electronic spectra of sorbed bases,
i.e., H a m m e t t indicators, with different acid-base equilibrium constants. For
example, it was shown that on the surface of Mg-kaolinite partially dehydrated
by evacuation at 100~ there exist active centres possessing the acidity equal to,
or higher t h a n that created by 71% H2SO 4 [8]. Water molecules polarised in the
field of multi-charge exchangeable cations play a major role in catalytic reactions,
which take place at layer silicate surfaces.
666
2.3. Z e o l i t e s
Natural zeolites have been known for a long time [16]. More t h a n 40 types
have already been discovered, but until 1960s the investigators were dealing in
practice with specimens of zeolites of volcanic origin which are found in small
quantities and are thus of no interest from the point of view of practical
utilisation. However, when large sedimentary deposits of natural zeolites were
discovered in the late 1960s and early 1970s in various regions of the world,
zeolites become of interest to engineers due to their unique adsorption, ion
exchange, filtration and catalytic properties, their ease of quarrying and low cost.
Table 6
Characteristics of natural zeolites
Zeolite
Structural formula
Channels in hydrated structure

dt,
Direction n* CrossVm~,
g/cm3
section,
cm3/cm~
7"*
E,
mgequiv/g
nin
Clinoptilolite
Na6[(A102)6(SiO2)30].
24H20
(!00)
(001)
(001)
Morde- Nas[(AIO2)8(SiO2)40]"
(001)
nite
24H20
(010)
Phillip- (K,Na)5[(A102)5(SiO0,~]. (100)
site
10H20
(010)
(001)
ChabaCa2[(AIO2)4(SiO2)s].
zite
13H20
2_(001)
Erionite (Ca, Mg, Na2, K 2 ) 4 . 6 9
[(A102)9(SiO2)27]-27H20
8
10
8
12
8
8
8
8
8
0.40
0.44
0.41x0.42
0.67
0.37
0.42x0.44
0.28x0.48
0.33
0.36x0.37
0.34
2.16
3.5-4 2.6
0.26
2.13
3-4
0.30
2.122.24
4-4.5 4.7
0.48
4.5
5.0
0.36
0.36
2.052.1
2.02
3.8
2.6
* n - Number of tetrahedra in rings, * ' 7 - Mohs' scratch hardness.
Industrial deposits of eight zeolite minerals are now known: clinoptilolite,

mordenite, phillipsite, chabazite, erionite, ferrierite, laumontite and analcime
[17]. The last three zeolites still have found no practical use. The territory of
Ukraine possesses large industrial deposits of clinoptilolite, mordenite and
analcime, including one of the world's largest deposits of clinoptilolite tufts in
T r a n s c a r p a t h i a n Ukraine. Table 6 summarises information [16-18] concerning
chemical composition, structure and properties of natural zeolites of interest in
practical utilisation both due to their availability in nature and their
physicochemical characteristics.
Zeolites possess negatively charged three-dimensional aluminosilicate
framework. Hydrated exchange cations N a +, K +, C a 2+, Mg2+ are located in
667
primary m i c r o p o r e s - cavities (channels) of this framework and neutralise its
negative charge. Theoretical exchange capacity of natural zeolites varies in the
range of 2.6-5.0 mg-equiv/g (see Table 6); actual exchange capacity is usually
lower. This is associated with the fact that a portion of K and Ca 2 cations are
located in non-exchange positions, and also with the presence of non-zeolite
impurities in the samples of natural ion exchangers. As an example, the
clinoptilolite-rich tuff from Sokirnitsa field in Transcarpathian Ukraine, which
contains 60-70% zeolite was used in our studies. The chemical composition
(wt. %) of the tuff was as follows: SIO2-67.29; TiO2 - 0 . 2 6 ; A120 ~ - 12.32;
Fe20 ~ - 1.26; FeO - 0.25; MgO - 0.99; CaO - 3.01; Na20 - 0.66; K20 - 2.76;
H 2 0 - 1 0 . 9 0 ; t o t a l - 9 9 . 7 0 ; Si:A1 r a t i o - 4 . 6 3 . The tuff has a cation-exchange
capacity of 1.44 mg-equiv/g. The exchangeable cation composition (mg-equiv/g)
was: N a * - 0 . 2 1 ; K - 0 . 2 2 , and Ca 2 1.01.
Diameters of micropores in natural zeolites are about 0.5 nm (see Table 6). The
micropore volume of zeolites Vmi (cm3/cm 3) was determined from the quantity of
zeolite water. In addition to primary microporosity determined by the crystal
structure, natural zeolites also have secondary packing pores formed by space
between microcrystals due to their non-dense packing in the aggregates.
Specific surface area of secondary pores for clinoptilolite tuff from
Transcarpathian Ukraine is S = 20 m2/g, as determined from benzene adsorption
data. Molecules of this substance do not penetrate into zeolite channels of
clinoptilolite and are adsorbed on the surface of secondary pores only. Total
volume of secondary pores for clinoptilolite from Sokirnitsa deposit is
V~=0.110cm3/g, constituted by the volume of macropores Vma = 0.066cm3/g
(mercury porosimetry data), mesopores Vine- 0.037 cm3/g (benzene adsorption
data), and secondary micropores Vmi-- 0.007 cm3/g (also estimated from benzene
adsorption data). From the data obtained by mercury porosimetry, the effective
radius of macropores ref= 1000nm and 3 5 0 n m (main), and mesopores
ref- 27.5 nm and 11 nm (main) in clinoptilolite were estimated.
2.4. Other n a t u r a l s o r b e n t s
Other natural sorbents used in the practice of the purification of drinking,
technical and waste water are perlite, asbestos, bauxite, and magnesite.
Perlite is the volcanic glass rock consisting mainly of obsidian. The chemical
composition (wt. %) of perlite from one of the world's largest Aragats industrial
deposit (Armenia) is as follows: S i 0 2 - 76.0; A120 3 - 14.0; Fe203 - 0 . 7 ; C a O - 1.0;
MgO-0.2;
N a 2 0 - 3.9; K 2 0 - 4.6; calcination l o s s - 3 . 2 .
The chemical
composition (wt. %) of perlite from Beregove industrial deposit (Ukraine) is:
SiO 2 - 74.7; A120 3 - 12.6; Fe20 3 - 1.2; C a O - 1.2; M g O - 0 . 1 ;
Na20-2.5;
K20 - 4 . 0 ; calcination l o s s - 4.1. Both these perlites are quite similar in chemical
composition to American perlite "Sil-Flo" [19].
Bulk density of natural non-Bloated perlites is 1.40-2.22 g/cm 3. The porosity of
the best sorts amounts to 30-40%. The specific surface area of non-bloated perlite
determined from the adsorption of benzene and nitrogen is 1.5-2.0 m2/g, while
668
with respect to water adsorption this area is of the order of 10 m2/g [4]. Perlite is
a heterogeneously porous material, whose structure contains macro-, meso- and
micropores. These latter are easily accessible to water molecules and, in a lower
d e g r e e - to nitrogen and hydrocarbon molecules.
Among natural dispersed materials, asbestos begins to acquire ever increasing
value. This species can be subdivided into two g r o u p s - amphibolic and
chrysotilic, which differ in composition, structure and properties. World resources
of amphibolic asbestos are limited and cannot meet constantly increasing needs
of industry. At present, the output of amphibolic asbestos constitutes only 5-10%
of the total quarry of asbestos fibres, and the efforts of scientists are concentrated
on the development of the technology for the preparation of synthetic amphiboles
[20,21]. The shortage and relatively high cost of amphiboles h a m p e r their use in
water purification processes. Chrysotilic asbestos is more promising in this
respect.
It was shown [22] that despite the fibrous texture of chrysotile (idealised
chemical formula H4Mg3Si2Og) its structure is similar to that of kaolinite. With
respect to adsorption properties, chrysotile together with halloysite should be
regarded as an individual subgroup of layer silicates. In fact, the tubular shape of
primary halloysite and chrysotilic asbestos particles [22] is seen under the
electron microscope. Internal radius of primary fibres of the latter mineral often
amounts to 5.5 nm, while the external radius is 13 nm. Primary chrysotile
particles in natural state are aggregated into thicker fibres, with usual length of
1.2-1.3 cm [22]. The external surface area of chrysotilic asbestos varies from 4 to
60 m2/g [22-24], and depends on the degree of dispersion. Tubular channels of
chrysotile are filled to a significant extent with amorphous material or bandshaped mineral particles. According to calculations of [22], only 12-15% of the
volume of chrysotile internal pores are free. Molecules of water, ammonia and
other substances are adsorbed in the unoccupied space of the pores.
Boehmite y-A1OOH, diaspore a-A1OOH and hydrargillite AI(OH) 3 are the rockforming minerals of bauxites. Iron oxides are virtually always present in
bauxites, while kaolinite, calcite, rutile and other minerals are frequently
encountered therein [25]. The chemical composition (wt. %) of bauxite from the
industrial Tikhvin deposit (near St. Petersburg, Russia) is as follows [26]:
A1203- 51.1; F e 2 0 3 - 16.1; SiO 2 - 14.1; C a O - 2.0; TiO 2 - 2.4; calcination
l o s s - 14.3. The specific surface area of bauxite is - 5 0 m2/g, total pore volume
~- 0.2 cm3/g, effective pore radius 20 nm [26].
The main raw material used for industrial production of magnesium oxide is
magnesite MgCO 3. Magnesium oxide is formed by the heating of magnesite to
550-600~ during this process the specific surface area of the material increases
from 3 to 115 cm2/g [27]. The effective radius of intracrystallite pores of MgO
obtained as a result of magnesite calcination at 550~ is 4 nm; the volume of
these pores is 0.37 cm~/g. In addition to primary intracrystallite pores, secondary
packing pores with r = 110 nm are present in the MgO structure [27]. Specific
surface area of the sorbent decreases to 33 cm2/g and the radius of intracrystallite
669
pores increases to 18 n m [27] as a result of sintering of m a g n e s i u m oxide which
occurs upon increasing its calcination t e m p e r a t u r e to 800~
N a t u r a l porous coals are very promising for the removal of organic impurities
from drinking and waste water. The industrial seam of such coal is exploited in
Donbas coal-mining region (Ukraine). We have studied the adsorption-desorption
of hexane and w a t e r vapours on this coal [28]. The obtained results are shown in
Figure 1. It is seen t h a t structure of this adsorbents contains both micro- and
mesopores. Calculations show t h a t pore volume is equal to Vmi- 0.048 cm3/g,
Vine(r-1.7; 3.3 n m ) - 0.109 cm3/g. According to mercury porosimetry data, this
coal is characterised by macropores with volume V m a - 0.02 cm3/g and
rma >_ 100 nm. The quantities of acidic (C = 260 ~g-equiv/g) and basic
(C = 66 pg-equiv/g) groups on the coal surface were e s t i m a t e d from reverse
conductometric titration of aqueous suspensions of the sorbent by alkali and acid.
a, mmol/g
a, mmol/g
I
0.8 k
0.4
0.4
0.8
(a)
P/Po
0.4
0.8
p/po
(b)
Figure 1. Adsorption (open circles)- desorption (filled circles) isotherms for (1) hexane and
(2) water vapours at natural porous coal.
670
U S E OF N A T U R A L S O R B E N T S FOR P U R I F I C A T I O N OF WATER
FROM DISPERSED IMPURITIES
Dispersed i m p u r i t i e s - clay particles, humic substances, bacteria and viruses,

finely emulsified oil and petroleum products are removed from water using
filtration, coagulation, flocculation and flotation methods. In present section the
application of natural sorbents in these processes is considered.
3.1. U s e o f n a t u r a l s o r b e n t s as f i l t e r i n g m a t e r i a l s in p r e c o a t e d filters
One common method of water purification from dispersed particles is the
filtration through a porous medium; natural sorbents are efficiently applied for
this purpose. In particular, diatomite, tripoly, perlite, and chrysotile-asbestos are
widely used as filtering materials in precoated filters [29], often called
diatomaceous earth filters, because diatomite is the main filtering material used
in precoated filters [30,31]. Various designs of these filters are considered in a
number of books [39,31,32].
These filters are used to purify water in large municipal houses and swimming
pools [29], for the tertiary treatment of waste water at petroleum refining plants
[33], for the removal of radioactive suspended particles from waste water of
nuclear power plants [34].
In Beykersfield (USA) water supply station was built by Boyle Engineering
Company with daily output 95 000 m 3. The use of precoated filters at this plant
makes it possible to reduce capital expenditures by approximately 35% [35].
Application of precoated filters had resulted in a better removal of disperse
impurities from water as compared with grained filters. Their use at the
concluding stage of premembrane t r e a t m e n t of low-turbidity ocean water reduces
water-quality fouling index FI = SDI (silt density index) down to 0.3, while the
use of cartridge polymers filters results in the decrease to 0.4-0.5 only [36].
Silt density index or fouling index characterises the presence of highly
dispersed impurities in water fed to membrane treatment. Usually this
p a r a m e t e r is calculated from the following expression [37,38]:
1 - tl/t 2
SDI = ~ 100
15
(3)
where t I is the time during which 500 cm 3 of the water under investigation is
filtered through Millipore cellulose-acetate microfilter with pore diameter of
45 ~m under pressure of 210 kPa, and t 2 is the time during which next 500 cm 3 of
water is filtered through this microfilter after elapse of time t I plus subsequent
15-minute filtration in adopted conditions.
With proper intake (from a coastal well), seawater contains almost no
suspended solids: in fact, the FI water-quality index decreases from 100-200 for
ocean water intake to 6 for a coastal well [36]. However, seawater is
characterised by the presence of phyto- and zoo-plankton (especially during warm
seasons) and a significant amount of dissolved organic substances. According to
671
the d a t a p r e s e n t e d in [39], truly dissolved compounds account for 89% of organic
m a t t e r in seawater. The presence of p h ytopla nkton and dissolved organic
substances in s e a w a t e r results in the need for the p r e - t r e a t m e n t of w a t e r by
filtration in steps, for example according to the scheme r e c o m m e n d e d in [36]:
sand filter - carbon filter - cartridge ultrafilter. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n of this scheme
reduces the FI w ater-q u ality index from 6 to 0.4-0.5. Additional t r e a t m e n t of
s e a w a t e r on a precoated diatomite filter leads to a f u r t h e r reduction in FI value
to 0.3 [36].
It is known that the structure of natural sorbents includes micro- (r__ 1.52 nm), meso- (r= 2-100 nm) and macropores (r > I00 nm). Virtually only the
largest meso- and macropores of filtering materials participate in processes of
purifying water from dispersed impurities. Therefore, to produce the most
effective filtration powders natural diatomite and tripoly are calcinated at a
temperature of 1000~
Small-size pores disappear due to sintering, and the
radius of macropores and their number in the structure of amorphous
silica
increase. In addition, clay minerals (layer silicates) which are always contained
as impurities in tripolies and diatomites during high-temperature calcination are
converted into high-temperature
non-swelling anhydrous phase. Finally the
thermal treatment results in the transformation of hydrophilic silica into
hydrophobic one. A characteristic feature of the thermal behaviour of silica which
distinguish it from aluminium and iron oxides is the fact that rapid reversible rehydroxylation of the surface of this oxide is observed only for samples whose heat
treatment temperature had not exceed 400~
[40,41]. Thus by means of heat
treatment one can achieve a certain ratio of hydrophilic silanol to hydrophobic
siloxane groups number at silica surface.
In some cases filtering powders should have a chemically inert surface. In
order to deactivate the surface of natural silica and, at the same time, to decrease
the calcination temperature down to 900~
alkaline fluxes (usually soda ash) are
introduced into raw silica material in a quantity of 2-5 mass % [42]. As a result,
at high temperatures low-melting compounds like Na20-2SiO 2 (m.p. 821~
are
formed, which coat the SiO 2 particles with a thin film and thus deactivate the
impurity Al- and Fe-centres. To obtain more inert materials, the diatomaceous
earth is treated with mineral acids before calcination; this results in the
elimination of impurity aluminium and iron oxides.
Natural perlite is also subjected to short-time thermal treatment at 1000~ to
produce high quality filtration material (filterperlite). The bloating of perlite
takes place as a result of rapid dehydroxylation and the emission of steam; this
increases the initial volume of perlite by 15-20 times, decreases its bulk density
to 80-149 kg/m 3 and increases the porosity to 85-90% [32].
The efficiency of filtration purification of water and other liquids from
dispersed impurities depends greatly on the correct choice of powders. These
must provide a high rate of purification with a necessary purity of the filtrate.
High filtration rates are achieved using more coarsely dispersed powders
possessing large-size pores. However, the application of these materials increases
672
the risk of colloidal particles breakthrough through the filter. Therefore it is
necessary to use powders characterised by optimum pore dimensions which
would provide a sufficiently fast rate of purification and necessary purity of the
filtrate.
In the USA more than 30 brands of filtering powders are produced on the basis
of diatomite alone, which differ from each other in their degree of dispersion,
chemical composition, porosity and other characteristics [19]. For example,
Manville company which is exploiting a deposit of high-quality diatomites in
California, produces nine commercial brands of filtering powders under the name
"zelite". The filterzel powder contains ca. 70% particles finer than 10 pm, and
only 2.5% of particles are larger than 40 pm. Precoated layer of this powder
catches finest particles from water with size down to 0.1 pm. The comparatively
coarsely dispersed powder zelite 545 contains 24% of fraction larger than 40 ~m
and only 5.5% finer than 10 pm.
US companies Dicalite and Eagle-Pitcher also produce filtering powders based
on diatomite and perlite. US company Great Lakes Carbon Corp. produces
filtering powders based on bloated perlite. Perlite powders outperform the
diatomite ones in the permeability of pre-coating layer, but are inferior to them
in what regards the fineness of the filtration. High-quality filtering powders
based on diatomites and bloated perlites are also produced in Great Britain,
France, Italy and Japan. In Russia, Inzensk filtering-powder plant (Ul'yanov
province) produces grade A and B diatomites. Kirovograd plant (Ukraine)
processes tripoly to produce filtering powders Kisel'gur No.1 and Kisel'gur No.2,
fine- and coarse-dispersed respectively. A number of plants in Ukraine
manufactures filterperlite. Some characteristics of filtering materials can be
found in [19,31,43]. With such a wide choice of filtering materials which differ
from each other in structure, chemical composition, degree of dispersion etc., the
selection of the most appropriate one for any concrete process is not difficult.
The efficiency of the filtration depends not only on the total volume of the
macroporous space and the size of macropores but also on the form of pores
present in porous material. Large options for regulating the form of pores in the
precoated filtrated layer are provided by the blending of filter powders with
various shape of particles, in particular diatomite or filterperlite with chrisotileasbestos. Blended filtration materials are already used in the practice of
purification of liquids from dispersed impurities [44].
In order to obtain operating filtrated layer, the consumption of powder must be
200-800 g per 1 m 2 surface of supporting filtering elements. The quantity of
auxiliary (filter-aid) materials introduced into treated water is usually equal to
the mass of dispersed admixture. However the consumption of diatomite 800 g
per 1 m 2 and three- or fourfold excess of filter-aid materials is necessary to
provide high quality of drinking water purification [35].
Precoated filters enable one to purify water not only with respect to dispersed
admixtures, but also to substances dissolved as molecules and ions. To regulate
ion and molecular composition of water, finely ground vermiculite, glauconite and
673
active carbon are used in the compositions of precoated powders. Such filters
efficiently adsorb organic substances, silicon and iron compounds, etc., from
water [43].
In view of extensive use of membrane methods, it is especially important to
remove iron compounds at the stage of premembrane water treatment [45].
Precoated filters which employ diatomite, bloated perlite, activated carbon, etc.
as auxiliary filtering materials, are already used for rather long time to remove
iron from water [46]. However, the quality of such premembrane treatment is
insufficient, therefore the method of iron removal from water by passing through
a ceramic cartridge at which ferric hydroxide was preliminary deposited has
become widespread. The layer of Fe(OH) 3 which grows in the cartridge acts as an
active element for adhesion flocs of ferric hydroxide forming as a result of
oxidation Fe(II) ~ Fe(III).
In connection with the importance of the removing of iron compounds from
water, we have paid attention to glauconite as a filter-aid material [45]. This
natural mineral was formerly rather widely used in water treatment to remove
disperse impurities from water [29]. Two-layered grained filters of crushed
anthracite and glauconite are used efficiently at industrial water treatment
stations in Canada to remove iron and manganese compounds from water
preliminary treated with soda and slaked lime (to bring water pH value up to 9)
and then chlorinated [47].
At the territory of Ukraine, a large commercial deposit of glauconite sand
exists; its physicochemical characteristics are presented in Section 2.2, Table 4.
Grains (pellets) of glauconite in its natural state are covered with a film of iron
hydroxides. The latter, being genetically connected with the rock-forming
mineral, are tightly held at the grains of glauconite sand. This makes it
unnecessary to create a modifying hydroxide layer on the surface of grains of the
filtering material for removing iron from water, which is a fairly long and tedious
operation. Film of ferric hydroxide plays an important role in the autocatalytic
oxidation reaction Fe(II)--> Fe(III) and in the adhesion of flocs Fe(OH) 3 on
glauconite particles. The use of glauconite as a filter-aid material reduces iron
content in the water to c < 0.1 mg/dm 3 [45].
It is seen from Table 7 that precoated perlite filter which employs diatomite
and glauconite mixture as the filter-aid material (with mass ratio of mixture
Table 7
Extraction of some radioisotopes (%) from model solutions using precoated perlite
filter
Auxiliary material
Filterperlite
Diatomite/glauconite mixture
Diatomite/glauconite mixture
pH
54Mn
7
7
9
64
80
83
6~
79
75
70
137Cs
27
98
95
89+9~
0
72
78
674
components 1:1) purifies radioactive waste with respect to 54Mn and 6~
compounds in dispersed state and to dissolved ions la7Cs and sg+9~ [48]. The
removal of radioactive ions laTCs and sg+9~ from water takes place due to the
application of glauconite, the natural ion exchanger.
3.2. Use of grained clinoptilolite and other grained materials in water

purification
Natural materials for water purification are used most frequently in grained
form. Quartz sand is the traditional material for grained filters. However, an
insufficient intergrain (packing) porosity of the sand, its poor adhesion
characteristics relative to disperse impurities contained in the river water, high
consumption of water for its washing and other factors have led to a situation
when the filtration unit became the bottleneck of water purification technological
scheme. Therefore other materials such as claydite, aggloporite, haydite, etc. are
now being increasingly used instead of quartz sand [49,50].
Claydite and haydite are prepared by thermal shock method at 1000-1100~
from bentonite clays and argillaceous slates, respectively [51]. Aggloporite is
produced by sintering of tripoly- and silica clay containing rocks, respectively.
These materials possess higher intergrain (packing) porosity, as compared with
quartz sand (Table 8).
Table 8
Physicomechanical characteristics of filter materials
Material
Quartz sand
Clinoptilolite
Claydite
Aggloporite
Haydite
Granite sand
Particle size, Bulk density, Density, Porosity, Mechanical strength, %

abradability crushability
mm
kg/m3
g/m3
%
1.00
1.15
1.18
0.84
1.10
0.80
1500
900
780
1030
650
1660
2.46
2.20
1.91
2.29
2.18
2.72
37-45
58-53
48
54
65
46
0.20
0.32
0.17
0.20
0.90
0.11
1.25
2.40
0.36
1.50
4.90
1.40
Intergrain pores provide the retention of phytoplankton, disperse particles

(clay minerals, humic substances etc.) and their aggregates, that is, the products
of coagulation and flocculation. Moreover, to ensure efficient retention of colloidsize dispersions of SiO 2, Fe(OH)a, Fe (III) and A1 (III) complex compounds with
fulvic acids etc., the structure of filtering material grains should possess internal
macropores with effective radius r _> 100 nm [45]; however, there are no such
pores in the structure of quartz and granite sand or aggloporite. The situation
becomes more complicated, because along with principal purpose of filter
675
materials, t h a t is, to purify drinking water from substances responsible for its
turbidity and colour, they should remove the m a x i m u m possible amount of
normalised heavy metal, a m m o n i u m and aluminium cations, traces of radioactive
impurities. This creates additional impediments for the use of quartz sand and
other above-mentioned materials as the filter media.
In our publications [1,52-56] the application of clinoptilolite as a filtering
material instead of quartz sand for the purification of river water was shown to
be promising. Clinoptilolite possesses sufficiently high cation exchange capacity
and can adsorb heavy metal ions and other substances dissolved as cations in
water. In structure of clinoptilolite there exist internal pores with r = 350 nm (see
Section 2.3), which provide for the removal of colloidal and molecularly dissolved
substances, in particular solubilised complexes of fulvic acids with cations A1 and
Fe (III). Grains of T r a n s c a r p a t h i a n tuff are sufficiently strong, and do not slack
in water. Clinoptilolite possesses good physicomechanical properties (Table 8).
Crushed clinoptilolite-rich tuff (particle size 1-3 mm) was tested as the
filtering material for coloured surface waters of low, medium and high turbidity.
The results show t h a t the application of clinoptilolite had increased both the
mud-trapping capacity of the filter by 25-45%, and the filtration rate from 6-8 to
8-10 m/hr without affecting the water quality. In addition, the amount of water
required for filter backwashing was reduced by 15-20%, and the aluminium and
iron content in cleaned water was reduced from 0.8-0.4 and 0.25-0.15 to 0.5-0.3
and 0.15-0.08 mg/dm 3, respectively, as compared with quartz sand filter [54].
Clinoptilolite filter provides for higher decrease of water turbidity and colour,
especially during first 8-10 hr of the filtration cycle; the latter was increased by
4-16 hr. Zeolite filter more effectively removes phytoplankton.
The data presented in Table 9 show that the use of the clinoptilolite filters at
commercial water supply station (daily output 12 000 m 3) had resulted in a
significant e n h a n c e m e n t of water purity. Average purification degree with
respect to disperse impurities was 65.6% for clinoptilolite filter, while for
reference filter it was only 45%. Results similar to those presented above were
Table 9
Purification of Uzh River water (Uzhorod City, T r a n s c a r p a t h i a n Ukraine) using
commercial coal/quartz (A) and clinoptilolite (B) filters
Month,
1991
July
August
September
October
November
December
Suspended solids (mg/dm a)

Initial
A
B
4.4
19.6
33.0
2.9
7.4
10.9
0.9
0.4
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.2
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.8
1.2
0.6
Aluminium (mg/dm a)
Initial
A
B
1.00
1.87
0.65
0.60
0.72
0.45
0.81
0.38
0.29
0.35
0.33
0.47
0.22
0.24
0.27
676
obtained later by another investigators who used clinoptilolite from Tedzami
deposit (Georgia) to purify Moskva river water [57].
Requirements to the quality of filtering materials used in premembrane
t r e a t m e n t technology are continually increasing, in line with efforts of production
engineers to combine coagulation and filtration (contact coagulation method [58]),
or flocculation and filtration ("line coagulation" [59,60] or, more properly "line
flocculation" method) in one unit. In both cases, the coagulant or flocculant is fed
into the water to be treated immediately before granular filters. This leads to
more thorough removal from water of disperse impurities, which are deposited
directly in the filters intergranular space. Thus filtering materials for
premembrane t r e a t m e n t should possess as high porosity as possible, and
dimensions of secondary intergranular pores should be sufficient enough to
ensure efficient capture of disperse particles and their a g g r e g a t e s - the products
of coagulation and flocculation, and the retention of these species in pores.
Pre-treatment of water supplied to membrane treatment according to the
schemes: a) filtration through multilayered filters and b) coagulation - settling filtration with the use of quartz sand and anthracite as filtering materials,
results only in the decrease of water quality index F I = SDI to 25 [59].
Replacement of quartz sand by clinoptilolite should undoubtedly reduce FI value.
Nonetheless, to achieve the value FI = SDI = 3-5 required for normal operation of
membranes, the final stage of pre-treatment should be the microfiltration
through polymer cartridge microfilters with def- 5 ~tm.
To improve the quality of pre-treatment, the "line coagulation" method is
widely used. It represents a version of reagent filtration, and includes the
introduction of the organic cation polyelectrolyte of Superflox573 type
immediately before high-rate filters, loaded with a material possessing high
porosity and specific granulometric composition. Aluminosilicate filtering
material (so-called A filter) with def= 0.4-0.6 mm and layer height h = 1 m is
usually employed [59,60]. The amount of flocculant added is usually 1-5 mg/dm 3.
Application of "line coagulation" (or, more properly, "line flocculation") method
makes it possible, using a single apparatus, to reduce FI value from 50 (for the
initial water) to 2 [59].
Artesian waters often contain a significant amount of bivalent iron which,
subject to the action of oxygen contained in the air, is converted to Fe (III),
hydrolysed and forms colloidal suspensions of iron basic salts, up to ferric
hydroxide. In the USA, for example, more than 25% of municipal wells provide
water which possesses increased contents of iron and manganese compounds [61].
Usually the concentration of iron in artesian waters amounts to 2-5 mg/dm 3, but
groundwater springs exist whose iron contents amounts to 20 mg/dm 3 [62]. In
such cases water must pass through grained filter with aeration (to oxidise
Fe 2 -> Fe ~ immediately before the filtration.
In the studies concerned with the removal of iron from water by filtration (see,
for example [46,63]), primary attention was paid to questions of essential
importance, namely to the oxidation of bivalent iron by air oxygen in the process
677
of water aeration, to the maintaining of optimum pH value, and to the rate of
filtration in order to achieve the most complete oxidation. However, practically
all known results are related to filters with quartz sand. At the same time, the
choice of the type of filtering material essentially determines both the rate of
ferric hydroxide film formation on the surface of grains (this film playing an
important role in autocatalytic oxidation reaction Fe2 Fe3+), and the rate of
the adhesion of this hydroxide at filtering material grains. Clinoptilolite is a
promising filtering material for the removal of iron compounds from artesian
waters. This mineral possesses more developed surface, intergranular porosity
and, what is very important, the capability for cation exchange.
Iron ions which displace Ca 2 and Na cations from clinoptilolite exchange
centres, act as nuclei for the formation of ferric hydroxide film securely held at
the surface of clinoptilolite grains. Therefore, simple replacement of quartz filter
by two-layered clinoptilolite one with grain size of 20-40 and 0.8-2.1 mm leads to
significant increase in the duration of the filtering cycle and an increase in the
quality of removal of iron from underground water [45]. This technology was
applied for underground water purification at Beregove region (Transcarpathian
Ukraine). This artesian water contained 4.6-7.0mg/dm 3 of Fe(II) and
0.15-0.20 mg/dm 3 of Fe(III). Almost all iron was removed from water by
clinoptilolite filter with preliminary aeration: iron content was decreased to
0.3-0.05 mg/dm 3 [64]. Our data [65] also indicate that clinoptilolite is significantly
better than quartz sand for the removal of iron compounds from river water.
The electric charge of filter grains in water is a very important factor for the
removal of the particles of silica compounds: as latter are charged negatively in
water, filter grains must have positive charge in water. Such charge is
characteristic to the particles of low-silica bauxite and sorbent based on calcined
dolomite, which are the materials generally used for water purification in heat
power engineering [29].
3.3. U s e o f n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s as a d a g u l a n t s in w a t e r p u r i f i c a t i o n
Layer silicates montmorillonite, kaolinite etc., although being among dispersed
impurities which should be removed from drinking water, rather paradoxically
can themselves be used to purify drinking and waste water from suspended
particles. For example, it was indicated in [66] that the addition of small
(0.5-0.7 g/dm 3) amounts of ground montmorillonite, palygorskite or vermiculite
leads to virtually complete removal of coli bacteria from water. Combined use of
these minerals with flocculants or small amounts of coagulants is recommended
for more intensive and complete precipitation of dispersed silicate particles with
bacteria and viruses adhered to them.
The use of aluminium sulphate and other coagulants, in particular, during cold
season, is inefficient [67] for the purification of highly coloured natural waters
with low turbidity, i.e., waters containing many coloured humic materials and
small amounts of disperse mineral impurities. In these cases so-called "turbidityforming agent", that is, finely dispersed montmorillonite, preferably in sodium
678
form, is supplementary added to water at water t r e a t m e n t plants to improve the
flocculation process. This reduces flocculation time by 30-80%, and decreases the
consumption of aluminium sulphate [67]. In Hungary and Austria the method of
clarification of drinking and waste water from dispersed impurities was
developed, which includes consecutive t r e a t m e n t of water with montmorillonite
or other layer silicate in sodium form (0.1-0.3 g/dm 3) and high-molecular
flocculants (0.3-0.8 g/dm 3) [68].
It is instructive to examine briefly the colloid chemical aspect of water
purification from dispersed impurities upon adding small amounts of
montmorillonite [1,4]. It is known that montmorillonite in sodium form is
dispersed spontaneously in water down to elementary plates about 1 nm thick
[69]. Particles of montmorillonite and other layer silicates in water carry
electrical charges of two signs: basal faces of particles are negatively charged,
while the side ones and edges of particles at pH < 6 are positively charged
[69-71].
Negative charge of basal faces is due to the non-stoichiometric isomorphous
substitutions in the structure of montmorillonite, mainly those of Al 3+ by Mg 2+.
The excessive negative charge is compensated by exchange cations located at
basal faces. In water, the exchange cations pass into diffuse part of electrical
double layer, and oxygen atoms at basal faces of clay particles carry negative
charge. Side faces and edges of montmorillonite
particles are charged
predominately positively, as the result of basic dissociation of =AI-OH and
-Mg-OH groups at pH _< 8.5. The number of negatively charged surface sites of
clay particles exceeds the number of positively charged sites, therefore clay
particles in water at pH _> 3 carry a net negative charge [69-72]. The fact that
charges of basal planes and side faces of layer silicate particles are opposite to
each other leads to some interesting features in the behaviour of their aqueous
dispersions, in particular, plane-to-edge type of particles association. This
interesting effect is called internal mutual flocculation [73].
The presence of two types of charges at the surface of layer silicate particles
results in the fact that in an aqueous medium clay particles can interact with
dispersed impurities which carry either positive or negative charges on their
surfaces, i.e., they play the role of universal adagulants-precipitants
of
dispersed impurities from natural and waste waters. In fact, positively
(negatively) charged impurities interact with negatively (positively) charged
surface sites of layer silicate particles, stick together into large aggregates and
precipitate. This effect is described by Deryagin's theory of heterocoagulation (for
particles of both types of colloidal degree dispersion)- heteroadagulation (for
different size of particles of the precipitated substance and the precipitator) [74].
To accelerate the precipitation of aggregates formed by dispersed particles in
water, high-molecular flocculants can be introduced into the system: the
adsorption of flocculant macromolecules on particles of several neighbouring
aggregates results in their bonding together, and thus intensify the precipitation.
679
Efficient technologies for natural and waste waters treatment, like Retamix
[75] and Flygtol [76] have been developed, essentially based on the application of
bentonite adagulants and macromolecular flocculants such as polyacrylamide
(PAA) and polymethylvinylpyridium chloride (PPC). In Ukraine bentonites were
used for wastewater treatment of paper-making factories with respect to finely
dispersed cellulose fibres [77]. The interaction of negatively charged cellulose
particles with positively charged side faces of bentonite particles results in the
increase of particle size; presence of flocculant macromolecules leads to the
settling of grown particles which form a dense sediment. Its capacity (~ 7%) is
lower than that characteristic to the traditional method of coagulation with
aluminium sulphate. The content of dispersed substances in water decreases to
3-5 mg/dm ~. Permanganate oxidability also decreases in comparison with initial
water due to sorption of water-soluble organic acids on bentonite. Table 10 shows
the results of analysis for waste water and water purified by Cherkasy
m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e - natural and soda (Na2CO 3) activated (consumption of
adagulant 100mg/dm3), and by flocculants: PAA (2.5mg/dm 3) or PPC
(1.25 mg/dm3).
Table 10
Application of Cherkasy montmorillonite for treatment of paper-making plant
waste water
Adagulant and Flocculant
Initial waste water
Natural montmorillonite, PAA
Natural montmorillonite, PPC
Activated montmorillonite, PAA
Activated montmorillonite, PPC
Suspended
substances,
mg/dm a
90
7
4
5
3
Permanganate
oxidability,
mg O2/dm a
Sediment
amount,
%
10.0
8.8
8.3
7.5
7.1
12.0
7.0
7.5
6.5
7.0
A version of this technology was developed for the particular application in

process water treatment of paper-making plant producing coloured paper [78]. At
first stage of the process natural bentonite and flocculant were used to purify
water from cellulose fibre, sizing substances and other dispersed impurities,
while at second stage valuable component, i.e., anion dye of direct scarlet type
was adsorbed from water on bentonite modified by aluminium sulphate.
Bentonite saturated with dye was then used as the paper filler increasing the
depth of its colour, with the total saving of the dyestuff.
In view of the development of membrane methods of water treatment and
recuperation of its valuable components, the following technique for removing of
the dyestuffs from wastewater of paper-making factories was proposed [2]. At the
680
pre-membrane stage natural bentonite and flocculant are used to remove
cellulose fibre, sizing substances and other dispersed impurities from water,
while at the second stage water is delivered to electromembrane apparatus for
dyestuff removal which takes place in the concentration chamber.
The simplest method to decrease the amount of water pollution at papermaking factories and recycling of pollutants is partial or complete replacement of
kaolin as a paper filler, for white bentonite. The latter has much higher sorption
capacity as compared with kaolin, and when introduced into the paper
composition, retains finely dispersed cellulose fibre and adsorbs the dissolved
organic substances, i.e., products of cellulose oxidative destruction, thus
considerably improving the quality of water [2,79].
An efficient, almost wasteless technology of process water premembrane
t r e a t m e n t of textile factories and plants of artificial leather was developed [2,80].
This technology comprises two-stage reagentless and reagent foam flotation in
pneumatic units of equipment by air dispersion with a porous partition,
adagulation-adsorption t r e a t m e n t of water with bentonite clays, either natural or
those modified with aluminium sulphate, and two-stage filtration through
granulated filter with quartz and clinoptilolite medium. The technology ensures
sharp decrease of surface active substances (SAS), dyestuffs quantity, of the
values of chemical (COD) and biological (BOD) oxygen demand etc. (see Table 11)
and, in general, provides the purified water quality required for a stable
operation of reverse osmosis membranes for water demineralisation. In
comparison with traditional water t r e a t m e n t methods (coagulation, ozonation,
etc.), the technology is characterised by small amount of reagents spent (at the
flocculation stage not more than 10 mg/dm 3 of the flocculant is used, while at the
adagulation stage the maximum amount of clay is 50 mg/dm 3) and allows for a
utilisation of slimes in the main production process. For example, 100% of the
slime formed during adagulation-adsorption treatment is used as a filler for
artificial leathers. The flotation condensate formed (0.05-0.1% of the water
capacity treated) is burned in a special furnace. This technology makes it possible
Table 11
Amount of pollutants (mg/dm 3) in initial and treated wastewater from artificial
leather manufacturing enterprise
Pollutants
Suspensions
Direct dyestuffs
Dispersed dyestuffs
Anionic SAS
Nonionic SAS
COD
BOD20
Initial water
50-200
50-100
50-150
50-150
50-100
200-300
120-170
Treated water
0-2
0-4
0-2
0.5-1
0.5-1.5
50-70
5-15
681
to increase the quality of t r e a t m e n t by 30-50% in comparison with traditional
technologies. It also decreases power demand at least by 30%, sharply decreases
(by 5-7 times) the amount of slimes obtained, and requires twice as small
production areas. This technology has successfully undergone pilot-production
tests at one of the enterprises manufacturing artificial leather. A version of this
technology employing natural porous coal was developed.
It was mentioned above that to improve the coagulation of dispersed
impurities in high coloured and low turbidity natural water, the turbidity
forming agent is introduced. To increase the effect of the treatment, to decrease
the content of residual aluminium, as well as to reduce the amount of the
sediments formed, it was suggested in [81] to use powdered clinoptilolite with the
content of rock-forming mineral not less than 70% (group A) and particle
sizes < 0.25 mm instead of bentonite. This is, in fact, a waste material (to 40%),
formed in the production of crushed clinoptilolite of 2-3 and 3-5 mm fractions,
used as a granulated medium of high-rate filters for river water treatment (see
above, Section 3.2).
Clinoptilolite is most efficiently used when combined with the coagulant
solution, with mineral-coagulant ratio 1:1 (calculated on A1203 basis). This
results in saving 25% of the coagulant, increasing the t r e a t m e n t quality
(Table 12), and decreasing the amount of the sediment formed by 1.3-1.5 times as
compared to the traditional technology of coagulation which employs no
additives. For initial Dnipro River water with parameters listed in Table 12, the
optimal coagulant portion determined by test coagulation is 20mg/dm 3
(calculated on A1203 basis). If clinoptilolite is used in amounts of 7.5-15 mg/dm 3,
this portion decreases to 15 mg/dm 3, which is very important in terms of
coagulant saving.
Table 12
Quality parameters of Dnipro River water treated with the aid of adagulants
Adagulant
Initial water
Bentonite
Clinoptilolite
Ditto
Portion,
mg/dm 3
Turbidity,
mg/dm 3
Colour,
degree
Residual aluminium,
mg/dm 3
10
7.5
15
5.1
1.2
0.9
0.4
49
17
14
8
0.23
0.19
0.12
Natural porous coal possesses structural mesopores with r = 1.7 and 3.3 nm,
and is characterised by high enough adsorption properties with respect to
molecules of dyestuffs and SAS with molecular mass M = 370-620 [28]. Fulvic
acid also has M = 250-1000 [1]; it should thus be expected that natural porous
coal will adsorb fulvic acid from natural waters. In fact, introducing 50 mg/dm ~ of
682
powdered natural porous coal into Dnipro river water simultaneously with usual
quantity of aluminium sulphate results in the additional 25% decrease of c o l o u r from 20 down to 15 degrees.
U S E OF N A T U R A L S O R B E N T S F O R THE P U R I F I C A T I O N OF
W A T E R F R O M ORGANIC M O L E C U L E S A N D IONS
Physicochemical principles for rational selection of natural sorbents used in

the adsorption purification of waste waters from organic substances were
presented in our earlier publications [1,4,82]. These studies had shown that
natural sorbents can be efficiently used to remove surface active substances
(SAS), dyestuffs and some high-molecular substances from waste waters. These
are the problems considered in following section.
4.1. N a t u r a l s o r b e n t s in p r o c e s s e s o f w a t e r p u r i f i c a t i o n f r o m s u r f a c e
active substances
Low-molecular SAS which possess detergent properties can be divided into
three large groups: non-ionic, cationic and anionic ones. Anionic SAS, which are
extensively employed in textile industry, are removed easily from water by
flotation methods involving cationic flocculants, and coagulation with traditional
aluminium sulphate used as the coagulant. Adsorption methods are also
employed for water purification with respect to anionic SAS [83,84]; natural
adsorbents most suitable for this purpose are bauxites and magnesium oxide,
because their surfaces acquire positive charge in water.
One of principal physicochemical properties of layer silicates (clay minerals) is
their cation-exchange ability. This property of clay minerals can be applied to
remove cation-active SAS widely used in flotation processes of ferrous metal ores
etc., from industrial sewage [85]. The main criteria for the selection of natural ion
exchangers as the sorbents of cationic SAS are their cation-exchange capacity
and the accessibility of exchange centres for large enough organic cations.
According to these criteria, the best natural exchangers are montmorillonite and
vermiculite.
Figure 2 shows adsorption isotherms of dodecyl- and cetylammonium chloride
on Ca-form of Pyzhevsk montmorillonite, and isotherms of Ca 2 cations
desorption from these layer silicates [86]. The analysis of these data leads to the
conclusion that cation-active substances are sorbed by montmorillonite according
mainly to ion exchange mechanism. However, the comparison of the amounts of
dodecyl- and cetylammonium adsorbed by montmorillonite with the amount of
displaced Ca 2 cations shows that a portion of cation-active substances is sorbed
molecularly on the mineral. Such hyperequivalent sorption is characteristic for
cationic SAS, whose structure possess hydrocarbon chains not less than
10 carbon atoms long [87]. X-ray [88] and IR-spectroscopy [89] data indicate that
the association of sorbed organic cations and salt or amine molecules takes place.
683
a, mg-equiv/g
1.0
0.5
I
1
I
2
I
3
(a)
1.0
0.5
A
,F
0.1
0.2
0.3
Ce, mmol/dm3
(b)
Figure 2. Isotherms of (1) sorption of (a) dodecyl- and (b) cetylammonium chloride and (2)
desorption of Ca 2 cations for montmorillonite at 20~ Ce - equilibrium concentration of
SAS in solution.
684
Cations of SAS are sorbed not only on the external surface, but also on the
internal surface of the mineral. The value of first basal reflection on the
diffractograms of organomontmorillonites is d0ol=1.67-1.70nm. Therefore
organic cations are packed flatly into two layers within montmorillonite
interlayer space with the thickness equal to Ad = (d001 - 0.94) = 0.73-0.76 nm.
The spacing between the silicate layers depends on the a m o u n t of organic
cations penetrated into the interlayer gaps, or more specifically, on the relation
between the values of S O, the area of total silicate surface per one exchange
centre (0.57 nm 2 per unit charge for Pyzhevsk montmorillonite, 0.365 nm 2 per
unit charge for Kovdor vermiculite) and S c, the maximum area which can be
occupied by organic exchange cation (about 0.1 nm 2 per one -CH 2- group of an
alkyl chain). If S c < S 0, then organic cations fit closely to the silicate layers which
results in the formation of the monolayer of organic cations between the silicate
layers. When S O< S c < 2S0, flat organic bilayer is formed in the silicate interlayer
region. When the value of S c exceeds 2S 0, then organic cations form a layer with
individual cations oriented uniformly at some angle with respect to the silicate
layer surface [90].
Internal geometric surface area of montmorillonite (~ 750 m2/g [7,69]) m a n y
times exceeds its external surface area S = 30-60 m2/g (see Table 4). It is just the
accessibility of internal surface of this mineral which leads to its high adsorption
properties with respect to cationic SAS. From solutions with the concentration
close to critical concentration of micelle formation (CCM), these substances are
adsorbed at the external surface of layer silicates in the micellar form. Obviously
this can explain the fact that total sorption of long-chain organic cations of the
cetylpyridinium type at montmorillonite from solutions with an equilibrium
concentration of the order of 3 mmol/dm 3 amounts to 3-4 mg-equiv per 1 g of
sorbent [87,91]. This value 3-4 times exceeds the exchange capacity of this
mineral (Table 4). The technology of waste water purification for ore beneficiating
factory [92] was based on adsorption studies.
The pesticides diquat (1,1'-ethylene-2,2'-dipyridilium dibromide) and p a r a q u a t
(1,1'-dimethyl-2,2'-dipyridilium dichloride) are also sorbed by layer silicates
according to a mechanism of ion exchange [93]. Therefore both montmorillonite
and vermiculite can be efficiently used to remove these pesticides from water [1].
Many polar molecules are sorbed by layer silicates due to co-ordination
mechanism, which involves the formation of surface complex compounds with
exchange cations of these minerals [7]. However, often it is energetically more
favourable for organic molecules not to displace water molecules from the first coordination sphere of layer silicate exchange cations, but to form stable hydrogen
bonds with them according to the scheme: Me n+... OH2-organic molecule. This is
just the mechanism of polyvinyl alcohol [94-96], polyethylene glycol [97,98] and
non-ionic SASs sorption at montmorillonite surface [99,100]. These non-ionic
surfactants are the polyethylene glycol ethers of fatty alcohols, acids,
alkylphenols, etc. with composition CnEm,where n is the n u m b e r of carbon atoms
685
in hydrocarbon chain, m the n u m b e r of oxyethylene groups in polyethylene glycol
chain.
The sorption of non-ionic SAS at clay minerals occurs mainly because their
structure comprises significant n u m b e r of oxyethylene groups (m = 5 to 50,
usually m = 6-16). These groups can participate in specific interaction with
exchange cations or in a hydrogen bond formation with adsorbed w a t e r molecules
via the u n s h a r e d pair of electrons of oxygen atom. IR-spectra show t h a t oxygen
atoms of oxyethylene groups interact with exchange cations through bridge water
molecules according to the scheme [98]:
Me"+... O - H - - - O (
I
H
CH 2
CU2
(4)
The energy of oxyethylene groups interaction with bridge w a t e r molecules is

sufficient to overcome electrostatic attraction forces existing between
aluminosilicate layers and h y d r a t e d cations which compensate excess negative
charge. As a result, the molecules of non-ionic SAS p e n e t r a t e into the interlayer
space of montmorillonite.
The thickness of interlayer space Ad depends on the concentration of non-ionic
SAS in the solution, the n a t u r e of exchange cation (Na or Ca2+), the length of
oxyethylene and hydrocarbon chains in molecule CnE m etc. When equilibrium
concentration of SAS is low (c = 105-10 .4 g/dm3), then a single (d001 = 1.39 nm,
Ad = 0.45 nm) and subsequently double (do01 = 1.75 nm, Ad = 0.81 nm) layer of
SAS molecules in a flat position is formed in the interlayer space of
montmorillonite [99]. When Na-montmorillonite contacts with more concentrated
C12E14 solution, then in addition to the reflection d001 = 1.8 nm, another reflection
which corresponds to do01 = 4.2 nm becomes clearly seen [1], evidencing t h a t
within some portion of Na-montmorillonite interlayer spaces C12E14 molecules are
oriented at some angle with respect to silicate layers.
Figure 3
shows
adsorption
isotherms
of
oxyethylated
alkylphenol
CsH17-C6H40-(CH2-CH2-O)TH (C8PhE 7, agent OP-7, CCM = 0.1 g/dm 3) at Caforms of montmorillonite and hydromica [100]. It is seen t h a t the adsorption
values of non-ionic SAS at montmorillonite samples exceed significantly those
obtained for hydromica which possesses specific surface area S = 125 m2/g.
This can be a t t r i b u t e d to the fact t h a t internal surface of montmorillonite
participates in the absorption of OP-7. Limiting adsorption value for CsPhE 7 at
Pyzhevsk montmorillonite is a~ = 360 mg/g. For the adsorption of wetting agent
"Nonisol-250" (an ester of polyethylene glycol and oleic acid), the non-ionic SAS
which possesses higher molecular mass, at Ca-montmorillonite surface,
a ~ = 5 5 0 m g / g [101]. It was reported in [102] t h a t limiting value for the
adsorption of non-ionic SAS CgE 5 - C9E50 at Na- montmorillonite for equilibrium
concentrations c e > CCM can a m o u n t to a| = 1.0 g per I g of the adsorbent. Our
686
data presented in [100] show that 1 g of Pyzhevsk montmorillonite in Na-form
can extract 0.8 g of OP-7 agent from an aqueous solution. The adsorption capacity
of the best grades of activated carbon for non-ionic SAS does not exceed 0.1 g/g
[28,100], with their cost being much higher than that of clay minerals.
a, g/g
1
9
0.3
2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
Ce, %
Figure 3. Adsorption isotherms of oxyethylated isooctylphenyol (OP-7) ta Ca-form of."

(1) Pyzhevsk montmorillonite, (2) Cherkasy montmorillonite and (3) Cherkasy hydromica.
687
The capability of montmorillonite (bentonite) clays for efficient adsorption of
non-ionic surface-active substances (NSAS) from water was utilised in the
development of industrial technology for the treatment of stratal water at gas
production fields [100]. When the NSAS solution is prepumped into gas wells to
reduce the collector properties of the stratum, some portion of the NSAS is
carried away to the surface along with stratal water. This water sometimes
contains up to I 000 g/m 3 of NSAS, i.e. of OP-7, prevocell EO, prevocell WOF-100,
ditalan OTS-45, syntanol DS-10, etc. To remove these from water, commercial
bentonite powder can be used.
Table 13 generalises the industrial test results of the stratal water treatment
of Pynyanu gas deposit (Ukraine, L'viv province) to remove prevocell EO using
Cherkasy bentonite powder [100]. It is seen that minimum permissible
concentration (MPC) levels of NSAS (0.5 g/m 3) can be achieved by one-stage
stratal water treatment with Cherkasy bentonite. In this case the sorbent
demand is 17-20 kg per 1 kg of the NSAS removed.
Table 13
NSAS concentration (C) in initial stratal water and water after treating with the
aid of bentonite
Sorbent consumption,
kg/m 3
1.4
4.8
17.0
C, g / m 3
Initial water
48
270
950
Treated water
0.5
0.4
0.5
The order of technological operations is as follows: stratal water which

contains NSAS is delivered from the collection tank to the mixer into which
bentonite powder was fed. The mixture is stirred until clay is completely
dissolved. Then the pulp is moved into the settling tank for natural phase
separation. A rather high concentration of salts (8-21 g/dm 3) in stratal water
contributes to an efficient precipitation of the solid phase. The clarified water is
delivered into the capacity tank of treated water, while the slime (spent sorbent)
accumulated on the slime site platform, is disposed for the utilisation as a
drilling fluid component.
4.2. Bentonite clays in processes of water purification from cation

dyestuffs
Cation (basic) dyes: crystal violet, malachite green, fuchsine, rhodamine,
safranine, methylene blue etc. exist in water as organic cations. These dyes are
widely used in paper industry for paper colouring, due to high affinity of organic
cations with respect to negatively charged sites of cellulose macromolecules [1].
688
Publications [103-105] summarise the studies of adsorption properties of
various clay minerals with respect to methylene blue, crystal violet and
malachite green. It was shown that montmorillonite, the rock-forming mineral of
bentonite clays, possess the highest adsorption capacity with respect to these
dyes. The adsorption of cationic dyes takes place both at the external surface of
montmorillonite, and in its interlayer gaps. After the adsorption of crystal violet,
first basal reflection of Na- and Ca- forms of Pyzhevsk montmorillonite
doo I = 2.06 nm and 1.96 nm, respectively.
Table 14 comprises the data concerning the adsorption of malachite green dye
at Oglanly montmorillonite (Turkmenistan), which possesses cation exchange
capacity 0. 84 mg-equiv/g. It is seen that for equilibrium concentrations
( 3 + 3 0 ) . 1 0 .4 mol/dm 3, the adsorption of this dye takes place according
predominantly to cation exchange mechanism, with high selectivity of the ion
exchanger with respect to organic cations. Spectral analysis data [104,105]
suggest that the observed differences in the adsorption of dyes and desorption of
inorganic cations (a > a') are related to the fact that the dyes are adsorbed not
only in the form of individual organic cations, but also as their associates with
molecules.
Table 14
The amounts of malachite green dye (a) adsorbed by Na form of Oglanly
montmorillonite and displaced Na cations (a') for various equilibrium
concentrations (C~) of the dye in the solution
C e. 104, mol/dm 3
a, mol/kg
a', g-equiv/kg
3
28
33
39
65
0.52
0.64
0.75
0.88
1.31
0.40
0.53
0.58
0.62
0.62
The contents of dyes in waste waters of paper-making plants does not exceed
10 mg/dm 3 [1]. It was shown in [106] that the introduction of 100 mg/dm 3 of
bentonite and 0.6 mg/dm 3 of the flocculant is sufficient for the complete
decolouration of such water. The data obtained in the studies [103-106] were used
in the development of technology which applies bentonite clays for the
purification of waste water discharged by a plant which produces cationic dyes
used as analytic indicators [107].
689
4.3. P h y s i c o c h e m i c a l principles of the application of clay m i n e r a l s for

the r e m o v a l of high m o l e c u l a r organic c o m p o u n d s from waste
waters
In this section the advantages of the application of clay minerals for the
purification of industrial waste waters from polyvinyl alcohol and protein
compounds are discussed.
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a non-ionic water-soluble polymer, which is widely
used in various industrial processes; in textile industry, for example, PVA is
applied for textile dressing. Macromolecules of this polymer are almost incapable
of biologic destruction; therefore, to remove it from industrial waste water,
physicochemical methods are to be used, among which the adsorption methods
are most promising.
It was shown by X-ray studies [94] that the adsorption of PVA from water
solutions leads to the increase in first basal reflection of montmorillonite Na- and
Ca-form to the values d001 = 3.00 nm and 1.83 nm, respectively. Thus one can
expect high values of PVA adsorption on montmorillonite. This conclusion was
supported in our adsorption studies [96], see Figure 4. The conditions of
adsorption experiment were as follows: polyvinyl alcohol with molecular mass
a, g/g
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 ( ~
qP
()
0.1 ~-(~
()
'
0.2
0.4
0.6
Co, %
Figure 4. Adsorption isotherms of PVA on Pyzhevsk montmorillonite:

(1) Na-form, (2) Ca-form.
690
M = 63000 and the n u m b e r of acetate groups less t h a n 2.5% was used as an
adsorbate, concentration of adsorbent in the solution was 2.5% mass,
adsorbent/solution contact time was 24 hours. Dispersion pre-processing of
montmorillonite significantly increases its adsorption capacity with respect to
PVA.
The results presented above show that bentonite clays can be used to remove
PVA and accompanying organic substances from industrial waste waters [1].
Sodium bentonites were long been used for the cleaning of vines and beer
[108]. In this process the particles of montmorillonite act both as a d a g u l a n t and
adsorbent. In fact, for pH values below isoelectric point pH i = 4.5-5, protein
macromolecules and their associates are positively charged in water medium, and
efficiently interact with negatively charged sites of montmorillonite particles. The
neutralisation of charges leads to the aggregation of particles and their
sedimentation.
Our data [109] concerning the adsorption of bovine serum albumin with
molecular mass M ~ 65000 on montmorillonite Na-form (Prodaneshti, Moldova)
which possesses cation exchange capacity E = 0 . 9 5 mg-equiv/g show (see
Figure 5) that this adsorbent is characterised by high adsorption capacity with
a, g/g
o
0.8
0.4
C<, g/dm~
Figure 5. Adsorption isotherms of albumin on Prodaneshti montmorillonite: (1) Na-form,

(2) Ca-form and (3) Cherkasy hydromica.
691
respect to dissolved albumin molecules. The conditions of adsorption experiment
were: pH 3.6, temperature 10~
albumin concentration in water solution
c = 0.1-1.8%, solution to adsorbent ratio 100 c m 3 : 1 g, adsorbent/solution contact
time 48 hours.
It follows from X-ray data that the adsorption of albumin macromolecules
takes place in montmorillonite interlayer regions; this results in the increase of
its first basal reflection to d0o1 = 2.3 nm. In addition to serum albumin, the
adsorption of casein, chymotrypsin, lysozyme and ovomucoid also takes place in
Na-montmorillonite interlayer gaps [110]. The thickness of protein layer in
interlayer gaps depends on the type of adsorbed protein, its molecular mass,
concentration and pH value of the solution, and varies within the range
Ad = 0.6-6 nm [110].
These results show that clay minerals can be used as adagulants and
adsorbents for the removal of protein substances from waste waters disposed by
dairy and meat industrial plants [1,111], where the contents of proteins can
amount to 1-7 g/dm ~.
Up to recent time, the main attention at the industrial enterprises of this type
was paid to the extraction of fat from waste waters, and its subsequent
utilisation. Waste waters polluted by proteins in most cases were treated by
biological cleaning process; this have led to unrecoverable loss of proteins which
otherwise could be used as a valuable product for feeding stuff.
We have developed a comprehensive flotation/adsorption technology for the
cleaning of waste water at meat industrial plant. At the first stage the water was
acidified to pH 3.5, and the fats were extracted using the flotation. Then
bentonite or hydromica clay suspension was introduced into water, with total
consumption of clay being not more than 0.5-5.0 g per 1 dm 3 of cleaned water. To
intensify the sedimentation of disperse impurities, up to 5 mg/dm 3 of flocculant
was also introduced into the system. The organomineral sediment separated from
clarified water was dehydrated and sterilised by pressurised heating to
120-130~
This solid sediment, containing 40-50% mass of protein, can be
utilised as an additive to the feeding stuff. This technology was tested in
industrial conditions.
U S E OF N A T U R A L S O R B E N T S FOR WATER P U R I F I C A T I O N FROM

I N O R G A N I C CATIONS
An important feature of layer silicates and natural zeolites, as compared with

ion-exchange resins, is their increased selectivity with respect to large cations
[18,112]. In this section the reasons for such high selectivity of these inorganic
exchangers with respect to Cs Rb K and NH4 ions will be discussed, and the
application of clay minerals and zeolites for specific processes of waste water
purification from large cations will be considered.
692
5.1. S e l e c t i v i t y of layer s i l i c a t e s and zeolites with r e s p e c t to large

a l k a l i - m e t a l ions
Our and literature d a t a on t h e r m o d y n a m i c constants K a of Na exchange for
other alkali metal and a m m o n i u m cations in organic cationite, layer silicate and
zeolites [1,18,112-116] are s u m m a r i s e d in Table 15.
Table 15
T h e r m o d y n a m i c constants K a for exchange of Na ions of various exchangers for
other alkali-metal ions and a m m o n i u m ions
Ka
Exchanger
Sulfonated Polystyrene (Dowex-50)
Kaolinite
Glauconite
Montmorillonite
Palygorskite
Zeolite X
Chabazite
Erionite
Clinoptilolite
Mordenite
Li +
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.20
0.06
0.10
0.20
0.07
K+
1.5
7.8
2.3
3.2
3.2
15.0
8.9
28.2
7.2
NH~
1.3
2.2
10.0
4.0
8.5
4.6
Rb +
1.6
12.3
9.1
9.7
22.4
42.7
30.2
Cs +
1.7
18.2
17.6
31.6
24.4
31.6
68.4
63.1
69.1
51.2
The analysis of the exchange constants for alkali metal ions in a synthetic
cationite h a d shown t h a t the selectivity of this type of ion exchange m a t e r i a l
increases along the series Li < Na < NH 4 < K < Rb < Cs, i.e., corresponding to the
increase of the ion crystallographic radius. The observed sequence of relative
alkali metal ion affinities for the ionite has been a t t r i b u t e d [117] to the
differences in the energy of electrostatic interaction between the counterions and
the ionite matrix, which is inversely proportional to the square of the h y d r a t e d
ion radius. The radii of h y d r a t e d alkali metal ions follow a series t h a t is the
reverse of t h a t for the radii of the u n h y d r a t e d ions. Comparison of the data in
Table 15 shows, however, t h a t the selectivity of certain mineral ion exchange
m a t e r i a l s with respect to K NH~ and Rb ions is 10-25 times higher t h a n t h a t of
organic cationites, and their selectivity with respect to Cs ion is 50 times higher.
Such high affinity of large ions for the surface of zeolites and layer silicates can
no longer be ascribed solely to physicochemical factors, in particular, to
differences in the radii and polarizabilities of the h y d r a t e d ions. The explanation
of these p h e n o m e n a m u s t be sought for in the individual characteristics of
mineral ion-exchange materials, primarily their s t r u c t u r a l characteristics.
693
The data presented in Table 15 show that the constants for the exchange of
NH~, K Rb and Cs ions for Na ions of montmorillonite, kaolinite, glauconite
and palygorskite are similar to those characteristic for the exchange of these ion
pairs in synthetic zeolite X. This is quite natural, since exchanged alkali metal
ions which possess large size, are localised in the pseudohexagonal oxygen voids
in this zeolite and layer silicates [115]. These ions continue to remain partially
embedded in the pseudohexagonal structural voids even in completely waters a t u r a t e d specimens.
The interaction of Rb and especially Cs ions with ion exchanger matrix leads
to the significant changes in its structure, which are ultimately reflected in the
physicochemical characteristics of montmorillonite, in particular, in the increase
+
+
of its external surface to 150-190 m2/g [7,16]. Cations NH 4 , K , Rb and Cs in
general are irreversibly immobilised within the interlayer region of vermiculite
(0.6-1.0 charge units per unit cell), similarly to the m a n n e r in which K ions are
immobilised between the silicate layers of mica (layer charge is 1.0-2.0 units).
High selectivity of chabazite, erionite, clinoptilolite and mordenite with respect
to cations K Rb and Cs is caused by the localisation of these ions in eightmember oxygen rings of zeolites structure [115,116]. Free section dimensions of
eight-member oxygen rings is comparable with the sizes of large alkali metal
cations. The efficient interaction between exchange cations and structural oxygen
atoms of eight-member rings increases the selectivity of these zeolites with
respect to K Rb and Cs cations (Table 15).
Thermodynamic exchange constant K a provides the information about the
mean selectivity of all types of exchange centres which exist in the structure of an
ion exchanger, with respect to the sorbed cation. The most selective ion
exchanger centres may be determined from the analysis of the correction of the
selectivity coefficients K S' at low coverage levels, particularly at N~=0.2.
Corresponding values for Cs+-Na
of zeolites with high silicon contents
are Ks'= 100-150 [116]. These data demonstrate the high selectivity of chabazite,
erionite, clinoptilolite and mordenite with respect to Cs cations. It is interesting
+
to note that the position of NH 4 cation in the selectivity order of n a t u r a l zeolites
with respect to alkali metal cations (Cs > Rb > K > NH 4 > Na > Li) does not agree
with its ionic radius (r = 0.143 nm). However, this case is a clear example that
the exception proves the rule. In contrast to spherically symmetrical alkali metal
ions, NH4 ion exhibits pronounced tetrahedral structure. Being localised in 8member ring, it is involved in an efficient ion-matrix interaction not with six
oxygen atoms, as in the case of Cs Rb or K cations, but with two (for almost
flat rings) or three (for puckered rings) oxygen atoms only. This also leads to the
decrease in the energy of a m m o n i u m ions interaction with the framework, which
results in the decrease in the values of K s' and K a [116]. Calorimetric studies of
ion-exchange equilibria on clinoptilolite involving unicharged cations [118]
confirm this conclusion.
The energies of interaction of the compensating ions with ion exchanger
matrix, and therefore the exchange constants, depend both on the
694
commensurability between the exchange cations and silicon-oxygen structural
rings, and on the charge of the ion exchanger matrix, i.e. on the level of the
AI~+-~ Si 4+ isomorphism. An increase in the charge of the matrix (a decrease in
the SiO2 :A1203 ratio) leads to an increase in the contribution of electrostatic
repulsion between neighbouring cations WAA into the total energy of their
adsorption by ion exchanger. The contribution of WAA is especially significant,
when large size cations Cs Rb K are located in exchange positions, this
results in the decrease in the Cs (Rb, K)-NaZ exchange constants. This effect is
illustrated by Figure 6 reproduced from our study [119].
Ka
\
\
\
\
Q
80
\
\
\3
\
\
\
\
\
\
40
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
0.2
I
0.3
I
0.4
I
0.5
(A1)~
Figure 6. Ka values for Cs - Na-zeolite exchange vs equivalent proportion of aluminium in

zeolite structure (A1)c: (1)erionite, (2)offretite, (3) low charge chabazite, (4)high charge
chabazite.
695
The similarity between the sizes of entering large cations and free section
dimensions of oxygen-silicon rings in which they are localised, also produces
significant effect on both K a and the charge of the matrix. Thus the dependency of
K a o n the ratio SiO 2 : A1203 and (A1)c = NA1/(Nsi + NA1) where NA1 and Nsi are the
numbers of aluminium and silicon atoms in an elementary cell, respectively,
should be analysed only for those zeolites for which the localisation sites are
characterised by similar free section sizes.
Chabazite, offretite and erionite are interesting in this regard. Their structure
contains only 8-member rings (chabazite, erionite) or 8-member rings in
combination with 12-member rings (offretite), which are too large for cations to
be localised within. The minimum sizes of 8-member rings free section for all
these three zeolites are the same. This fact enables one to postulate that for all
these zeolites the structural factor plays a similar role in the determining of K a
value.
Figure 6, which includes also the data on high-charge synthetic chabazite
[120], shows a linear dependency of Cs-NaZ exchange constant on the charge of
zeolite matrix. Thus for natural zeolites a clear relation exists between the level
of isomorphism in the structure and the exchange constant (free energy of
exchange).
It is necessary to take into account the composition of natural exchange
complex of natural zeolites. The crystallisation of zeolites took place under
different geological conditions: some of them were crystallised in the presence of
calcium cations, while o t h e r s - in the presence of sodium and potassium cations.
It was shown [121,122] that sodium sample of low-silicon calcium clinoptilolite in
its natural state reveals a higher selectivity to double-charge cations whose
dimensions are similar to those of Ca 2 ion. On the contrary, sodium sample of
high-silicon, sodium-potassium clinoptilolite in its natural state reveals a higher
selectivity with respect to unicharged cations possessing large size. The
thermodynamic exchange constant for the system Cs-Na-clinoptilolite decreases
from K s = 69-70 (Table 15), the value characteristic for Hector (USA) and Dzegvi
(Georgia) high silicon sodium-potassium clinoptilolite, to K a = 23-25 [118] for
Sokirnitsa (Ukraine) low silicon calcium clinoptilolite. These data show that
natural zeolites possess the property of memory with respect to cations which
took part in their crystallisation, and to cations which possess charge and size
similar to those of ions in initial samples. It is important that high selectivity of
clinoptilolite with respect to large size alkali metal cations in both cases takes
place.
Thus, the sorption of large cations on natural high silicon zeolites, in addition
to thermodynamic selectivity factor, is characterised by a more significant
crystallochemical (geometric) factor, which results from the localisation of these
cations in 8-member structural rings with the dimension of free section being
comparable to the sorbed cation size. This conclusion may be considered as one of
the formulations for the crystallochemical principle of selectivity of natural high
silicon zeolites with respect to large cations.
696
In our earlier publication [115] it was stressed that selective sorption of large
cations in 8-member zeolite structural rings, and the formation of stable
complexes of alkali and alkali-earth metal cations with macrocyclic ligands are
the phenomena of r a t h e r general character. Later [116] we have shown that the
relation exists between the crystallochemical principle of selectivity of mineral
ion exchangers, and the principle of the closest correspondence of the macrocycle
opening to the size of complex-forming metal ion [123].
5.2. Use of z e o l i t e s for the p u r i f i c a t i o n of water from i n o r g a n i c c a t i o n s

High selectivity of natural zeolites with respect to large size ions is used for
the removal of radioactive 137Cs, 9~ and other ions from nuclear wastewaters,
and for the removal of ammonium ions from municipal, industrial and
agricultural effluents. A critical analysis of corresponding methods of treating
these wastewaters was presented in [1,124]. Here the analysis of most interesting
publications concerning the application of natural zeolites for the removal of
inorganic ions from waste waters will be presented.
Ames [125] was the first to demonstrate the ion-exchange specificity of
clinoptilolite for the removal of radioactive caesium and strontium from low-level
waste streams of nuclear installations. This process was extensively studied at
Hanford and several other nuclear-test stations in the United States in the
1960s. Millions of gallons (1 american g a l l o n - 3.78 dm 3) of low-level 137Cs wastes
have been processed through zeolite ion exchangers since that time [124]. The
"saturated" zeolite columns were removed from the system, buried as solid waste,
and replaced with new drums containing fresh clinoptilolite. Similar process was
developed to remove 137Cs from high-level effluents using chabazite-rich ore
[126].
Natural zeolites are capable of extracting species such as 9~
13VCs, 6~
59'63Ni, 45Ca, ~lCr selectively in the presence of high concentrations of competing
ions. Natural zeolites are not only considerably less expensive than organic ionexchange resins; they are much more resistant to nuclear degradation. Due to
their silicate nature, these zeolites also react rapidly in cement or glass systems,
entraining the radioactive species into the final concrete or vitreous products.
Therefore the studies concerning the use of natural zeolites for radioactive waste
waters purification are in progress. Here the works of Robinson et al. [127,128]
are to be especially mentioned, where it was shown that chabazite zeolites (both
natural and synthetic) are the most effective materials for the removing of trace
quantities of Cs and Sr from radioactive waste water. The amount of purified
water is 3 000 000 dm3/year. The use of natural zeolites for the radioactive waste
water t r e a t m e n t have been studied in a number of countries, including Canada,
Great Britain, France, Bulgaria, Mexico, Japan, Germany, Russia, Ukraine [124].
The removal of ammonium ions from municipal, agri-industrial and industrial
waste waters becomes increasingly important at the present time. Not only is
+
NH 4 toxic to fish and other forms of aquatic life; it also contributes greatly to the
rapid growth of algae and leads to the eutrophication of lakes and rivers.
697
Therefore the concentration of ammonium ions in reclaimed water must not
exceed 0.2-0.5 mg/dm 3 [18,129]. House waste water normally contains up to
30 mg/dm 3 of ammonia.
A very promising method of the removal of ammonia from waste water is the
ion exchange using natural zeolite clinoptilolite as the ion exchanger.
Experimental-industrial and industrial testing carried out in the USA [1,124,129]
have shown that the use of this mineral makes it possible to decrease the
ammonium ion content in waste water by 93-97% and to attain the residual
ammonia concentration in water of 0.2-0.5 mg/dm 3.
However, in the development of a technology which employs natural zeolites
for the t r e a t m e n t of municipal waste water and waste water of industrial plants
to remove ammonia nitrogen, in addition to the ion exchange unit it is mandatory
to have an efficient design of the unit used to regenerate exchange filters.
Presently existing methods for the regeneration of spent natural zeolites may
be divided into biological, reagentless and reagent methods. The critical analysis
of these methods was presented in our review [54]. Considering the high acid
resistance of clinoptilolite, we proposed its regeneration with an acid [130]. This
enables the restoration of the sorption capacity of mineral ion exchanger with
respect to ammonium ions (by its conversion to the H-form) and production of a
solution of ammonium fertiliser, for example ammonium nitrate or sulphate, in a
single technological operation.
At Cherkasy (Ukraine) Industrial Association "Azot", the efficiency of the
application of Sokirnitsa clinoptilolite for the t r e a t m e n t of waste water
containing 100-260 mg/dm 3 NH4 with its subsequent regeneration by
2-2.5% H2SO 4 [54], was industrially tested. It was shown that the most efficient
process is the "hungry" (60-70%) regeneration of the spent filter. Here 3 kg-equiv
of H2SO 4 are consumed per l k g - e q u i v of clinoptilolite exchange capacity. In
particular, 60% regeneration of filter containing 10.6 tons of clinoptilolite had
required 66 m 3 of 2.2% H2SO 4 (1462 kg). As a result of the regeneration, 4.91 kgequiv of NH4 was removed from the entire clinoptilolite media. In 11 cycles of
sorption and subsequent regeneration, the dynamic exchange capacity of the
clinoptilolite (DEC of approximately 0.5 kg-equiv/kg) was practically unchanged.
Animal waste waters possess high concentration of ammonium and potassium
ions (up to 350 and 650 mg/dm 3, respectively). A comprehensive technology of
such water t r e a t m e n t at swine complexes was developed [130]. This technology
incorporates both mechanical and biological pre-treatment, the phosphate
precipitation with the aid of calcium hydroxide, and the sorption of potassium
and ammonium cations on clinoptilolite filters. Spent clinoptilolite is mixed with
the phosphates after their neutralisation, and used as a fertiliser for lowproductivity sod-podzol soils of light granulometric composition [54].
At present, n a t u r a l zeolites clinoptilolite and phillipsite are extensively used in
the USA, J a p a n and Italy to remove ammonium ions produced by the vital
activity of fish during its transport or cultivation in special ponds [17,131]. We
will examine this problem with regard to the t r e a t m e n t of water in a closed
698
system for the incubation of trout spawn [132]. According to the specifications,
the concentration in water of NH4 ions, a product of the metabolism of the
spawn, should not exceed 0.4 mg/dm 3. The water should also contain K Mg 2
and Ca 2 with the concentrations not less t h a n 50 mg/dm 3. Since the process of
spawn incubation takes place at 6-10~ and this t e m p e r a t u r e is unfavourable for
biological water processing, the t r e a t m e n t with n a t u r a l clinoptilolite was chosen
as the efficient one. According to the specifications for the concentration of Ca 2
Mg 2 and K in water [28], Sokirnitsa (Ukraine) clinoptilolite whose exchange
complex comprises these ions was used for the treatment. From the rate of NH4
production in a system with volume of 80 dm 3 of water containing 6 000 trout
spawns (3 mg of NH4 per hour), MPC(NH4 = 0.4 mg/dm 3, the size of the zeolite
filter was estimated and optimal conditions of its operation were determined with
the consideration of the dynamic exchange capacity of clinoptilolite.
5.3. U s e of n a t u r a l s o r b e n t s as d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n a g e n t s for t h e
e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e a c c i d e n t at C h o r n o b y l
nuclear power plant
High selectivity of clinoptilolite with respect to radioactive isotopes 137Cs, 9~
etc., was used by us to develop in 1986 the technology of the drinking water
purification from the radioactive contamination [133]. The technology includes
the t r e a t m e n t of water by powdered clinoptilolite at pH 9.5-9.8, followed by the
processing with aluminium sulphate. After the precipitation of dispersed
impurities in the clarifiers, subsequent tertiary t r e a t m e n t of water was
performed by means of filtration through the 2.0 m thick layer of clinoptilolite
with graininess 1-3 mm. It was shown by special experiments t h a t this
purification method ensured the reduction in water radioactivity from 10 .7 to
3.10 .9 Ci/dm 3. The advantage of this scheme was in the fact t h a t it could be
implemented at the existing equipment of the Dnipro water supply station.
Since the impermeable "wall in soil" was constructed around the Chornobyl
nuclear power plant, the problem had arisen of the purification of drainage
waters prior to their discharge into the Prypiat' river. To perform this
purification, the process was recommended which employed the filters with
clinoptilolite tuff medium. The graininess of clinoptilolite was 2-3 mm, filtrating
layer height 2 m, filtration linear rate 2 m/h; 15-20 mm crushed stone served as a
bed-layer. Initial water radioactivity being 106-10 .7 Ci/dm 3, the purification
degree amounted to 70-80%, and the service life of the filters was one year. The
degrees of water purification with respect to various radionuclides, ensured by
the filtration, were as follows: 95% for 137Cs, 80% for 9~
50-60% for
radionuclides of heavy elements, 15-20% for l~
The filters were designed in
such a way t h a t the worked-out sorbent could be discharged; the resulting waste
material which possessed the radioactivity level of 10 .5 Ci/kg was buried. Water
t r e a t m e n t by powdered clinoptilolite and brown or porous coal, as well as the
clearing with the help of coagulants and flocculants were recommended, in order
to achieve higher purification degree.
699
Clay minerals were also extensively used for the decontamination of clothes,
machinery and building materials. When formulating the problem, we have
proceeded from the fact that the methods developed before 1986 were essentially
relied on the use of surfactants, and could not ensure the decontamination
required by safety norms. When standard method was applied to process the
machinery and building materials, a serious problem of the decontamination of
waste waters in large quantities had arisen. Therefore an essentially new
sorption-adhesion method employing clay materials was proposed for the
decontamination of clothes, machinery and building materials.
Clay particles in an aqueous phase carry electrical charges of both signs. Due
to this property, clays act as universal adagulants and can efficiently bound
radioactive dispersed particles. Clay minerals possess particularly pronounced
cation exchange properties, and display increased selectivity with respect to
caesium, strontium and barium ions. This selectivity can be significantly
enhanced by introducing special complexing additives into the system [134,135].
Thus, the application of clays as decontamination agents makes it possible to
remove radionuclides in both dispersed and ion-soluble state from the
contaminated surface.
Clay minerals are high-disperse substances with developed external surface
[1,7]. This property, their high wettability and the trend of particles to form a
coagulation structure in aqueous media ensure high adhesive-enveloping
properties of aqueous dispersions. At the same time, high wettability of clay
particles facilitates the washing of the aggregates which they form with
radioactive particles and radionuclide ions by a water jet from contaminated
surface.
In our work [133], montmorillonite and palygorskite from Dashukovka
(Cherkasy province) deposit were used in the form of aqueous pastes (12-15%)
and suspensions (2-7%). Clothes were treated with the 2% montmorillonite
suspension at 10-12~ during 1 min with permanent stirring in a special washing
machine, and then rinsed twice with water at 15-20~ Building materials and
tractor machinery were treated with the pressure-feeded jet of 5-7% clay
suspension or by clay paste (palygorskite and its mixture with montmorillonite).
A paste was applied to the contaminated surface, held for 0.5-1 h and washed
away by a water jet. Initial and final contamination levels of clothes, machinery
and building materials were measured using the detectors DP-5V and RAM-63 at
specially furnished sites or in premises where the radioactive background was
below 0.03-0.1 mR/h. It is seen from Table 16, which summarises residual
contamination levels and decontamination coefficients K d for the proposed
t r e a t m e n t and those obtained using standard SAS solutions, that the use of
suspensions and pastes is preferable to traditional decontamination methods.
The application of this technology had provided a quite simple solution to the
problem of waste water decontamination. Radioactive pollution was concentrated
within clay slime, which could be easily precipitated from water; to accelerate the
precipitation process, polyacrylamide was added (2.5-3.0 mg/dm3). The slime was
700
buried, while clarified water was subjected to tertiary purification
clinoptilolite filters, and then discharged for subsequent natural filtration.
using
Table 16
Decontamination efficiency of standard SAS-containing solutions as compared
with clay dispersions and pastes
Initial
Processed items
Uniform and
working clothes
Lorries and
bulldozers
Concrete slabs,
bricks, roofing
slate, etc.
contamination
level, mR/h
1.2
1.7
2.9
2.0-2.5
8.0-10
50-70
100-200
300-400
6.0-8.0
80-100
200-250
Standard SAS solutions

Residual
level, mR/h Kd
0.23
0.42
0.44
1.5-2.0
4.0-6.0
25-40
15-20
30-40
2.0-4.0
2.5-3.5
3.5-8.0
4.3
4.0
6.6
1.3-1.2
2.0-1.7
2.0-2.5
6.0-10
10
3.0-2.0
32-30
57-31
Clay suspensions and pastes

Residual
level, mR/h Kd
0.10
0.07
0.09
0.2-0.3
0.5-0.6
5.0-8.0
3.0-5.0
6.0-8.0
0.7-1.5
0.7-1.5
1.5-2.5
12.0
24.3
25.6
10-3.3
16-10
10-8.0
33-40
50
8.6-5.3
114-66
130-100
To summarise, the comprehensive application of clay minerals in the works

concerned with the elimination of the consequences of Chornobyl nuclear
accident, involving their properties as sorbents, ion exchange agents, adagulants
and filtering materials, was proved to be extremely efficient.
6. A P P L I C A T I O N OF A D S O R P T I O N - A C T I V E M A T E R I A L S B A S E D ON
N A T U R A L S O R B E N T S IN T H E P R O C E S S E S OF W A T E R
PURIFICATION
Extensive studies are performed recently concerned with the development of
materials based on natural adsorbents. Sometimes the heat t r e a t m e n t or the
substitution of natural exchange complex by other simple inorganic cation is
quite sufficient to achieve the required improvement of the physicochemical and
technical characteristics of materials based on natural disperse minerals. In the
first case the structure of the mineral is changed predominantly (geometric
modification); in the second case, the exchange complex is changed (ion-exchange
modification). However, the improvement of natural minerals often involves
several steps, leading to significant changes both in their structure and surface
chemistry; in this way semisynthetic sorbents, a new class of sorption-active
materials, are obtained. As defined in [136], semisynthetic sorbents are the
701
composite materials prepared from natural minerals via their chemisorption
modification by organic and inorganic compounds, deposition of simple or
complex oxides or other treatment, resulting in the formation of sorbents whose
surface and porous structure differ from those characteristic for the original
mineral, and combining the useful properties of natural and synthetic sorbents.
In our recent publication [137], physicochemical principles underlying the
production of new materials (sorbents, supports, catalysts, filtering powders,
fillers for polymeric media) based on natural minerals are examined. In this
section we consider the problems related to the preparation of new materials
applicable for water purification, by simple or more complicated chemical
t r e a t m e n t of natural minerals.
6.1. M o d i f i c a t i o n by a l u m i n i u m and iron salts
In order to impart to natural sorbents the ability to adsorb organic and
inorganic anions, these sorbents should be modified. This modification should
preferably be performed using the substances and apparatuses which are
themselves applied in the water t r e a t m e n t technology. From this point of view, it
is desirable to modify the sorbents by aluminium sulphate, because A13 ions and
the products of their hydrolysis are strongly adsorbed by natural dispersed
minerals, leading to the change of particle surface charge in water from negative
to positive [71]. Perlite and bentonite modified by aluminium salts adsorb anionic
SAS and dyestuffs from water rather efficiently [78,138].
In the technology of drinking water conditioning it is very important to remove
fluorine ions from the water, because the increased (> 1 mg/dm 3) content of these
ions causes various diseases [62]. In Ukraine some water sources (especially
underground) contain 2-9 mg/dm 3 of fluorine ions; a number of water sources in
the USA, Italy, Spain and England are also polluted with excessive amount of
fluorine.
All existing methods of removing fluorine-ions from water [62] have some
disadvantages. The most promising method is the use of crushed clinoptilolite
premodified by aluminium sulphate, acting as a specific absorbent of fluorine
ions [56,139]. The testing of this method was performed with artesian water in
Lubny town (Ukraine). The filter with clinoptilolite medium was employed,
composed of granules 1-3 mm in size; filtering layer was 2 m thick. The
modification of clinoptilolite was performed using 0.5% aluminium sulphate
solution passed through the layer at a rate of 10 m/h for 1.0-1.5 h. The excessive
amount of modifier was then washed out of the granulated medium with initial
fluorine-containing water; this washing was terminated when the concentration
of aluminium in the filtrate decreased to 0.5 mg/dm 3. The rinse water was
collected in a special tank. At the final stage of filtering cycle, when the content of
fluorine-ions in the filtrate had increased to 1.0-1.2 mg/dm 3, the rinse water was
mixed with the initial water in a proportion (~ 1:14) which corresponded to
aluminium concentration in the water supplied to the filters of ~ 1 mg/dm 3. This
resulted in a considerable increase of the filter cycle.
702
At the filtration rate 5 m/h, approximately after 32 h of the filter operation,
when the concentration of fluorine ions in the treated water increased to 1.01.1 mg/dm 3 (Table 17), the filter was switched over to the regeneration with
aluminium sulphate, while the defluorination of water was performed by another
filter, connected in parallel. The mean specific capacity of modified clinoptilolite
is 500 mg/dm 3.
Table 17
Concentration (C) of fluorine in initial water and filtrate when providing water
defluoration using clinoptilolite modified by aluminium sulphate
Filter operating time, h
1
9
10
14
18
24
32
C, mg/dm 3
Initial water
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.1
2.2
2.4
2.1
Filtrate
0
0
0.15
0.5
0.8
0.7
1.1
There exist several mechanisms of fluorine ion absorption: anion exchange,

formation of alumofluorine complexes and molecular adsorption of fluorine salts.
These problems are discussed in more detail in [139].
The inversion of mineral particle charge from negative to positive means that
strong sorption of hydroxo cations of aluminium takes place. This leads to the
fact that it is not A13 ions which act as counterions, but r a t h e r the hydroxyl
groups of the hydroxo cations: i.e. the minerals acquire the ability for the anion
exchange. The use of clinoptilolite modified by aluminium sulphate in the process
of defluoration of natural waters is based on this ability.
Studies of the interaction of aluminium and iron hydroxides or oxyhydroxides
with clay minerals had shown that when a few percent of oxide is added to the
clay, surface properties of the clay are controlled by the oxides. The amount of
polycation required to produce the charge inversion is small.
The results presented in [140] show clearly that A1 polycations are much more
efficient in the blocking of negative charge than Fe polycations. It was supposed
that this blockage is due not only to the higher charge of A1 polycations (z = 0.49
per gram-atom) as compared with Fe(III) polycations (z - 0.2 per gram-atom), but
also to their shape. The spherical shape of Fe polycations limits the blocking of
negative sites on the clay surface. On the contrary, planar A1 polycations cover a
larger area, thus neutralising and blocking greater number of negative sites.
These polycations can also occupy interlayer space of montmorillonite (see below).
703
However, the sorption of A1 polycations does not lead to the changes in the
surface area of clay minerals with the rigid s t r u c t u r e - kaolinite, hydromica. On
the other hand, the surface area of the kaolinite increases significantly (from 7.7
to 36.0 m2/g) when Fe polycations are added. This can possibly be ascribed to the
'porosity' of clusters formed by Fe polycations.
The developed surface of kaolinite and hydromica clays modified by iron (III)
salts, and more pronounced complexing properties of Fe 3 ions as compared with
A13 ions, makes these sorbents promising for water t r e a t m e n t applications. For
example, clays with Fe (III) polycations in the exchange complex are good
adsorbents for the removal of anionic dyestuffs and non-ionic surfactants from
water [2,137].
A remarkable success in the adsorption science was the development of
methods for the preparation of semisynthetic microporous sorbents based on
layer silicates with an expanded structural cell and basic salts of aluminium,
titanium, chromium, etc., the synthesis of so-called pillared clays or pillared
interlayer clay sorbents (PILC sorbents). Data were first presented in [141]
concerning the sharp increase in the accessible surface and the formation of a
thermostable material with open slit-like pores of width ~ ~ 0.8 nm as the result
of the implantation of basic aluminium cations into the interlayer spaces of
beidellite. In the former Soviet Union, a semisynthetic microporous sorbent based
on montmorillonite and basic aluminium salt was obtained for the first time at
our Institute [142].
Dozens of papers and patents have been published, dealing with the methods
of preparation of PILC sorbents, studies of their properties and their practical
application; some of these results are summarised in publications [143-145]. The
data extracted from these papers, and also from [146], concerning the specific
surface and effective pore radii in PILC sorbents, as compared with
aluminosilicate catalysts possessing 13% A1203 produced by Davison Chemical
Company (USA) are presented in Tables 18 and 19. It is seen that the sorbents
obtained are generally microporous materials.
Table 18
Thickness of interlayer spacing Ad and specific surface area S determined from
nitrogen adsorption in PILC sorbents based on montmorillonite
Interlayer oligomer
Ad, nm
S, m2/g
[A1,304( ~ H)24] 7+
0.91
400
SisO12(OH)s
0.96
300
[Zr4(O H) ~Clx](~x)+
0.121
290
[TiO(OH)z] x
0.156
300
[Cr2,4(OAc)0,4(O H) 5,s]+
0.71
300
704
Table 19
Effective pore radius r and specific surface area S determined from nitrogen
adsorption by All,~ - PILC sorbents and aluminosilica gel
S, m2/g
r, nm
A l i a - PILC
30
5 - 30
1- 5
<1
Total
1
4
109
362
476
Aluminosilica gel
0
7
568
0
575
Microporous sorbents based on montmorillonite and basic aluminium salts are

most widely used. They have been prepared by the substitution of interlayer Na
or Ca 2 cations of the initial mineral by oligomeric cations with composition
varying from [A11304(OH)24(H20)12] 7+ to [AI1304(OH)30(H20)6] + [147]. Among
these, the [All~O4(OH)2s(H20)s] ~+ cation is considered to be the most stable one in
aqueous solution within pH range 3.7-4.3 and OH :A1 mole ratio range
n = 1.2-2.3 [148]. Oligomeric A1132cations occupy about half of the internal surface
of montmorillonite (S~ 7 5 0 m / g ) , making the remaining half of surface
accessible for adsorption and catalysis. The advantages of the PILC-sorbents as
compared with synthetic zeolites are their more opened porosity, which improves
kinetics of the sorption and catalytic processes, and their relative cheapness,
which is no less important for their application in water t r e a t m e n t processes. In
what regards the water purification process, it is important that the mesopores
also exist in the structure of (All3)-montmorillonite, with radius r = 1.65 nm
[142].
The data obtained earlier [2,142] and presented in Table 20 clearly indicate
that, when passing from the initial sodium to Al~3-montmorillonite, the
hydrophility coefficient ~ sharply decreases, though certainly does not achieve
the value characteristic for hydrophobic zeolites of ZSM-5 type, possessing
SiO 2 :A1203 ratio 83 [149].
Table 20
Volume V of water (1) and hexane (2) adsorbed on the minerals at different
relative pressure P/P~; hydrophility coefficient ~ of the minerals
V, cm3/g, at P/Po
Mineral
0.2
0.4
0.8
1
2
1
2
1
2
~ - V1/V~
Na-Montmorillonite
0.034
0.015
0.092
0.019
0.253 0.032
7.91
A113-Montmorillonite
0.114
0.115
0.148 0.122
0.233 0.141
1.65
ZSM-5
0.037
0.186
0.048
0.186 0.080 0.212
0.38
705
In general, pure PILC-sorbents are hydrophilic materials. However, the
presence of hydrophobic sites and co-ordination-unsaturated A13 atoms
belonging to All3 clusters creates favourable conditions for the sorption of a
number of organic substances on these materials. For example, in [150] a
selective sorption of dioxins by All~-Sorbents was reported. Molecules of smaller
size, like phenol, are sorbed on PILC-sorbents from water less selectively as
compared to their sorption by activated carbon [151,152], there exist, however,
the methods capable for increasing the sorption capacity of these materials. One
such method is an additional hydrophobization of the PILC-sorbents with
long-chain cetylpyridinium cations [153].
Semisynthetic sorbents which possess a rather developed positive charged
mesopore surface, adsorb large molecules of anionic dyestuffs much better than
activated carbon does [154]. There exist efficient methods to increase the
external, readily accessible surface of the PILC-sorbents [155]. Therefore, these
materials may find their application in complex water treatment, for the removal
of organic substances possessing different molecular masses.
6.2. P r e p a r a t i o n of c l i n o p t i l o l i t e m o d i f i e d by m a n g a n e s e d i o x i d e and its

a p p l i c a t i o n for the r e m o v a l of iron and m a n g a n e s e ions f r o m
artesian water
Underground water specific to some regions of Ukraine, USA and other countries contains an increased amount of Fe(II) ions (up to 20 mg/dm 3) and Mn(II)
ions (up to 3 mg/dm ~) [45,47]. Health standards approved in Ukraine require
much lower content of these ions, 0.3 mg/dm 3 and 0.1 mg/dm 3, respectively. While
Fe(II) ions can be removed from artesian water quite successfully using the
aeration at the filters with grained filtering material [155], the existing methods
for the removal of Mn(II) ions [45,155] are rather inefficient. Therefore it is
necessary to develop special filtering materials which act simultaneously as the
catalyst for Mn(II) ions oxidation, and the oxidant itself. The method for the
formation of manganese dioxide film on the natural clinoptilolite tuff grains and
the application of this material for the removal of residual iron ions and
practically all manganese (II) ions from artesian water were presented in
[156,157].
The 1-3 mm fraction of zeolite tuff (Sokirnitsa deposit, Ukraine) containing
ca. 60-70% of rock-forming mineral (cation exchange capacity 1.29 mg-equiv/g)
was used in the studies.
To form the catalyst-oxidant MnO 2 film on the filtering material surface we
had processed the clinoptilolite tuff grains with the solution of manganese nitrate
salt; next the Mn(II) introduced into the zeolite by ion exchange was oxidised by
potassium permanganate. To determine maximum amount of the MnO 2 film
bonded tightly to the surface of the grains, samples with different quantity of
Mn(II) introduced into the exchange complex (0.02 to 0.16 mg-equiv/g) were
treated by 0.5% KMnO 4 solution in the presence of 1% NaC1 solution, and then
706
the excess of potassium p e r m a n g a n a t e and MnO 2 unbounded to the grain surface
was washed out and evaluated.
To evaluate the a m o u n t of m a n g a n e s e dioxide bonded tightly to the zeolite, the
MnO 2 film was removed from the clinoptilolite surface in course of the t r e a t m e n t
by the mixture of sulphuric acid and sodium sulphite Na2SO 3, and subsequent
processing by KNO 3 solution; then the q u a n t i t y sought for was calculated from
the content of Mn(II) ions in the resulting solution.
The methods of preparation and application of modified clinoptilolite were
tested both in laboratory and industrial regimes. The laboratory studies were
performed in dynamic conditions using the model water which possessed no iron,
but contained 2.44 mg/dm 3 of Mn(II), 2 mg-equiv/dm 3 of Ca(II) and
2.5 mg-equiv/dm 3 of Na at pH 8.1. Glass column 10 m m in d i a m e t e r and
200 m m high was employed; the feed flow linear rate of cleaned w a t e r was 2 m/h.
For the industrial testing actual a r t e s i a n water of Beregove region
( T r a n s c a r p a t h i a n Ukraine) was used, with the characteristics listed in Table 21.
Almost all iron was preliminary removed from water by usual clinoptilolite filter
with the aeration, which decreased the iron content in water from 4.8-7.0 mg/dm 3
to 0.5-0.05 mg/dm 3. To remove Mn(II) ions from water, the pilot plant equipped
with a filter, 65 m m in diameter and 2 m load height was employed; feed flow
rate was from 6 to 7 m/h. The weight of the filtering material was 6.6 kg, m e a n
d i a m e t e r of loaded grains was from 1 to 3 mm.
Table 21
Quality p a r a m e t e r s of a r t e s i a n w a t e r prior to cleaning
Fe (total)
Fe(III)
Mn
Hardness
Alkalinity
Chlorides
Sulphates
4.8 - 7.2 mg/dm ~

0.15 - 0.20 mg/dm ~
1.1 - 1.4 mg/dm 3
2.4 mg-equiv/g
2.4 mg-equiv/g
14.0 mg/dm 3
7 mg/dm 3
Ammonia
Nitrates
Nitrites
SiO3 -2
Oxidizability
(permanganate)
pH
0.2 mg/dm 3
not detected
traces
15.5 mg/dm 3
1.44 mg 0 2 / d m 3
6.9- 7.1
It was shown by special preliminary experiments t h a t to ensure the acceptable

quality of modified clinoptilolite the a m o u n t of Mn 2 ions introduced into its
exchange complex should not exceed 0.15 mg-equiv/g; these ions are adsorbed
mainly at external surface of zeolite grains. To accomplish this, clinoptilolite was
processed by 1 % solution of Mn(N03)2; the a m o u n t of the solution used was
0.7 dm 3 per 1 kg of zeolite. To prepare Mn02.Cli, 0.3 % solution of Z M n O 4 was
t r a n s u d e d through the layer of Mn-Cli grains at the rate of 2 m/h; the
consumption of the solution was 1.1-1.2 dm ~ per 1 kg of zeolite.
In the process of oxidation of adsorbed bicharged m a n g a n e s e by ZMn04, the
formation of both tightly bonded and weakly bonded (physisorbed, i.e., removed
707
easily from the zeolite grains surface) manganese dioxide takes place at the
surface of zeolite grains. The quantitative analysis of Mn (II) had shown that the
amount of tightly bonded MnO2 was 0.4% by mass, see Figure 7. Mass portion of
physisorbed MnO2 increases sharply when the amount (e) of Mn (II) introduced
into the natural zeolite exchange complex exceeds 0.05 mg-equiv/g. For
e = 0.15 mg-equiv/g, the amount of weakly bonded MnO2 was 0.1% by mass.
External surface area of clinoptilolite grains was ca. 20 m2/g; the quantity of
exchange cations at this surface was 0.08 mg-equiv/g. This leads to the conclusion
that manganese dioxide is chemisorbed at external surface of zeolite grains only.
ach, %
a,h, %
05
0.10
0.4
0.08
0.3
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.2
"~
,...
0.1
I
0.05
0.10
0.15
e, mequiv/g
Figure 7. Dependence of the amount of (ach) chemisorbed and (aph) physisorbed MnO2 on
Mn(II) amount introduced into clinoptilolite exchange complex.
It can be supposed that oxygen atoms which belong to broken - S i - O- bonds

existing at external clinoptilolite surface, are comprised into the structure of
MnO 2 surface microclusters.
Table 22 illustrates rather high performance of the removal of Mn(II) ions from
artesian water using modified clinoptilolite. The MnO 2 film bonded tightly to the
grains acts both as the catalyst for Mn(II) oxidation by oxygen, and as the
efficient oxidant. Both factors lead to the transfer of dissolved Mn(II) ions into
insoluble compounds of Mn(III) and Mn(IV). Active MnO2 deposed at the surface
of clinoptilolite forms an intermediate complex MnO 2. 02 with oxygen dissolved in
water. Thus the oxidation process can be schematically presented by following
chemical reaction:
708
(5)
Mn(IV)O2 + Mn(II) --> Mn(III) + Mn(IV)
Oxidation properties of oxygen are due to the destruction of O - O bond in

i n t e r m e d i a t e complex. The deposed m a n g a n e s e dioxide acts also as oxidant,
transferring Mn(II) ions to insoluble m a n g a n e s e oxide:
Mn 2 + 3MnO2. Cli -~ 2Mn20 a 9 Cli
(6)
Table 22
Results of pilot studies for deironing and d e m a n g a n a t i o n of w a t e r using modified
zeolite
Mn 2 mg/dm 3
Fe (total), mg/dm 3
Filtration
time,
h
1
24
48
97
121
142
162
168
Filtrate after
Initial deironing on
water
4.9
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.0
5.2
5.1
5.0
natural
zeolite
0.22
0.17
0.3
0.19
0.12
0.45
0.28
0.25
Filtrate after
deironing on Initial
modified
water
zeolite
0.02
traces
traces
traces
traces
0.03
0.13
0.25
1.25
1.16
1.34
1.37
1.18
1.42
1.44
1.42
Filtrate after
Filtrate after
1st deironing demanganation
on modified
stage
zeolite
1.05
1.06
1.21
1.22
1.12
1.37
1.38
1.35
n/d
n/d
n/d
n/d
n/d
0.02
0.05
0.10
n/d- not detected
It was shown by pilot experiments t h a t 1 kg of modified clinoptilolite is

sufficient to clean 600-700 dm 3 of a r t e s i a n w a t e r without regeneration. The
activity of the worked-off filtering m a t e r i a l with respect to Mn (II) can be
completely restored by its regeneration with weak potassium p e r m a n g a n a t e
solution. The consumption of 0.1% Z M n O 4 solution for the regeneration of
catalytic and oxidising ability of 1 kg of modified clinoptilolite was 0.7-0.9 dm a,
linear regeneration rate was 2 m/h, wash water consumption was 1.0-1.5 dm 3 per
1 kg of r e g e n e r a t e d material. Thus, modified clinoptilolite with high disperse
m a n g a n e s e dioxide bonded tightly to the grains surface was shown to be
efficiently used for the removal of residual iron ions and complete d e m a n g a n a t i o n
of a r t e s i a n w a t e r during a r a t h e r long time.
6.3. M o d i f i c a t i o n of m i n e r a l s o r b e n t s by p o l y p h o s p h a t e s
It is known t h a t polyphosphates possess high complexing properties with
respect to heavy metal ions; for example, the stability constants of complexes
709
formed by Co 2+, Ni z+, Cu 2+ and Zn z+ ions with polyphosphates are 107-101~ [158].
One can expect t h a t mineral sorbents modified by polyphosphates will exhibit the
selectivity with respect to heavy metal ions.
We have developed the sorbents used for the removal of heavy metal ions from
water on the basis of alumina, kaolinite and metakaolinite, this latter material is
the product of the t h e r m a l t r e a t m e n t of kaolinite at 600~
[159]. The
polyphosphate adsorbs tightly on positively charged sites at the surface of these
minerals [160].
Kaolinite from Glukhov deposit (specific surface S ~ 70 m2/g) was used as the
substrate of complexing sorbents with grafted polyphosphates. Its adsorption
capacity at tripolyphosphate is 28mg/g; however, the adsorption from
concentrated solutions of phosphates can amount to 200 mg/g or more, due to the
polyeondensation reaction in which sorbed phosphate ions interact with nonsorbed ones [159].
Figure 8 shows Ni 2+ and Co z+ sorption isotherms and distribution coefficients
for Glukhov kaolinite modified by sodium tripolyphosphate. A steep rise of the
isotherms indicates t h a t the sorbent possesses a high selectivity with respect to
pH
lgK,,
a, mg/g
500
40O
300
2O0
100 I
I
50
1O0
150
200
C~, mg/dm~
Figure 8. Adsorption isotherms a (Ce) and distribution coefficient Kd(pH) dependencies for
(1) Co 2 and (2) Ni 2 ions on kaolinite modified by sodium tripolyphosphate.
710
these ions. The values of distribution coefficients K d calculated for the Henry
region at pH 6 were approximately 105 cm3/g, which correspond to the values
characteristic to chelate synthetic sorbents.
The selectivity decreases with the increase of acidity, see Figure 8. It can be
thus concluded that the regeneration of phosphate complexing sorbent is
possible. In fact, the washing of the sorbent with acid at pH 2 results in the
desorption of virtually all cations which were previously adsorbed.
The composition of (Me) : (P207) 4 complexes was shown to be 1 : 2 from the
analysis of diffusion reflection spectra of the complexing sorbent with sorbed Ni 2
and Cr 3+ ions [159].
Non-swelling kaolinite prepared by the granulation with oxynitrates and
modified by tripolyphosphate was used for the purification of wastewater of
galvanic plating section at Kievpribor electrical devices factory. The
characteristics of wastewater were: pH 5.5-5.8, Ni 2 concentration 200 mg/dm 3,
the admixtures present: Na2SO 4, NaC1, H3BO 3 and formaldehyde. Static
adsorption regime was used.
The contact of 1 dm 3 of the wastewater with 5 g of the adsorbent resulted in
the decrease of Ni 2 concentration in water to 0.5 mg/dm 3. It can be concluded
that complexing sorbents based on layer silicates and alumina modified by
condensed phosphates can be used in fine purification of waters with respect to
heavy metal ions.
6.4. D e v e l o p m e n t of oil-adsorbing materials and their application for
the removal of oil and petroleum-containing pollutants from water

Oil and petroleum-containing products are among the most common water
pollutants. To clean the water, a number of physicochemical methods is used:
coagulation,
flotation,
filtration
and
adsorption.
Application
of
filtration/adsorption methods for the removal of oil and petroleum products
requires the development of new efficient materials. In this contribution the
results are presented of the studies concerned with the preparation of
hydrophobized bloated perlite, surface-porous adsorbent based on this bloated
perlite, and coal-mineral adsorbents, and their application for the cleaning of
water.
6.4.1. Hydrophobized bloated perlite
Bloated perlite (0.10-0.35 mm fraction) which is used in the construction
industry was taken as the initial material for the preparation of hydrophobized
bloated perlite. This material was modified by water solutions (2-5 %) of sodium
ethylsiliconate,
sodium
methylsiliconate,
or
water
emulsions
of
polyethylhydrosilicone and polymethylhydrosilicone, with the concentration of
2-5 % with respect to the organic substance. The main reaction which takes place
during the modification by polyalkylhydrosilicone is the interaction of hydride
groups of the hydrophobizer with hydroxyl groups of the perlite surface:
711
R
-O-Si-H+HO-Si-
-O-Si-O-Si=
+ H2
(7)
Oligomeric organosilicones inoculated to the surface of perlite and other silica

materials via the reaction-capable hydride and hydroxyl groups undergo the
polycondensation process transforming into continuous polymeric film. This
process of surface polycondensation can be enhanced by the temperature increase
to 200-250~
The mechanism of chemisorptional inoculation of organosilicone
modifiers to the silica materials is described in more details in [1,161].
We have studied the modification of a model a d s o r b e n t - geometrically
homogeneous macroporous Silochrom with mean pore radius r = 57 nm [162], by
polymethylhydride silicone, R3Si(OSiRH)nOSiR 3 (where R = C H 3, n = 10-15).
Modification of the initial Silochrom was performed by the application of an
optimum amount (2.5 mg/m 2) of the modifying substance from a 1% solution in
toluene and subsequent thermal fixation of the modifying layer in a vacuum
(1.3 N/m 2) over 2 h at 230-250~
Values of the specific surface area SAr,
determined from low-temperature argon desorption were found to be 44 m2/g and
33 m2/g for the initial and modified silica, respectively.
The physicochemical characteristics of the initial and modified Silochrom are
presented in Table 23. The decrease in the specific surface area from 44 m2/g to
33 m2/g is due to a 'sealing-up' of the smaller pores with the modifying agent. It
should be noted that the modified sample was hydrophobic: hence, the BET
capacity of the arbitrary monolayer of adsorbed water, am, had decreased more
than 10-times with respect to the initial sample, while the molecular area of the
adsorbed water molecule, coil2o, had correspondingly increased and become equal
to 3.04 nm 2. The specific heat of wetting of the modified Silochrom by water, q,
had decreased to a value of 36 mJ/m 2, which is characteristic of graphitized
carbon black [163]. An indication of the strong surface hydrophobization arising
from polymethylhydride silicone processing is provided by the increase in the
contact angle (0 = 95 ~ for the modified quartz as compared to 0 = 5 ~ for the nonmodified form). This value of the contact angle agrees well with the results
obtained by Trau et al. [164] for quartz modified by the adsorption of various
organosilicone substances from their solutions in hexane (0 = 82-96~
Table 23
Physicochemical characteristics of initial and modified Silochrom
Silochrom
342r,
m/g
am, mmol/g
n _ C 6 H 1 4 H20
C0H2~,
nm
q,
mJ/m 2
Initial
Modified
44
33
0.133
0.060
0.208
3.04
250
36
0.185
0.118
0,
degree
5
95
712
For the preparation of hydrophobized perlite the pilot plant was constructed
and tested jointly by Institute of Colloid Chemistry and Chemistry of Water and
Kyiv Polytechnic Institute [1]. The performance of this plant was 30 m3/day. The
operation of this plant is based on the impregnation of bloated perlite with the
hydrophobizer solution in the hydrophobizing column followed by the drying in
the air-fountain dryer using the products of natural gas combustion at
temperature of 200-250~ At present two industrial plants for the preparation of
hydrophobized perlite operate in Ukraine.
The data presented in Table 24 show that the hydrophobization of perlite
results in the formation of water repulsive substance (contact angle of the
hydrophobic material with respect to the wetting by water is 95 ~ possessing the
increased capacity with respect to oil.
Table 24
Comparative physicochemical and technological properties of initial and
polymethylhydride silicone modified bloated perlite
Property
Initial
Bulk density, kg/m 3

40- 250
170- 180
Water adsorbance per 24 hours, mass %
Specific surface:
0.7
with respect to nitrogen, m2/g
10
with respect to water, m2/g
0.01
Limiting adsorption volume with respect to benzene, cm~/g
5
Contact wetting angle, degrees
0.5- 2
Oil absorption capacity, g(oil)/g(adsorbent)
Sinks
Buoyancy in water
Modified
40- 250
10- 20
1.0
7
0.07
95
6.0- 7.5
Floats on
the surface
An important technological property of hydrophobized perlite is its buoyancy

even when it is saturated with oil and petroleum products. This property is
extensively used for the elimination of accidental petroleum discharges in water
reservoirs. The systems are designed for the application of the adsorbent on oil
slick and its collection together with bounded oil using special collecting ship.
These developments are summarised in [165].
The specific feature of this adsorbent, its buoyancy in water, is used to
enhance the flotational cleaning of waste waters containing petroleum products
[166]. This method is based on the introduction of hydrophobic perlite (particle
size 0.15-1.2 mm) in the stream of dispersed air into the flotation apparatus. The
adsorbent particles together with air bubbles come up to the surface trapping the
oil droplets. This leads to the increase of separation efficiency for oil-in-water
emulsions as compared to traditional flotation method.
713
Hydrophobized perlite is employed also as the filtering material for precoat
filters used for the removal of oil from technological water at nuclear power
stations [167]. For the filtration rate of 2.8 m/h the dynamic oil capacity of
modified perlite was found to be 0.2 g per 1 g of the adsorbent. This is 4 to 5
times higher t h a n the oil capacity of filter-perlite used in nuclear energetic.
Therefore the application of hydrophobic perlite results in threefold increase of
the filtering cycle and corresponding decrease of the amount of worked out
radioactive slurry to be buried; in addition, the residual concentration of oil in
water decreases from 1.0-0.7 to 0.3-0.5 mg/dm 3.
6.4.2. S u r f a c e - p o r o u s a d s o r b e n t b a s e d on h y d r o p h o b i c b l o a t e d perlite
To increase the performance of the removal of oil products from water the
method for the preparation of surface-porous adsorbent based on perlite modified
by polymethylhydride silicone [168]. The essence of the method is the
thermooxidation of the modifying layer at 320-350~
This thermoprocessing
results in the removal of methyl groups [161] and the formation of surface
micropores. The data obtained using the gas chromatographic version of
molecular probes method [169] show that the dimensions of these micropores are
approximately 0.6 x 1.2nm. Table 25 illustrates the sharp increase of the
adsorbent specific surface and the improved performance of the material with
respect to the removal of petroleum products from water.
Table 25
Specific surface S of initial and polymethylhydrosilicone-modified perlite and the
efficiency of its application for the removal of petroleum products from industrial
waste water
Perlite
Initial
Modified
Modified
Modified
Modified
Treatment
temperature,
~
180
320
320
320
S, m2/g
Ar
1.0
1.0
205
205
205
n-C6H14
2.0
8.0
105
105
105
Petroleum products
concentration, mg/dm 3
Initial
Final
1.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
2.9
1.0
0.8
0.2
0.2
0.3
The dynamic experiment in which the removal of petroleum products from

water using the perlite was studied is discussed in [168]. It was found that the
increase of petroleum products initial contents in water from 1 to 3-6 mg/dm 3 did
not affect the cleaning depth, but results in the decrease of the time during which
the protecting properties are retained. It appears expedient therefore to apply the
714
thermooxidated modified perlite at final stages of cleaning, when oil products
contents does not exceed ca. 1 mg/dm 3.
6.4.3. C o a l - m i n e r a l a d s o r b e n t s
Coal-mineral adsorbents (CMA) recently have been studied extensively
because they are believed to be a promising class of adsorption-active materials
[170]. Such materials prepared on the basis of adsorbents and catalysts coked in
the adsorption catalytic processes can be successfully used for water cleaning
[171]. It was shown in [172] that CMA represents the perfect grained material for
the removal of emulgated oils from water. Its oil adsorption capacity (0.55 g/g)
exceeds significantly that of quartz sand (0.06 g/g) and anthracite (0.2 g/g), and is
only somewhat lower than that of active carbon (0.80 g/g). In the three stage
filtration scheme the use of CMA enables one to decrease the contents of
emulgated petroleum products in water from 24 to 0.56 mg/dm 3 [172].
The semi-industrial tests of CMA applicability for the cleaning of petroleumcontaining waste water were performed at the oil-refining plant at Ufa (Russia).
The results of the tests are summarised in Table 26; the column (30 cm 3 volume)
was packed by CMA fraction of 0.25-0.5 mm, linear filtration rate was 2 m/h.
The regeneration of the adsorbent is r a t h e r simple and requires three volumes
of hot water (80-90~
with pH value adjusted at 10 by soda, and subsequent
processing with two volumes of hot and normal temperature water. After the
cleaning of 200 volumes of water containing 60 mg/dm 3 of petroleum products
and 340 mg/dm 3 of mechanical impurities the contents of petroleum products in
the water cleaned with initial adsorbent had decreased to 11.5 mg/dm 3, and for
the regenerated one this value was found to be 10.7 mg/dm 3.
Table 26
Removal of petroleum products and mechanical impurities from water using
CMA
Amount of water passed,
dm 3
0
0.2
1.0
2.0
6.0
9.0
Petroleum products,
mg/dm 3
86.0
3.6
4.7
8.4
20.0
18.0
Mechanical impurities,
mg/dm 3
72
14
2
7
22
22
The results of these tests were used for the design and construction of the
experimental furnace for the preparation of CMA from coked adsorbent and for
715
the development of the industrial method for cleaning of waste waters containing
petroleum products.
7.
CONCLUSIONS
The data are presented concerning the structure and adsorption properties for
principal types of natural adsorbents: clay minerals, zeolites, silica.
Physicochemical backgrounds of the application of natural adsorbents for water
purification with respect to disperse impurities and substances dissolved as
molecules and ions are discussed. The methods and technologies are proposed for
the use of natural clays and zeolites to remove disperse impurities, cationic and
non-ionic surfactants, cationic dyes and protein substances, large-size cations
Cs K NH4 from water. Natural adsorbents are shown to be efficient in the
deactivation of water, workwear, machinery and construction materials during
the elimination of consequences of Chornobyl nuclear disaster in 1986-1987. The
methods for the modification of natural adsorbents are developed which enhance
the adsorption ability and selectivity of these materials with respect to fluorine
anions, anionic dyes, oil and petroleum-containing products, heavy metal cations.
The coked alumosilica adsorbents and catalysts are shown to be efficient
materials for the preparation of coal-mineral adsorbents used in water
purification. The data are presented concerning adsorption properties of pillarclays, with reference to their possible application for cleaning of water from
organic impurities.
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14, 12 (1992) 37.
160. J.W. Lyons, J. Colloid. Sci., 19 (1964) 399.
161. A.V. Nazarenko, Yu.I. Tarasevich, S.V. Bondarenko and G.V. Lantuch,
Theoret. and Experim. Chemistry, 25 (1989) 753.
162. Yu.I. Tarasevich, A.I. Zhukova, E.V. Aksenenko and S.V. Bondarenko,
Adsorption Sci. and Technol., 15 (1997) 497.
163. A.C. Zettlemoyer, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 28 (1968) 343.
164. M. Trau, B.S. Murray, K. Grant and F. Grieser, J. Colloid Interface Sci.,
148 (1992) 182.
165. O.V. Bezorud'ko, K.A. Zabela, A.A. Krupa, A.A. Pashchenko and
Yu.I. Tarasevich, Hydrophobic Perlite and its Use for Purification of Water
from Oil Impurities, Institute of Oil-Gas Industry, Moscow, 1985.
166. Yu.I. Tarasevich, L.K. Patiuk and A.A. Panasevich, Khimiya i Teknologiya
Vody, 7, 6 (1985) 67.
167. L.K. Patiuk, Yu.I. Tarasevich and V.L. Zabolotnykh, Khimiya i Teknologiya
Vody, 4 (1982) 546.
168. S.V. Bondarenko, A.V. Nazarenko and Yu.I. Tarasevich, Khimiya i
Teknologiya Vody, 17 (1995) 500.
169. Yu.I. Tarasevich, A.I. Zhukova, E.V. Aksenenko, S.V. Bondarenko and
A.V. Nazarenko, Adsorption Sci. and Technol., 10 (1993) 147.
170. R. Leboda and A. D~browski, in: A. D~browski and V.A. Tertykh (eds.),
Adsorption on New and Modified Inorganic Sorbents, Amsterdam, Elsevier
(1996), 115.
171. Yu.I. Tarasevich, Khimiya i Teknologiya Vody, 11 (1989) 789.
172. L.A. Kul'sky, Yu.I. Tarasevich, E.A. Shevchuk and Z.G. Ivanova, Khimiya i
Teknologiya Vody, 12 (1990) 15.

723
Activated carbon filtration in drinking water production:

New developments and concepts
S.G.J. Heijman and R. H o p m a n
Kiwa Research and Consultancy, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein,
The Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION
Despite the efforts of the past ten years to prevent pollution, the concentration
of pesticides in surface water in the Netherlands is increased. Polar pesticides
are nowadays widely used because the accumulation in the food chain is a minor
problem compared to their outmoded apolar counterparts. A disadvantage of this
development is the fact t h a t these polar pesticides are easily washed to surface
waters t h a t are used for drinking water production. For instance in the river
Meuse in the year 1990 atrazine was detected in concentrations up to 1 pg/1
(Figure 1). Due to the negative publicity the use of this herbicide and
consequently the concentrations in the surface water decreased in the following
years. During this period the use of the herbicide diuron became more popular.
5,4
2.5
"~
diuron
atrazine
glyphosate
AMPA
2.0
&
~
4,5
15
li
~i~ ~ i~
~rll
'
1.0
;r
II
0.5 /
'
!:
i,,
J
, standard
0.0
1990
i(o,1 .g/~)
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Figure 1. Pesticides in the river Meuse, period 1990-1995.
1996
724
In 1992 this herbicide was first detected in considerable concentrations. After the
'top' year 1993 the concentrations of this pesticide decreased again, but now the
concentrations of glyphosate and the metabolite amino-methyl phosphonic acid
(AMPA) were increasing to peaks with more then 2 ~g/1.
So the drinking water companies have to face pesticides with very different
properties and with large concentration fluctuations. At the m o m e n t g r a n u l a r
activated carbon is widely used to remove pesticides in the drinking water
t r e a t m e n t process. In order to respond to new pesticides it is necessary to predict
the g r a n u l a r activated carbon (GAC) lifetime.
The performance of GAC depends not only on the properties of the pesticide
molecules but also on the properties of the n a t u r a l organic m a t t e r (NOM) like
humic acids and fulvic acids in the water. The concentration of the NOM is
typically 1000 times higher compared to the concentration of the pesticide. For all
n a t u r a l waters the NOM-concentration and NOM-composition differ, so full-scale
experiments are necessary in order to predict the GAC-performance on a new
w a t e r t r e a t m e n t location. Full-scale experiments should last at least until
b r e a k t h r o u g h of the pesticide occurs (1-4 years). To avoid these expensive
experiments some relatively 'fast' laboratory experiments, like bottle experiments
and small-column experiments, together with adsorption models are used to
predict b r e a k t h r o u g h curves on full-scale.
;:'
pesticide
~
NOM
..........
Figure 2. Schematic presentation of one of the mechanisms: NOM molecules block pores and
in this way decrease the surface area of the granular activated carbon.
725
The main problem is to translate the outcome of the laboratory experiments to
full-scale. The system with porous activated carbon grains and natural water is
rather complex. The main difficulties are:
o:- The size distribution of the NOM-molecules
Typically there is a very large size distribution (MW-distribution from 100 to
10000)
~ The size distribution of the pores in the granular activated carbon
Typically the pore size distribution varies from a few AngstrSm to about 1 pm.
~ The polarity distribution of the NOM-molecules.
~176The adsorption/desorption behaviour of the different pesticides
~176Because the NOM-front travels faster through the columns the pesticide
molecules are always facing a covered surface (also called pre-loading).
~176The effect of pore blocking in the carbon by NOM-molecules (Figure 2).
~176Kinetic problems of the adsorption and desorption processes of both NOMmolecules and pesticides in the pores of GAC.
The accuracy of the break-through prediction for full-scale granular activated
carbon columns is rather poor at the moment. The problems with the used
models will be discussed.
2. EQUILIBRIUM EXPERIMENTS
Adsorption-isotherms are measured in order to get an indication-of the
performance of activated carbon for the removal of pesticides. Recently Najm [11]
introduced the Equivalent Background Concentration Model (EBC-model) in
order to describe the competition between the pesticide molecules and the other
organic molecules in natural water (NOM).
The EBC-method is based on the postulation that the natural organic matter
in natural waters can be replaced by one fictive organic component, which is
competing with the pesticide. In fact average adsorption behaviour is defined for
the NOM in competition with the pesticide. The adsorption behaviour of the
fictive component is defined by EBC-characteristics: the Freundlich equation
(q=Kc n) of the fictive adsorption isotherm. The EBC-characteristics are calculated
using the Ideal Adsorbed Solution Theory (IAST) [13] for two competing
components.
The IAST-equations are derived from the Gibbs-equation, assuming that the
spreading pressure in a single component solution is equal to that in a multicomponent mixture. The contribution of each adsorbed component to the
spreading pressure in a multi-component system is proportional to the amount
adsorbed of each component. The sum of the individual contributions equals the
total spreading pressure in the mixture.
For two competing components the IAST-equations are:
726
1
cl,e- I qlql+ q2I" [n~" I q--~

nl + q~ll nl
(I)
C2,e- I qlq2
+ q21"[n~ "Iq--~
nl + q~)] n2
Cl,e
ql
q2
nl
K1
n2
C2,e
K2
: equilibrium concentration pesticide [~g/1]

: equilibrium loading of activated carbon with pesticide [~g/mg]
: fictive loading of activated carbon with NOM [pg/mg]
: Freundlich constant of the pesticide in ultrapure water [ ]
: Freundlich constant of the pesticide in ultrapure water
[(~tg/mg)/(~tgfl) hi]
: Freundlich constant of the NOM in the absence of pesticide [ ]
: fictive equilibrium concentration of the NOM [pg/1]
: Freundlich constant of the pesticide in ultrapure water
[(pg/mg)/(~tgfl) n2]
_ C1,0- C l , e
ql _
q2 -
(2)
(3)
ACD
C2,o- C2,e
ACD
(4)
Two mass balances are also valid:

C1,0
9 initial concentration of the pesticide [~g/1]
C2,o 9initial concentration of the NOM [pg/1]
ACD 9 active carbon dosage [mg/1]
In order to calculate the EBC-characteristics (Ke and n2) of n a t u r a l water in
competition with a pesticide two adsorption isotherms should be measured: one
adsorption isotherm of the pesticide in ultrapure water (water without NOM) and
one adsorption isotherm in the n a t u r a l water (two component system). The
adsorption isotherm in the absence of NOM gives the single-solute Freundlich
p a r a m e t e r s (nl and K1) of the pesticide (=component 1).
In a bottle experiment different amounts of powdered activated carbon are
added to the water with a known concentration of the pesticide. Because for each
point in the isotherm the solid/liquid ratio is different the NOM/solid ratio is also
changing. This is a normal procedure in water research because the pesticide
concentration is dictated by the pollution in the n a t u r a l waters. The only
parameter, which can be influenced, is the activated carbon dose. Although the
solid/liquid ratio is not constant, the Freundlich isotherms obtained with this
experimental set-up are linear within the experimental error. If the equilibrium
concentration is in the region of the initial concentration (Cl,e~C1,0) the
727
experimental error is increasing. In this region a deviation of the linearity is
observed, but this deviation can also be described with the EBC-model [11].
The equilibrium loadings (ql,e) of the pesticide are calculated from the bottle
experiment by comparing the initial concentration (C1,0) with the equilibrium
concentration (Cl,o) of the pesticide after seven days of equilibration time. The
atrazine concentrations are m e a s u r e d with an ELISA-method with a detection
limit of 0.05 gg/1.
This adsorption isotherm is fitted in an optimizing procedure with the EBCcharacteristics (K2 and n2) as variables. The result can be used to calculate
equilibrium concentration of the pesticides in different concentration ranges. In
Figure 3 the adsorption isotherms in ultrapure water and in n a t u r a l water with a
relatively high initial concentration (C1,0) of the pesticide is used to predict the
adsorption isotherm in n a t u r a l water with a lower initial concentration of the
pesticide.
The major drawback of the EBC-method is t h a t only equilibrium conditions
can be predicted. In a GAC-column there are no equilibrium adsorption
conditions. Another restriction of the method is t h a t adsorption isotherms are
m e a s u r e d with powdered activated carbon. The effect of pore blocking is probably
more i m p o r t a n t in grains compared to powder. So the outcome of the EBCmethod will be to optimistic compared to full-scale r e s u l t s .
O in ultrapure water
9 isoth. C1,0 - 93 pg/1
0 isoth. C 1 , 0 - 9gg/1
EBC-fit
EBC-prediction
100
E
10
D
O
~
.13
0.1
'
-4D"
I I
I0
Cl,e (pg/O
Figure 3. Verification of the Equivalent Background Concentration (EBC) model. The
isotherms in ultrapure water and with an initial concentration of 93 gg/1 are used to obtain the
EBC-constants (K2 and n2). The EBC-prediction calculated using these constants (dotted line)
is a reasonable prediction of the experimental data with the same initial concentration.
728
3. THE HOMOGENOUS SURFACE D I F F U S I O N MODEL (HSDM)

Crittenden et al. [1-4] first introduced the Rapid Small Scale Column Test
(RSSCT). The idea is t h a t a full-scale column process can be scaled down to a
small column experiment, if some dimensionless groups (P~clet, Stanton, and
pore-diffusion modulus) are kept constant. After grinding the g r a n u l a r activated
carbon is sieved in order to collect a fraction radius about ten times smaller
compared to the radius of granular activated carbon used in full-scale columns.
With the smaller grains the experimental duration is also decreased with about a
factor ten. The dimensions and the process variables of the small-column are
calculated using the Homogenous Surface Diffusion Model (HSDM) [15]. In this
model the following three mechanisms are considered:
1) Axial dispersion in the bulk fluid of the column caused by diffusion or random
fluid movement around the adsorbent particles.
2) External mass-transfer resistance or film transfer caused by the diffusion of
the adsorbate from the bulk solution to the adsorbent surface.
3) I n t e r n a l mass-transfer resistance of pore and surface diffusion.
To simulate a full-scale column, the amount of spreading in the b r e a k t h r o u g h
curve must be identical for the small-column. In this way adsorption isotherms
are not necessary. The passed water volume in the small column per unit
activated carbon is directly related to the passed volume in a full-scale column.
So extensive isotherm or kinetic studies are not required to obtain full-scale
b r e a k t h r o u g h prediction from RSSCT.
The major shortcomings in this model are:
1) In a large scale columns granular activated carbon is used with a broad size
distribution of particles (for instance 0.2-1.4 mm). In the model only one
particle-size is used for the calculations. So the particle-size of the full-scale
column used in the calculations is more or less a matching parameter.
2) In the first models the intra-particle diffusion coefficient was assumed not to
depend on the particle size (Constant Diffusivity or CD-model). In more
recent studies [14] the intra-particle diffusivity was found to be proportional
to the particle size (Particle dependent Diffusivity or PD-model).
3) Pore blocking by larger NOM-molecules is not incorporated in the model.
Pore blocking is very difficult to handle in models as well as in laboratory
experiments because the process depends on time and particle size.
From our own observation (Figure 4) and from literature [5,10] we can
conclude t h a t the breakthrough-curve predicted with the small-scale column test
is in most cases an overestimation of the breakthrough-curve in the large
columns. So the predicted granular activated carbon lifetime is almost always
overestimated. The overestimation is depending on the n a t u r a l water type and
the concentration and the properties of the NOM in the n a t u r a l water.
729
0.4
9
- ---
full scale column

small scale column
iI
~' 0.3
I
I
I
I s
f
i
/I
r/
0.2
i
t
//~*\\
//
/
iI
\1
9~
0.1
/
/
iI
=.;
/
iI
. . . . .
.11
_--__. .
!
.
L...
40
I, !
80
120
160
200
passed volume (I/g)

Figure 4. Verification of the validity of the homogenous surface diffusion model (constant
diffusivity) in predicting the breakthrough curves of full-scale columns. In both full-scale as
well as small-scale the initial concentration of bentazon was 0.4 pg/1. Norit ROW 0,8S,
Natural water source: Drinking Water Company South-Holland-East, production location 'Het
Kromme Gat'. qp=0.2-1.6 m m , rsp=0.l mm, qc=500 mm ,Lic=1400 mm, Qic=1828 l/h, rsc=9
mm, Lsc= 205 ram, Q~c=1 1/h.
rip :radius large particle [mm]
rsp :radius small particle [ram]
Lic : length large column [ram]
qc :radius large column [ram]
QJc : flow rate in large column [l/h]
L~c :length small column [mm]
rsc : radius small column [mm]
Qsc : flow rate in small column [l/h]
4.
PREDICTION OF BREAKTHROUGH-CURVES BASED ON

E X P E R I M E N T S W I T H T H E F U L L G R A I N SIZE
Since the correlation between breakthrough curves in RSSC-tests and fullscale experiments is rather poor, the experiments are not used for predicting fullscale GAC-columns in drinking water production at the moment. In order to
predict the lifetime of activated carbon filtration columns additional laboratory
experiments are being developed. The most promising is an experiment with the
730
full grain-size as used in the full-scale adsorbers. The uptake of pesticides in the
grains is measured as a function of time in a bottle-experiment. The advantage of
this approach is that there are no scaling problems with respect to the grain-size.
Disadvantage is that the equilibrium time can be as long as five weeks or more
and it is necessary to translate the results of a batch experiment to a columnprocess. We have investigated the possibilities of a Linear Driving Force model
(LDF-model) in order to predict breakthrough-curves from bottle experiments
[12].
dql
- k(ql,e-ql (t))
dt
with: k: Linear Driving Force constant
(5)
[s'l].
In the Linear Driving Force-equation (equation 5) the speed of accumulation of

the pesticide on the activated carbon is a function of a constant and the difference
between the equilibrium loading and the actual loading.
To simulate different stages of preloading the natural water in a bottle is
refreshed after five weeks of equilibration time. The amount of activated carbon
is adjusted to simulate normal preloading in a full-scale column. For instance if
33 mg activated carbon is treated with four times a litre of natural water (three
refreshments) the experiment simulates a preloading in the next experiment of
121 1/g.
A typical result is shown in Figure 5. It is clear that the preloading influences
the adsorption behaviour of the succeeding refreshments. The preloading as
expected effects the equilibrium concentration.
If we plot the measured speed of adsorption (dq/dt) against the loading (q) we
obtain a linear relation (Figure 6). The slope of the lines (k, the LDF-constant) is
clearly depending on the preloading of the activated carbon grains. With this
experiment we get information about equilibrium loadings and adsorption rates
in one experiment with full-size grains. We expect that the mechanism of pore
blocking is better incorporated in our experiments and the prediction of full-scale
columns is more accurate.
With these experiments we hope to predict breakthrough-curves in full scale
columns. The next step is to use the obtained LDF-constant in a mass balance
incorporated in a partial differential equation [12,16] (Figure 7).
731
2.5
[]
2.0
,
&
1.5
~ 1.0
~ 0.5
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
time (h)
Figure 5. Measured curves from succeeding refreshments in bottle experiments. C l,o=2 gg/1,
ACD=33 mg/1, sieve fraction-0.6-0.7 mm, Chemviron F400 activated carbon. O 9 first litre;
[]" first refreshment; A: second refreshment; x" third refreshment.
0.4
0
E" 0.3
0.2
Q
<>
[]
0.1
z&
0.0
0.00
-
0.04
0.08
u"
0.12
0.16
0.20
loading (mg atrazine/gGAC)

Figure 6. Same experiments as in Figure 5 but plotted according to the LDF-equation. The
speed of adsorption is decreasing as a function of the preloading. O" first litre; rn: first
refreshment; A: second refreshment; x" third refreshment.
732
Dynamic column model

Differential fluid phase mass b a l a n c e
8Ci
6 DL
+ 8vq
6z
6z
8Z
_ ~
+ 8Ci+
8t
8qi
6t
1-Sb)
Sb
_ 0
dz
8qi
8t
,>
represents a set of mass balances and

transport equations inside the adsorbent
Figure 7. Model used to translate the outcome of batch experiments to breakthrough curves in
columns. The adsorption part of the equation (dq/dt) can be replaced by the LDF-equation
(equation 5) with the measured dependence of k from the pre-loading and the measured
equilibrium isotherm, z=axial coordinate; v-interstitial fluid velocity; ci=concentration of
component i; qi=adsorbed amount of component i; ~b=porosity of packed bed.
1.4
...... 7 minutes
- - - 10 minutes
-_ 15 minutes
20 minutes
1.2
(].)
.~ 1.0
. . . . . . . .ii. . . . . . . . . .
9
9-"
~ 0.8
o
o,,
o 0.6
,,.,,,,.,..,,,,,...,,,,'"
0.4
////
/ / / / / / / /
/
0.2
0
0.0
0
50
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 4~50
time [days]
Figure 8. Calculated breakthrough curves for four different empty bed contact times (7, 10, 15
and 20 minutes), using the model in Figure 7 and the outcome of the batch experiments in
Figure 5.
733
The next step is to compare these calculated curves with the b r e a k t h r o u g h
curves from pilot-scale experiments. At the moment we evaluate the validity of
these model calculation for the prediction of b r e a k t h r o u g h behaviour in full-scale
columns.
5.
THE RELATIVE B R E A K T H R O U G H MOMENT OF D I F F E R E N T

P E S T I C I D E S AS M E A S U R E D W I T H T H E S M A L L S C A L E C O L U M N
TESTS.
In the W a t e r T r e a t m e n t Companies there is a strong need for an easy and fast

indication of the performance of granular activated carbon in order to remove
different pesticides. Almost always the polarity of the pesticide in casu the
octanol/water distribution constant (Kow) is used as a first indication. From
Figure 9 we can see t h a t at least for the plotted pesticides a correlation between
the polarity and the b r e a k t h r o u g h moment (Breakthrough-moment is defined as
the passed volume of a column (1/g) with a pesticide concentration in the effluent
of the column of 0.1 lzg/l. At this point the drinking water companies have to
regenerate their GAC-columns) in an RSSC-test is absent.
9 propazin
[] bentazon
diuron
9 atrazin
2.5
mcyanazin
DNOC
simazin
.o
9 pirimicarb
9 metribuzin
1.5
0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400 1600
breakthrough moment (I/g)

Figure 9. There is no correlation observed between the polarity of a pesticide and the
breakthrough moments in the RSSC-test. Probably also other mechanisms play an important
role in the competition between pesticides and NOM-molecules in granular activated carbon
adsorption.
734
Bentazon and diuron have almost the same polarity but the GAC-lifetime for
diuron is about 30 times larger compared to bentazon. Probably other p a r a m e t e r s
as for instance the diffusivity and the size of the pesticides also play an
i m p o r t a n t role in the competition between pesticides and NOM-molecules.
The RSSC-tests can also be used for comparing b r e a k t h r o u g h behaviour of
different pesticides. In the experiments in Figure 10 a mixture of five pesticides
is dosed to a small column. In the experiment in Figure 11 a mixture of eight
pesticides was dosed to a small column. In this way a large n u m b e r of pesticides
have been screened for their relative b r e a k t h r o u g h behaviour (Table 1) in a short
time. Because such a mixture of pesticides can be m e a s u r e d online with the same
analytical method, this test offers a fast indication of the performance of a certain
adsorbent in combination with a n a t u r a l w a t e r type.
35
30
--.- simazine
25
-- cyanazine
9 metribuzine
- o - propazine
20 t_zi__.
5
~
~
1
50
~
I
100
150
200
250
300
350
passed volume (I/g)

Figure 10. A mixture of triazines is dosed to a small column and the breakthrough of the
different species is measured online. Cl,o= 2~tg/1, rp=98 gm, Norit ROW 0.8S., natural water
source: Nieuwegeins drinking water.
The concentration (in mg/1) of the NOM is about h u n d r e d times higher

compared to the total a m o u n t of pesticides in this experiment. Therefore the
m u t u a l influence of the pesticides on their b r e a k t h r o u g h behaviour is not
significant. The m u t u a l influence of the pesticides in a mixture on the
b r e a k t h r o u g h curve of atrazine is shown in Figure 12.
735
100
.3-
90
80
O
"~
70
-o-
metribuzine
pirimicarb
atrazine
--m- DNOC
diuron
60
II1
bentazon
50
40
3o
20
10
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
passed volume (I/g)

Figure 11. A mixture of pesticides is dosed to a small column and the breakthrough of the
different species is measured online. C~,o= 2gg/1, rp=98 gm, Norit ROW 0.8S., natural water
source: Nieuwegeins drinking water.
Table 1
Relative b r e a k t h r o u g h of pesticides m e a s u r e d with an R S S C - t e s t
Pesticide
metribuzine
propazine
cyanazine
atrazine
simazine
bentazon
MCPP
metribuzine
pirimicarb
metamitron
diuron
MCPA
DNOC
Relative b r e a k t h r o u g h obtained from

Figure 10 a n d 11
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0 (by definition)
1.5
0.2
0.2*
0.7
0.9
>6
5.9
0.9*
2.2
* 9 same experimental conditions but with three times shorter empty bed contact time.
736
35
5 triazines
mixture 9 pesticides
only atrazine
I.,.///
fjf~'J
25
..~
.~
//
20/1
.Q
15-
//
i/I/I/
//
10 -
,/
///
,/
5-
100
200
300
400
500
passed volume (I/g)

Figure 12. The influences of different mixtures of pesticides on the breakthrough curve of
atrazine in an RSSC-test. The concentration of NOM is about 1600 t.tg/1. In the mixture of
nine pesticides the total concentration of pesticides is 18 lag/1. In the mixture of five triazines
the total concentration of pesticides is 10 pg/1.
Although the absolute value of the b r e a k t h r o u g h varies with the experimental

conditions, the order of b r e a k t h r o u g h of the different pesticides in the RSSC-test
was very constant in all our experiments. The order of b r e a k t h r o u g h did not
depend on the activated carbon type, the n a t u r a l water type and the empty bed
contact time. Even in full-scale experiments (Figure 13) the p a t t e r n of
b r e a k t h r o u g h of pesticides is the same.
This encouraged us to define a relative breakthrough moment:
relative b r e a k t h r o u g h -
b r e a k t h r o u g h moment of the pesticide

b r e a k t h r o u g h moment of atrazin
(6)
In this way we have a fast indication of the behaviour of different pesticides in

GAC-columns. The n u m b e r of tabulated pesticides is increasing at the moment
and a new pesticide can be put on this Scale after an experiment of about one
month.
737
1.5
4 -
pirimicarb
zx
atrazine
AA
-~-_ bentazon
ZX&
-~~A
0.5
/ , ,
~J~
/
&
&
. . . .
. ~.~__-.
,.,,
'
;~o~> ~
ip_jLi~= "o...>-~
~gO
A A A ~
n
&
50
~_--
100
150
200
250
time (days)
Figure 13. Breakthrough behaviour of pesticides in a full-scale experiment, empty bed contact
time = 7 minutes, Chemviron F400, Natural water source: Drinking Water Company
Overijssel, location 'Vechterweerd', Ci,0 of the different pesticides was 1,5-2 gg/1.
It is an easy-to-use p a r a m e t e r , but there are also some shortcomings:

In case of a bacteriological breakdown of pesticides the b r e a k t h r o u g h of the
pesticide is postponed. This is for instance observed in a full-scale experiment
for metribuzin.
If the influence of the NOM in the n a t u r a l water is diminished (for instance
after the removal of NOM with nanofiltration or with activated carbon fibres)
the order of b r e a k t h r o u g h of pesticides is disturbed.
6.
N E W D E V E L O P M E N T S IN G A C - F I L T R A T I O N
G r a n u l a r Activated Carbon (GAC) filtration is a relative expensive t r e a t m e n t

step in the production of drinking water. Therefore a lot of research projects are
dealing with possibilities of how to extend GAC-life time.
New developments in adsorptive removal of pesticides are all based on
decreasing the influence of the N 0 M on the pesticide adsorption:
* the NOM can be removed before GAC-filtration by m e m b r a n e filtration
* the NOM adsorption is decreased by size-exclusion in activated carbon fibres
* the NOM adsorption decreases after an ozone-treatment.
738
The rapid small-scale column (RSSC) test is a very powerful i n s t r u m e n t in the
investigation of these developments. Of course the outcome of these comparing
experiments only give an indication of the possible benefits in full-scale columns.
6.1. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n m e m b r a n e f i l t r a t i o n / G A C - f i l t r a t i o n
Water Supply Company of Overijssel (WMO) considers implementing a

combination of nanofiltration and GAC-filtration for both the removal of
pesticides and colour and softening of the water at the location Vechterweerd. A
pre-treatment by nanofiltration has two main effects on the efficiency of the
GAC-filtration for pesticide removal: the NOM level decreases drastically and
only small NOM molecules enter the GAC step. This results in less competition
between NOM and pesticides and less pore blocking and preloading by NOM.
Figure 14 shows the results of the rapid small-scale column tests. From this
figure it can be concluded that GAC lifetime time is extended enormously: about
a factor of 100 !. By using nanofiltration as a pretreatment bentazon showed
breakthrough after about 500.000 bedvolumes, while atrazine did not exceed the
0.1 ~g/1 even after more than 500.000 bedvolumes. Under practical conditions the
GAC lifetime will even be longer because of the additional pesticide removal by
the nanofiltration step.
0.8
0.6
--':~'-- atrazin RSF

bentazon RSF
--~--atrazin nanofiltr.
- - i - . bentazon nanofiltr.
~ 0.4
- ~eriment
A
1
/ (NOM high)
S
o(j 0.2 -7'
/ ,/"
0
0
100.000
300.000
ExperimentB
(NOM low)
500.000
bedvolumes
Figure 14. Increasing GAC lifetime by NOM removal prior to GAC filtration: pesticide
breakthrough for rapid sand filtrate (high NOM content) and nanofiltrate (low NOM content).
C~,0=0.5 gg/1 Natural Water from location 'Vechterweerd'.
739
An alternative possibility is to use a very short EBCT (1-4 minutes) after

nanofiltration to decrease i n v e s t m e n t costs for GAC-filtration. This option is
currently u n d e r study at the pilot-plant Vechterweerd.
To study the mechanisms, which lead to this significant increase of GAC
lifetime in more detail, additional laboratory-experiments were performed. In
these experiments diluted rapid sand filtrate (RSF) was used. The diluted RSF
had the same NOM content as the nanofiltrate (1 mg/1) but the molecular size
distribution in the diluted RSF and the nanofiltrate were obviously different:
nanofiltrate contained only molecules with a d i a m e t e r smaller t h a n about 200400 D, while diluted RSF h a d the normal molecular size distribution, ranging
from very small to very large molecules. Figure 15 shows the results of a smallscale column experiment with RSF, diluted RSF and nanofiltrate.
0.5
o...o
oo .......................
0.6
o~
o:
~
-
O
N
0.3
43
-i
.oOO o.o
..""'"
~ RS--F(-D~=7 mg/I)
,,,'"
-i
-.... dil. RSF (DOC = 1 mg/I)

nanofiltrate (DOC= 1 mg/I)
i
e
k.'o:'.., 0.2
,'
,'
,'
,'
,'
0.1
,'
,'
,'
0
0
,'
100
200
300
400
500
f
I
600
bedvolumes (x 10a)
Figure 15. Breakthrough curves for bentazon measured with RSSCT in: drinking water (RSF,
NOM - 7 mg/1), diluted drinking water (diluted RSF, NOM = 1 rag/l) and nanofiltrate of RSF
(NOM = 1 mg/1) C1,0= 0.5 gg/1, rp=98 gm, Chemviron F400, Natural water source: Drinking
Water Company Overijssel, location 'Vechterweerd'.
Since the diluted drinking w a t e r and the nanofiltrate have the same organic
carbon (=NOM) concentration one would expect the same breakthrough-curves
for both w a t e r types. But with nanofiltrate the b r e a k t h r o u g h - m o m e n t is about
ten times later. This is probably caused by the polydispersity of NOM (MW= 100
to 20.000) and the fact t h a t nanofiltration removes the larger size fraction NOMmolecules. This experiment is a strong indication for the importance of pore
740
blocking as a m e c h a n i s m in GAC-filtration. The larger NOM-molecules probably
block the micropores (<2 nm) and cover in this way a relatively large adsorption
area for the pesticide (MWbentazone-240).
6.2. A c t i v a t e d c a r b o n f i b r e s
Another new development, which is evaluated with the RSSC-test, is the
performance of new adsorbents as activated carbon fibres (ACF) (Figure 16).
These fibres have a large surface area with almost only micropores with a pore
radius smaller then 1 nm. One of the advantages of fibres is t h a t intraparticle
diffusion problems normally occurring in granules are almost absent. Film
diffusion is the rate determining mechanism. The optimal contact time of the
m a t e r i a l is therefore very short compared to the g r a n u l a r activated carbon
(GAC). A short contact time is very i m p o r t a n t because the carbon fibre columns
can be r a t h e r small compared to the GAC-columns and therefore reduces
i n v e s t m e n t costs. Another advantage is the larger b r e a k t h r o u g h - t i m e expressed
in litres per gram activated carbon of the ACF compared to GAC [8] (Figure 17).
Figure 16. Electronmicrograph picture of activated carbon fibres. The diameter of the fibres is
typically 10 gm. The BET-surface area is about 1200 to 1800 mZ/g and the fibres have a very
narrow pore distribution of around about 1 nm.
741
o
N
1.5
-o- ACF 2,60 s.

ACF 3,20 s.
~ --D- ACF4,60s.
ACF 6 , 3 0 s.
"
I - i - GAC_ !20min:
(i.1
.Q
O
0.5
o
o
o
25.000
50.000
75.000
bedvolumes
Figure 17. Bentazon removal by granular activated carbon (GAC-) filtration and activated
carbon fibre (ACF-) filtration. Ci,0=2 gg/l, GAC = Norit ROW 0,8S, Natural water source:
Nieuwegeins drinking water.
This is an effect of both the very fast adsorption kinetics, the higher surface
area (40%-80% higher BET-surface) and the effect of size-exclusion of the larger
NOM-molecules. A question at this m o m e n t is w h e t h e r or not the fibres can be
regenerated after b r e a k t h r o u g h occurs.
6.3. C o m b i n a t i o n o z o n e - G A C - f i l t r a t i o n
Another i m p o r t a n t development t h a t is evaluated with the RSSC-test is the
biological activated carbon filtration [6]. Ozonation prior to GAC-filtration
influences the biodegrability, the polarity and the size of the NOM-molecules. As
a consequence activated carbon lifetime is increased significantly. In the RSSCtest [7] (Figure 18) the b r e a k t h r o u g h m o m e n t of atrazine is increased with about
60%, which is a very i m p o r t a n t benefit from economical and from environmental
point of view.
742
0.4
- o - with ozone
-n- without ozone
[3
0.3
iI
I
0.2
1/
!
I
q~ 0.1
o
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
passed volume (I/g)

Figure 18. Atrazine removal from natural water pretreated with ozon and untreated water.
Ozon dose = 2 mg/1, C1,0=5 ~tg/l. Norit ROW 0,8S, natural water source: Amsterdam Water
Supply location "Leiduin".
7.
CONCLUSIONS
At the moment it is not possible to predict granular activated carbon filtration

life time from short laboratory experiments. But experiments with full grain sizes
showed some promising results.
Pore-blocking by n a t u r a l organic m a t t e r (NOM) is an i m p o r t a n t mechanism in
the adsorption behaviour of pesticides in a column. It is therefore i m p o r t a n t to
incorporate this mechanism in the models or to take account of this problem in
the laboratory experiments.
Relative b r e a k t h r o u g h moments of pesticides can be obtained from rapid small
scale column tests and can be used as an indication of b r e a k t h r o u g h in full scale
columns.
The rapid small scale column test is a powerful i n s t r u m e n t to evaluate new
materials and new concepts.
Promising water t r e a t m e n t concepts for the removal of pesticides are:
* nanofiltration/GAC-filtration
* ozone/GAC-filtration
* activated carbon fibres.
743
ABBREVIATIONS
ACF
BAC
GAC
NF
NOM
RSF
:Activated Carbon Fibre

:BiologicalActivated Carbon
:Granular Activated Carbon
: nanofiltration or nanofiltrate
:Natu r al Organic Matter
: Rapid Sand Filtration
REFERENCES
1. J.C. Crittenden, J.K. Berrigan and D.W. Hand, J. Water Pollution Control
Federation, 58 (1986) 312.
2. J.C. Crittenden, N.J. Hutzler and J.S. Grierke, Water Resources Research,
22 (i 986) 285.
3. J.C. Crittenden J.K. Berrigan, D.W. Hand and B. Lykins, J. of Environmental
Engineering, 113 (1987) 243.
4. J.C. Crittenden, D.W. Hand, H. Arora and B.W. Lykins, J. American Water
Works Association, 79 (1987) 74.
5. J.C. Crittenden, P.S. Reddy, D.W. Hand and H. Arora, Prediction of GAC
Performance Using Rapid Small-Scale Column Tests, AWWA Research
Foundation, September, 1989.
6. A. Graveland, Application of biological activated carbon filtration at
Amsterdam Water Supply, Water Supply, 14 (1993) 233.
7. R. Hopman, W.G. Siegers, M.A. Meerkerk and J.C. Kruithof, Proceedings
IWSA-Workshop on Natural Organic Matter, Poitiers, France, September,
1996.
8. R. Hopman, W.G. Siegers and J.C. Kruithof, Proceedings AWWA Water
Quality and Technical Conference, November (1995) 511.
9. R. Hopman, J.P. van der Hoek, J.M. van Paassen and J.C. Kruithof, IWSA
21th World Congress, Madrid, September 1997.
10. D.R.U. Knappe, V.L. Snoeyink, P. Roche, M.J. Prados and M.M. Bourbigot,
Water Research, 31 (1997) 2899.
11. I.N. Najm, V.L. Snoeyink, Y. Richard, Journal AWWA (1991) 57.
12. R.G. Peel and A. Benedek, Canadian Journal of Chemical Enginering,
59 (i98i) 688.
13. C.J. Radke and J.M. Prausnitz, Amer.Inst.Chem.Eng.J., 18 (1971) 761.
14. R. Schneider, MS Thesis, University of Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of
Germany (I 989).
15. H. Sontheimer, J.C. Crittenden and S. Summers, Activated Carbon for Water
Treatment, second edition in English of "Adsorptionsverfahren zur
Wasserreinigung", Karlsruhe (DVGW-Forsungsstelle) (1988).
16. B.M. Vliet and W.J. Weber, J. Water Pollution Control Federation,
53 (1981) II, P1585.

745
Adsorption kinetics in natural waters: a generalised ion-exchange

model
G. Pan
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth,
Plymouth PL4 8AA, United Kingdom
1.
INTRODUCTION
Adsorption of dissolved species onto suspended particles is widely accepted as

a major sink of contaminants in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans [1,2]. In
order to understand the fate and distribution of the pollutants, which is of
concern to human
health, it is necessary to model quantitatively different
adsorption behaviour. Ion exchange is known to be one of the major mechanisms
in ionic solute adsorption and many investigations have been devoted to
equilibrium models based on this perception. In addition to the application of the
equilibrium method of adsorption isotherm (such as the Langmuir or Freundlich
equations), surface complexation models have been developed over the last three
decades which can predict the effect of various solution variables such as pH and
ionic strength [3-7]. In natural water systems, however, equilibrium models are
often inadequate because adsorption processes can be kinetically controlled when
adsorption kinetics are not rapid relative to the gravitational settling of particles
[8-10]. In many turbid water systems, adsorption kinetics can therefore be
predominant in regulating the concentration levels of pollutants. Although ion
exchange kinetics has been well developed in chemical engineering [11,12], there
has been little application of these theories to natural water systems.
The
purpose of the paper is to develop a generalised ion exchange kinetic model,
which may supply a theoretical framework for sorption kinetics modelling in
natural water systems.
The kinetics of ionic solute adsorption can be separated into four stages: (i)
adsorption onto the outer-sphere of the hydrated surface; (2) diffusion through
the liquid film; (3) surface reaction with activated groups on the solid surface; (4)
intraparticle diffusion of the ionic solute accompanied by a progressive shell
process towards the unreacted core. In batch rate experiments, the adsorption of
metal ions often displays two-phase kinetics: very rapid initial adsorption over a
few minutes, followed by a long period of much slower uptake. The second phase
has often been observed to be much slower in natural water systems (a time scale
of weeks or months [13-18]) than in pure metal hydroxide or mineral suspension
systems, where relaxation times are within hours [19,20]. The first, fast, uptake
746
phase however is a characteristic of metal sorption in suspension systems, which
is not always common in typical ion exchange systems. Among the four stages
mentioned above, process (1) is a non-ion exchange step, which occurs quickly in
the first instance, and is the cause of the initial rapid stage of the two-phase
kinetics. Because of the complexity in natural systems, the overall kinetic time
scale is generally determined by a combination of the other three ion exchange
stages.
In ordinary ion exchange processes where there are no accompanying chemical
reactions and where the counterions in the solid bead diffuse simultaneously so
that no moving boundary develops, the rates of the processes are controlled either
by film diffusion, intraparticle diffusion, or a combination of both.
These
behaviours, which can be achieved under controlled experiments, can be well
described by the BAM theory (Boyd, Adamson and Myers, [11]) established four
decades ago. Film diffusion tends to be the rate-controlling mechanism when
high capacity, smaller particles are in contact with slowly moving, dilute
solutions.
Conversely, intraparticle diffusion tends to dominate when low
capacity, bigger particles are in contact with fast moving, concentrated solutions
[12]. The initial stage of an ion exchange process is always controlled by film
diffusion regardless of whether the later stage is con-trolled by film diffusion or
particle diffusion [21]. Over the last two decades there have been two major
advances in ion exchange kinetics. One is the discovery of the moving boundary
phenomenon in which the shell of products moves towards the unreacted resin
matrix when ion exchange processes are accompanied by chemical reactions [22].
The other is the development of various two-step-controlled models based on nonlinear or non-steady state assumptions [23-27]. Most of the latter models are
mathematically too complex to be used in environmental chemistry. In this
paper, a generalised, yet simple, ion-exchange model is obtained by using a
specific mathematical approach, which yields an analytical solution for a nonsteady state, multi-step-controlled partial differential equation.
The last fifteen years have seen a number of studies in the kinetic sorption of
metals and anions in seawater and other natural waters. The major concern of
these studies was to determine the uptake rates based on the overall adsorption
kinetic curves [13-18,28,29]. A quantitative model was first proposed by Nyffeler
et al. fifteen years ago, in which the sorption process was treated as a simple,
overall first order, reversible reaction [15]. Based on this model, two-step or
three-step first order reversible kinetic models were developed [9,17,30-32].
These models are mainly used for data fitting. They do not necessarily reflect the
kinetic mechanisms of the process [33]. In fact, chemical reaction cannot be
treated as the only control step in many cases, since various diffusion steps can
be much slower than surface reactions. Further, sorption processes are seldom
wholly reversible and few of them can be treated as elementary steps [34,35].
Because of the empirical nature of these models, they do not explain how the
basic properties, such as flow status and particle size, can influence adsorption
kinetics. To establish a modelling system based on the combination of various
747
transport steps and the surface reaction is therefore important in the field of
environmental adsorption.
2.
EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. A d s o r p t i o n k i n e t i c s m o n i t o r
A conventional method for monitoring adsorption kinetics in batch
experiments is to withdraw aliquots of suspension at different times and then
separate the particles from solution by either filtration or centrifugation to stop
the reaction.
The concentration of solute in the s u p e r n a t a n t can then be
measured by different analytical methods.
Such a sampling-separatingmeasuring method is tedious and time consuming and is often inadequate to
study rapid initial sorption processes. Since the method normally consumes
samples it can cause a considerable change in total volume and hence limit the
number of experimental points that can be assembled. The lack of sufficient data
points in the initial and overall stages of the process can seriously hinder the
understanding of the mechanisms of the reaction, because the detailed shape of
the kinetic curve is often a reflection of the mechanism. Different control steps
can limit different stages of the same kinetic curve. Another experimental
artefact that often accompanies this conventional method is non-settling colloids,
which are the fine colloids remaining in solution after centrifugation or filtration.
It is widely accepted that non-settling colloids can cause considerable errors in
the determination of solid-liquid partition coefficients [35,36-38].
In the
adsorption of metals in seawater or other electrolyte solutions, all the above
mentioned problems can be easily solved by using a polarographic device [39].
This device enables polarography, which is usually used to measure samples of
static solution, to be directly used as a monitor in constantly stirred systems. In
this case, the artefact of non-settling colloids is eliminated because polarography
is only sensitive to truly dissolved ionic species of metals [40,41]. It takes about
10 seconds for each measurement, no samples are consumed and no reagents are
added.
The assembling of kinetic data is therefore unlimited and can be
automatically recorded every half minute.
2.2. M e t h o d s a n d m a t e r i a l s
Detailed experimental methods have been published previously [39]. Briefly,
adsorption kinetics of cadmium onto amorphous ferric hydroxide and T-MnOOH
was studied in a controlled seawater system. The influences of pH, initial
concentration of Cd, particle concentration, particle size, and pre-hydration of
solids on the kinetic adsorption behaviour were examined. Total volume for each
kinetic experiment was 2 litres throughout the experiments and stirring was kept
constant.
748
3.
THEORETICAL
3.1. P h y s i c a l h y p o t h e s i s of the m o d e l
(i) Individual particles are spherical and homogeneous and shrinking and
swelling processes are negligible.
(ii) Surface complexation or other fixation reactions can occur between the
sorbed ion (A) and the activated surface groups. The kinetic impediment
coefficient 0~) of the surface reaction is inversely proportional to the rate constant
(k).
(iii) The ionic solute (A) first diffuses into the liquid film of the hydrated
particles.
The film is treated as planar and Fick's law is assumed to be
applicable to both liquid film and solid phases. The diffusion coefficient in the
liquid film (D) is generally treated as different from that in the solid phase (D).
(iv) After the ion (A) diffuses through the liquid film and reacts with the
surface group, a layer of product is formed. This layer is porous so that the
reaction can proceed by the intraparticle diffusion of more solute ions through the
layer. Thus, a shell progressive mechanism exists because of the continuation of
the surface reaction. An intraparticle diffusion mechanism simultaneously exists
as the reacted layer progresses towards the-centre of the core. In a simplified
case, where the surface reaction is fast, the concentration of the ion within the
particle can be treated as being in steady state, i.e., 0 % t = 0. Generally, a nonsteady state of 0C//~t = kC is assumed here.
(v) The overall rate of the process is generally controlled by a combination of
film diffusion, surface reaction, shell progressive process and intraparticle
diffusion.
(vi) The system approximately satisfies the infinite bath condition (i.e., total
volume is large, with respect to the change of concentration).
The above hypothesised adsorption mechanisms are schematically illustrated
in Figure 1.
3.2. M a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l
According to the above hypothesis, the material balance for the adsorbate ion
within the solid particle is represented by the following partial differential
equation:
I0 C 2 0C] 0C
D --7-+
=
r 5r
0t
Or ~
(R > r > rc)
(1)
D represents the diffusion coefficient in the solid particle, and t time. The
meaning of other symbols is illustrated in Figure 1. The overbars used here
designate the solid phase.
749
Liquid film
Solid surface
Reacted shell
Unreacted core
cO
0
r
(b
0
cO
-!--
CR
co
CR
( 5 + R ) R roo r~ R ( R + f i )
Radial position
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the model in a spherical particle. Lines in the coodinate
are theoretical concentration profiles in different phases.
According to the n o n - s t e a d y s t a t e h y p o t h e s i s (iv),
+r--
(2)
In order to solve this partial differential equation under the non-steady state
condition, a specific approach is used here. A mathematical assumption is made
as:
y = C. r
(3)
Then,
y,
OC
=~.r+C
Or
--
(4)
750
a2C
c3C
y"=--.r+2~
(~r2
o~r
Equation (2) can be r e a r r a n g e d as
c~2C
~r 2
(5)
c~C
9r + 2 . . . .
/)r
C-r
(6)
Compare Equations (6), (5), and (3), a linear ordinary differential equation is
obtained:
Z
y" = ~ . y
(7)
The general solution for equation (7) is
y = al e - ~ ' r
+ a2 e ~ ' r
(8)
The general solution for Equation (2) can be easily obtained by substituting (8)
into (3):
= al
--e
r
.r + a2 --e
r
.r
(9)
The boundary condition used at the surface of the particle is

(10)
D
Equation (10) is the result of Fick's law in the liquid film, where k f = -~-, D is
the diffusion coefficient in the liquid film and 8 is the thickness of the film. Kd is
the equilibrium solid-liquid partition coefficient, which links the concentrations
of A in the liquid film and in the solid particle.
K d = CR
CR
(11)
The boundary conditions used at the progressive shell between the reacted and
unreacted portions of the particle are
751
(C)rc
=0
~{aC]
(12)
<--~Jr c
_Kd(drc/
< at )
(13)
The boundary condition used at the outer sphere surface between the liquid
film and the bulk solution is
C(R+5) = Cbulk
(14)
The initial condition is

Cbulk It:0 : C ~
(15)
From the above boundary and initial conditions which are imposed by
equations 10 to 15, a 1 and a 2 in the general solution of equation 9 can be
obtained.
a 1 = -a2e
-2~-~-rc
(16)
kfC~R
a2
(17)
/ 1-z~
R
k : ~ / e - 2~'rc 9ehf-~R + ~ / kf_

KdD
1 + R~f-~/e- .~~.R
R
Substitute (16) into (9), and differentiate it with respect to r,
r=rc
rc2e
1-r c
r2 l + r c
(18)
Substitute (18) into (13), and rearrange,
rc.e
-f~.( c -R)
1 e~'(rc -R)
M +k2D~Df~C o R "rc "
drc
(19)
752
1-R~_
where M =
kf /
K d .D
kfC~R
Integrate (19) and rearrange,
IKdMR
Kd~
K d R ~ I Kd
~D(R-rc) K d ~ M ~-~(R-rc)
kf~COR + kfCOR j - 2)~ Mrce
- - -2)~
e
Kd Mrce~f~(rc-R)+ Kd ~ M ~-~(rc-R)e - ~Kd~-~ rce~D(rc-R)

2k
2k
kfCOR
(20)
Kd D ~(rc
~ -R)
e
kfC~R~
Define:
~=rc
R
(21)
where ~ represents the extent of the progress of the ion exchange in a particle.
Whent=0, ~ = l ; w h e n t = ~ , ~=0.
Substitute (21) into (20), assume RD >>SD, and expand the exponential
function to the fourth term,
KdR5 I(1 2)+ RD (1-3~2+ 2~3)+ R2L (~-3~3 + 3~4 -~5)1
t = ~-~~A -~
3KdD5
-3~
(22)
Two important kinetic mechanism parameters are defined here:

RD
PfP = 3K dD5
(23)
R2~.
- ~
Qc- 3D
(24)
Equation 22 becomes:
753
KdR8
t = 2D-~A [(1- ~
2)+ pfp(l_ 3~2+ 2~ 3)+ Qc(~- 3~ 3+ 3~ 4 - ~5)]
(25)
The time needed for reaching equilibration, when ~eq = 0, is"

_ KdR8
teq - 2DC~ (1+ Pfp)
(26)
From (21), there is
3 = 1- Vreacted = 1- 0
Vtotal
(27)
where 0 is the adsorption fraction, which is the ratio between the reacted volume
and the total volume of a solid particle.
Substitute (26) and (27) into (25),
t
T
1
-
teq
(28)
1 + Pfp
Equation 28 is the mathematical form of the generalised ion exchange model.

In practise, the adsorption fraction is often experimentally determined by
adsorption density:
F
0=~
Feq
(29)
Thus, equation 28 can also be expressed as"
+-
teq
t _
(30)
1+%
+QcI(l-1-q)3Fe
/
1-F/4
3Feq)-/1- lFe
Fq)
754
3.3. S i m p l i f i e d f o r m s o f t h e m o d e l
Two kinetic m e c h a n i s m p a r a m e t e r s , Pfp and Qc, are obtained as a result of the
theoretical deduction of the model. From their definitions it can be seen t h a t Pfp
r e p r e s e n t s the ratio between the rates of film diffusion and particle diffusion, and
Qc reflects the resistance of the surface reaction and the shell progressive
process.
The higher Pfp, the more the adsorption tends to be controlled by
particle diffusion compared with film diffusion and vice versa. The larger Qc, the
more the surface reaction contributes to the control steps.
Equation (23)
indicates t h a t film diffusion tends to control the adsorption process u n d e r
conditions of high Kd, D , and 5 (i.e., high adsorption capacity of solids, fast
diffusion in the particle and slow motion of solution) and low R and D (i.e., small
particles and slow diffusion rate in the liquid phase). According to (24), surface
reaction and shell progressive steps can limit the whole adsorption process to
some extend if the reaction rate constant is low (i.e., ~ is high) and w h e n particle
size is big and diffusion in the solids is slow.
U n d e r different conditions Pfp and Qc can have different values and hence
several simplified models can be deduced from the general model.
These
simplified models are useful in m a n y environmental and experimental systems
and are discussed as follows.
(a) W h e n Pfp = 0 and Qc = 0, equation 28 is reduced to:
: 1 - ( 1 - 0)2~3
(31)
Equation 31 is a film diffusion controlled model with fast accompanying

chemical reactions. It is comparable with BAlM theory [11].
(b) W h e n Pfp = ~ and Qc = 0, (28) is reduced to:
= 1 - 3(1 - 0)2//33 + 2(1 - 0)
(32)
Equation 32 is a particle diffusion controlled model, which is the same as

Nativ's theory [22] where surface reaction is fast.
(c) W h e n Qc = 0, (28) is reduced to:
l+Pfp
{ [ 1 - (1-
]+ efp[ 1 - 3(1 -
2(1 - 0) ] }
(3a
This is a combined film diffusion and particle diffusion controlled model, which
is similar with Dana's steady state model [21] in nature.
(d) W h e n Pfp = 0, (28) is reduced to:
x : [ 1 - (1 - B)2~3 ]+ Q c [ (1 - o)l~3 - 3(1 - O)+ 3 0 - B)4~3 - (1 - B)5/~3 ]
(34)
755
This is a combined film diffusion and surface reaction controlled model.
(e) W h e n Pfp = ~ and Qc v 0, (28) is reduced to:
z" = 1 - 3(1 - 0)~ + 2(1 - O)
(35)
This model is the same as the particle diffusion controlled model (32). This is
because w h e n intraparticle diffusion is predominantly slow, no more ions can
reach the u n r e a c t e d core to continue the surface reaction, and the process is
therefore limited by the particle diffusion.
The theoretical kinetic curves generated by the general model and the
simplified models are shown in Figure 2. The dotted line with open circles is
controlled by film diffusion (31) and the dotted line with open squares is
controlled by particle diffusion (32). The solid line with open triangles is
controlled by a combination of film and particle diffusion (33) and it can be
positioned a n y w h e r e between the two dotted lines. The solid lines with closed
symbols are controlled by a combination of film diffusion, surface reaction, shell
progressive progress and intraparticle diffusion.
They can be positioned
anywhere from the particle diffusion line to beyond the film diffusion line.
..o-
o
~
..
~176
.-'O'"
0.8
. (3"
Er
.-~"
~
~
13~
C
O
13"'
. u
1:r
.~
.~.
0.6
,'/
g
(1)
c
O~
oo-/,
)
---o--- Film diffusion model
(Eq. 31)
--.o--- Particle diffusion model
(Eq. 32)
_c: 0.4
o
x
ILl
Film-particle combined
model (Eq. 33), P=1.5
0.2
General model (Eq. 28),

P=5, Q=3
General model (Eq. 28),

P=0.05, Q=0.5
I
0.2
0.4
Relative time
0.6
0.8
(t/toq)
Figure 2. Functional images of the general model and its simplified forms.
756
4.
RESULTS
Adsorption rates of c a d m i u m onto a m o r p h o u s ferric hydroxide and 7-MnOOH

were m e a s u r e d in controlled s e a w a t e r systems. U n d e r some conditions the
simplified film-particle diffusion model (33), which is a s i n g l e - p a r a m e t e r model,
was enough to describe the adsorption kinetic curves. Results are p r e s e n t e d in
Figures 3 and 4, where points r e p r e s e n t experimental data and lines r e p r e s e n t
calculated results.
E 2.5-
o .u.~ -~ .o .u. []
.o-O -r~ -o
~3
2-o b
1.5-
P:,
Cd-FeOOH
j:::r ~
d -p'
0.5
<
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
t (mins)
Figure 3. Kinetic adsorption of cadmium onto amorphous ferric hydroxide in a seawater
system. (1) Open squares: Co = 20 ppm, Cp = 1.00 g/l, pH = 8.10, particle size = 60-80 mesh.
Particles were pre-hydrated in seawater for 3 hours. The dotted line is calculated from
equation 28. Prp = 3, Qc = 0, teq = 95 min, F e q = 2.6 mg/g. (2) Closed circles: C0=2ppm, Cp =
0.05 g/l, pH =7.00, particle size < 100 mesh, particles were not pre-hydrated. Solid line (eq.
28): Prp = 0.4, Qc = 0, teq = 101 min, F e q = 0.83 mg/g.
From equation 33 it can be seen t h a t if the model can describe e x p e r i m e n t a l data,

t h e n a plot of t against
F /~3]]]}+PfP
[ ( -Feq
F/~3
l+Pfp{[1(1-F~q
) / leq
teq
1-3 1
+2 l_=g_r
should
be a s t r a i g h t line with a slope of 1 and intercept of zero. The same principle

holds for the general model, equation 28. Results in Figures 3 a n d 4 were
introduced to equation 33, and the results were presented in Figures 5 and 6.
The fact t h a t data of Figures 3 and 4 were t r a n s f o r m e d into s t r a i g h t lines
indicated t h a t adsorption kinetics u n d e r these conditions was controlled by a
combination of film diffusion and particle diffusion.
757
1
E
4
c
MnooH
3
o
Q.
o
0
_ %,
L_
30
60
90
120
t (rains)
Figure 4. Kinetic adsorption of cadmium onto ,/-MnOOH in a seawater system. (1) Open
squares: Co = 20 ppm, Cp -- 2.00 g/l, pH = 6.00, particle size < 100 mesh, particles were not
pre-hydrated. The dotted line is calculated from equation 28. Pfp = 6, Qc = 0, teq = 78 min,
Feq = 4.98 mg/g. (2) Closed circles: Co = 2 ppm, Cp = 0.50 g/l, pH =8.00, particle size < 100
mesh, particles were pre-hydrated in seawater for 12 hours. Solid line (28): Pfp= 2.5, Qc = 0,
teq =180 min, Feq = 2.64 mg/g.
120
Cd-FeOOH
>-
8 0 - (1): y = 1.0584x - 2.0264

r2 = 0.9908
40-
r~~~v''g~~/ _~_ _ _
_~~~
20
40
60
(2):y = 0.9546x + 1.0881

, r2:09948
80
100
120
t (mins)
Figure 5. Test of mathematical model (eq. 28) for the kinetic data of Fig. 3.
.~_
l+Pfp
758
120
Cd-MnOOH
>.
8 0 - (2): y = o.8649x + 5.3546

r2 = o . 9 9 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~I~
40_~~~,
(1): y = 0.8428x + 4.8283

, r2=098, 58
0-~'
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
t (rains)
Figure 6. Test of mathematical model (eq. 28) for the kinetic data of Fig. 4.
5.
DISCUSSION
From Figure 2 it can be seen t h a t normal ion exchange is not an i n s t a n t a n e o u s

process. However, m a n y adsorption processes can be fast so t h a t over half of the
adsorption can be achieved within a very short initial period, forming a twophase kinetic curve. This is because, in addition to the ion-exchange processes
which last throughout the whole range of x, a fast non-ion exchange process can
occur initially, depending on the experimental or environmental conditions. This
non-ion exchange process is closely related to static electronic interactions. For
example, the fast initial kinetics can be enhanced when particles are smaller,
more pre-hydrated and dispersed and more charged, and v i c e v e r s a . The non-ion
exchange m e c h a n i s m is not considered in the ion exchange model presented here,
because the purpose of the model is to reveal the major factors t h a t govern the
overall adsorption kinetics by considering both transport and surface reaction
processes. In the previous sorption kinetic models in n a t u r a l waters, sorption is
t r e a t e d as one or more first order reactions, with no attention paid to various
t r a n s p o r t processes. Models developed along the latter lines have to have no less
t h a n four p a r a m e t e r s in order to describe empirically two-phase kinetic curves
[9]. It is therefore i m p o r t a n t to establish a theoretical system so t h a t further
empirical modelling can be developed on a rational physico-chemical basis. In
fact, by incorporating a non-ion exchange mechanism into the model presented
here, a semi-empirical, t w o - p a r a m e t e r analytical model was able to describe twophase adsorption kinetics. This work will be described in a separate paper.
In principle, the two m e c h a n i s m p a r a m e t e r s Pfp and Qc can be theoretically
calculated from basic properties of the system such as the diffusion coefficients,
particle size, thickness of the liquid film, rate constants and partition coefficients.
In practice, where these data are not available, a fitting of data is also of physical
759
meaning. For example, from the modelling results in Figures 3 to 6 it can be
seen that the role of particle diffusion increased as the initial concentration and
particle size increased, and the influence of the non-ion exchange was negligible
under these conditions. Lower pH and shorter pre-hydration time of the solids
may be partly responsible for the inhibition of a non-ion exchange process,
because surface charge may be lower under these conditions [42, 43]. The fact
that Qc equals zero indicated that surface reactions were fast which did limit
sorption processes. A steady state t r e a t m e n t was therefore applicable to the
sorption processes under the conditions specified in Figures 3 and 4.
It must be noted that solid-liquid adsorption kinetics is greatly influenced by
the experimental conditions. For the same system, the kinetics can be controlled
by different steps under various conditions. One of the merits of the model
developed here is that it can predict and explain these changes. Since it is an
analytical model, it is easier to use than numerical models, and the modelling can
be done using normal spreadsheet software (e.g. Lotus, Excel etc.).
Over the last fifteen years, sorption kinetics in natural water systems has
begun to receive increasing attention with many studies focussing on examining
the equilibration time over a period of days to months. However, in most cases,
experimental data assembled in the first few minutes to hours are too few to
reflect the adsorption mechanism. Because of a lack of the mechanism
knowledge, scant attention was paid, among previous work, to the fact that the
reaction volume, stirring status, and even the shape of the container can
influence adsorption kinetics. Theoretical modelling of adsorption kinetics is
therefore not only of apparent importance for environmental engineering, but
also for the design of experiments and the in-depth understanding of sorption
processes in natural waters.
6.
A
C
Co
Cp
C
D
D
k
Kd
APPENDIX: GLOSSARY
P~
adsorbate ion
concentration of A in solution phase
initial concentration of solute
particle concentration (mg/1)
concentration of A in the solid phase
diffusion coefficient in the liquid film
diffusion coefficient in the solid phase
rate constant of the surface reaction
equilibrium solid-liquid partition coefficient
RD
kinetic mechanism parameter, Pfp = 3 K d ~ 5
Oc
R2~.
kinetic mechanism parameter, Qc = 3--D-
radius of the solid particle
760
rc
t
teq
0
F
radius of the unreacted solid core

time
equilibration time
adsorption (or exchange) fraction
adsorption density (mole/m 2 or mg/g)
degree of ion exchange reaction, ~ = rc
R
relative time, x = ~~teq
the kinetic impediment coefficient of surface reaction (inversely
proportional to k)
thickness of the liquid film
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Z. Zhang from the Department of Chemistry of the Ocean University of

Qingdao for helpful advice and C. A. Lewis, J. Maskall and E. D. Stutt for proof
reading.
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E n v i r o n m e n t a l Life C y c l e A s s e s s m e n t
wastewater treatment techniques
763
(LCA) of t w o a d v a n c e d
D. N i j d a m l j. Blom I and J. A. Boere 2

1 Tauw Milieu, P.O. Box 133, 7400 AC Deventer, The Netherlands
2 NORIT Nederland B.V., P.O. Box 105, 300 AC Amersfoort, The Netherlands
Abstract
An environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) was applied to two techniques for
advanced w a s t e w a t e r treatment: granular activated carbon (GAC) on reactivation
basis and advanced oxidation by means of ozone/UV. The LCA was set up for two
situations: percolation water from a landfill (heavily contaminated flow) and
HCH/chlorobenzenes contaminated groundwater (lightly contaminated flow). 1 m 3
of treated w a t e r was chosen as functional unit.
The most i m p o r t a n t conclusions are that GAC has a significantly better
environmental profile t h a n ozone/UV for the aspects studied. The environmental
impact is dominated by: production and reactivation (GAC), in situ power
consumption and the production of pure oxygen (ozone/UV).
Key w o r d s
life cycle assessment, granular activated carbon, GAC, ozone, ozone/UV, percolation
water t r e a t m e n t , g r o u n d w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
1.
INTRODUCTION
Apart f~om technical and financial aspects, environmental considerations play an

increasingly i m p o r t a n t role in the selection of water t r e a t m e n t techniques. In
practice this choice is often made based an a non-systematic approach. An
environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) represents a more objective method of
determining the environmental efficiency of a certain operation. A LCA can yield
information regarding techniques that are preferable from an environmental point
of view. Furthermore, a LCA can serve optimisation of techniques aimed at improval
of' environmental efficiency, based on objective and quantitative data.
A LCA is described focussed on two techniques for advanced w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t . These techniques are adsorption on g r a n u l a r activated carbon (GAC),
assuming central reactivation of the loaded activated carbon, and advanced chemical
oxidation. A generally applied advanced oxidation technique for w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t was selected, i.e. oxidation with ozone combined with UV irradiation. The
LCA was set up for two situations, focussed on the removal of contaminants with low
biodegradability.
764
2.
B A C K G R O U N D S OF A L C A
In a LCA a product system is subjected to a total e n v i r o n m e n t a l analysis

according to a defined method. This means t h a t for the whole life cycle of a product
(from the extraction of raw materials to the waste stage) all environmental impacts
are included and are quantified as far as possible. Apart from physical products, like
packing material and consumer goods, systems like zoning plans, soil remediation,
waste t r e a t m e n t methods and - like in this case - wastewater t r e a t m e n t techniques
can be assessed by means of a LCA.
Usually, the LCA method is applied in order to gain a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
products' impact on the environment and for product innovations. LCAs were
already executed in the seventies. However, until the early nineties there were no
u n a m b i g u o u s guidelines; therefore, the results of different LCAs for the same
subject could differ dramatically. Nowadays, generally accepted guidelines are
available [1,2].
A LCA includes a survey of all the emissions, raw materials used, waste products
released etc. of the production and related processes. Next, these so-called
interventions in the environment are t r a n s l a t e d into e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact
categories (greenhouse effect, acidification, deterioration of the ozone layer, etc.).
Importancy factors are used, or in LCA terms: equivalence factors. Using these
equivalence factors the interventions in the environment are t r a n s l a t e d into scores
on the various environmental impact categories. The environmental profiles thus
obtained, indicate the level of environmental impact for each product system based
on the functional unit (the basis of comparison for different products or systems). In
a LCA the following environmental aspects are included (Table 1).
Table 1
Survey of environmental aspects (underlined - incorporated in this study)
biotic exhaustion
abiotic exhaustion (depletion of abiotic resources)
energy
h u m a n toxicity
ecotoxicity
greenhouse effect
photochemical oxidant formation (smog formation)
acidification
eutrophication
odour, noise
victims
d a m a g e s to the landscape
(final) waste
765
3.
D E S C R I P T I O N OF T H E C A S E S
For certain w a t e r flows g r a n u l a r activated carbon (GAC) and ozone/UV can be

regarded as alternative t r e a t m e n t techniques. This, by the way, is a strong contrast
to the t r e a t m e n t of drinking water, where ozone and GAC are highly complementary
techniques. Both techniques (GAC and ozone/UV) are applicable on a broad range
of water flows, e.g.: industrial waste waters, percolation water and groundwater. It
often concerns polishing, for example following biological t r e a t m e n t and/or
mechanical filtration. Two cases were selected for the LCA study, a relatively light
and a heavily contaminated flow; thus, it should give an indication for a wide range
of w a s t e w a t e r s containing poorly or nonbiodegradable dissolved organics. For
backgrounds of both technologies, see f.i. [3 - 5].
Case I: biologically pre-treated percolation w a t e r

E.g. at m a n y G e r m a n landfill sites, the percolate is t r e a t e d by advanced
techniques. Figure I indicates a common procedure; as a final step GAC or ozone/UV
is used. Based on realistic practical data the composition of the feed (before GAC or
ozone/UV, so after pre-treatment) for case I is given in Table 2.
AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
(e.g. ACTIVE SLUDGE)
SAND FILTRATION
GAC
03 / UV
Figure 1. Treatment procedure percolation water (case I).
766
Table 2
Water composition case I
flow (m3/h)
AOX (mg/1)
* feed
1.5
* effluent requirement
_<0.5
COD (mg/1)
* feed
1000
* effluent requirement
_<200
Case II" Groundwater treatment

Numerous contaminated groundwater sites exist in the (industrialized) world.
Case II is based on a site where the groundwater is contaminated with HCHs and
chlorobenzenes; this as a result of former production of insecticides, lindane f.i.
Further dispersal of the contaminants is avoided by (among other methods) pumping
up and treating the groundwater. The treatment procedure is summarized in
Figure 2; the water composition for post treatment is given in Table 3.
AERATION
SEDIMENTATION
AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
(BIOROTOR)
SAND FILTRATION
I
GAC
03 / UV
Figure 2. Treatment procedure groundwater (case II).
767
Table 3
W a t e r composition case II
flow [m3./h)
42
chlorobenzenes (~g/1)
* feed
30
* effluent r e q u i r e m e n t
_<1
HCHs (~g/1)
* feed
30
_<0.02
COD (rag/l)
4.
* feed
25
_<20
D E S C R I P T I O N OF P O S T - T R E A T M E N T P R O C E S S E S
GAC
GAC is a porous adsorbent with high internal surface (order of magnitude 1000
m2/g) and a particle size varying from about 0.5 to 3 mm. Organic substances are
removed from the water primarily by physical adsorption. In w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
the GAC filtration mainly takes place in fixed beds, operated in up- or downflow
(Figure 3). As soon as the carbon bed breaks through, the GAC is replaced by new
or r e g e n e r a t e d product.
I
I
I
I
GAC
Figure 3. Schematic representation of GAC filtration.
GAC
768
If the acceptance criteria are met (based on the level of heavy metals f.i.), the
loaded GAC can be regenerated by t h e r m a l reactivation. Given the specialistic
n a t u r e and the high capital costs involved, the GAC is typically reactivated at
central reactivation facilities (Figure 4).
The loaded GAC is t r e a t e d at 900-1000~
adsorbed organic substances are
pyrolysed and oxidized by m e a n s of s t e a m to CO2, H20 etc. Off-gases are posttreated, including t r e a t m e n t in an afterburner.
OFF GAS
(TO AFTERBURNER)
SPENT
NATURAL
GAS
EI -4
(WET)--~:
A _ _,4
I_
- ~
~J.~ .....
AIR
--~--~/
WATER
S-TEAM
QUENCHING--~
WATER
REACTIVATED
GAC
SPENT
WATER I~:l 1~ u u
STEAM
oo
'
WATER
'
A T/V
C ACATE
Figure 4. Example of reactivation kilns.

An average loss of about 10 volume percent occurs as a result of attrition during
t r a n s p o r t / h a n d l i n g and b u r n off during the t h e r m a l t r e a t m e n t . This loss is
compensated by supply with either new GAC or discarded reactivated GAC from
food and drinking water industries. Next, the reactivated GAC - including the make
up - is reused for w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t .
The most i m p o r t a n t system features for the 2 cases are s u m m a r i z e d in Table 4.
769
Table 4
System features of GAC filtration, case I and II; GAC grade NORIT NRS EA 0.5-1.5
flow (m3/h)
GAC filter
* volume GAC (m 3)
* weight GAC (kg)
GAC consumption
* average load (m/m %)
Case I
3
Case II
42
18
6300
36 (2 * 18)
12.600
30 (COD)
0.22 (Cl-benzenes)
0.15 (H CHs)
* use per m~ w a t e r (kg/m3)
in situ power consumption
* used pumping power (W)
* use per m 3 w a t e r (kWh/m 3)
distance to reactivation plant (km)
2.83
0.033
100
0.033
200
0.005
300
300
Ozone/UV
Removal of organic substances by means of ozone/UV is based on oxidative
degradation.
Ozone is a strong oxidant, which is generated in situ from oxygen by means of
electric discharge at high voltage (> 3000 V). Both air and pure oxygen can be used,
but the latter is more common (costs!). The ozone gas is brought into contact with
the water, in order to have ozone dissolved. Surplus, undissolved ozone can be
removed from the gas phase; this gas flow can also be re-used.
Additionally the w a t e r is exposed to UV light to stimulate the formation of OH
radicals. The OH radicals are highly reactive. See Figure 5.
oxygen
supply
, .................................................
-;
I lair
9 ,
ozone
generator
dryer
*,
i
ozone
destructor
i
i
INFLUENT~
...............
I
l reactor
UV
lamps
injector
Figure 5. Schematic representation of the ozone/UV system.
EFFLUENT
~
770
The relevant system features of ozone/UV for the 2 cases are s u m m a r i z e d in

Table 5. The power consumption of the installation is expressed per kg ozone; so
a p a r t from generating ozone, the electric energy required for UV lamps, cooling,
pumps etc. is also included.
Table 5
System features of ozone/UV
Flow (m3/h)
Ratio 03: COD (m/m)
In situ power consumption installation
* per kg O3 (kWh/kg 03)
* per m 3 w a t e r (kWh/m 3)
02 consumption
* per kg 03 (kg O J k g 03)
* per m 3 w a t e r (kg O J m 3)
Case I
3
2:1
Case II
42
2.5:1
18
30.6
18
0.45
14.6
24.8
14.6
0.55
5. E N V I R O N M E N T A L A N A L Y S I S
For both techniques - GAC and ozone/UV - a LCA was applied according to the
method of [1].
In addition to the 'blank' (no treatment), three different options were evaluated:
a. GAC, consisting of 100 % reactivated GAC
a". GAC, consisting of 90 % reactivated GAC and 10 % new GAC
b. ozone/UV
c. no t r e a t m e n t (i.e. u n t r e a t e d discharge).
1 m 3 waste w a t e r was chosen as functional u n i t . Thus, the basis of comparison
is 1 m 3 of a defined wastewater which is treated to a specific quality level. The basic
assumptions used are explained briefly; s u m m a r y , see Table 6.
General assumptions
The environmental aspects included in the study are listed in Table 1.
Components t h a t are not likely to have a significant contribution to the
environmental impact were excluded. One single aspect - peat extraction - was
approached qualitatively (see later). The production of capital goods was not t a k e n
into account (not considered relevant in relation to the total).
Ozone/UV
The environmental aspects are dominated by the in situ consumption of (electric)
energy and the production of liquid oxygen. The effects of t r a n s p o r t for the supply
of oxygen were considered negligible. The generation of ozone is reported to require
8-9 kWh/kg. The total in situ energy consumption is determined at 18 kWh/kg ozone;
this value represents the energy consumption of the whole installation, including
ozone generator, UV lamps, pumps and the cooling system.
771
Table 6
Survey of processes as p a r t of the environmental analysis
general
- fuel extraction and recycling
- generating electricity
GAC
- peat extraction
- peat t r a n s p o r t
- peat charcoal production
p r i m a r y GAC production
- secondary GAC production (reactivation)
- use of t r e a t m e n t installation (discharge of t r e a t e d w a t e r included)
- t r a n s p o r t of new, reactivated and used GAC
ozone/UV system
- production of oxygen
- use of t r e a t m e n t installation (discharge of t r e a t e d w a t e r included)
T r e a t m e n t with ozone/UV results in the oxidative degradation (transformation) of

substances. In this process, undesired by-products may be formed (f.i. the formation
of bromate out of bromide). These effects are not included in this study.
GAC
The e n v i r o n m e n t a l analysis of GAC is more complex as compared to ozone/UV,
due to the n u m b e r of process steps; production of new GAC, reactivation of loaded
GAC, transport, and a (modest) in situ energy consumption.
The release of substances as waste product (e.g. p a r t of the GAC attrition loss)
is quantified; the effects of land filling (for example leaching) are not t a k e n into
account. Emissions occurring during reactivation are related to the organic and
inorganic loads based on the two cases. CO2 formed through oxidation of the organic
load is not t a k e n into account; in the case of ozone/UV, CO2 is released in situ and
is also not t a k e n into account. Obviously, C02 as a result of combustion of n a t u r a l
gas and GAC is included.
The production of binders for virgin GAC was not included in this study; however,
the caloric value of these binders has been included. It was assumed t h a t peat is the
raw m a t e r i a l for virgin GAC. The effects of peat extraction were evaluated only
qualitatively.
The raw peat is extracted from peat areas in Germany, which are mainly used
for agricultural purposes. After the lots have been excavated they regain their
agricultural purpose. The final use value of the land does not decrease, also because
not all the peat is excavated. Nevertheless, there is a temporary disturbance, due to
the excavation activities. Also, to a lesser degree, area's of ecological value are
exploited for peat winning. By restoring the exploited areas afterwards, the original
n a t u r a l value is m a x i m a l l y retained.
772
6.
EVALUATION
OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL
PROFILES
Environmental profiles
The effect scores are summarized graphically in Figures 6 and 7. The higher the
score, the higher the environmental impact. The highest score (highest
environmental impact) for each environmental aspect is always set at 100 %.
100
100
100
0
I_
0
0
t,t)
80
(/}
0
r
9r-~
60
0
(L)
(~
_=
39
____--
40
0
I,._
(D
Q.
35
_=
20
ii-o
0
0
........
9 la act carbon
oO+
..f
+-~
,<>o,
impact category
[] la" act carbon
[] Ib ozone/UV
@ Ic no t r e a t m e n t
Figure 6. Environmental profiles case I (percolation water).

Untreated discharge scores a low impact level for many environmental aspects.
This is quite obvious as no raw materials or energy carriers are used. For the
environmental aspects "eutrophication" and "aquatox" the untreated discharge
shows a very high score. This is the result of COD, AOX and HCHs/chlorobenzenes
emission.
In case of ozone/UV the environmental impact is dominated by the electricity
consumption and the production of oxygen. The waste is totally resulting from
energy generation, most of all by coal-fired power stations (fly ash, bottom ash).
Although these residues are largely marketed as secondary materials in The
Netherlands, here they are still considered as waste products, because on a
European level only a small percentage is marketed as secondary material.
The environmental impact of GAC is much lower as compared to ozone/UV. The
components related to production and reactivation of GAC dominate. Transports and
in situ energy play a minor role. In most cases system a" (supplemented with 10 %
773
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100 ]
100
0L
0
0
8O
f~=
SO
40
3S3~
2r
2!
3s
0
L_
2O
0.30.30.
.......
impact category
9 Ila act carbon
[] Ila" act carbon
[] lib ozone/UV
[] IIc no treatment
Figure 7. Environmental profiles case 11 (groundwater).
new GAC) yields slightly higher scores than system a (100 % reactivated GAC). So
reactivation generally results in a lower environmental impact than the production
of virgin GAC.
Sensitivity to key assumptions
Major key parameters in this study are the achievable load on the GAC and the
energy consumption of the ozone/UV system:
* GAC
For the GAC grade involved, the load assumed (Table 4) is realistic; the levels were
based on practical experiences.
* ozone/UV
Again, the electricity consumption (18 kWh/kg ozone) was deduced from practical
experiences. However, data provided by equipment suppliers show variations in the
range 14-22.5 kWh]kg ozone. The trends regarding the environmental impact of
GAC versus ozone/UV are similar through the whole range (Figure 8 and 9).
774
100
100
8 oo
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
G)
t..
0
0
ee
80
oo
e}
tO~
"~
6O
40
1-
20
~'"
".
.+~176 ~o~ o<.+ /
~o
t
i
impact category
9 la act carbon
[] la" act carbon
[] Ib ozone/UV 14 kWh
[] Ib ozone/UV 22.5 kWh
Figure 8. Effect of power consumption level, 14 versus 22.5 kWh/kg ozone; case I.
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
~.
_~
~=~
66
'
0
p,k',,
,..'."80~,
~,~
.0,~.0~.
,.#..e,
00~
@'~
@~
impact category
9 Ila act carbon 9 Ila" act carbon [] lib ozone/UV 14 kWh 9 lib ozone/UV 22.5 kWh
Figure 9. Effect of power consumption level, ] 4 versus 22.5 k W h / k g ozone; case r[.
.o,r
.
775
7.
CONCLUSIONS
Untreated discharges yield a very negative score on eutrophication, aquatoxicity

and - to some extent - h u m a n toxicity (case I). Obviously for the other impact
categories, u n t r e a t e d discharge scores well (except for h u m a n toxicity in case II),
because no energy and raw materials are used for treatment.
GAC on reactivation basis scores markedly better t h a n ozone/UV.
The environmental impact of GAC is dominated by production and reactivation:
transport and in situ energy consumption are marginal.
The environmental impact of ozone/UV is dominated by the in situ consumption
of (electric) energy and the production of pure oxygen. Here also, the transport (of
pure oxygen) plays a marginal role.
Remarks
The conclusions are valid for the cases described; the assumptions used are
realistic.
Technical developments in both treatment techniques - and combinations with other
techniques - can influence such comparisons between techniques. Given the
principles and assumptions, Figures 6 and 7 represent the situation for the cases
described. Such a comparison, however, should never be taken too static; techniques
develop and optimizing is possible through combinations with other treatment
processes. Some examples:
Ozone/UV
* a trend towards lower electricity consumption by the ozone/U-V installation
* catalytic ozonization (oxidation by ozone in presence of a catalyst)
* ozone/UV, followed by biological treatment (procedure is being developed): organic
substances are partially oxidized, then biodegraded.
GAC
It is possible to optimize GAC types and treatment process. As a result COD loads
with a weight percentage of 40 are achieved already (assumption in case I: 30 %)
REFERENCES
1. R. Heijungs (ed.), Environmental life cycle analysis of products, CML, Leiden,

The Netherlands, 1992.
2. Environmental m a n a g e m e n t - Life cycle assessment- Principles and framework.
ISO No. 140440, 1997.
3. B. Langlais, D.A. Reckhow and D.R. Brink (eds.), Ozone in water treatment.
Application and engineering, Lewis Publ., USA, 1991.
4. H. Sontheimer, J.C. Crittenden and R.S. Summers (eds.), Activated carbon for
water treatment, Univ. Karlsruhe, Germany, 1989.
5. J.A. Boere, Wastewater treatment using granular activated carbon. PAO Course,
TU Delft, 1998.

777
A p p l i c a t i o n of a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s for t h e e n r i c h m e n t of toxic m e t a l s
and their determination by atomic spectroscopy
R. Dobrowolski
M. Curie-Sktodowska University, Faculty of Chemistry, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
The main parameters influencing preconcentration processes and separation of

trace amounts of metals on activated carbon are presented. The factors
influencing the effectiveness of sorption of metal ions on activated carbons as
well as the possibilities and methods of modification of those factors are
discussed. The usefulness of sorption concentration and separation of trace
amounts of heavy metals on activated carbons for their further determination by
atomic spectrometry methods is evaluated.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Activated carbons are unique adsorbents because of their extended surface

area, microporous structure, high adsorption capacity and high degree of surface
reactivity. One of their important applications includes the enrichment of toxic
metals from the solution for further determination by atomic spectrometry
methods. In the case of adsorption of inorganic compounds on the activated
carbon from aqueous solutions, the chemical nature of the adsorbent determined
by the amount and nature of the surface complexes has, in general, more
influence than the surface area and porosity of the adsorbent. Carbons are almost
invariably associated with appreciable amounts of oxygen. The oxygen is fixed
firmly and comes off only as oxides of carbon with heat treatment in vacuum or in
an inert atmosphere. The phenomenon of ion adsorption on activated carbons is
caused mainly by the presence of different oxygen surface functional groups. The
equilibrium between these groups and the solution depends on the pH value of
the solution. Adsorption of ions is affected by the surface charge of the particles of
activated carbons and some specific interaction between particular kinds of
surface groups and the ions. The most important phenomena which influence the
ion adsorption capacity are ion-exchange, nonspecific sorption, surface
precipitation redox reactions and formation of surface chelates [1-6]. Contribution
of the above phenomena to ion adsorption depends on specific ion properties, kind
of surface groups and their concentrations. The ion exchange properties of
778
activated carbons have main contribution to the total sorption capacity.
Compared with many other ion-exchange materials, activated carbons are
characterized by a number of advantages. Their specific ion-exchange properties
may be modified in the desired direction and their ion-exchange capacity may be
also controlled. Modification treatment consists in incorporation of different
heteroatoms into the surface with simultaneous chemical bonding of these atoms
with the carbon lattice. These treatments give rise to stable carbon-nitrogen,
carbon-sulfur, carbon-chlorine or carbon-bromine surface compounds. On the
other hand, outgassing treatment at high temperature (over 1100~ removes the
surface functional groups and changes the anions-exchange capacity
considerably. This modification causes change of the surface charge density sign
and pH of carbon suspension in the water consistency. This results in the change
of ion mechanism adsorption.
From the analytical point of view, a preliminary separation and concentration
of trace amounts of the elements in the samples for quantitative analysis by the
atomic spectrometry method is often necessary. Particularly for the concentration
of trace amounts of the elements contained in the concentrated electrolyte
solution the use of highly selective adsorbents is necessary. The activated
carbons characterized by the vast polydispersive porous structure and high
susceptibility to chemical modification of their surface are useful for these
purposes. Specific electrochemical and adsorption properties of carbons resulting
from their microporous structure and surface chemical properties [2,5] cause that
they are irreplaceable in these analytical operations.
2. ACTIVATED CARBON MODIFICATION FOR THE ANALYTICAL
PURPOSES
Activated carbons usually contain, apart from the crystals, mineral substances
occluded in the pores, described often as the ash content. Depending on the type
of raw material used for manufacturing activated carbons the ash content is from
0.5 to 20%. The commonly used method of impurities removing is leaching of
activated carbons with acids. Owing to the complex composition of mineral
additives, the mixture of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids is used.
Application of activated carbons for a preliminary separation and
concentration of trace amounts of the elements and their detrmination by atomic
spectroscopy methods involves very fine purification of carbons from mineral
additives. In the presented experiments the powder activated carbons No. 1860
manufactured by Merck, Germany (sample M) and Medical Carbon (Carbo
Medicinalis) produced by The Dry Destillation of Wood Plant in Hajnowka,
Poland (sample MC) were studied. Activated carbon No. 2186 as delivered is
often used for preconcentration and separation of different inorganic and organic
substances, however, in the case of its application for trace metals analysis by
slurry sampling graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry technique the
fine purification is required because the carbon slury is introduced directly into
779
furnace of an AAS spectrometer. Commercially available carbons were leached by
concentrated hydrochloric acid using a Soxhlet a p p a r a t u s made of quartz and by
hydrofluoric acid in the Teflon vessel. In Table 1 the m a i n components and the
effect of this purification are shown. The m a i n components were leached to the
ppm level, however, Fe, Si, A1 are still present at a relatively high level.
Table 1
Main components and effects of carbon purification
Content (ppm)
Carbon
M
MN
MC
MCN
Fe
A1.
550
32.5
660
28.4
208
14.3
135
10.2
136
2.5
85
1.8
Si
800
120
360
82
136
85
72
48
S
520
220
45
21.8
Ca
Mg
745
242
12.5
8.1
1250
125
15.2.
5.6
Mn
Cu
112
2.8
153
8.2
15.9
0.05
11.3
0.02
The studied carbons were modified using two different methods e.g. oxidation
by 13% H202 (sample MO or MCO) or by concentrated nitric acid (sample MN or
MCN). The procedure was as follows: 500 cm 3 of perhydrol or concentrated nitric
acid were added to 50 grams of the activated carbon and the suspension was
h e a t e d at 90~ until dry. The residue was washed with distilled water until
conductivity of the w a t e r eluent was close to t h a t of the distilled water. The
effects of surface changes were examined by the transmission FTIR spectra of
these three samples using a spectrophotometer with a P e r k i n Elmer 1725X
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer. For each spectrum, 250 scans
were made at a resolution of 2 cm -1. No m a t h e m a t i c a l smoothing functions were
performed on the spectra; however, the ordinate of each spectrum was
normalized to facilitate comparisons between the spectra. The pellet of KBr
containing about 0.02% of carbon was used. The pellets were dried overnight at
120~ before the spectra were measured. These activated carbon samples were
characterized by N2 adsorption a t - 1 9 6 ~
Specific surface areas were obtained
by applying the BET equation to the data of N2 adsorption. Moreover, the static
ion-exchange capacity for the studied carbons using 0.05 M HC1 and 0.05 M
NaOH was measured. The details of these experiments are given elsewhere [7].
All of these d a t a are s u m m a r i z e d in Table 2.
The reaction of activated carbon M with the oxidants changed not only the
chemical n a t u r e of its surface but also its texture characteristics. Carbon
oxidation by concentrated nitric acid caused the decrease in the surface area to
the greatest extent. Some of meso- and macropores were probably destroyed
because of the loss of pore walls. On the other hand, oxidation by nitric acid
involves creation of different surface nitrate complexes. The m a i n adsorption
band of FTIR spectra for the modified Merck carbon is depicted in Figure 1.
780
Table 2
Surface area and ion-exchange capacity of the activated carbon samples
Sample
MC
MCO
MCN
M
MO
MN
Surface area
m2/g
Anion-exchange capacity
mmole/g
Cation-exchange capacity
mmole/g
1200
1090
810
1140
910
820
0.29
0.26
0.03
0.29
0.19
0.04
0.37
0.60
2.44
0.34
0.63
2.32
44.5
44.0
43.5
43.0
42.5
42.0,
41.5
41.0
40.5
40.0
39.5
39.0
38.0
1787.0
1750
1700
1650
1600
1550
1500
1450
1400
1357.0
cm-1
Figure 1. FTIR spectra of activated carbons, 1 represents sample M.; 2 sample MO;
3 sample MN.
Identification of the chemical species is not possible but some direct
information about the surface chemical n a t u r e of the carbon may be obtained.
Thus, if the spectra of the samples are compared, especially in the region
1780-1350 cm 1, it can be seen that on the sample MN a new band at 1577 and
1538 cm -1 is appears with disappearance of the band at 1643 and 1636 cm -1. A
new band for the carbon MN shows the presence of nitro groups and surface
nitrate complexes [5,8,9]. The spectra of carbon M and MO are very similar but
the band at 1717 cm -1 is more intensive and could be assigned to the carboxylic
acid groups. Finally, one can conclude t h a t t r e a t m e n t of the sample M with H202
to obtain the sample MO brought about the fixation of a large a m o u n t of oxygen,
781
mainly in the carboxylic acid groups and treatment of the sample M by
concentrated nitric acid brought nitro and nitrate aromatic compounds onto the
surface of this carbon. Moreover, as the effect of nitric acid oxidation, humic acid
is formed on the carbon surface. Comparing the static cation-exchange capacity of
the studied carbons one can conclude that by neutralization of humic acids
abnormal exchange capacities for the carbons oxidized by nitric acid are obtained.
These observations were confirmed experimentally by the UV study of the soluble
product of the water carbon suspension at the basic pH values. Identification of
the individual humic acids is a very difficult task and will be undertaken later.
On the other hand, the oxidation t r e a t m e n t either by H202 or nitric acid causes
reverse dependence of the ion-exchange capacity of the modified carbons. An
increase in the cation-exchange capacity and a decrease in the anion-exchange
capacity were observed. In the case of the oxidation by concentrated nitric acid
the anion-exchange capacity is practically equal to zero.
Oxidation of activated carbons with different oxidizers leads to formation of
carbon preparations characterized by differentiated and significantly exposed
ion-sorption properties. The surface of oxidized carbon contains different
functional groups (e.g. carboxyl, phenol, carbonyl of quinone type groups,
carboxyl anhydride and cyclic peroxides) of acidic nature which can dissociate at
different pH values [3]. Conjugation of the functional groups on the carbon
surface causes the increase of dissociation degree of some groups to such a degree
that ion exchange is possible also in a strongly acidic medium (pH = 1). Organic
carboxyl ion-exchangers exhibit their ion-exchange properties at higher (2 units)
pH values. Ion-exchange properties of carbon change depending on pH of the
solution, dimension of ion and specific properties of the element. An increase of
pH value of the solution causes the increase of total ion-exchange capacity of the
carbon and makes selectivity of the exchanger worse [10].
Specific properties of the ion may influence significantly the course of ionexchange process on the oxidized carbons. For example the sorption of trivalent
chromium ions is significantly lower than that of divalent ions of nickel, copper
and even calcium. From the investigations of ion-exchange properties of oxidized
carbons it is possible to arrange different ions according to their increasing
ability for ion-exchange on the activated carbon, as follows [11]:
NH< Na< Rb<< Cs< Mg< Ca, Cd< Ba, Mn< Zn< Co< Ni< Pb<<AI< La<< Cu<< Fe
Iron (III) ion and lanthanide ions form strong surface complexes with the
carbon surface even in the strongly acidic media [12] (order of magnitude of
instability constants of such complexes is 10). The reasons for specific sorption of
ions on oxidized carbons have not been fully explained so far. It is supposed that,
apart from the classical ion-exchange mechanism, formation of weakly
dissociated complex surface species of chelating type also plays the important
role [4].
782
Owing to the ability of oxidized carbons for specific sorption as well as to large
differences in the ion-exchange constants of individual ions, the oxidized carbons
can be utilized for separation of the ions of similar properties e.g. lithium,
sodium, potassium and cesium ions [13]. High numerical values of the ionexchange constants of many ions on the oxidized carbon allow for quantitative
isolation of individual metal ions in the presence of large excess of matrix. This
makes the use of oxidized carbons for analytical concentration of trace amounts
of elements possible. By appropriate changes of chemical structure of the carbon
surface the desirable changes in ion-sorption properties of carbon preparations
can be attained [4]. The good results may be obtained by building of some
elements (oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and selenium) to the surface layer
of carbon and deposition of different organic and inorganic substances on the
carbon surface (impregnation). Building of nitrogen atoms into the surface of
activated carbons influences, in an interesting way, the ion-sorption properties of
this material. Careful partial oxidation of nitrided carbon with hydrogen peroxide
or nitric acid diminishes slightly its ion exchange capacity and improves
simultaneously its cation exchange properties. A significant improvement of
selectivity of the sorption of the ions (especially divalent ions) on this type of
carbon is then observed [14]. By deposition of sulfur on the carbon surface the
carbon preparations of differentiated ion-exchange properties are obtained. The
presence of sulfur on the surface of activated carbons causes the formation of
adsorption centers for anions, and in the case of carbon black adsorption centers
for ions are formed. Garcia et al. [15] sulfurized the active carbon by t r e a t m e n t in
H2S and SO2 atmospheres under different conditions. They employed in the study
the commercial activated carbon Merck (1.5 mm, AC) and the samples prepared
by heat t r e a t m e n t of AC from 30 to 900~ in N2 (C-N2-900) or H2S (C-H2S-900), or
by t r e a t m e n t of the material first at 30~ successively in SO2 and H2S and then
at 200~ N2 (C-SO2-H2S-200). Modified carbons were characterized in term of
chemical composition based on the elemental and proximate analysis data, and
texturally by N2 adsorption a t - 1 9 6 ~
mercury porosimetry and helium density
measurements. Some data of their chemical and textural characteristics are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Sulfur content, specific surface area and helium density of the adsorbents (After
Garcia et al. [15]. Reproduced with permission from Pergamon Press)
Sample
AC
C-N2-900
C-H2S-900
C-SO2-H2S-200
S
wt%
m2g -1
pile
g cm-
0.1
0.2
9.9
10.2
921
922
785
764
1.90
2.02
2.04
1.87
aEstimated from N2 adsorption a t - 1 9 6 ~
SBET a
by the BET method, with Am. =16.2/k 2.
783
As shown in Table 3, the sulfur content is very low for AC and C-N2-900
because this carbon material usually posseses a small sulfur content. As for
C-H2S-900 and C-SO2-H2S-200, the sulfur content is around 10 wt%. Despite
different methods of preparation of the samples the sulfur contents were similar.
However, the macroporosity was better developed in the two samples obtained by
heat t r e a t m e n t of activated carbons. The FTIR spectra study of sulfurized
carbons indicated that the sulfur-carbon complexes formed at high temperature.
When the carbon was heated in H2S some atomic groups containing H2S or SHwere observed. Finally, they suggested, concerning sulfurized carbons, that in the
t r e a t m e n t of carbons with SO2 and H2S, sulfoxide and thiophenol groups were
formed respectively. These modifications of carbons could be very useful for
adsorption of soft acid ions.
Phosphorization of activated carbons with phosphoric acid or phosphorus
trichloride vapours at high temperature leads to formation of complex oxidephosphorus structures, which causes that the modified carbon sample exhibits
strong acidic and ion-sorption properties. An impregnation of the activated
carbon with different substances creates numerous possibilities of modification of
its properties. Selective sorption properties for the sorption from the liquid phase
are such a type of carbon, on which some species which can complex the selected
ions or bond selected species owing to chemisorption, are adsorbed preliminarily.
Carbon
preparations
with
the
deposited
complexing
agents
(e.g.
dimethylglioxime, o-nitroso-h-naphtol, alkali metal xantogenate or dithizone)
selectively adsorb the ions contained in the solutions owing to formation of the
complexes between these ions and the substance deposited on the carbon surface.
The carbon impregnated with the lead sulphide adsorbed effectively uranium
compounds in the solution [16]. The adsorption of uranium from aqueous solution
was investigated by Abbasi et al. [17] using conventional commercially available
carbon. It was found that treatment with hot nitric acid oxidized the surface
carbon and significantly increased the adsorption capacity for uranium in nearneutral and slightly acidic nitrate solutions.
In comparison to the conventional organic ion-exchange resins the activated
carbons modified in order to improve their ion-sorption properties are
characterized by better operational parameters, except the maximum ion
exchange capacity. Carbon materials are of relatively low costs and are
characterized by high chemical resistance and stable ion exchange capacity in the
case of multiple sorption and desorption. Moreover, such materials have a lot of
advantages: high radiation resistance and possibility of combustion useful to
obtain the maximum concentration of metal ions in the sample.
STUDY OF THE TOXIC METAL A D S O R P T I O N ON THE ACTIVATED

CARBONS
The adsorption yield of the ion metals on the activated carbons depends on
many parameters. From the analytical point of view, the knowledge about the
784
conditions, in which close to 100% of the ion adsorption yield can be reached, is
very important, especially when the static method of preconcentration is
employed. These p a r a m e t e r s can be divided into the three groups: p a r a m e t e r s
describing the nature of carbon surface, specific ion properties and the solution
components. Depending on the system studied, the role of each group of
p a r a m e t e r s is different. The adsorption centers on the carbon surface are in
conjugation with pH values of the bulk solution. The equilibrium between the
surface functional groups and the solution depends on the pH value of the
solution. Adsorption of ions is affected by the surface charge of the particles of
activated carbon and some specific interactions between particular kinds of the
surface groups and the ions. This effectplays a significant role in the case of the
adsorption of multivalent cations. The strength of interactions between
particular surface groups and the ions depends on both the kind and activity of
the adsorption center and the ion properties. The most active adsorption centers
are occupied firstly by the ions, then the adsorption on the other centers takes
place. Exhaustion of the most reactive adsorption centers causes the change of
adsorption mechanism. Therefore the studies of the initial part of the ion
adsorption isotherms on the activated carbon are very useful. The initial part of
the Pb (II) and Cd (II) isotherms on the modified medical carbons at n a t u r a l pH
values are shown in Figure 3. In the range of low Pb(II) ion equilibrium
0.1
o. ~
I'0
15
20
c {mmole/dm'}
Figure 2. Adsorption isotherms of Cd(ll) from the aqueous solution on the activated carbons
at 25~ Closed circles - the ash free carbon M; open circles - the carbon oxidized with H202;
half open circles - the carbon degassed in argon at 1000~ (After Dobrowolski et al. [3].
Reproduced with permission from Pergamon Press).
785
concentration the highest adsorption for the carbon MCN

was observed.
Practically the most reactive centers for this carbon are occupied by Pb(II) ions
up to 0.2 mg/dm 3 of its equilibrium concentration, next the mechanism
of
adsorption is changed. In the case of Cd(II) adsorption, the linear increase of
Cd(II) adsorption in the function of its equilibrium concentration for the carbon
MCN was obtained. On the other hand, if the global adsorption isotherm is taken
for comparison of the Cd(II) adsorption capacity, the method of carbon
modification is essential.
Comparing the initial part of the carbon isotherms presented in this paper
with those presented previously [3], with respect to the ability of Cd(II)
adsorption, one can conclude that the adsorption of Cd(II) was maximum
for the
carbon modified with concentrated nitric acid and minimum
in the case of the
untreated sample. The highest adsorption in the case of the carbon oxidized by
nitric acid was attributed to both ion-exchange with the surface acidic groups and
forming the surface complex chelate type with humic acids present on the carbon
surface. Relatively low adsorption in the initial part of the Cd(II) isotherm for the
carbon degassed at I I00~ in argon atmosphere (see Figure 2) can be explained
by the fact that the conditional constant for Cd(OH)z precipitation must be
achieved at first, then precipitation of cadmium hydroxide on the carbon surface
OCCURS.
10
{33
t~
(a)
,_._,
t-
.~ 3
.o
t~
Q.
t_
O
"ID
2
4-
4-
13.
0
0
10
15
Cd 2+ equilibrium concentration [mg/dm 3 ]
Pb2+ equilibrium concentration [mg/dm 3 ]
Figure 3. Initial part of: (a) Cd(II) and (b) Pb(II) isotherms on the activated carbons. The ionic
strength I = 0.1 created by NaC1, (I,) carbon MCN, (o) carbon MCO, (e) carbon MC.
Initial part of Cr(VI) adsorption isotherms on the modified medical carbons are
shown in Figure 4.
786
1500
Cr}
Cr)
E
C
1000
o
Q.
t_
O
U)
"ID
500
o
0
400
800
1200
Cr(VI) equilibrium concentration [mg/dm 3 ]
Figure 4. Initial part of Cr(VI) isotherm on the activated carbons. Ionic strength I = 0.1
created by NaC1, (.) carbon MC, (m) carbon MCO, (A) carbon MCN.
These isotherms were measured using the graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectrometer (GFAAS) for determination of Cr(VI) at the equilibrium
concentration. The study was carried out for the best measuring range of
chromium by the GFAAS method. For a very low initial Cr(VI) concentration, the
complete Cr(VI) adsorption was observed. The adsorption of Cr(VI) ions is
strongly dependent on pH. Figure 5 shows the effect of pH on the adsorption of
Cr(VI) from the 15 mmole/dm 3 solution onto the carbon M.
1600
0
E 1200
.m
~-
8oo
400
0
0
10
12
14
pH
Figure 5. Effect of pH on Cr(VI) adsorption on the modified Merck carbon, (e) carbon M,
(o) carbon MO, (A) carbon MN.
787
The optimum pH for the adsorption of Cr(VI) onto the carbon M was about 3.5.
Depending on the carbon type used for adsorption, the optimum pH for Cr(VI)
adsorption changed from 2.5 to 6 [4,15,18-20]. This phenomenon may be
explained by changing the surface charge for a different carbon and existing of
different chromium species with respect to pH and chromium concentrations
[3,15]. The oxidized carbons adsorbed Cr(VI) more effectively compared to the
chemisorbed oxygen free carbon [19]. The mechanism of Cr(VI) sorption on the
activated carbon is explained as reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and adsorption of
Cr(III) aqua complex onto the carbon surface [4]. Purii and Satija [19] studying
the interaction of charcoal with the acidified potassium dichromate solution
proposed two stages reaction:
K2Cr207 + H2SO4
> K2304 + Cr2Oa + H20 + 3(0)
and
Cr203 + H2SO4
Cr2(304)3 + 3H20
The adsorption at lower concentrations of potassium dichromate was found to

occur in the first reaction. However, as the concentration of potassium
dichromate in the solution increased, the second reaction involving the formation
of Cr20~ was observed. Huang and Bowers [20] found that the adsorption and
reduction occurred simultaneously and were responsible for removal of Cr(VI)
from the bulk solution. These authors also noticed that when the carbon was
oxidized with nitric acid and the solution contained chlorinated water with Cr(VI)
ions, the removal of Cr(VI) decreased considerably. These observation encouraged
us to study the influence of oxidants on Cr(VI) adsorption. In Figure 6 the
influence of potassium nitride and potassium perchloride on the Cr(VI)
adsorption is shown. The exponential decrease of Cr(VI) adsorption with the
concentration increase of the oxidants is observed. In the case of KNO3, for a
concentration higher t h a n 0.05 g/dm 3 no adsorption of Cr(VI) was obtained. The
slight differences in the interaction of both oxidants on Cr(VI) adsorption into the
activated carbon may be caused by the differences in the ion radius of these
oxidants. Both oxidants affect redox potential of Cr
system. The reduction
process of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) is carried out on the carbon surface which possesses
negative charge at the acid values of pH. On the other hand, the reduction
process is possible when HCrO~ 1 anion is in the acidic bulk solution [18]. Taking
into account the analytical application of ion adsorption onto the activated
carbon, the influence of matrix on the adsorption capacity is very important. For
this reason, the influence of the ion strength on Cr(VI) adsorption was studied.
The ion strength was created by proper addition of NaC1 into the Cr(VI) solution.
In the first step of the study the influence of NaC1 concentration on Cr(VI)
adsorption was determined. In Figure 6 the influence of NaC1 concentration on
the Cr(VI) residue in the bulk solution is shown.
788
,--.,
E
o
120
(3b
.c.
80-
o~ 300
(3r)
=L
tO
r~0
40-
.~
>
>
O
200
._
00
0 . ~ -z
0,0
100
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
NaCI concentration [mol/dm3 ]

Figure 6a. Influence of NaC1 concentration on
the Cr(VI) residue in the bulk solution. The
system studied: 50 mg of the activated carbon
in 50 cm 3 containing 300 ng/cm 3 Cr(VI), (.)
denotes carbon MC, (m) carbon MCO, (A)
carbon MCN.
0
0,00
0,02
0,04
0,06
Oxidant concentration [g/dm3 ]
Figure 6b. Influence ofKNO3 (o) and KC104

(m) concentration on the Cr(VI) adsorption on
carbon MCO. The system studied: 50 mg of
the activated carbon in 50 cm 3 containing
300 ng/cm 3 Cr(VI).
The presence of NaC1 does not influence practically Cr(VI) adsorption only for
the carbon MCN, in the case of the carbons MC and MCO the Cr(VI) adsorption
drastically decreases with the m i n i m u m for 0.025 mol/dm 3 NaC1 concentration,
then the adsorption increases asymptotically with the increase of NaC1
concentration. These different behaviors of the studied carbons can be explained
by the different adsorption of Cr(III) after the reduction of Cr(VI). For the carbon
MCN Cr(III) is adsorbed owing to the complex compounds with humic acids,
whereas for the carbons MC and MCO forming the chloride complexes with
Cr(III) and the adsorption in this form on the carbon surface seem to take place.
Bautista-Toledo et al. [9] studied the presence of NaC1 in the chromium
solution on the adsorption capacity of the activated carbon. The studies were
carried out on the Merck carbon (sample M) which was modified with HNOa
(sample MO). In Figure 7 the adsorption isotherms of Cr(VI) on the activated
carbon obtained by Bautista-Toledo [9] are depicted.
All adsorption isotherms were obtained out without adding any buffer to
control the pH. The final pH of the equilibrium solution was around 6.5 for the
sample M and around 3.5 for the sample MO. For the carbon M u p t a k e of Cr(VI)
is lower when NaC1 increases. This behavior was explained by the fact t h a t for
this carbon the adsorption was nonspecific or through the diffuse layer
(competition between Cr024- and CI-) whereas in the case of the carbon MO the
increase of Cr(VI) adsorption with increase of NaC1 concentration was observed.
This result was a t t r i b u t e d to the fact t h a t an increase in of NaC1 concentration of
the solution causes the activity coefficient of the present species to decrease
789
according to the Debye-Hfickel equation which, according to the Nernst equation,

causes the reduction potential of the Cr(VI)/Cr(III) system to increase, i.e., the
reduction process is more favored which, in turn, causes the a m o u n t of chromium
adsorbed as Cr(III) to increase. The oxidation of the carbon by concentrated
HNOa, in our case, seems to be more effective and formation of humic acids on the
carbon surface strongly influences the mechanism of Cr(VI) adsorption.
9T
)
<
00
1~0
20
30
C r (mg/1)
Figure 7. Adsorption isotherms of Cr(VI) on the activated carbon samples:

M.[ NaC1] = 5 . 1 0 .2 M. (0); M.[NaC1] = 5 . 1 0 .4 M. (9 MO.[NaC1] = 5 . 1 0 .2 M. (..);
Mo. [NaC1] - 5.10 .4 M. ([]), (After Bautista-Toledo [9]. Reproduced with permission from
Pergamon Press).
Apart from the study of Cr(VI) adsorption on the activated carbons the trace
mercury enrichment on carbons is very often an analytical aim of consideration
[21-28]. Koshima and Onishi [21] studied the quantitative collection of nanogram
amounts of mercury and methylmercury in the artificial sea water containing
mineral acids as preserving reagents. Activated carbon powder (Merck, GR
grade, No. 2186 was used after heat t r e a t m e n t for mercury removal at 350~ for
790
2 hr. Mineral acids contain mercury and cannot be used directly as preserving
reagents. Removal of mercury from mineral acids was performed by their
t r e a t m e n t with activated carbon. Figure 8 shows t h a t sulfuric acids (<9.8 M) and
hydrochloric acid (<5.8 M) can be easily purified by t r e a t i n g t h e m with the
activated carbon.
I00
80
o9
>
9
r
o9
60
40
20
10
Acid concentration, M
Figure 8. Collection of Hg(II) from different acid solutions. Activated carbon, 100 mg;
contact time, 1 hr. 9 H2SO4, 50 cm 3, 20 ng Hg(II); e, HC1, 25 cm 3 40 ng of Hg(II); A, HNO3,
100 cm 3 2 ng of Hg(II), (After Koshima, [22]. Reproduced with permission from Pergamon
Press).
It was stated t h a t iodide shows a beneficial effect on the collection of mercury,

possibly by formation of HgI24- complex [27] and suggested to add some iodide to
the sample as a preservative. Recovery of mercury was practically independent of
the a m o u n t of activated carbon used, in the range of 20-250 mg/200cm ~ artificial
sea-water. The effect of the mineral acid concentration on the collection of
mercury is shown in Figure 9.
Good recovery was obtained from the artificial sea-water w h e t h e r unacidified
or made up with 0.7 M in sulfuric acid, 1 M hydrochloric acid, or 0.3 M nitric acid.
The adsorption of Hg(II) from aqueous solutions using activated carbon was
791
100
90
80
9
o,,)
70
60
50
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Acid concentration, M
Figure 9. Effect of acid concentration on the collection of Hg(II) from the atificial sea-water.
Solution, 200 cm3; Hg(II), 3 ng; activated carbon, 100 mg; contact time, 1 hr. o, the artificial
sea-water plus H2SO4; o, the artificial sea-water plus HC1; A, the artificial sea-water plus
HNO3, (After Koshima, [22]. Reproduced with permission from Pergamon Press).
found to be pH dependence [23,28]. The adsorption of Hg(II) increased as the pH

of the solution decreased, the acidic pH range being most suitable. The efficiency
of Hg(II) adsorption depends on the nature of the carbon and the nature of the
activated t r e a t m e n t that the carbon received [22]. Moreover, carbons also
enhanced Hg(II) adsorption by addition of certain chelating agents [24] or by
sulfurization of the carbon surface [29]. The large capacity of the sulfurized
carbon was attributed to the interaction between the mercury and the sulfur
present on the carbon surface. Activated carbons modified by impregnation with
the metallic sulfides were also found to be very efficient for selective adsorption
792
from the aqueous solution [4]. Thiem et al.[30] stated that the addition of
chelating agents such as tannic acid or EDTA improved the adsorption of
mercury and the addition of as little as 0.02 mg/dm 3 chelating agent increased
the adsorption of mercury from 10% to 30% depending on the pH of the solution.
The calcium ion exhibited an effect on adsorption of mercury similar to that of
chelating agents. Yoshida et al. [26] studied the effect of addition of EDTA on
Hg(II) and Cd(II) adsorption on carbons prepared from coal by steam activated
carbon. By addition to the aqueous solution of toxic metals in the amounts
equimolar with metal ions, complex toxic metals were formed and readily
adsorbed on carbon under neutral or weak alkaline conditions. The adsorption
rate of Cd-EDTA complex on carbons was fast and the equilibrium was reached
in an hour. The adsorbed Cd-EDTA complex on the carbon surface was eluted
quantitatively with 0.01 M NaOH or 0.1 M HC1. Adams [24] studied the
mechanism of Hg(CN)2 and HgC12 adsorption onto the activated carbon. Mercury
was found to adsorb onto the activated carbon in the form of Hg(CN)2 from the
cyanide solution. The Hg(CN)~- species displays a negligible affinity for carbon.
The adsorptive behavior of the mercuric cyanide species is consistent with the
distribution profile of the species in solution. The adsorption of mercury from the
chloride solution occurs by reduction to the Hg(I) species, with subsequent
precipitation of insoluble Hg2C12 within the pores of the carbon. The affinity of
Hg(II) and Cd(II) complex for a surface of activated carbon was studied by
Yoshida et al. [27]. The strong affinity of Hg(II) and Cd(II) complex with
inorganic anion CN-, SCN- and I- for the carbon surface was observed.
To improve efficiency of arsenic, selenium and mercury adsorption onto the
carbons from the aqueous solution Per~iniemi et al. [31] studied zirconium loaded
activated charcoal. They stated that the loading of activated charcoal with
zirconium significantly improved the adsorption power of charcoal towards
arsenic and selenium. With selenium the state of oxidation was of little
significance for adsorption onto ZrC*, but in the case of arsenic, As(V) adsorbed
better than As(III). Mercury was adsorbed about equally well by both the
unloaded and zirconium-loaded activated charcoal and to some extent Hg(II)
adsorbed better than Hg(I) onto both adsorbents. When the pH of the solution of
the sample solution was below 10, it had no effect on the adsorption of arsenic,
selenium or mercury onto ZrC*. They suggested that adsorption of arsenic and
selenium onto ZrC* is attributable to the reaction of these metals with zirconium,
rather than with activated charcoal as in the case of mercury. In the end, they
concluded that ZrC* is a promising adsorbent for the preconcentration of As(V),
Se(IV), and Hg(II) from aqueous solutions for the determination methods in
which solid sampling can be used. For this reason, the effects of various anions
and cations on the adsorption of the analytes onto the ZrC* were investigated
[31]. Figure 10 shows the recoveries of As(V) and Hg(II) as a function of
interfering anion concentration.
Nitride ion and other halides than fluoride had no notable effect on the
adsorption of the analytes onto ZrC*. Mercury, unlike arsenic and selenium did
793
a)
~'100
b)
CI-,Br-, NO~, SO~

"
"
Br-, NO~, SOl
o~~10C
Se(IV)
~50
F-
o:
10
C (rag/l)
100
. PO,'.
1000
d)
CI-, NO~
-
~~o~-
1o
~oo
~ooo
C (mg/1)
c)
~1o
~I
~ f Se(VI) ~~
t
?~oo
el_
Br-, N O ~ ,
i-,
Hg(I
o~
50
PO~
o,
9 ~" ~
I0
C (rag/l)
i00
;P~
I000
'i
~o
ioo
,h,.
ido~
C (mg~)
Figure 10. Effect of anions on the recoveries of (a) As(V) (b) Se(IV), (c) Se(VI), (d) Hg(II)
(2.5 mg analyte/1, V-0.1, n=4), (after Perfiniemi [31 ]).
not adsorb quantitatively onto ZrC*, but the adsorption was increased linearly
with Hg(II) concentration and this made the mercury determinations possible
[32]. Chloride ion increased the adsorption of Hg(II) slightly, possibly due to
formation of Hg2C12 on carbon. They concluded that the adsorption of Hg(II) can
be improved by adding chloride ions into the samples, and into the calibration
standards otherwise over 100% recovery is obtained. Sulphate ion had not great
effect on the adsorption of As(V), Se(IV) or Hg(II) onto ZrC*. But it decreased the
adsorption of Se(VI). Fluoride ion, and especially phosphate ion, decreased the
adsorption of As, Se and Hg possibly due to the competition of these anions and
the analytes for the adsorption sites on ZrC*. Studying the effect of various metal
ions on the adsorption of the analytes they stated that almost of them at the
concentrations level 100 mg/dcm 3 do not interfere with the adsorption of As and
Se onto ZrC*. By contrast, Cr(VI), Mn(VII), Mo(VI), Fe(III), Au(II), Sn(II), Sb(III),
Te(IV), Bi(III) and Cu(II) were collected in various degree on ZrC* and decreased
the adsorption of As and Se when present in high concentration. The authors
concluded that these metals ions probably either compete with analytes for the
adsorption sides on ZrC* or they may cause the precipitation and loss of analytes
on the container walls. In the case of mercury, Per~iniemi assembled the metals
into tree classes e.g: the alkaline earth elements, Cr(III), Mn(II), Fe(II) and
794
Te(IV) which increased the adsorption, the second group includes the elements:
Mn(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Ag(I) and Pb(II) and have no significant effect on
Hg(II) adsorption and the third group which adsorbed themselves at least
weakly, decreased the adsorption of Hg(II) probably either by competition for the
adsorption sites or by the precipitation and loss of mercury on the container
walls. Since arsenic, selenium and mercury often occur in the environmental
waters as both inorganic and organic compounds the authors studied the
adsorption power of ZrC* towards the organometallic compounds of the analytes
at different pH values of the sample solution. It was stated that the
organomercury compounds and (C6Hs)AsO(OH)2 behaved in a similar m a n n e r to
inorganic compounds of the studied elements. By contrast, the behaviour of
(CH3)AsNaO2 and (C6H6)Se2 differed from that of inorganic arsenic and selenium
compounds. Figure 11 shows the recoveries of As and Se measured by the energy
dispersive x-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) as the function of pH of the solution.
100
Ph~Se~.
50
0
0
I
12
pH
Figure 11. Recoveries of As and Se as the function of pH of the sample solution

(2.0 mg/1, V = 0.1, n=4) (after Per~iniemi [31]).
The most suitable pH range for (CH3)AsNa02 is from 3 to 7; the recovery of the
arsenic is then more or less constant. In the case of (C6H6)Se2, the adsorption was
constant when pH < 6, but the maximum value was achieved when the pH was
between 8 and 9. Optimizing arsenic, selenium and mercury determinations in
the aqueous solutions they stated that ZrC* adsorbent is highly selective and the
proposed analytical procedure is also suitable for the determination of its
organometallic compounds.
795
There are only a few publications [32-37] dealing with the adsorption of
arsenic species onto activated charcoal. According to Gupta et al. [34] As(II) does
not adsorb onto activated charcoal at all, but As(V) adsorbs to varying degree
when the pH of the sample solution is between 2 and 8. Adsorption mechanism of
As(III) and As(V) in the activated carbon was studied by Kamegawa et al. [37].
The species of As(V) adsorbed on t h e activated carbon were considered to be
H2AsO ~- and HAsO~-, since As(V) was adsorbed in the pH range from 4 to 9 on
carbon prepared from coal, coconut shell and wood by the steam activated
method. The adsorption ability of activated carbons for As(V) was in the order:
activated carbon from coal > from coconut shell > from wood. The authors stated
that the interference on As(V) adsorption from coexisting anions was in the
following order: C10~ > SO24-> NO3 > CI-. Moreover, they concluded that As(III)
was not adsorbed on all the activated carbons tested, since As(III) dissolved in
the undissociated form, H3AsO3, below pH 8. However, As(III) was readily
oxidized to As(V) with the dissolved oxygen on the activated carbon so that As(V)
formed was adsorbed on activated carbon. As a result of this, the activated
carbon having a higher activity to oxidize As(III) showed a higher adsorption
ability for As.
Based on the presented results one can conclude that in the case of Cd(II) and
Pb(II) ions poor adsorption on the surface modified carbons is exhibited. For this
reason, the organic complexing agents are applied to enhance the uptake of these
ions [38-44]. Jevtitch and Bhattacharyya [41] studied the effect of surface and
species charge on the separation of metal chelates by the activated carbon. A
relationship between the adsorption capacity, surface charge of the activated
carbon, and the average species charge for various cadmium ligand systems was
presented. Chang and Ku [44] studied in detail the characteristics of metalligand complex formation on the activated carbon and the effect on adsorption
behavior. The Freundlich and Langmiur isotherms were used to correlate the
parameters of models with the solution pH values. It was found that the highest
adsorption capacity was obtained for the Cd-citrate system. Cd-EDTA and CdNTA have similar adsorption capacities on the activated carbon. The
experimental results indicated that Cd-EDTA and Cd-NTA systems show no
precipitation of cadmium even at pH close to 11. Adsorption equilibrium of these
chelates was explained by the species charge and the carbon surface charge
characteristics. The species distribution is highly dependent on the solution pH
as well as on the type and amount of the chelating agent present. They stated
that the effectiveness of adsorption decreases for a metal-ligand anion at higher
pH values when the surface of activated carbon becomes negatively charged.
With the lower pH values, the opposite effect was observed. This adsorption
characteristic was observed in the adsorption of Cd+2-EDTA. However, for the
Cd+2-citrate and Cd+2-NTA complexes, a lower adsorption was observed with the
decreasing pH values in the pH levels from 6 to 9. This was because at lower pH
values and the species concentration, the increasing degree of partial
796
complexation of cadmium with citrate and NTA with decreasing pH values

results in the concentration of Cd cations increase. In fact, the exact mechanism
between the chelated toxic metals and the surface groups is very complex and
difficult for explanation but the experimental results clearly indicate that the
charge barrier between the carbon surface and solute species plays a
predominant role during adsorption process.
Classification of the systems with respect to the presence of various organic
and inorganic compounds, competing metals, varying ionic strength and
background electrolyte was introduced by Reed et al. [43]. The authors presented
a typical pH-adsorption edge for each system, including one representing a
ligand-free system (see Figure 12).
""-'--
"
(D
>
0
E
w!
l-0
o
U_
pH
Figure 12. Typical pH-adsorption edges for a ligand free system and for separate groups,
(After Reed et al. [43]. Reproduced with permission from Marcel Dekker).
They distinguished four groups and typical pH - adsorption edges for the
ligand-free system which are described as follows. In the first system, when the
general shape of pH-adsorption edge remains unchanged as in the ligand free
system except that the adsorption edges move to a higher pH region compared to
the ligand free system. A plateau, defined as the leveling off of the pH-adsorption
edge at fraction removed <1.0, may also be observed. This behavior causes that
when the adsorbate/adsorbent concentration ratio is increased, decreasing the
number of surface sites per unit of metal ion is observed. The secondary
797
compound competes with the solid surface for the metal ion, decreasing the
amount metal ions available for interaction with the solid surface. The secondary
compound may be adsorbed by the solid; decreasing the number of surface sites
available for metal removal. Increasing the ionic strength alters the metal
solution chemistry and the electric double layer.
The second system includes the metal-ligand complexes adsorbed by a ligandsolid equivalent interaction. The shape of the pH-adsorption edge is radically
different from that observed in the ligand-free system. Adsorption increases at
lower pH values and decreases at higher pH-values compared with the ligandfree case. Typically, at low pH values the surface of carbons is positively charged
while at high pH values the surface is negatively charged [3]. Metal-organic
complexes are often negatively charged over a wide pH range (e.g. EDTA-metal
complex). In a ligand free system, the electrostatic force is usually repulsive at
low pH values, decreasing the adsorption energy. For a negatively charged metalligand complex the electrostatic force is attractive, increasing the adsorption
energy. At higher pH values the negatively charged carbon surface and metalligand complex produce a repulsive electrostatic force, which can decrease
adsorption compared to the ligand-free system.
The third system refers to the unique complexation between the metal, ligand,
and carbon surface and causes an increase of ion adsorption at all pH values. The
general shape of the pH - adsorption edge is similar to the ligand free system.
This phenomenon is rarely observed. This behavior occurs at the time when at
low pH values the carbon surface carries a positive charge and the metal ligandcomplex is negatively charged while at higher pH values the signs of the charges
are reversed. Thus, the electrostatic force is attractive over a wide pH range.
The fourth system can be distinguished when adsorption is suppressed at all
pH values. The presence of a strong metal complexer (e.g. EDTA) or a large
amount of a weak complexing agent may cause a decrease in adsorption.
TRACE A N A L Y S I S BY ATOMIC S P E C T R O M E T R Y WITH THE

E N R I C H M E N T OF THE TOXIC METALS ON A C T I V A T E D C A R B O N S
Purity and fine powdering of activated carbons used in trace analysis followed
by further analysis using spectral methods are the main criteria for the choice of
these carbons. Commercial carbons contain mineral impurities, which make their
direct analytical application impossible. Mineral impurities of activated carbons
are removed most often by the Korver method [45] consisting in the extraction of
the impurities with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. This method is, however,
time-consuming and is used in this connection mainly for purification of greater
amounts of the adsorbent.
A relatively simple method of removal of mineral impurities from activated
carbons was described by Dobrowolski [46]. At first commercial carbons were
leached by concentrated hydrochloric acid using a Soxhlet apparatus made of
quartz and by hydrofluoric acid in the Teflon vessel as described earlier. Then the
798
chromatographic elution with the concentrated acids and continuous control of
the removal process by AAS method was applied. Toxic metals were leached to
the ppb level (see Table 4) except for chromium at carbon M which is still present
at the ppm.
Table 4
Results of toxic metals determination in the commercial and fine purified
activated carbon
Content (ppm)
Carbon
Cd
Pb
Cr
Co
Hg
As
Se
0.950
0.515
5.85
1.01
0.0035
< LOD
0.035
MN
0.017
0.073
1.05
0.005
0.0013
< LOD
0.006
MC
0.080
0.120
0.45
0.04
0.0020
< LOD
0.020
MCN
0.003
0.010
0.007
0.002
0.0012
< LOD
0.005
LOD denote the limit of detection.
An exact method of purification of activated carbons from mineral impurities

was described by Karyakin and Gribovskaya [47]. Using the multiple extraction
with hydrochloric acid they have obtained the carbon preparation (extraction
process was repeated 7-8 times at the temperature of 80-90~
containing ca
10-5% of impurities, mainly silicon. However, this method of carbon purification is
time-consuming and is not applied widely in the analytical practice. On the other
hand, high purity carbons can be ashed after the adsorption process and trace
amounts of metals may be determined by the flameless AAS method. Such a
procedure was used by Koshima and Onishi [23] to determine silver, gold and
platinum after their previous adsorption on carbon adsorbents.
The hitherto existing methods of trace analysis utilizing activated carbons
consist mainly in complexation of the metals and in adsorption of formed
complexes on the activated carbon by a static or dynamic method. Complex
species adsorb easily on the surface of the activated carbon which allows for
significant concentration of metal trace amounts. Different substances e.g.
xylenol orange [48], 2,2-dipyridylketono-2-pyridylhydrazone (DPPH) [49],
0,0-diethylether of ditiophosphoric acid [50,51], potassium xantogenate [52],
potassium ethyl xanthate [53], sodium diethyldithiocarbamate [ 5 4 ] and
8-hydroxyquinoline [55] were used as chelating agents.
Recently, the simple method of nickel determination in urine by the flame
atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) was described by Aydemir and Gficer
[56]. They preconcentrated nickel from urine with ammonium pyrrolidine
dithiocarbamate on the activated carbon. They applied a static rhethod of
799
preconcentration at the constant pH value, adjusted to 6.3. The carbon
suspension was stirred mechanically for one hour and filtered through a filter
paper. After the addition of concentrated nitric acid to the residue and
evaporation to the dryness and centrifugation they determined nickel by injecting
microvolumes to the flame of AAS spectrometer. An interesting method for
atomic absorption spectrometric determination of lead copper, cadmium and
nickel in the drinking water samples after preconcentration by sorbing the
l-(2-pyrodyzlazo) 2-naphthol (PAN) complex of these metals on an activated
carbon column was established by Soylak et al. [57]. The metal/PAN complexes
were quantitatively retained on the activated carbon in the pH range 6-8. Metals
retained on the activated carbon column were completely eluted with 2 M HC1 in
acetone. This method is characterized by good recovery (> 95%) and a small
relative standard deviation (< 7%, with relative error < 3%) of analysis.
Dithizone has been used as a chelating agent for the combined flow atomic
absorption spectrometric system to develop an efficient on-line preconcentrationsolvent elution procedure for determination of trace amounts of cadmium [58].
The authors described a new method whereby the trace amounts of cadmium are
preconcentrated as a metal chelate using the chelatingdye dithezone on an
activated carbon mini-column included in the flow injection (FI) system. The
chelate is eluted with a small volume of a water-immiscible solvent and the
analyte does not disperse on transfer to the flame atomic absorption
spectrometry (FAAS) instrument, which increases the preconcentration factors.
The system was used successfully for determination of cadmium in biological
reference material. The enrichment method was developed by Gficer and Yaman
[59] for the determination of cadmium and lead in vegetable matter by FAAS
after preconcentration with 8-hydoxyquinoline or cupferron on the activated
carbon. The enrichment factor of up to 100 was achieved by using both
complexling agents. The optimum lowest pH values were found as 4.8 and 4.4
with cupferron and 5.3 and 5.8 with oxine, for cadmium and lead. The described
procedure allows to detect 0.06 and 0.48 ng of Cd and Pb respectively, in
biological material. The relative standard deviations were found to be 2% for
cadmium and 3% for lead.
Owing to the complexity of sorption processes, concentration of the ions
characterized by different chemical nature is possible. Desorption of metal ions
from activated carbons before their further determination by the AAS method
(assuming an appropriate choice of a chelating agent) usually permits to attain a
high degree of recovery (above 95%).
In the analytical applications a special attention was paid to adsorption of
mercury on the activated carbon. Koshima and Onishi [23] concentrated the
nanogram amounts of mercury and methylmercury contained in the sea water on
the activated carbon, then desorbed the concentrated compounds and determined
by the flameless AAS after previous deposition on the gold support. Using this
method they determined less than 4 ng of mercury contained in 200-300 cm ~ of
the sample of artificial sea water using only 100 mg of the activated carbon.
800
During the tests of different carbon adsorbents [23] they concluded that the
adsorption process is most effective in the case of the activated carbon. Matsueda
[60] determined mercury (II) contained in the river water, after the previous
concentration of this metal on the activated carbon. Recently activated carbon
fibers were also used for adsorption of mercury (II) from aqueous solutions [61].
A majority of the publications relating to the utilization of activated carbons in
the trace analysis by the AAS method describe modification of sorption conditions
connected mainly with the changes of chelating agent, eluent and physicochemical parameters of the system e.g. pH. Less attention is paid to physicochemical nature of the surface of activated carbons. Storozhuk and Ivanova [62]
paid the attention to significant contribution of surface phenomena occurring on
the surface of activated carbons which can be used successfully for separation
and concentration of trace amounts of elements. They stated that during the
elution of adsorbed silver (I) with different eluents more than 90% of silver
adsorbed on the activated carbon was reduced to metallic silver. Thus, the elution
of adsorbed species with the eluents of different chemical nature allowed for
analytical separation of adsorbed ions depending on their chemical nature. Some
interesting surface properties are also found in basic carbons for which mainly
physical adsorption of metal ions and surface concentration of these ions are
observed [3]. Such properties ensure the increase of selective concentration and
this may be used in the process of separation of metal ions on the activated
carbon in a wide range of the matrix concentration.
The examples of practical application of sorption on the activated carbon and
of concentration of trace amounts of the elements from different matrices before
their determination by the AAS method are given monographs Bachmann [63]
and Mizuike [64]. Flameless atomization [e.g. 46] and flame atomization with
injection of an analyte using a micropipette [e.g. 50,54] are especially useful for
determination of the metals because they allow to determine a few components
contained in the concentrate of a small volume. This allows to obtain very good
detection limits (nanogram amounts of element per 1 g of matrix).
Apart from the above method consisting in concentration of trace amounts of
metals on activated carbons followed by determination using the AAS method
one can find the papers suggesting the possibilities of utilization of activated
carbons for the concentration of trace amounts of metals and determination of
these metals by the atomic emission spectrometry (AES) method in which arc is
used as an excitation source. After the preliminary concentration the carbon was
washed and dried and then appropriate samples were collected from this
material. These samples were usually mixed with appropriate spectral buffer e.g.
with NaC1 and then placed in the craters of the carbon auxiliary electrodes. Such
a procedure allows for direct excitation of emission spectra of the samples in the
direct and alternating current arc. The optimal weight of carbon sample is
25-50 mg. Such an amount of the sample may be transferred completely into the
crater of the electrode. The procedure consisting in a direct transfer of carbon
samples to the electrodes and excitation of the emission spectra in the arc allows
801
for multielemental determination of the metals deposited on the carbon in the
concentration range of 10~-105% with relatively good accuracy (sufficient for
practical purposes) and at relatively small consumption of the reagents. This
method has been used for determination of impurities in high purity zinc (II) and
nickel (II) nitrates [65] and for determination of trace amounts of metals in sea
water [66].
The main reasons for toxic ion metals preconcentration on activated carbons
are to obtain a better limit of detection and separation of the determined element
from the matrix. Toxic metals should be determined at ppb or even ppt levels in
different environmental samples. Using modern spectroscopy methods and by
preconcentration of metal ions on activated carbon these analytical goals can be
reached. Okutani et al. [67] presented a rapid and simple preconcentration
method by selective adsorption using carbon as an absorbent and acetylacetone
as a complexing agent for beryllium determination by the graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS). Beryllium and its compounds are very
toxic, especially for the lung, skin, and eyes, and the higher concentration can
cause death (the toxic concentration of Be for a person is 0.1mg/m3).
Consequently, a reliable method for the detection of beryllium in environmental
specimens is required. The authors proposed the method based on adsorption of
the beryllium-acetylacetonate complex on the activated carbon from the rainwater and sea-water samples, separation and dispersion in pure water. The
resulting suspension was introduced directly into the graphite furnace atomizer.
The detection limit was 0.6 ng/dm~, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) at
0.25 ~g/dm 3 was 3.0-4.0% ( n = 4 ) . A similar method was applied for
determination of the total selenium content in sediments and natural water [68].
A trace level of Se was collected on the activated carbon (AC) as the Se(IV)-3phenyl-5-mercapto-l,3,4-thiadiazole-2(3H)-thione (Bismuthiol II) complex. The
activated carbon was separated from the aqueous phase through a membrane
filter (8 pm. pore size). The carbon phase on the filter was then dispersed in
water containing the Pd modifier using an ultrasonic device for 30 s. The
activated carbon suspension was directly introduced into the graphite tube
atomizer and the Se concentration was determined by the GFAAS method.
Naganuma and Okutani [69] adopted this method to determine trace amounts of
bismuth in the sediments. They preconcentrated bismuth as the bismuthpotassium o-ethyldithiocarbamate (potassium xanthogenate, KetX) complex on
the activated carbon and then introduced directly as a carbon suspension into the
carbon tube atomizer of AAS spectrometer. The detection limit for the proposed
method was 0.005 pg/100 cm 3, and RSD was 2.0% (n=8). The method was applied
for determination of bismuth in the river-bottom and submarine sediments.
Application of the activated carbon for preconcentration of Cd, Pb, Cr and Co of
micro amounts from the reference material, drinking and sea water samples was
comprehensively presented by the author [70]. The carbon MN, additionally
impregnated with the 1% water so,ution
1
of ammonium pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (APDC) was used as an adsorbent. Preconcentration of toxic ion
802
metals was carried out by the static method. 50 mg of the carbon was added to a
500 cm 3 sample, pH of the solution was natural and then the solution was mixed
mechanically
for two hours. The activated carbon was separated
from the
aqueous phase using an 8 ~m. membrane
filter (25 mm in diameter). The carbon
was removed
from the filter and dispersed in 5 cm 3 of water with the addition of
0.005% Trition X-100 solution, using the ultrasonic device just before injection
into the furnace. In the case of Cd and Pb analysis, the palladium
nitride was
added to the standard and carbon slurry (500 ~g/5 cm 3) due to the fact that
carbon impurities (Si and P) influence the atomization
mechanism
of these
elements. The results of toxic metal ions determination
in different water
samples are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Determination
of toxic ion metals
sampling GFAAS
technique
Element
Sample
SLRS-3
riverine water
Drinking
Cd
NASS-2
Seawater
SLRS-3
NASS-2
Seawater
SLRS-3
NASS-2
Seawater
SLRS-3
NASS-2
Seawater
12 + 1
sea water
27 + 2
from the Baltic
32 +1.7
riverine water
65 + 3.2
water
83 + 3.3
Reference
value
(ppt)
13 -I-2a
29 + 4
68+7 b
-
slurry
Recovery
%
92
93
96
-
39+6
92
180
+7.2
riverine water
304
+ 24
300 + 40 a
sea water
water
sea water
from the Baltic
riverine water
water
sea water
from the Baltic
36 +3.5
using the carbon
from the Baltic
Drinking
Co
Slurry sampling*
(ppt)
18 +0.9
Drinking
Cr
samples
water
Drinking
Pb.
in the water
56 + 4.5
173
+ 8.5
192
+ 9.6
25
+ 1.5
II +0.8
5 + 0.6
82 +5.1
175 + I0
I01
99
27 + 3 e
93
4 + 1
-
125
-
the mean of seven individual determination

a - the direct determination by isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP MS)
b - the acid digestion isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ADIDICP MS)
e - the concentration by evaporation, GFAAS
*
803
The results of determination obtained by the application of the
preconcentration procedure and the slurry sampling technique are comparable to
the certified values. The standard deviations for these determinations are lower
compared to those obtained by different methods used during certification.
CONCLUSIONS
Summing up the above considerations we can conclude that:

I. Activated carbons are used successfully in the process of concentration and
separation of toxic metals before their determination by the atomic
spectroscopy methods. Description of adsorption of the electrolytes on the
activated carbon is a very difficult task because of complexity of many
processes occurring simultaneously
such as ion exchange, nonspecific
sorption, redox surface reactions, surface precipitation as well as formation of
surface complexes of the chelate type.
2. In comparison to the synthetic ion exchangers carbon adsorbents allow for
determination of concentrated impurities without the necessity of their
isolation from the sorbent. These impurities can be determined directly after
their introduction to the electrothermal atomizer e.g. in the form of the
suspension (slurry sampling technique) of the activated carbon in diluted
acids (carbon powder does not cause any interferences in the case of AAS
method). Moreover
the inductively coupled plasma
atomic emission
spectrometry (ICP-AES) [71] or the direct current plasma atomic emission
spectrometry
(DCP-AES)
slurry sampling
technique
could be used
successfully. The samples may be introduced also to the craters of auxiliary
electrodes and then determined by the AES method in the arc.
3. Application of activated carbons is recommended
especially for the
concentration of mercury or methylmercury before their determination.
4. Concentration methods utilizing the carbon adsorbents create the possibilities
of the analysis of small volumes of solutions.
5. Concentration and separation of the substances on the activated carbon
adsorbents are often of lower costs and simpler than the multielemental
extraction method.
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807
Air pollution control by adsorption
W.M.T.M. Reimerink, D. v.d. Kleut

NORIT Nederland B.V., P.O. Box 105, 3800 AC Amersfoort, The Netherlands
The pressure on industry to decrease the emission of pollutants to the air is
increasing. The importance to industry is to keep the costs as low as possible. A
broad spectrum of techniques is available and is developed to control air pollution.
The choice of a technique is determined by the type of pollution and the process
conditions. In relation to price/performance, physical adsorption is one of the most
important techniques to control air pollution.
Both organic and inorganic molecules can be removed from a gas stream by
physical adsorption. However, the adsorption affinity increases as the molecules
become larger. As a consequence the adsorption capacity of an adsorbent is higher
for large molecules t h a n for small molecules. For this reason physical adsorption is
extremely suited for adsorption of organic compounds from gas, air, water and liquid
streams.
2. A D S O R B E N T S
In actual practice only the following adsorbents are applied:
Activated carbon
Carbon molecular sieves
Polymers
Silica
Alumina
- Zeolites
Activated carbon can adsorb a broad range of pollutants with varying dimensions
by its broad pore distribution of micro- and small meso pores. Activated carbon can
adsorb a large a m o u n t of pollutants due to its large pore volume. Due to its
hydrophobic character adsorption takes place at high relative humidity. The
usability of activated carbon for air pollution control is limited by the risk of ignition
at high temperature.
Much research has been done to develop polymer adsorbents.In the market
polymers as polyad [1,2] are applied for adsorption of high boiling compounds. At
-
808
high relative h u m i d i t y these adsorbents have a tendency to swell. The polymers
cannot be used at high t e m p e r a t u r e s due to deformation. A great disadvantage of
polymer adsorbents is the low adsorption capacity on a volume basis.
Alumina and silica [1,2] are meso porous and are not suited for adsorption of
small organic molecules by physical adsorption. Unmodified silica and a l u m i n a are
hydrophilic, so a high relative humidity disturbs the adsorption of organic pollutants
to a large extent. Silica is suitable as adsorbent of water by chemisorption.
Zeolites [1,2] and carbon molecular sieves [3-7] have a narrow pore distribution.
The pore distribution determines which adsorbate adsorbs well and which adsorbate
adsorbs to a less extent. These adsorbents can be applied in purifications of well
defined gas s t r e a m s such as are present in gas separation applications. Compared
with activated carbon the usability of these adsorbents is limited. Zeolites can be
made hydrophobic by increasing the A1 content. These hydrophobic zeolites are
suited to purify gas s t r e a m s at high relative h u m i d i t y and high t e m p e r a t u r e .
Of the above mentioned adsorbents activated carbon is the most convenient for
air pollution control for a broad range of compounds and for a large variation in
process conditions. Compared to carbon molecular sieves and hydrophobic zeolites,
activated carbon is a relatively cheap adsorbent.
3. A C T I V A T E D C A R B O N
Activated carbons are micro porous carbonaceous materials. The activated
carbons available in the m a r k e t differ in pore distribution, in form and in chemical
composition. To decrease the emission an optimal carbon and system should be
chosen dependent of the kind of molecules to be removed and the process conditions.
The differences between activated carbons types are a consequence of the choice of
activation process, the activation conditions and to some extend the choice of raw
material. Activated carbons are produced from raw materials such as peat, wood,
lignite, anthracite, fruit pits and shells. The raw materials are converted in
activated carbon by steam or chemical activation
With steam activation [8] the raw material is carbonised and/or oxidized
depending on the carbonisation degree. Activation takes place above 900~ with
steam. Process variations as residence time in the kiln, the activation temperature,
the type of kiln and other conditions, allow carbonised materials to develops small
micro pores which are enlarged up to large micro pores or small meso pores.
Activated carbons suitable for gas and air purification are micro porous. When the
gas stream contains a low concentration of pollutants, lesser activated carbons with
a large a m o u n t of small micro pores exhibiting a high adsorption capacity at low
relative pressure are applied. These carbons are produced by steam activation in a
rotary kiln after a relatively short residence time. In the case which the gas stream
contains a high concentration of pollutants higher activated carbons are applied.
These carbons show a higher adsorption capacity at high relative pressures t h a n
lower activated carbons. At high concentrations the service time of a filter is
relatively short. As a consequence the activated carbon has to be regenerated insitu,
809
otherwise the carbon consumption will be too high. Higher activated carbons have
a greater proportion of larger micro pores and small meso pores. These larger pores
easily desorb their adsorbate. High activated carbons are also produced by steam
activation in a rotary kiln. Only the residence time is longer than for the production
of carbons with small micro pores.
With chemical activation[9] an activating chemical, normally phosphoric acid, is
mixed with a young carbonaceous vegetable material, carbonised at about 500~
followed by recovery of the activation chemical by water washing. The activated
carbons produced on this way have less micro pores and more meso pore compared
to steam activated carbons and are suited for adsorption of larger molecules such as
are present in decolorization steps in the chemical, pharmaceutical and food
industries. However special types of chemical activated carbons are suited for a
small part of gas phase applications with insitu regeneration. By the choice of the
raw material and by modifications in the activation process, more small meso pores
and large micro pores can be produced.
In Figure 1 the benzene adsorption isotherm of steam activated carbons suitable
for gas phase purification with insitu regeneration (SORBONORIT 3) and for gas
purification on throw away basis (NORIT R 2030) are given. In this figure a
chemical activated carbon for gas phase purification with insitu regeneration has
also been involved (NORIT GF 45).The adsorption capacity is given as weight of
adsorbate per unit volume of activated carbon since in most applications, adsorbents
are compared on performance in an existing filter (fixed volume).
IBenzene
adsorption
isotherms
........i ....iiitil
.........tttitii'!t
........tti
titil .........i .....iitifl
.........i'.i~ ""ti "'_ i i i iiiiii
i i i iiiiii
i i i iiiiii
i i i ii~ill
,.T
~
......... i..... iTTIiYYi ......... YYYIYiIIY ........
i !i.~"i:'"
9: ,.,~i'Yiiiil
.:
...
i iiliii
ii ii iiiiiii
ii
iiiii
ii ii iili!i
i iiiii
......... i ..... !...~...!..~.i .~.~. ::

i i iiiiiii
ii ii iiilili
i iiiii:
"
~ ii.~!~ii
.~),~D...~I":
i i iilii~
+."
9 i ii~L~"
i iiliiii
i i iiiliii
i iiiiiii
i i iiliiii
i
i i iiiiii
: .~It]
iiiiii
i
i i iiiiii
i
i ii
iiili
:
: : ::::::
.y.,V": ::::::
:
: : ::::::
:
: : ::::::
......... i ..... !"" .~"i'~. "i~ .~ ..........
~'" .~"i" .~'i'i'i ~. ........ .~'"" .~'"i'" .~'!" .~ ~. i.~ ......... i ..... ........
i...i..6.66661
0.00001
0.0001
0.001
rel. p r e s s u r e
0.01
i iiiiii
i i iiiiii
i
i i iiili
:
: : :::::
......... i ..... i...6..i.6.i.i6
0.1
(%)
1~ SORBONORIT 3 4,. NORIT R 2 0 3 0
-T. NORIT GF 45
Figure 1. Adsorption isotherm of different carbon types for gas phase applications.
810
With the help of the Kelvin equation the relative pressure can be converted into
pores dimensions. Thus Figure 1 shows the indirect relationship between adsorption
capacity and pore distributions of different carbon types.
The following carbon physical forms are utilised dependent upon the application:
- extrudated carbons
- granular carbon
- powdered carbons
- fibres.
Extrudates and granular carbons are mostly applied in fixed bed systems. The
particle size is chosen dependent on the allowed pressure drop. Especially in gas
phase recovery systems, activated carbon is exposed to large pressure differences for
long times and is transported on a regular basis to sieve the carbon. In that case the
hardness and attrition are important qualities Extrudates especially are extremely
hard. Recently in contrast to fixed bed systems, powder injection systems have been
applied in gas/air purification. In recovery systems with a large flow and a relatively
low concentration loosely woven fibre systems are used.
Activated carbons ignite at high temperature in air. The ignition depends of the
activation process and the purity of the activated carbon and varies from 200~ for
a chemical activated carbon to 500~ for steam activated carbon produced from peat
without additives as potassium. In most gas/air applications activated carbons are
used at low temperatures (up to 200~
In this case danger of ignition does not
exist.
Without modification, activated carbon can show chemical interaction with
adsorbates or can be catalytically active. This chemical interaction and the catalytic
activity can be desired or not. For example, in the recovery of ketones the catalytic
activity is undesired. The chemical interaction and the catalytic activity are
connected to the presence of functional groups and ash components. Steam activated
carbons contain as a consequence of exposing to air after activation, a limited
number of varying functional groups, which give the carbon basic qualities.
Chemically activated carbons possess by virtue of the production process a much
larger number of varying functional groups, which give the carbon acid qualities.
The ash content is dictated by the used raw material and can be diminished by
washing.
For very small molecules, the physical adsorption capacity can be low. Thus for
a gas stream with a mixture of very small and larger molecules the low adsorption
capacity for the small molecules can dictate the performance of the filter to a large
extent. In that case the activated carbon can be modified to increase the removal
efficiency of the small molecules by chemisorption or catalytic conversion. For this
reason activated carbons are modified.
811
4. GAS P H A S E A D S O R P T I O N ISOTHERMS
4.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
Gas phase adsorption isotherms describe the relationship between the relative
pressure (or the concentration) of a component in the gas phase and the maximum
loading capacity, that is the loading capacity at equilibrium. A great number of
equations have been developed to describe the equilibrium adsorption. For activated
carbon as adsorbent none of these equations describe the measured isotherm for all
the concentration ranges. For gas phase adsorption the following equations are used
in practice [10]
- equations based on the theory of Dubinin
- the Langmuir equation
- the Freundlich equation
- the Henry equation
- the BET equation.
For gas and air purification isotherms based on the equation of Dubinin yield good
results and give the most possibilities to predict the adsorption capacity for different
compounds and temperatures [11].
4.2. The a d s o r p t i o n i s o t h e r m of D u b i n i n and R a d u s h k e v i c h
The adsorption isotherms of Dubinin and Radushkevich are based on the
potential theory of Polanyi and assume filling of the pore volume by means of
liquefaction of the gas by physical adsorption. The equation has been modified by a
large number of investigators. Investigations carried out by Van Soelen [11] show
that these modified equations hardly show an improvement for predicting the
adsorption capacity. The equation of Dubinin-Radushkevich, has the following form
in (Av)- ln(W. d ) - B.
0//nl
/
9log
(1)
Av
Equilibrium adsorption in terms of weight per volume unit of activated

carbon (g/cm 3)
W and B Carbon constants
d
Density of the adsorbate(g/cm 3)
T
Temperature (K)
b
Affinity constant of the adsorbate
p/po
Relative pressure
n
Exponent, varies from 1 to 3
For n=2 the equation has been suited to micro porous activated carbons.
J. Reussien [12] shows that the equation with n=l can be applied for the meso
porous part of the pores structure. The carbon constants W and B can be calculated
from the intercept and the slope by plotting ln(Av) against [T/b'log(p/p0)] n. To use the
812
above equations, the temperature must be below the critical temperature. For
temperatures above the critical temperature an adjusted equation must be applied
[12].
Activated carbon is used for the adsorption of a broad range of adsorbates. The
advantage of the use of the theory of Dubinin and Radushkevich is the possibility
to predicts the adsorption capacity of all kinds of adsorbates on a carbon type using
the carbon constants W and B calculated from the adsorption isotherm of a standard
adsorbate. The adsorption isotherm of other adsorbates can then be calculated by
substituting the liquid density of the adsorbate at the adsorption temperature and
the affinity constant. The affinity constant can be calculated from the parachor or
from the surface tension as given in standard tables.
For gas streams with more than 1 component the adsorption capacities of the
combined components are calculated by combining the isotherms of the pure
components [13].
5. T H E F I X E D B E D A D S O R P T I O N
5.1.
PROCESS
Introduction
In a fixed bed system a polluted gas stream is passed through a bed of activated
carbon. After the start of the adsorption process the activated carbon at the inlet
side is loaded. Only after a certain time does the inlet side of the bed reach
equilibrium because adsorption in pores does not takes place directly and is subject
to transport limitations. Within the bed a mass transfer zone develops (MTZ). After
a certain time the MTZ boundary reaches the outlet side of the bed and the emission
concentration increases up to the allowed value, when the adsorption process is
stopped. For adsorbent - adsorbate systems with a convex adsorption isotherm the
length of the MTZ is constant and independent of the bed height [14]. In Figure 2
the course of the MTZ through various bed heights is given.
The adsorption capacity of a filter is determined by the equilibrium adsorption
and the length of the MTZ. A large equilibrium adsorption capacity and a small MTZ
means a long service time of the filter and a low carbon consumption. In the most
gas phase applications the MTZ is relatively small, certainly at low relative
humidity. Thus the adsorption capacity of a filter is largely determined by the
equilibrium adsorption.
NORIT has developed an empirical model to calculate service time and carbon
consumption on the basis of a standard carbon analysis and process conditions. The
carbon analysis used are:
the adsorption isotherm of a standard adsorbate
the particle size.
The process conditions used are:
temperature
concentration
-
flow
adsorbate qualities.
813
Mass Transfer zone in a carbon bed

1.2
oo
~
0.8
o~
0.6
start loading
8
N
0
end loading
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
bed height
Figure 2. The MTZ as a function of the bed height.
5.2. Adsorption kinetics

Adsorption of gas molecules does not takes place instantaneously. The t r a n s p o r t
is limited by:
- axial dispersion
- external transport
- internal transport
I n t e r n a l t r a n s p o r t characteristics are affected by:
- pore diffusion
- K n u d s e n diffusion
a limited adsorption velocity
surface diffusion.
D e p e n d i n g of the process conditions, the type of a d s o r b a t e a n d the adsorbent
qualities one or more steps are dominant. For exact d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the MTZ a set
of differential equations h a v e to be solved. To e s t i m a t e the MTZ an empirical
equation can be used which is derived from m e a s u r e d d a t a w i t h i n the m a t r i x of
process conditions, which exist in practical situations. For activated carbon systems
u n d e r relative dry conditions this equation is:
814
MTZ : e S T . (F)"0"054 9(Ci)0"133 9(Dp)1"549 9log Ci-Co
Co
with
MTZ
Mass transfer zone (cm)
constant
CST
F
Flow (cma/min)
inlet concentration (g/cm 3)
Ci
outlet concentration (g/cm 3)
Co
particle diameter (cm)
Dp
(2)
In solvent recovery applications when the activated carbon is wet after regeneration
and cannot be dried during adsorption, the MTZ is 3 times larger.
5.3. The service time and the c a r b o n c o n s u m p t i o n

Figure 2 shows that the MTZ curve is symmetrical. Thus half of the MTZ part of
the bed can be considered to be in equilibrium with the inlet concentration and half
of the MTZ part of the bed can be considered to be completely empty. For a fixed bed
with an cross section area S (cm2)and a bed height L(cm) the dynamic loading Aa (g)
A d - A v ( L - - - M T Z / $ 2"
(3)
At a flow F and an inlet concentration Ci the service time tb(min) of a bed with
volume L'S is equal to
tb-
Ad
Ci.F
(4)
The carbon consumption CS (cm3/min) is

CS- Ci'F'L'S
Ad
(5)
5.4. F i x e d bed in insitu r e g e n e r a t i o n s y s t e m s

5.4.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
Insitu regeneration can be applied to gas streams with a high component
concentration. In this case, the carbon consumption is too high for throw away basis
operation. In insitu-regeneration systems the carbon is loaded in the same way as
in fixed bed adsorption system up to break through. After break through the
adsorbate is desorbed. Desorption may be followed by a (partly) drying step.
During insitu regeneration the adsorbate is desorbed by pressure swing or
temperature swing action. With pressure swing, desorption takes place at lower
pressure than is present during adsorption. Pressure swing is applied for gas
815
separation. In t e m p e r a t u r e swing, desorption takes place at a higher t e m p e r a t u r e
t h a n is present during adsorption.Temperature swing is mostly applied for solvent
recovery. S t e a m or inert gas such as nitrogen is used as carrier gas. The benefit of
the use of s t e a m is t h a t the installation, including the activated carbon bed,is
w a r m e d up very quickly. Inert gas regeneration is applied for components which
desorb at relatively high t e m p e r a t u r e and for components which decompose by
oxidation with the activated carbon acting as a catalyst. In the last case steam
activation is only possible by the use of activated carbon with a low catalytic activity
such as the SORBONORIT K4. The motive to recover solvents can be the value of
the recovered solvent. Recovery of solvents can also be a method to fulfill emission
requirements. In some cases, recovery of a mixture of solvents can be used to
effectively concentrate emissions to allow incineration.
5.4.2. The c a l c u l a t i o n of the s t e a m c o n s u m p t i o n

With s t e a m regeneration, the solvent is recovered at high t e m p e r a t u r e with
steam as the carrier gas. The rest loading on the carbon Ar as a function of the steam
consumption is m e a s u r e d to determine the universal steam curve. For calculation
of the adsorption capacity of an adsorbent in solvent recovery the effective loading
Aef is an i m p o r t a n t factor. The effective loading is the difference between the
dynamic loading Ad and the rest loading on the carbon after regeneration. In
Figure 3 a steam curve has been given. Figure 3 shows that the recovery of the same
a m o u n t of solvent costs much more in steam when starting from a lower dynamic
Steam curve
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
0
0
200
!
400
steam
Figure 3. The steam curve.
I
600
volume
800
1000
816
loading t h a n starting from a higher dynamic loading. In most cases, desorption is
stopped before all the adsorbates have been desorbed. By using activated carbons
with special pore distribution, desorption can be made more effective.
5.5. F i x e d b e d i n s t a l l a t i o n s
In designing an installation the m a x i m u m linear velocity (cm/sec) should be
about 100 times the particle diameter, thus preventing fluidisation. The m i n i m u m
linear velocity is a few cm/sec preventing axial dispersion. Thus the cross section of
an installation is mainly determined by these conditions. The bedheight is mainly
determined by the desired service time and the allowed pressure drop.
Absorbers with a small bed height are applied for the removal of low
concentrations of pollutants (< 1 rag/m3). The bed height is normally about 2 to 5 cm.
The contact time is the order of 0.05 to 0.2 sec. Examples of this kind of filter are
cylinders and thin rectangle boxes, divided into compartments. In this type of
application carbon bounded in sheets such as N O R I T H E N E can be applied.
I m p o r t a n t applications for these kind of filters are:
- air conditioning
- concentration peak smoothing.
For higher concentrations (1 mg/m 3 up to 1 g/m 3) larger absorbers with a bed
height of 25 up to 50 cm are used. The contact time in this kind of filter is about 0.2
to 2 seconds. Examples of this type of filter are simple steel drums provided with an
inlet, an outlet and a base (aeropure filter), rectangular carbon absorbers and
vertical as horizontal cylindrical absorbers. Important applications for these kind of
filters are:
- emission prevention in the chemical and food industries
- paint spray installations
- sewage air purification.
For still higher concentrations (1 up to 50 g/m 3) recovery installations are applied
with a bed height of 50 up to 150 cm. The contact time is about 2-4 seconds. Such
recovery installations are of m i n i m u m 2 absorbers, one in loading and one in
regeneration. Most installations comprise of a large number of absorbers. I m p o r t a n t
applications of these kind of filters are:
- solvent recovery in printing industry
- dry cleaning.
6. I N S T A L L A T I O N S WITH P O W D E R S
In a recent development air pollution control systems with injection of powder
carbon in the gas stream can be applied. To keep a system in equilibrium, sufficient
carbon m u s t be dosed t h a t emission concentration is in equilibrium with the
equilibrium adsorption of the carbon. So in gas streams with a pollutant inlet
concentration Ci and an emission concentration Co, Z g/cm 3 has to be adsorbed on to
the activated carbon.
817
Z = C i - Co
At the emission concentration of Co the equilibrium adsorption of the activated
carbon Av can be calculated on basis of the theory of Dubinin as shown in 4.2.
The carbon consumption CS is
CS -
Z.F
(6)
Av
The m a x i m u m loading of an activated carbon in such a system may be low compared
to the m a x i m u m loading of an activated carbon in a fixed bed system, but by the use
of very small particles, the kinetic effect is much faster, an a d v a n t a g e in processes
determined by kinetics.
Powder injection is applied in gas streams with a high debit and it can be built
into a purification train. The system can be relatively cheap compared to fixed bed
systems and is flexible concerning carbon dosage. Powder injection systems are used
on a large scale at the purification of the flue gas of waste incineration plants [15].
In this way dioxins, dibenzofurans and heavy metals are removed from the flue gas.
Typical dosing rates are 50 up to 200 g/m 3. Recently, impregnated powders have also
been applied for special applications such as the removal of high concentrations of
mercury. Powdered activated carbons have been tested excessively on explosion risks
and are considered safe for flue gas conditions.
7. MODIFIED ACTIVATED CARBON

The physical adsorption capacity for very small molecules can be low. Thus for
a gas stream with a mixture of very small and larger molecules, the low adsorption
capacity for the small molecules can dictate the performance of the filter to large
extent. In this case the activated carbon m a y be modified to increase the removal
efficiency of the small molecules by chemisorption or catalytic conversion. All
possible impregnations with metal salts and with organic molecules as well as the
modification of the functional groups are mentioned in the literature. To reduce air
pollution only a few types of impregnations and modifications are of commercial
interest. These i m p r e g n a n t s and the application are given in Table 1.
818
Table 1
Impregnation/modification commercial available activated carbons
Component
Impregnant
Application
H2S,
methyl mercaptan
- KI
- Fe(OH)3
- complexes of transition metals
(i.e:Cu,Cr)
KOH
sewage air
chemical industry
KOH
- Na(OH)
- KeCO3
sewage air
chemical industry
air conditioning
- CuO
ZnSO4
chemical industry
Hg
-S
-KI
purification methane
prod. of batteries
waste incineration
COS
complexes of transition metals

(i.e:Cu,Cr)
chemical industry
HCN, C1CN
complexes of Cu,Cr,Zn and

TEDA
gasmasks
chemical industry
SO2
NH3
ASH3, PH3
Cu and Cr complexes
radioactive iodide
- TEDA
-KI
chemical industry
nuclear power plants
1. TNO (IMET), Alternatieve Adsorbentia voor het reinigen van

koolwaterstoffen bevattende luchtstromen, (1991) (Dutch).
2. Y. Cohen (ed.), Novel adsorbents and their environmental applications,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, (1995).
3. Carbon containing molecular sieves, US Patent No. 3801513 (1971/1974).
4. Carbon containing molecular sieves, US Patent No. 3979330 (1974/1976).
5. Kohlenstoffhaltige Molekularsiebe, German Offenlegungschrift 2305435
(1973/1974).
6. Verfahren zur Gewinning von Stickstoffreichen Gasen aus neber Ne
wenigstens 02 enthaltenden Gasen, wie zB. Luft, German
Offenlegungsschrift 2441447 (1974/1976).
819
7. Kohlenstoffhaltige Adsorptionsmittel mit einstellbarem unterschiedlichen
Porensystem, German Offenlegungsschrift 2624663 (1976/1977).
8. T. Wigmans, Fundamentals and practical implications of activated carbon
production by partial gasification of carbonaceous material, NATO ASI
series E 105, 559.
9. A. Cameron and J.D. MacDowall, The pore structure of wood based activated
carbons, from: Principles and applications of pore structural characterization.
Proc. R.I.L.E.M./C.N.R. Symp., Milan, Italy, (1983).
10. R.C. Bansal, J.P. Donnet and F. Stoeckli, Active carbon, New York and Basel
(~988).
1 I. A.C.D. van Soelen, Gas-fysisorptie-isothermen van aktieve kool. RU Utrecht
(1991).
12. J.G.J. Reussien, De standaard-benzeenadsorptieisotherm
aan actieve kool als
een basisgegeven voor de berekening van terugwinnings- en
luchtzuiveringsinstallaties, NORIT N.V., (1973).
13. D.M. Ruthven, Principles of adsorption and adsorption processes, New York,
(1984).
14. Kel'tsev, Translation chapter 6 and 8 (Dutch), (1984).
15. B.v.d. Akker, D.v.d. Kleut and W.M.T.M. Reimerink, 16th Symposium on
Chlorinated dioxins and related compounds, DIOXIN 96, Amsterdam (1996).

New developments
devices (ELCD)
821
of a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s for e v a p o r a t i v e loss c o n t r o l
W.M.T.M Reimerink a, J.D. MacDowall, b D. v.d. Kleut a

aNORIT Nederland B.V., P.O Box 105, 3800 AC Amersfoort, The Netherlands
bNORIT (U.K) Ltd., Clydesmill Place, Cambuslang Industrial Estate. Glasgow G32
8RF, Scotland
1.
INTRODUCTION
Automobiles emit gasoline vapour from their fuel tank and (for old type of
automobiles) from their carburettor, when the car is parked and the temperature
under the motor hood is still high. Further a car parked at high out-door
temperatures can emit a large amount of gasoline vapour by the fuel tank heating
up. In addition to emission during parking, gasoline is also emitted during filling the
fuel tank.
The automobile contributes substantially to man-made hydrocarbon emissions.
For example in West Europe the car evaporative emissions amount to about 10%.
At refuelling another 3% is emitted. The diagram in Figure 1 shows the
contributions to man-made hydrocarbon emissions.
In the sixties in California USA legislation was passed to reduce the emission of
gasoline from cars. Automobiles had to meet the so-named SHED emission test.
Later on in the USA this legislation became more general. In the nineties the
legislation in the USA was tightened. Emission of gasoline during refuelling had to
decrease. In 1992 legislation in Europe was passed to reduce the emissions from cars
by the introduction of an European SHED emission test.
Producers of automobiles made arrangements to fulfill to the legal requirements.
One of the measurements is the siting of an activated carbon hydrocarbon storage
canister under the motor hood. During parking the filter is in contact with the fuel
vapour from the tank and in contact with vapour from the carburettor for adsorption
of the gasoline. During driving, air is sucked through the filter to desorb the gasoline
which is fed to the engine for burning. These filters are described as Evaporative
Loss Control Devices (ELCD filters). The extent and stringency of the legislation
demanded that new types of canisters and optimized types of activated carbons were
developed.
In 1990 NORIT started [1-3] the development of an new type of activated carbon
for the application in ELCD filters. Important requirements for the nineties and
later are a high recovery of gasoline vapour and a low pressure drop. In the future
822
the composition of gasoline will change. ELCD carbons must be able to recover
gasoline vapour with more alcoholic substances [4].
Contributions to man-made hydrocarbon emission

Western E urope
(24.8~)
I Car evap.
D Car refuelling
(99%)
EI Car exh austs

E3 Gasoline distr.
I So Ivents
D Ref iner ies

c3g.C
[ ] Other
s.8%)
.
Figure 1. M a n - made hydrocarbons emissions.

2.
THE S H E D TEST, THE BWC A N D THE GWC TEST
In the SHED [5-8] test an entire vehicle is allowed to emit a certain amount of
hydrocarbons during a prescribed test procedure in a test chamber after the car has
been driven in. In the test chamber the car is placed on a roller bank. Situations of
driving and parking are simulated. The total hydrocarbon emission from all parts
of the car are measured, including tail pipe emissions of hydrocarbons. For refuelling
special tests are developed.
The SHED test is a very expensive and time consuming test. For testing
evaporative emissions in the SHED test the activated carbon type has to be
approved. For approval the activated carbon has to fulfill requirements on Butane
Working Capacity (BWC). A generally useful BWC test is described by ASTM. After
approval of a carbon type the BWC test is used as a test for production control.
Besides the BWC extended test cycles can be carried out with gasoline to determine
the Gasoline Working Capacity (GWC). This is necessary to get approval for a new
carbon type.
In the ASTM [9] BWC test pure butane is allowed to flow through a tube, filled
with activated carbon at a rate of 250 ml per minute for 25 minutes. After
823
completion of the loading step, the activated carbon is purged with air for 40
minutes at 300 ml per minute. Both loading and purging steps are carried out at
25~ The difference between the weights of the carbon tube after loading and after
purging divided by the carbon volume in the tube times 100 is the BWC. The BWC
is given in g/100 ml.
No international standard test method is available for carrying out gasoline tests.
Every canister and activated carbon producer has developed his own test which is
discussed and adjusted in consultation with the customers (filter and car producers)
for correlation with the SHED test. The NORIT GWC test [2,3] is carried out using
a carbon bed with diameter 36 mm and bed height of 150 mm. The activated carbon
is loaded with a synthetic gasoline vapour, consisting of 50% air, 33% butane and
17% of higher boiling hydrocarbons (RVP(psi)=8.7). Synthetic gasoline vapour is
used to obtain optimal reproducibility of the test and to observe small differences in
activated carbon performance. The temperature during loading is 30~ and the flow
is 0.121 L per minute. The loading is continued up to a breakthrough of 0.5 vol % of
the ingoing hydrocarbons. Purging is carried with dry air at the same temperature
and at a flow of 2.857 L/min during 16 minutes, which equates to 300 bed volumes.
The flow direction during purging is opposite to the direction during the loading
step. The GWC is the weight of butane and higher hydrocarbons adsorbed during
the subsequent loading step per litre of activated carbon. The test is repeated up to
75 times to measure the decrease in GWC caused by building up a heel of
hydrocarbons. In Figure 2 a scheme of the test equipment is shown.
Some tests have been carried out with ethanol in the gasoline. In that case the
synthetic gasoline vapour composition changed in 15.3% air, 71.1% butane 2.0%
ethanol and 11.6% higher hydrocarbons.
Furnace
<-
~-
Purge air in
Breakthrough
I-- Air in
4/['- Butane in
g
Purge air out
Figure 2. Diagram of the GCW equipment.
Hydrocarbons in
~ Vapouriser
824
3.
THE ACTIVATED CARBON PROFILE
To fulfill the requirements of the test the activated carbons m u s t have a high
adsorption capacity at a relative pressure of butane of 0.42 %. According the Kelvin
equation pores up to 1.9 nm are filled with butane. For desorption pores must be as
large as possible. So at a low relative pressure (P/Po <0.001) the adsorption capacity
must be low. Pores filled at a P/P0> 0.42 and pores filled at a P/Po< 0.001 does not
contribute to the BWC and have to be avoided.
So the optimum pores distribution for ELCD is as follows:
- m i n i m u m quantity of small micro pores to reduce retention level
- m a x i m u m quantity of large micro pores and small meso pores for a high
adsorption capacity and a fast desorption
- minimum quantity of macro pores. Macro pores decrease the working capacity via
the density because these pores are only used for transport and not for storage of
gasoline.
The desired performance of the grade CNR 115 developed by NORIT is:
- BWC : 12 g/100 cc
-
GWC:
6 0 g/L.
In Figure 3 the adsorption isotherm of the ideal activated carbon is given.

The BWC of this carbon is 12.0 g/100 ml.
Butane adsorption isotherm

ideal ELCD carbon
12
:
:
: : : : : :
:
:
: : : : : :
.: . . : . . : . .:::::
.
:
:
:.
: : : : :
:
:
:
:
: : : : :
: : : : :
. : : :
:
:
: : : : : :
:
:
: : : : : :
.: . . : . . ::::::
. . .
: : : : :
. . :. . .: . :.
: : : : :
.......... - ...... i....-...~..~..i.4.~" ........... : ...... .-:....i...i...-:.i..~.i.~ ........... .- ...... i....~-...-"..i.4.i . . . . . . . . .
:
:
:.
. . :. . :.
:
:
:
:
:::
:::
:::
:::
,~--~IZl-.~..-.i.-.
10
<
0.0001
. . . . . .
0.001
-t.zi-l.zll.zl
0.01
0.1
Rel. Pressure
Figure 3. The adsorption isotherm of an ideal activated carbon for the ELCD application.
825
By using an activated carbon with a high BWC smaller filters can be used in
comparison to activated carbons with a relatively low BWC. Filters to capture
refuelling emissions must be much larger even when an optimal carbon is used. For
larger filters a low pressure drop becomes an important quality of the carbon. A low
pressure drop is reached by increasing the size of the activated carbon particles.
However for larger particles, equilibrium adsorption is not reached in a larger part
of the carbon bed in comparison to smaller particles because of adsorption kinetics
resulting in a lower working capacity. The optimum pressure drop of around
350 mm WC/m carbon layer at an air velocity of 0.25 m per second is obtained if the
desired activated carbon has particles with a diameter of about 2 mm or a d50 of
2.7 mm.
Activated carbons for ELCD has to be packed in a filter and the carbons remains
for years in a canister exposed to vibration by driving. So the activated carbon
particles have to be sufficiently hard. The ball-pan hardness must be in the order
of 75.
Next to working capacity and pressure drop the production cost of a new type of
activated carbon is important.
4.
THE P R O D U C T D E V E L O P M E N T OF THE CNR 115
Activated carbons are produced by 2 different kind of processes

steam activation
chemical activation.
With steam activation the raw material is carbonised and/or oxidized depending
on the carbonisation degree. Activation takes place above 900~ with steam. Process
variations of residence time in the kiln, the activation temperature and other
conditions allow activated carbons to develop small micro pores which are enlarged
up to large micro pores and small meso pores. For ELCD applications many micro
pores have to enlarged to get the right pores distribution.
With chemical activation an activating chemical, normally phosphoric acid, is
mixed with a young carbonaceous vegetable material, carbonised at temperatures
of about 500~
followed by the recovery of the activation chemical by water
washing. In this method the phosphoric acid is not volatilised to any degree at the
carbonisation temperature, alters the mechanism of charring resulting in higher
yields and supports the evolving carbon matrix during carbonisation and coincident
volatile removal. The resulting product contains a well developed meso porosity
which is attributed to the voids separating the carbonised micro fibrils of the
cellulose which make up the majority of the plant tissue. The most raw materials
used for chemical activation have a too large macro pores volume which is
inadequate for ELCD applications. In addition the developed meso pores are too
large The activated carbons produced by chemical activation have less micro pores
compared to steam activated carbons.
Of these two processes, chemical activation is the preferred route to the correct
porosity for the ELCD application. To enlarge small micro pores to get the desired
pores distribution via steam activation is a too expensive process.
826
To develop an ELCD carbon by chemical activation the following problems h a d
to be solved.
- Choice of raw material
* For chemical activation the raw material must be of a cellulosic nature.
* The raw material must have the right pore structure. For a t t a i n i n g a high
adsorption capacity on a volume basis the macro porosity m u s t be low.
* The raw material must be available in sufficient quantities.
* The price of the raw material must be sufficiently low.
- Choice of form
Most ideal form is the extrudate. E x t r u d a t e s show a low attrition by a small
external surface. Filling of canisters with extrudates is easier t h a n with broken
carbons due to better flow properties.
- Impregnation
With chemical activation of large particles with less macro pores, the problem is
to impregnate the raw material with sufficient phosphoric acid, necessary for
activation
- The costs
To lower the costs the n u m b e r of unit operations must be limited
The problems were solved as follows[I] :
- The most suited raw materials as far as the plant structure concerned are nut and
shell byproducts. For a combination of reasons including quality, cost and
availability broken olive stones, produced in large quantities in the
Mediterranean as a by-product of olive oil extraction were chosen as the preferred
raw material.
- To impregnate the raw material the olive stones are milled. The mixture of milled
olive stones and phosphoric acid presents a plastic mass of ideal consistency for
low pressure forming during pelletising to produce pellets between 2 mm and 4
mm in diameter.
These ,,green" pellets however are still very soft and easily deformed so are not
suitable as such to be activated in the normal m a n n e r directly in a rotary kiln. A
gently drying step prior to carbonisation is required to give s t r e n g t h and some
rigidity to the product.
Carbonisation followed by recovery of the phosphoric acid by water washing results
in a relatively dense pelletised activated carbon with the desired properties.The self
binding capability of the raw material under activation conditions is due to the
presence of higher concentrations of lignin, the n a t u r a l binding agent in plant
structures present in the raw material.
The above mentioned product has been brought in to the market under the name
of CNR 115.
827
5.
THE PERFORMANCE
MARKET
OF ELCD
CARBONS
AVAILABLE
IN T H E
In Table 1 the activated carbons available commercially in the ELCD market are
given.
Table 1
Carbon type
BWC
Diameter(mm)
or Ds0 (~t)
Form
NORIT CNR 115 1 1 . 5 - 13.0 extrudate
Hardness
w/w%
Attrition
mg/min
2.2 (ram)
75
55
WV-All00
1 1 . 6 - 12.2
granular
950 (~t)
41
270
BAX 1100
1 0 . 7 - 11.9 extrudate
2.1 (mm)
80
75
750 (~t)
58
189
PICA
9 . 9 - 10.4
granular
In Figure 4 the butane adsorption isotherms on volume basis are given. The
results in show a higher adsorption capacity for the CNR compared to the WV-A
1100, the BAX 1100 and the PICA carbon and a lower heel for the WV-Al100, the
BAX 1100 compared to the PICA carbon and the CNR 115. Thus the lower
adsorption capacity of the WV-Al100 and the BAX 1100 are compensated more or
less by a lower heel. For the PICA carbon also the lower adsorption capacity as the
higher heel results in relatively low BWC.
butane adsorption isotherm

a
,4
(-~
lO
,~1
0
>
E
0
r" .,, fJ~
0
0.0001
I
0.001
0.01
0.1
rel. pressure
4;~ NORIT CNR 1 15 4 PICA FX1 135
.~. WV-A1100
Figure 4. Butane adsorption isotherm of different carbon types.
4E: BAX 1100
828
The pressure drop as a function of the air velocity for these types of carbon is
given in Figure 5. The results in table 1 and figure 5 show that only the NORIT
CNR 115 and the BAX 1100 combine a high BWC with a low pressure drop.
I Pressure drop in air I
L..
.................
(D
>.
(0
..Q
O
| ...............
4 ...............
~ ...............
| ...............
~ ...............
4 ...............
| ................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . ~" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

lit
O
E ~
b~4
1 1 !5
.P
"~
C N R
O WV-A1100
-
13_
NORIT
<~
........................................................... ~'"! ................................................................ ~

2 -
,'iO
BAX
1100
PIC F X 1 0 3 5
..~" <>
I
;
i
i
_J;]
1................ i..... ~.,.r~- ............... -"~.,4-~~......'.-
0.2
0.4
IA
................................
0.6
0.8
air velocity (m/s)

Figure 5. The pressure drop for different carbon type.
In Figure 6 the GWC is given as a function of the cycle number for NORIT CNR
115 and BAX 1100. Figure 6 shows a higher GWC for the CNR after a large number
of cycles. These results agree with a higher BWC for the NORIT CNR 115 compared
to the BAX 1100. The GWC of the NORIT CNR 115 is higher than 60 g/L, even after
75 cycles.
In Figure 7 the emission measured during cycle 10 and 75 is given. Figure 7
shows a low rest emission up to breakthrough. The breakthrough curve is equal for
both carbons and is not dependent of the cycle number. So it is allowed to measure
the emission up to the prescribed breakthrough concentration while in the SHED
test the emission is integrated in time. The breakthrough of the CNR starts later
t h a n the breakthrough of the BAX 1100, resulting in a higher GWC.
In Figure 8 the influence of ethanol is given. The graph shows that using ethanol
in the gasoline results in an increase of GWC for all the cycles. This changing the
composition of gasoline resulting in more butane and in ethanol the vapour has a
positive effect on GWC.
829
I Gasoline Working Capacity I

110
100
90
13)
80
o
(9
70
.
60
..........................................
_ _ ........i.................................................................
_
-'' ...... ~""-"'---~;-------; :--::-.:-."~:-.-.:.-~:.-.i..-;.s.....-~.S~
...........
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
cycle number
_CNR115
60
..BAX1100
70
80
Figure 6. The GWC as a function of the number of cycles.
FID S I G N A L
500
'
|
400
..................................................................................................................................
~ ............................................
,
300 .................................................................................................................................
! .............................................
200 ...............................................................................................................................................................................
'/
'
1 O0
..............................................................................................................................
, ...........................................
,,' ./1
0
0
20
40
60
80
time (min)
--NORIT CNR 115 (10) --NORIT CNR 115 (75)

.... BAX 1100 (10)
. , B A X 1100 (75)
Figure 7. The breakthrough concentration during cycle 10 and cycle 75.
830
Gasoline Working Capacity NORIT CNR 1 15

Influence of ethanol
12
!
I
I
o
L
....................................................................................................................................................................................................
!
10
i~
I
0
O
O
-~
/... lb%
~-.
|
(J
----
..................
.
__o
.......
.
o .....
.__.
ANDARD
........
(.9
6
....................................................................................................................................................................................................
20
40
60
80
cycle number
Figure 8. The influence of ethanol in the gasoline.
6.
CONCLUSIONS
The NORIT CNR 115 is an activated carbon which meets the requirements for
the future where a high GWC/BWC has to be combined with a low pressure drop. To
produce this carbon some technical problems had to be solved. Changing the
composition of gasoline by introducing ethanol has a positive effect on GWC.
REFERENCES
1. J.D. MacDowall, A method of producing granular activated carbon, EP Patent

No. 423967 A2 (basic) 1991.
2. J.D. MacDowall, P.D.A. McCrae and W.M.T.M. Reimerink, The development of
an effective activated carbon for evaporative emission control. Paper presented
25 th ISATA Silver Jubilee Meeting, Florence, l-5th June 1992.
3. W.M.T.M. Reimerink, J.D. MacDowall, P.D.A. McCrae and S.A. Fris, The
development of an activated carbon for evaporative loss control device
(E.L.C.D), Carbon Conference, Essen, June 1992.
4. Volatile organic compound emissions in western europe: control options and
their cost-effectiveness for gasoline vehicles, distribution and refining.
CONCAWE, 1987.
831
5. California evaporative emission standards and test procedures for 1978 and
subsequent models.
6. Federal Register EPA CFR part 86.
7. Publication E.U. No. L242187.
8. Federal register, Vol. 55, No. 13, 1990.
9. Determination of butane working capacity. ASTM 5228-92.

R e m o v a l of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s / p a r t i c u l a t e s
833
from indoor air
T.K. Ghosh and A.L. Hines

Particulate Systems Research Center and Nuclear Engineering Program
University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211, USA
Particulates and airborne microorganisms contribute significantly to the
indoor air pollution problem.
Particulates and bioaerosols can have an
immediate impact on public health, such as headaches, nausea, respiratory
infections, allergies, humidifier fever, or Legionnaires' disease. The loss of
billions of dollars per year in medical expenses and lost productivity has been
attributed to these pollutants.
A majority of bacteria and viruses found in indoor environments originate from
h u m a n s and pets through sneezing, coughing, dander and saliva, which increases
with an increase in inhabitant population. A variety of microorganisms also are
present in the outdoor air. Once microorganisms are introduced into an indoor
environment, they can settle in amplification sites where they thrive and grow.
Amplification sites include any site with the proper pH, temperature, and
moisture content. Common growth sites include moist wood and cloth, damp
floors, shower heads, and refrigerator drain pans. A number of fungi and
bacteria also arise from humidifiers, air conditioning systems, cooling towers, and
ventilation and heating systems. A list of microorganisms that are commonly
found in indoor environments, their sizes and pathogenic properties is given in
Table 1.
Although outdoor air is a major source of indoor particulates, various indoor
activities such as the burning of wood and tobacco smoking can elevate
significantly their indoor concentrations. Tobacco smoke is also a source of both
toxic chemical vapors and particles in indoor environments [ 1 ] . Recent
laboratory studies have identified more than one hundred chemical compounds in
the vapor and particulate phases of tobacco smoke [2]. A number of these
compounds are considered toxic and carcinogenic to humans. The mean level of
the mass of respirable suspended particulates (RSP) in smoking environments is
generally higher t h a n that found outdoors [3-6]. The concentration of RSP in
homes with one or two smokers could be two to four times higher than that in
homes without a smoker. Tobacco smoke has a wide distribution of particle size.
Particles in the size range of 0.1 to 0.5 ~m from tobacco smoke, which are most
difficult to remove since they are too small to capture by interception or
834
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b.0
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,i-,i
I~
9 ,..4
o ~
00
~D
~I
~
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0
,,,
b.O
00
"~0
9 ~,,,i
o~
"~
4~
00
9 r,,.i
0
,.O
0
,.O
.i-t
4~
r.~
o~..4
4~
9 r-.,I
o
or-I
El
o
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c5
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9 i,,.~
c5
I--.4
1.o
or-I
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9 ,--~
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or-I
4-~
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4-~
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....
c6
dl
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835
r~
00
r~
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r.~
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0
C~1
o'~
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C~
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r~
9
o
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836
837
impaction and too big for removal by the diffusion process, constitute a
significant mass-fraction of indoor respirable particle matters. These particles
have a high probability of penetrating to the pulmonary compartment of lungs
causing adverse health effects. Particulate matters can also be a carrier of a
number of toxic substances by adsorption on its surface. Carbon particles, such
as those emitted during combustion Of the paper portion of a cigarette, are
efficient adsorbents for a number of organic and inorganic compounds and can
carry them into lungs. This can have a potentially damaging effect on the h u m a n
body. Particles that contain an attached toxic substance can increase a person's
physiological response to that substance above the normal tolerance level of the
same individual. The relation between the size ranges of selected particulates
and the potential for lung damage is shown in Figure 1.
GREATEST
LUNG
DAMAGE
! CEMENT DUST
TOBACCO SMOKE
Diameter o f
"
Antropogenic
COAL DUST
Pollutant
OIL SMOKE
Particles
FLY ASH
AUTO EXHAUST
VISIBLE LIGHT
RAIN
VIRUSES
HUMAN H A I R T
Important
SMALL
Lengths
BACTERIA
MOLECULES
and C o m m o n
Particle
SEA SALT PARTICLES
Diameter
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
BEACH SAND
1 2
5 10
100
1000
10,000
Microns
Figure 1. Size range of various particulate matters (adapted from Indoor Air: Quality &
Control by A.L. Hines, T.K. Ghosh, S.K. Loyalka and R.C. Warder, Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, 1993, p. 117).
838
2. C O N T R O L S T R A T E G I E S
Various preventive methods such as maintenance and cleaning, increased

ventilation (air exchange rates), humidity control, physical methods of
sterilization, application of biocides, and the use of mechanical filters have been
suggested as a means of controlling microbial growth indoors [7]. Preventive
maintenance and cleaning are probably the easiest methods of controlling
microorganisms in buildings and residences.
Regular maintenance of air
handling systems and fan-coil units, cleaning of drain pans, and the periodic
replacement of filters have been found to reduce microbial concentrations in
indoor air. Cleaning also reduces the likelihood of microbial amplification in
filters, cooling towers, and humidification systems.
Biocides are primarily used to control microbial growth in water such as in
humidifier water reservoirs, cooling tower water, and in any place with stagnant
water.
The most frequently used biocides include hypochlorites, phenolic
compounds, and glutaraldehyde [8]. Biocides kill microorganisms by physically
attacking their structure and inhibiting their ability to reproduce. The selection
of a proper biocide is dependent not only on its microbial inhibiting factor, but
also on its dosage and frequency of use, and on its impact on the environment [9].
Microorganisms can develop a resistance to biocides after a certain period of time
[10]. This resistance arises from the ability of organisms to mutate and change
their biochemical behavior. Several studies have shown that the use of multiple
biocides with scheduled treatment plans can reduce microbial resistance.
However, most of these biocides are toxic to h u m a n s [8].
A particulate filter combined with an activated carbon filter is most frequently
used for removal of gaseous constituents and particulates resulting from tobacco
smoke, since ventilation alone is not sufficient to remove or to dilute
Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) concentrations indoors below levels
recommended by the USEPA. Various types of particulate filters, such as metal
prefilters, V-bag filters, HEPA filters and electrostatic precipitators have been
used.
Turk et al. [11] studied 38 commercial buildings in the Pacific Northwest
region of the USA whose air exchange rates averaged 70% higher than that
recommended in the ASHRAE 62-1989 standard. The RSP levels in buildings
with smokers were on average 40% higher t h a n the USEPA standard. Olander
et al. [12] examined a number of air cleaners for removing tobacco smoke
including electrostatic precipitators, electret fiber filters, fiber filters, and
ionizers. Some of these were also equipped with a second cleaning unit such as
activated carbon beds, impregnated alumina beds, an ionizing lamp, and an
electron generator. In addition to monitoring particulates in the size range of
0.01 to 7.5 microns, the cleaning rates of carbon monoxide, ammonia,
formaldehyde, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrocarbons, hydrogen cyanide,
and ozone were also measured. The removal efficiencies for particulates were 90
to 95%, but those for gaseous constituents were below 50%. Sandberg and Mellin
839
[13] used an electrostatic field and an ion generator to remove tobacco smoke and
mineral dust from a 3.8 m 3 Plexiglas-room. The reduction in mass concentration
was about 60% w h e n both the electric field and the ion generator were in
operation.
The increased ventilation rate h a d little effect on the removal
efficiency. Similar results were obtained when only the electric field was in
operation. M a n n and Airah [14] combined an efficient particulate filter with an
activated carbon filter to control odors and to remove various gaseous and vapor
constituents and particulates of tobacco smoke from working environments. A
self contained recirculating air purifier t h a t incorporated a particulate filter and
a carbon adsorption unit was found to be most effective. A detailed review of the
removal of ETS from indoors using various methods can be found in Hines et al.
[7].
Pierce et al. [6] evaluated four air cleaning systems for reducing ETS
components in offices. Air cleaning devices used in their study was a combined
system of a particulate filter and a gas-solid adsorption unit for removal of
particles and vapor components of ETS, respectively. Results of their study
showed t h a t such air cleaning devices operating concurrently with dilution
ventilation can be effective in reducing the levels of nicotine and RSP in a
designated smoking area. Devices equipped with a H E P A filter were most
effective in reducing RSP level, whereas a carbon media was found to be the best
for removal of nicotine. The adsorption capacity, or the lifetime, of a carbon filter
depended on a n u m b e r of factors, such as a m o u n t s and types of carbon used in a
filter, concentrations of ETS in air, operating t e m p e r a t u r e , and relative humidity
of air.
3. A D S O R B E N T B A S E D REMOVAL S Y S T E M S
G r a n u l a r bed filters can be attractive alternatives to m a n y existing systems
for particulate removal from air. Beds packed with inert solids, such as sand and
glass beads, have been used in the past to remove particulates from industrial
effluents, but with limited success. A review of the subject has been provided by
Zenz and Krockta [15]. A typical application is the t r e a t m e n t of a particle-laden
flue gas, which is introduced in a g r a n u l a r bed from either the top or bottom.
When the resistance to flow increases to a p r e d e t e r m i n e d level, as indicated by
the pressure drop, compressed air is blown in a direction opposite to the process
air flow to clean the bed. Jackson and Calvert [16] employed Raschig rings,
spheres, and spherical packings of 0.5, 1, and 1.5 inch in size to remove oil mist.
Particle collection efficiencies up to 50% were obtained for 1 micron particles.
P a r t e s k y et al. [17] used a sand bed to remove fly ash and sulfur dioxide.
Another example is the study by Gebhart et al. [18] who used a glass bead
m e d i u m to remove 0.1 to 2 ~m diameter particles. Kalen and Zenz [19] developed
a trial unit to capture particles from a fluid cracking unit in the petroleum
industry. Due to a variety of mechanical and economical problems, however,
these units are no longer commercially available [20]. To improve the
840
performance of these granular bed filters, it has been suggested to augment the
filters with an electrostatic field. Such a bed handles high temperatures and high
gas flow rates at low pressure drops with reasonable efficiency [21,22]. However,
these systems were developed mainly for use in industrial processes. Therefore,
they are not suitable for use in other indoor settings and consequently were not
tested with tobacco smoke, other respirable particulates, or microorganisms.
However, if desiccant materials are used as the filtering media, these type of
units may be used for cleaning indoor air. Desiccant based air conditioning
systems are finding increased applications over the traditional vapor compression
refrigeration systems due to their more efficient handling of the latent heat load
and lower operating and maintenance costs. As a result, there is renewed interest
in studying the indoor air quality enhancement capability of desiccant systems.
In desiccant based systems, moist air is passed through a bed containing
desiccants where moisture is removed from air by adsorption. The dry air from
the bed is further conditioned to adjust its temperature and humidity. Silica gel,
molecular sieves, and activated alumina are primarily used as desiccants because
of their excellent water adsorption capacity. Among these materials, silica gel
and molecular sieves are used most frequently as desiccants to dehumidify the
air in desiccant based air-conditioning systems. The adsorbent based filter bed
can also capture particulates and remove or kill various microorganisms from air.
They can even adsorb gaseous constituents of tobacco smoke. However, these
materials are still being investigated to evaluate their effectiveness for removing
respirable particles, especially tobacco smoke from indoor air, as well as their
effectiveness in killing microorganisms.
The primary objective of the use of solid desiccant systems is to dehumidify air.
However, their water adsorption characteristics can change dramatically if
particulates are present in air that is being processed. Therefore, most of the
research are related to studying the moisture adsorption characteristic of
desiccant materials in the presence of particles and tobacco smoke. Pesaran and
co-workers [23-25] exposed several desiccants to cigarette smoke in a chamber,
which they described as a Desiccant Contamination Test Facility. The chamber
was designed to hold 100 sample test tubes, each of which was three inch in
length and 0.32 inch in diameter. The sample tubes were packed with various
types of desiccant materials such as silica gel, molecular sieve-13X, activated
alumina, activated carbon, silica gel on a tape, and lithium chloride, and were
exposed together to smoke in the chamber. Resulting data showed that the
moisture adsorption capacity of all materials decreased due to exposure to smoke.
Farouk et al. [26] reported that the rate of moisture adsorption of molecular
sieve, silica gel, and activated alumina decreased by 50% in the presence of 5%
agricultural dust. However, they found that the equilibrium moisture adsorption
capacities of these desiccants were not affected by dust particles having a 10 to
20 pm diameter. This suggests that dust particles blocked the pores, adding extra
resistance to the diffusion process, thus decreasing the units efficiency in dust
removal.
841
4. F U N D A M E N T A L S A N D M E C H A N I S M S
Particulate removal systems work on the principle that as a gas stream

containing particles flows through a filtration device the particles are acted on by
various external forces that cause their separation from the gas stream. Either
individually or in a combination, the following mechanisms generally cause the
separation of the particles from the gas stream:
1) Sedimentation: Particles present in gas streams are allowed to settle under
gravity to the floor of a chamber.
2) Electrostatic precipitation: Particles are electrically charged and then
subjected to an electric field for their removal from the gas stream.
3) Inertial deposition: Suspended particles tend to keep moving in their original
direction even when the flow path is changed. Ultimately, particles loose
their inertia and deposit on the filter surface.
4) Brownian diffusion: Particles suspended in a gas are always in Brownian
motion. When the gas stream flows around solid surfaces, the random
motion of the particles will bring them in contact with the surface, where
they adhere and collected. Devices designed based on Brownian diffusion are
more effective in removing smaller particles.
Design of particulate removal devices, therefore, requires the knowledge of the
motion of particles under various environmental conditions. The factors that will
affect the motion of the particle and thereby the removal efficiency of the device
include: a) particulate concentration in the stream to be cleaned, b) the size
distribution of the particles in the stream, and c) the gas flow rate. The design of
these devices is described in detail in various publications and text books [27].
The mechanisms by which microorganisms and particulates adsorb to and
desorb from adsorbent surfaces involve many other phenomena. The adhesion of
microorganisms and particulates onto a solid surface may occur in three stages;
a) deposition of microorganisms,
b) attachment, adhesion, or adsorption, and/or
c) growth or killing on the solid surface.
The deposition of microorganisms onto solid surfaces depends on the initial
movement of microbial cells through a suspending fluid toward and from a
sorbent surface. It can involve nonsorptive charge behavior and diffusional,
gravitational, and convective transports. The subsequent attachment involves a
number of forces acting between the microbial cell and solid surface. A list of
these forces are given in Table 2.
The attachment and any subsequent colonization of microorganisms depend on
the nature of the solid surface. Solid surfaces may be porous (such as that of
silica gel, molecular sieves, and activated carbons), or nonporous (such as that
used in filters). Although pore diameters of these adsorbents are in the same
order of magnitude as that of the microorganism, no study is available to show
842
Table 2
Forces of attraction and repulsion between microbial cells and adsorbent surfaces
Forces of Attraction
Hydrogen, thio, amide, and ester bonds
Ion-pair formation (NHa + ...-OOC-)
Interparticle bridging (polyelectrolytes)
Electrostatic attraction between surfaces of similar charge
Electrostatic attraction due to image forces
Surface tension
van der Waals forces of attraction
Electromagnetic forces
Hydrodynamic forces
Diffusional forces
Gravitational forces
Forces of Repulsion
Charge repulsion between surfaces of similar charge
van der Waals forces of repulsion
Steric exclusion (hindrance)
Negative chemotaxis (cellular mobility)
Adapted from Adsorption of Microorganisms to Surfaces, G. Bitton and K. C. Marshall
(Eds.), John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980, p. 22.
that microorganisms are in fact adsorbed in the pores. It is more likely that the
microorganisms either deposit or adhere to outer surfaces of the solid. The initial
interaction between a microbial cell and solid surface, which is generally called
the adsorption stage, depends mainly on the characteristics of the solid surface.
As shown in Figure 2, the mechanism of adhesion of a microorganism onto a
surface depends on the adsorbent particle size. If the adsorbent particle is
significantly larger than microorganisms, a number of microbial cells can become
attached to a single large particle. When the size of an adsorbent particle and a
cell is in the same order of magnitude, they can mutually interact. In the case of
adsorbent particles smaller t h a n microbial cells, a single cell can attach itself to a
number of adsorbent particles. The mechanisms for adsorption, rate of transport,
and equilibrium capacities can differ in all three cases. In the case of desiccant
materials, once microbial cells attach themselves to the solid surface, the
desiccant may adsorb water and fluids from the cell causing their death due to
desiccation or cell rupture.
843
Adsorbent particle
Microbe
a) Adsorbent particles larger than microbial cells
~
~~,..~
)~~)'~~'~--
Adsorbent particle
Microbe
b) Adsorbent particles and microbial cells of equal size

. "~"
.~
Adsorbentparticle
2~.
~ ~ ~ . . . ~
Microbe
c) Adsorbent particles smaller than microbial cells
Figure 2. Schematicrepresentations of microbial adsorption (adapted from Adsorption of
Microorganisms to Surfaces, G. Bitton and K.C. Marshall (eds.), John Willey & Sons,
New York, 1980,p. 13).
When using solid adsorbents to remove microorganisms and/or particulates,
the material will be either packed in a bed or coated in a monolithic honeycomb.
Considering the size ranges of respirable suspended particles and
microorganisms in indoor air, Brownian diffusion is expected to be the controlling
mechanism in bringing the particles into contact with the surface. Although the
forces that are mainly responsible for adhesion of microorganisms to adsorbent
844
surface may include van der Waals and electrostatic forces, chemical bonding
through covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic bonding,
interfacial reactions between microorganisms and adsorbent surfaces are also
very important in particle removal. Microorganisms are capable of producing
exudates which can condition the surface to which they attach making them more
or less sticky. According to Baier [28], this interfacial film makes the solid
surface suitable for biological attachment.
Although a wealth of literature concerning the attachment of microorganisms
at various solid-liquid interfaces are available, only limited information is
available on the attachment of microorganisms in solid-air interfaces. The
kinetics of diffusional processes have been applied successfully in developing rate
equation for both adsorption and desorption of microorganisms for solid-liquid
systems.
The Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms adequately
describe the equilibrium adsorption of microorganisms.
However, further
experimental data are required to verify the application of these adsorption
isotherms to solid-air systems.
5. L A B O R A T O R Y AND F I E L D T E S T R E S U L T S
5.1. P a r t i c u l a t e s
A packed bed can provide dual action as a typical filter for airborne
particulates and as an adsorbent for other indoor air pollutants. Laboratory
scale experiments [29,30] were conducted using each of three adsorbents; silica
gel, molecular sieve 13X and activated carbon in order to assess their tobacco
smoke removal capability from air. The filtration capability was investigated by
passing room air through an adsorbent bed. Approximately 25 g of the adsorbent
samples were packed into a 0.5 inch diameter glass tube. The flow rate through
the bed was maintained at 5 L/min.
These experiments were conducted at room temperature (about 296 K) and
relative humidity ranging from 30% to 60%. The total number of particles
decreased from the original 4.8-6.0 x 103 particles to 1.3-3.0 x 103 particles/cm 3 of
air at the initial period of the experiment. There was no significant difference in
the reduction of removal efficiency (27% to 50%) when the relative humidity of
the room was varied. Also, a similar removal efficiency was noted for each of the
three adsorbents, which had similar particle sizes: 6x12 mesh for silica gel, 4x8
mesh bead for molecular sieve, and 6x16 for activated carbon. This gave similar
voidages in all three beds, and, therefore, caused the filtration efficiency to be in
the same range.
To study the removal of environmental tobacco smoke from indoor air, a
filamatic piston pump was used to duplicate the puffing of a cigarette. The
design of the smoking machine is given in details by Lee et al. [30]. A lighted
cigarette was attached to the smoking apparatus by a plastic tube. Downward
motion of the piston created a vacuum in the pump chamber and opened an
intake valve, thus drawing about 35 cm 3 of air through a burning cigarette into
845
the p u m p chamber. The movement of the piston was controlled by a computer
and the time required to intake 35 cm 3 of air was adjusted to about 2 second.
This was approximately equivalent to taking a puff on a cigarette by a person.
After about 2 seconds, the piston moved u p w a r d which closed the intake valve,
and at the same time opened another valve to vent the smoke trapped in the
v a c u u m c h a m b e r to the atmosphere. The process was repeated at one minute
intervals. This essentially duplicated the smoking p a t t e r n of a person. During
the one m i n u t e cycle, the cigarette burned idly and generated the sidestream
smoke in a Plexiglas tube, which was further diluted, allowed to age, and its
relative h u m i d i t y was adjusted to 50% in a 20 feet long 2" I.D. Plexiglas tube to
obtain environmental tobacco smoke (ETS).
A schematic diagram of the
experimental set-up is shown in Figure 3.
Vacuum Transducer
w~,..__~
io
o o o 1
Sampling Port
Thermocouple
"
Humidity Probe
To Gas Chromatograph
a~r
Smoking Machine
l 'ii
Thermocouples
I b-
in l
Total Hydrocarbon Analyzer
Filter Holder
To Gas Chromatograph
'
Humidity Probe
Air Blower
Figure 3. A schematic diagram of the smoking apparatus.
The adsorption bed was made of a stainless steel tube t h a t was 30 cm in length
and 4 cm in i n t e r n a l diameter. A stainless steel screen was placed at the bottom
of the column to support the samples. A thermocouple was placed at the middle
part of the bed to m e a s u r e the t e m p e r a t u r e and was placed in the laboratory
where the t e m p e r a t u r e was approximately 296 K. The variation of t e m p e r a t u r e
846
in the laboratory during an experiment was within _+ 1 K. The gas mixture
flowed through the column from the top to the bottom. A detail description of the
column can be obtained in [29].
A Condensation Nucleus Counter (CNC) was used to count the number of
particles in the air. The numbers are maintained in the ETS level by adjusting
the dry air flow rate t h a t was used to dilute the smoke in the first tube. A
combined humidity and t e m p e r a t u r e indicator was used to measure relative
humidity and temperature of the mixture. A filter paper was used to collect
particles at the inlet and outlet of the bed. A Hydrocarbon Analyzer was used to
measure the total hydrocarbon concentration, which was reported as total
methane.
Following exposure to tobacco smoke, the equilibrium water adsorption
capacity of exposed samples was measured gravimetrically in an all glass
a p p a r a t u s using a Cahn C-2000 electrobalance. A description of the adsorption
system and the experimental procedure can be obtained in [31]. The
electrobalance was capable of weighing up to 3.5 g with a sensitivity of 1 pg. A
vacuum of 10 .4 m m H g was obtained in the system prior to initiating an
adsorption run. Approximately 50 mg of samples were sufficient for obtaining
the equilibrium data. The samples are placed in a small a l u m i n u m bucket t h a t
is suspended from the electrobalance. Samples can be regenerated, in situ, under
various conditions. The conditions used in this study for regenerating the
samples have been described later in this section. Following regeneration, water
vapor was introduced into the system in steps and the equilibrium adsorption
data were obtained at 298 K. After equilibrium was reached, as indicated by a
constant sample weight, the pressure and weight gain were recorded.
Subsequent points were obtained by introducing more water vapor into the
system and allowing it to equilibrate.
About 25 grams of samples were used in an experiment. Prior to each
adsorption run, the bed was regenerated to remove any moisture or impurities
that might have been adsorbed during the weighing and packing of the bed. This
was done by heating the bed at 473 K for 12 hours with a stream of nitrogen
flowing through the bed at a rate of 500 cm3/min. Following regeneration, the
bed was cooled to the room temperature and a cigarette was lit manually in the
smoking machine. The cigarette was withdrawn from the chamber at the end of
a 10-minute combustion period. On average, ten puffs were taken from a
cigarette. The flow rate of air containing ETS was approximately 8600 cm3/min
in the last section of the Plexiglas tube. About 4000 cm3/min of the mixture was
passed through the bed, while t h a t through the inlet particulate filter was
4000 cm3/min. A flow rate of about 600 cm3/min was required for the CNC for
counting the number of particles. The number of particles, relative humidity,
temperature, and hydrocarbon concentrations of the gas mixture at the outlet of
the bed were measured periodically using appropriate instruments.
An
adsorption run was continued for 6 to 10 hours depending on the type of material
used in the experiment. Following which the regeneration of the bed was started
847
by heating it to 473 K, while a stream of nitrogen flowed through the bed at a
rate of 500 cma/min. The regeneration of the bed continued until the hydrocarbon
concentration of the exhaust air was not detectable by the hydrocarbon analyzer.
An adsorption-regeneration cycle was repeated for 15 times with the same
sample.
After each adsorption run, the filter papers were collected, and their weights
were determined as soon as possible. After 15 adsorption-regeneration cycles,
adsorbents were collected from the top, middle, and bottom sections of the bed.
The remaining adsorbent was regenerated, and a sample was collected for
analysis. The BET surface area was determined for all four samples.
The concentration of ETS in the air was controlled by monitoring the number
of particles. The number of particles in the air was controlled between 30,000
and 35,000 particles/ cm a of air, however, it increased sharply for a very short
period of time following a puff by the machine. The number of particles then
decreased steadily before taking another puff. This variation in the number of
particles between puffs for a ten-minute period is shown in Figure 4. The
methanol extracts of the particulate phase of the sidestream smoke and the ETS
* Time elapsed before a puff: 60 sec

4.0
-
3.5
E
ro
~
~
3.0
Z
2.5
0
120
240
360
480
Time (sec)
Figure 4. Variation in the number of particles in the gas mixture during a ten minute
combustion period.
600
848
were analyzed by the GC/MS spectrometer. A number of compounds were

identified including nicotine in the sidestream smoke, however, only a few of
them could be detected in the ETS. Although the number of particles were
controlled between 30,000 and 35,000 particles/cm a of air in all the experiments,
the mass concentration ranged from 600 to 1000 mg/m a. This was also an
indication that the particulate phase did not have a uniform composition.
The concentration profiles for water vapor from the three adsorbent beds for
the 15th cycle are compared in Figure 5. Although silica gel has a greater
preference for water than for hydrocarbons because of the presence of hydroxyl
groups on the surface, the bed could not be saturated with water even after 10
hours of adsorption. In contrast, the molecular sieve 13X bed became saturated
with water vapor in about 6.7 h. As expected, water broke through the activated
carbon column quickly. Activated carbon does not adsorb a significant amount of
water at relative humidities below 40%. A sharp rise in the adsorption capacity
for water occurs at humidities around 50%, which is mainly due to the pore filling
[32]. A temperature rise above the set adsorption temperature (298 K) was
observed in both silica gel and molecular sieve beds due to release of heats during
adsorption process. Studies by Babu [33] and Leu [34] have shown that water
alone can cause the temperature of the bed to rise by 20 to 50 K when silica gel or
molecular sieve was used as the adsorbent. The tailing in the breakthrough
1.0
{jp'~
o
-,..4
.,,.-
9 w
"
9
0.8
9 I
Molecular sieve 13X

9
Activated carbon
T,-a
_,,..~" Silica gel

9 ~ 9149
0 . 6 ~ 9 1 4 99
),--I
0.4-
o9
o9
.4.a
0
::S
O
O
"
0.2 i
F
~'-""
*** *9
0.0
,
0
Relative humidity: 50%

Adsorbent weight: 25 g
Flow rate: 0.0126 g-mole/(min.cm')
Number of particles at the inlet: 30000-35000 particles/cm 3
Inlet concentration of hydrocarbons: 3.5-4 ppm
Temperature: 298 K
,
500
1000
Time (min)
Figure 5. A comparison of breakthrough characteristics of water vapor from different
adsorbent beds.
1500
849
curve for water vapor from silica gel bed may have been due to this temperature
rise in the bed. More water was adsorbed by silica gel as the bed cooled causing
the tailing in the breakthrough curve. However, the shape of breakthrough
curves for water vapor from the both silica gel and molecular sieve beds remained
nearly the same in all 15 cycles and water broke through the bed almost at the
same time. This suggested that adsorption mechanisms did not change from
cycle to cycle.
The equilibrium adsorption data of water vapor obtained under static
conditions are shown in Figures 6 through 8. The data were obtained on four
types of samples (Samples A, B, C, and D). Two samples, one each from the top
(Sample A) and bottom (Sample B) sections of the bed, were collected after the
15th adsorption cycle. These two samples were kept in the test chamber under
vacuum for 12 hours (regenerated under vacuum only) before starting the
adsorption of water vapor. One of the four samples was not exposed to tobacco
smoke at any time (fresh sample, Sample C), and it was regenerated by heating
at 473 K under vacuum for 12 hours. The last sample was collected from the bed
after the 15th adsorption cycle, but all the adsorbents in the bed were mixed
thoroughly before taking the sample (Sample D). This particular sample was
regenerated in the test chamber by heating at 473 K under vacuum for 12 hours.
0.4
'
'
'
'
'
'
,"
'i
"I
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
I"
"
'
"
'
'
'
'
'
&
0.3
A
_0
i
@
9
[]
0.2
9
a,~
0.1
t
,
0.0
Fresh sample, never exposed to tobacco smoke

Exposed to tobacco smoke and
regenerated at 473 K under vaccum
Sample from top of the bed
after exposure to tobacco smoke
Sample from bottom of the bed
10
L,
15
20
25
30
Pressure (mmHg)
Figure 6. Comparison of the isotherm data for water vapor at 298 K on samples of molecular
sieve exposed to tobacco smoke with that of an unexposed sample.
850
0.5
'
9
9
0.4
'
'
'
'
'
Fresh sample, never exposed to Lobacco smoke

Exposed to tobacco smoke and
regenerated at 473 K under vacuum
Sample from top of the bed
Sample from bottom of the bed
9
m
0o
'
0.3
dko
0
Oak
-'-'
0.2
&
4~
0.1
ni
m9
4,
mb
4~ m
.m
me,
0.0
10
15
20
25
Pressure (mmHg)
F i g u r e 7. C o m p a r i s o n o f the i s o t h e r m data for w a t e r v a p o r at 298 K on s a m p l e s o f m o l e c u l a r
sieve e x p o s e d to t o b a c c o s m o k e w i t h o f an u n e x p o s e d sample.
0.4
9
9
9
9
Fresh sample, never exposed to tobacco smoke

Exposed to tobacco smoke and regenerated at 473 K under vacuum
Sample from top of the bed after exposure to tobacco smoke
Sample from bottom of the bed after exposure to tobacco smoke
, 49.
011
0.3
A
r
R
0.2 "
A~
0.1
E9
0.0
&
10
15
20
Pressure (mmHg)
Figure 8. Comparison of the isotherm data for water vapor at 298 K on samples of activated
carbon obtained from different sections of the adsorption bed with that of fresh and
regenerated samples.
851
Silica gel collected from the top of the bed was brown in color, while that in the
bottom was light brown. The brown color of silica gel was due to the adsorption
of tar and nicotine from the smoke. Since most of the tar and nicotine were
removed in the top section of the bed, the color of the silica gel in the subsequent
layers were lighter. It should be noted that the air stream containing tobacco
smoke was fed from the top of the bed.
Although the scanning electron
micrographs showed solid-like deposition on the outer surface of silica gel
samples, they did not become sticky after exposure to tobacco smoke. Probably
most of the nicotine and tar were adsorbed on the pores, not on the outer surface
of silica gel. A similar analysis could not be done for molecular sieve due to its
dark brown color. As expected, silica gel samples collected from the top of the bed
(sample A) had the lowest water vapor adsorption capacity. The silica gel
exposed to tobacco smoke could not be regenerated completely even after 12
hours of heating at 473 K. Silica gel has significant number of pores with
diameters less t h a n 10/k, and these pores became plugged or covered with
contaminants. This was also evident from the color of the regenerated samples,
which had a dark brown appearance even after regeneration in the test chamber.
The water isotherms on molecular sieve 13X retained type II characteristics on
all the samples exposed to the tobacco smoke. The sample from the top of the bed
(Sample A) and the sample from the bottom of the bed (Sample B) had almost the
same water vapor adsorption capacity. When the samples were regenerated by
applying both heat (473 K) and vacuum (Sample C), they had the same
adsorption capacity as that of the fresh sample (Sample D). The molecular sieve
13X had an average pore diameter of 10/k, and it appears that most of the tars
and nicotine could be removed from the pores under these regenerating
conditions.
The water adsorption data of carbon samples obtained from the top and bottom
of the bed are compared in Figure 8 with that of a fresh sample and with the one
that had been exposed to tobacco smoke and further regenerated at 473 K for 12
hours. As can be seen from the figure, there was no difference in the water
adsorption capacity among these samples and with a fresh activated carbon. It
appears that activated carbon could be regenerated by applying vacuum only.
This indicates that tobacco smoke was adsorbed in larger diameter pores.
The surface areas of these samples measured by using nitrogen as the
adsorbate at 77 K supported the earlier observation. The surface areas of these
samples are given in Table 3. Results obtained by Pesaran et al. [25] supported
the data for silica gel, however, their data contradicted Lee et. al's [30] findings
for molecular sieve and activated carbon (see Table 4). It may be noted that
Pesaran et al. exposed their samples to a much higher concentration of tobacco
smoke than used by Lee et. al. Since the adsorption capacity of a solid is
dependent on the gas phase concentration of the adsorbate, at higher
concentrations, tobacco smoke constituents may have been adsorbed in smaller
pores from which desorption was difficult.
852
Table 3
Available surface area of adsorbents after exposure to tobacco smoke
Samples
S i l i c a Gel
Unexposed silica gel a
Available surface area

(m2/F)
672
Silica gel exposed to tobacco smoke and then

regenerated b
550
Sample t a k e n from the top of the bed following exposed

to tobacco smoke c
527
Sample t a k e n from the bottom of the bed following

exposed to tobacco smoke d
542
Molecular Sieve
Unexposed molecular sieve a
395
Molecular sieve exposed to tobacco smoke and then

regenerated b
350
Sample t a k e n from the top of the bed following exposed

to tobacco smoke c
40.5
Sample t a k e n from the bottom of the bed following

exposed to tobacco smoke d
40.4
Activated carbon
Unexposed activated carbon a
1052
Activated carbon exposed sample to tobacco smoke and

then regeneration b
936
Sample from the top of the bed c
815
Sample from the bottom of the bed d
916
a Sample was not exposed to tobacco smoke at any time and was regenerated at 473 K for 12
hours under vacuum before the test.
b Sample was exposed to tobacco smoke for 15 adsorption and regeneration cycles and was
regenerated after the 15th cycle at 473 K for 12 hours under vacuum.
c Sample was collected from the top of the bed after 15 adsorption and regeneration cycles
and was regenerated under vacuum only for 12 hours before the test.
d Sample was collected from the bottom of the bed after 15 adsorption and regeneration
cycles and was regenerated under vacuum only for 12 hours before the test.
853
Table 4
Comparison of moisture capacities virgin, clean, and adsorbent samples exposed
to tobacco smoke
Capacity
Adsorbent
Silica gel
Silica gel on
Loss
Ambient
(Control)
Exposed to
tobacco smoke
Difference in
capacity
Most loss
occurs
0-30%
30%-80%
20%-50%
In 1 month
20%-60%
70%-95%
30%-60%
In 1 month
30%-70%
30%-70%
In 1 month
tape
Molecular
sieve
Activated
5%-20%
15%-50%
10%-40%
In 1 month
carbon
Source: A. A. Pesaran and T. J. Dresler, Report No. SERI/PR-254-3677, 1990, p. 47.
The breakthrough characteristics of hydrocarbons present in tobacco smoke

from the silica gel, molecular sieve, and activated carbon beds are compared in
Figure 9. The total hydrocarbons measured as methane equivalent has been
2.5
r ....
,-
"--T
'
'
'
, ....
'
Inlet concentration of hydrocarbons - 35-40 ppm

2.0
0
.4-a
G~
9
9
9
Silica Gel
Molecular Sieve 13X
Activated Carbon
1.5
1.0
0000000000000000
9
N,~
ow,
e~
0 9149
o.5
~
t t
kk&k&&&&kkkkAkkkAkkkk
0.0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time (min)
Figure 9. Comparison of breakthrough characteristics of hydrocarbons present in tobacco

smoke from different adsorbent beds.
854
reported in this figure. In a silica gel bed, the total hydrocarbon concentration
decreased slowly reaching a minimum value t h a t ranged from 35% to 75% of the
inlet concentration during the first 10 to 15 minutes of an adsorption cycle.
However, the bed became s a t u r a t e d with hydrocarbons after about 150 minutes.
The concentration of hydrocarbons in the vapor phase was in the range of 35 to
40 ppm compared to about 20,000 ppm for water vapor. Since silica gel has a
greater affinity for water vapor, hydrocarbons were not able to compete with
water for an adsorption site.
In a molecular sieve bed, the outlet concentration of hydrocarbons decreased to
almost zero as soon as the air-tobacco smoke mixture was introduced into the
bed. However, as the experiment continued, the outlet concentration rose above
their inlet concentration. This type of behavior was not observed in a silica gel
bed. In the initial period of a run, hydrocarbon molecules were able to compete
with water molecule and occupied the vacant cages in the molecular sieve crystal
lattice. However, water eventually displaced the hydrocarbons from the pores,
because of its stronger affinity for the surface.
As shown in Figure 9, hydrocarbon concentrations at the bed outlet from the
activated carbon bed remained at about 13 to 16 ppm after six hours of
continuous operation. The total hydrocarbon concentration in the inlet gas
stream was about 35 to 40 ppm. It may be noted that water vapor concentration
of the same air stream was between 20,000 and 30,000 ppm. Initially water
occupied most of the pores before being displaced by hydrocarbons. It appears
t h a t as the experiment progressed, hydrocarbons started to displace water and
occupied these sites. As a result, the hydrocarbon concentration at the outlet
stream remained the same for a while. Since the hydrocarbon concentration was
very low compared to t h a t of water vapor, the displacement of water vapor by
hydrocarbons could not be detected.
It also appears t h a t certain types of
hydrocarbons present in ETS could not be adsorbed by the carbon. In the present
study the total amounts of hydrocarbons were determined. Therefore, it was not
possible to identify these compounds. Both silica gel and molecular sieve are
desiccant materials having strong affinity for water t h a n hydrocarbons.
Therefore, both these materials became s a t u r a t e d with ETS-hydrocarbons r a t h e r
quickly compared to activated carbon.
The ratios of the number of particles at the outlet to inlet of the bed for these
adsorbents for the 15th cycle are compared in Figure 10. At the beginning of an
adsorption cycle, a significant number of particles were captured in the bed,
however, the efficiency decreased as the experiment continued, and a significant
number of particles escaped from the bed. As can be seen from the figure, more
t h a n 95% of the particles were removed by the bed initially. During this time,
the pressure drop in the bed also increased, though marginally.
As the
experiment was continued, more particles started escaping from the bed. In all
three beds the same amounts of adsorbent material were used. However, due to
the different bulk density, the bed heights were different. This may have
contributed to the difference in the initial capture efficiency. All three beds lost
855
1.2
1.0
u ~
O
kkA9
'
it A
'
'
'
II 9
0.8
0.6
2: O
o.4
9
9
9
Silica Gel
M o l e c u l a r Sieve 13X
Activated Carbon
Q~
. w...4
'~ ~
0.2
~00 9 0000 O
9
N u m b e r of particles at the inlet = 30000-35000 p a r t i c l e s / c m 3
9
0.0
100
200
300
400
500
600
T i m e (min)
Figure 10. Comparison of particle capture characteristics of different adsorbent beds.

7000
6000
5000
p~
4000
3000
o
2000
1000
0
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
Cycle Number
* Experiment
was continued
f o r 24: h o u r .
Figure 11. Mass of particles retained by different adsorbent beds after different adsorption
cycles.
856
its particle capture capability after a certain period of time. This type of behavior
may be due to the different surface charge of these materials.
It is also
interesting to note that the captured particles were removed from the surface
during regeneration by heat. This may be due to the thermophoretic effect, since
the material surface was hot due to direct application of heat to the adsorbents
through the bed-wall whereas a relatively cool air was flowing near the surface.
The regeneration air was not heated prior to introduction to the bed.
The particle capture efficiency of a bed for different cycles was determined by
performing a mass balance, and the data for three adsorbents are shown in
Figure 11. The amount of particles remaining on the bed after an adsorption
cycle was determined from the weight change of filter papers. The capture
efficiency remained approximately the same in all 15 cycles.
5.2. Removal of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s
The microorganism removal capability of an adsorbent bed was evaluated by
passing room air that contained about 270 colony forming units (CFU) per cubic
meter of air through a 2.5 cm diameter bed packed with 25 g of the adsorbent.
The relative humidity of the room air was about 30%. The room air was drawn
through the bed at a rate of 10 L/min for a period of 10 minutes, and the air
samples were collected by using an Andersen impactor. A schematic diagram of
the apparatus is shown in Figure 12.
An Andersen sampler is an impactor type device consisting of six stages
through which air is drawn consecutively. Each stage contains approximately
400 holes, whose diameters decrease in the subsequent stages. The jet velocity is
uniform for each stage but increases for each succeeding stage. Immediately
below each stage is a specially designed petri dish that contains the nutrient to
facilitate microbial growth.
When the velocity imparted to the particle is
sufficient, its inertia overcomes the aerodynamic drag and the particle leaves the
stream of air and deposits on the nutrient medium. Otherwise, the particle
continues to travel to subsequent stages. Each succeeding stage removes the
largest remaining particles, with the last stage collecting those that are left.
The petri dishes containing the nutrients were prepared at least 24 hours prior
to their use and were stored at room temperature.
They were checked
periodically for contamination. Following collection of microorganisms, the plates
were incubated for the appropriate period of time (24 hours for bacteria and 4872 hours for fungi). Incubation temperatures used were 306-310 K for bacteria
and 298 K for fungi. Following incubation, the individual colonies on each plate
were counted on a Quebec colony counter.
Various types of nutrient media were used to isolate each type of colony (fungi
or bacteria) based on their morphology or color. The media used to identify the
organisms included nutrient agar, potato dextrose agar, and luria agar.
Sabouraud dextrose agar and rose bengal agar were used to isolate the
Actinomyces and fungi.
Fungi were characterized by their shape, growth
characteristic in the broth and on the agar, and the mode of reproduction.
857
Outdoor air
Ca,
0
Humidity
probe
"1
Valve
Humidity
probe
Jacketed
adsorption
column
Andersen
impactor
Pump
Flow m e t e r
[itrogen
br use during
:generation of
Lebed
Vent
Three way
valve
Figure 12. A schematic diagram of the experimental system for studying removal of
microorganisms.
Bacteria were isolated on the basis of biochemical tests and differential media.
Biochemical tests included gram-stains, endospore stains, and sugar
fermentation tubes.
Several other tests such as casein hydrolysis, catalase
production, starch hydrolysis, nitrate reduction, litmus milk reaction, urea
hydrolysis, growth at 5% NaC1, and citrate utilization were performed on specific
bacteria to further differentiate the genus and species. Bergey's Manual of
Determinative Bacteriology [35] was used to identify the biochemical responses.
The organisms collected at various locations of the laboratory were found to have
the same colony morphology, gram reaction, and cellular morphology. The
organisms identified during the fall of 1988 included Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Bacillus pasteur, and Bacillus circulans. Three
858
different varieties of fungi were also isolated. The genera identified in the
engineering laboratory include Actinomyces (bacteria) and Aspergillus (fungi).
Staphylococcal bacteria were also observed in several samples. Of the 22
isolates, nine were fungi and thirteen were bacteria.
Although silica gel and molecular sieve 13X beds were able to remove
statistically significant numbers of microorganisms from room air, the activated
carbon bed was considerably less effective. Silica gel and molecular sieve 13X
adsorbed all the moisture from air causing death to the microorganisms through
desiccation. The water adsorption capacity of activated carbon from air whose
relative humidity is below about 42% at room temperature is extremely small.
Consequently, most microorganisms survived in the activated carbon bed.
Results from the three beds are shown in Figure 13.
300
"~
250
"O
'x~
xco
L)
200
E
~
150
I~
0D
o
6~IX
a:
o~
~"~
,~
100
50
E ~
e~
e~
.~
Air Analyzed
Figure 13. Microorganism removal capabilities of different adsorbents.
859
Kovak et al. [36] i n v e s t i g a t e d the microbial r e m o v a l capability of desiccant

b a s e d air-conditioning units in t h r e e field locations a n d in a l a b o r a t o r y setting
using specific bacteria. Two of the field units were installed in p a t i e n t a r e a s in
two different hospitals a n d the t h i r d one was located in a commons room in a
n u r s i n g home. All t h r e e units h a d s t a n d a r d 30% filters at the inlet. Rooms
without a desiccant b a s e d air-conditi0ning unit at each facility were used as
controls. The reduction in b a c t e r i a a n d fungi counts in these t h r e e facilities with
respect to control rooms counts are shown in Figure 14. An a v e r a g e reduction of
39% was r e p o r t e d for Site 1. Nine out of ten s a m p l e s showed decrease in the
microbial count, with a h i g h of about 73%. Only one s a m p l e showed no reduction.
At Site 2, all ten s a m p l e s exhibited reduction in microbial counts, with an
average of 64%. The t h i r d site also h a d an a v e r a g e reduction of 64% in the
microbial counts.
80
Site 3
70-
Site 2
"iili
ii ' i '"~all
60@
I'!:l~,iii!}i'~l!,i~,~, ,',:1
50-
Site I
~
40-
30-
,!!!t,t,t!, Itl~tltil~lliii!lJt il
II, li,!il lili|i ; ;, ":11
t!i: i:il
IJltl II ;Ill ,~:, ,',',~t

II,,!]ilIl!ll ll/!~, i,,]: I
irft~tiit~,,i,:, , i
i,,lilitl!t
lil
[,t]ftifl,lti,i,!
f,iliii[ill,
t! IIllIt'i!ili't"ittti'i!l
20-
J~ll ~,lf ~',, ,,,

Iiii / '!i', :
10-
Figure 14. Reduction in bacteria and fungi counts in three field tests (adapted from Kovak
et al., ASHRAE J., 1997, p. 62).
860
L a b o r a t o r y tests were carried out using seven m i c r o o r g a n i s m s t h a t included
Staphylococcus
aureus,
Pseudomonus
aeruginosa,
Escherichia
coli,
Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Candida albicans, and
Mycobacterium fortuitum. Except for Mycobacterium fortuitum, an overall
reduction was observed for other six microorganisms.
The a v e r a g e percent
reductions for individual m i c r o o r g a n i s m s are shown in Figure 15. Tests were
conducted b e t w e e n 5 to 20 times for each o r g a n i s m s a n d the a v e r a g e percent
reduction is r e p o r t e d in this figure. The six microorganisms showed in the figure
are opportunistic p a t h o g e n s a n d are responsible for various disease a n d infection
in h e a l t h care facilities. W h e n all the d a t a are considered, an a v e r a g e reduction
of 38% was observed for these seven microorganisms.
A reduction for
Mycobacterium fortuitum was not observed m a y be due to their r e s i s t a n c e to
desiccation a n d heat.
r~
9 I-..I
opU
.,,.-q
.P,,I
l~176
1
8O -!
60
013
I-i
r,~
.~.ql
9 wt
fd~
,,a
~I
40
o
20
Type of Microorganisms
Figure 15. Reduction in counts for selected microbes in laboratory test data (adapted from
Kovak et al., ASHRAE J., April, 1997, p. 63).
861
Both the laboratory and field tests data support that the desiccants are
capable of reducing airborne microorganisms, although the exact mechanism has
not been identified. However, these studies do suggest that this technology may
be helpful in reducing the number of bioaerosols in indoor air both directly
through desiccation and killing, and indirectly by providing dry air.
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7. A.L. Hines, T. K. Ghosh, S. K. Loyalka and R. C. Warder, Investigation of
Co-Sorption of Gases and Vapors as a Means to Enhance Indoor Quality,
Report No.GRI-90/0194, p. 268, NTIS No. PB91-178806, 1990.
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Guidelines for the Assessment of Bioaerosols in the Indoor Environment, The
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9. G.A. Cappeline, J. G. Carroll and S. D. Strauss, Power, 56 (1977).
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13. M. Sandberg and A. Mellin, Artificial Electrostatic Fields as Air Cleaning
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862
20. H. P. Dibbs and P. Marier, AIChE Symposium Series, No. 147 (1975) 59.
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Processes, 4 (1986) 465.
22. M. Shapiro, G. Laufer and C. Gutfinger, Aerosol Science and Technology,
5(1) (1986) 39.
23. A. A. Pesaran and B. K. Parsons, Desiccant Materials Contamination
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on the Desiccant Contamination Test Facility, Report No. SERI/PR-254-3457,
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Preliminary Results, Report No. SERI/PR-254-3677, Solar Energy Research
Institute, Golden, CO, 1990.
26. S. M. Farouk, G. H. Brusewitz and P. D. Bloome, Desiccant Moisture
Sorption as Altered by Dust, ASAE Paper No. 80-3084 (1980).
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Prentice Hall, NJ, 1988.
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29. S-Y. Lee, Removal of Environmental Tobacco Smoke from Indoor Air by Solid
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No. GRI- 92/0157.2, p. 234, NTIS No. PB95-104691, 1992.
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863
S t u d i e s of m i x e d a d s o r p t i o n l a y e r s f o r m e d b y p o t e n t i a l c o r r o s i o n
inhibitors
K. Sykut, J. Saba
Faculty of Chemistry, M. Curie - Sktodowska University, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
The issues of corrosion of metals deserve particular attention due to the wide
use of metals in all fields of technology as well as the increasing corrosive
aggresiveness of the n a t u r a l environment caused by air and water pollution.
Due to their high electric conduction, the corrosion of metal most frequently is
of the electrochemical character. The mechanism of the electro-chemical corrosion
is based on the emergence of a variety of galvanic macro- and micro-cells:
concentration oxygen cells, cells of various electrolyte concentration, activising
and passivising cells and electrolytic cells. The basic corrosion research concerns
the kinetics of the electrode processes due to the fact t h a t in wet environments
corrosion is caused by these very processes. Anti-corrosive measures involve
either the modification of the corrosion environment or the inhibition of
spontaneous electrode processes. The former group of anti-corrosive measures
includes: elimination of oxygen from water, increase of the solution's pH,
desalting of water, dehumidification of air, t e m p e r a t u r e increase in order to
prevent steam condensation, elimination of solid pollutants from air or water and
others.
The use of corrosion inhibitors is supposed to inhibit the anodic and/or cathodic
processes by means of an increase in overvoltage or the blocking of the active metal
surface. Anodic inhibitors, most frequently anions, cause the increase in the anodic
polarisation potential, which results in the corrosive potential being shifted towards
the positive values. In order to achieve the sufficient effectiveness, the inhibitors
should be used in relatively high concentrations, e.g. l g/dm 3.
Cathodic inhibitors are usually cations which, as they deposit on the cathode,
block the surface of metal. As and Sb cations may serve as an example which
inhibit dissolution of iron in acids or polyphosphates which in water solutions, in
particular in the presence of Ca , produce large colloidal cations. The efficiency of
inhibitors may be improved by applying their appropriate m i x t u r e s , e.g. a cathodic
inhibitor mixed with an anodic inhibitor.
864
Organic corrosion inhibitors belong to the same type of compounds as inhibitors
of metal etching in acids or inhibitors of the development of crystals, the so-called
brighteners, used to deposit glossy electroplated coating. The majority of these
compounds contain nitrogen or sulphur or both the elements. Due to strong
adsorption across the entire surface of metal they may at the same time inhibit
anodic and cathodic processes. The inhibitor develops a mono or polymolecular
coating whose attributes depend on the energy of its bonding as well as its density.
Thiourea belongs to popular inhibitors of iron corrosion in the acid
environment. By using the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy method [1] it
was found t h a t in a solution of H2804 the inhibition with thiourea takes place in
the concentration below 0.1mM. The rate determining the step for the anodic
dissolution reaction of iron in the low polarisation region was a nucleophilic
additive reaction, first order with respect to thiourea. The rate determining step
for the cathodic process a Heyrovsky reaction, 0.5 order with respect to thiourea
and 1.5 order with respect to H ion. Using the above research method it was
found that that the maximum inhibitor effectiveness of thiourea on the corrosive
behaviour of ARMCO iron in deaerated 0.5M H2SO4 appears at the concentration
of some 0.1 mM [2]. The adsorptive bahaviour of thiourea on the electrode
surface up to its peaks follows a Frumkin-type isotherm with lateral repulsion
(the attraction constant is a= - 4.4), where the molecules are vertically adsorbed
on the Fe via the S atom. Thiourea acts as a mixed inhibitor up to the critical
concentration. It decreases the dissolution of Fe and the H2 evolution reaction by
blocking the electrode surface.
Thiourea acts also as an inhibitor for copper corrosion at acidic pH values
exclusively, but enhances copper electrodissolution through the anodic film in
alkaline solutions [ 3 ] . Electrochemical data recorded for copper electrodes
immersed in a solution containing thiourea indicates that thiouera is adsorbed at
potentials more negative t h a n the onset of copper oxide formation, and the
passive layer is built upon a layer of adsorbed thiourea. Thus, oxidation of the
specimens leads to the establishment of a competition between the formation of
an anodic layer containing thiourea and the oxides layer, and the
electrodissolution of the metal through the anodic film.
Studies of phenylthiourea as a corrosion inhibitor for mild steel prove that the
addition of 250 ppm of phenylthiourea was sufficient to inhibit corrosion of Fe 0.25C - 0 . 4 7 M n - 0.0089%Si steel in acid solvents containing 1000 ppm sulfite,
5000 ppm chloride and 500 ppm fluoride ions [4]. The inhibition efficiency was
94% at 50~
Potentiodynamic polarisation studies on carbon steel in HC1
solutions indicate that in the presence of phenylthiourea, the polarisation of both
partial reactions is increased leading to a marked decrease in corrosion rates and
debasing of the corrosion potential.
This was demonstrated by significant
reductions for potentials taken not far from the corrosion potentials [5].
Amino acids are among popular inhibitors of steel corrosion [6,7] and
a l u m i n i u m corrosion [8, 9] in acidic environments. In general, amino acids are
weak inhibitors of mild steel in 3M H2SO4 solution, with the exception of
865
tryptophan. On the other hand, S-containing amino acids (cysteine, cystine and
methionine) acts as corrosion inhibitors with an inhibition efficiency of 76+4% at
10-2M concentration. Combination of either cystine or cysteine with methionine
gave higher inhibition efficiency than that in the presence of methionine alone.
Inhibition was predominantly anodic and their adsorption conformed with the
Temkin
isotherm.
The increase in the inhibition efficiency in the rise in
temperature
and the resulting Temkin
isotherm indicated that inhibition
occurring through chemisorption.
Aspartic acid is a mixed-type inhibitor for aluminium
in acid chlorine
solutions.
The
Flory-Huggins
adsorption
isotherm
describes
well the
experimental data for aluminium in the presence of different concentrations of
aspartic acid. The large negative value of free adsorption energy indicates a
strong interaction between the
aspartic acid molecule and the corroding
aluminium surface. The presence of Cl ions in a certain concentration range has
a synergistic effect on the inhibition efficiency of aspartic acids. The reasearch on
the inhibiting impact of selected amino acids demonstrates that they inhibit not
only iron corrosion in 0.5M H2SO4 but also the corrosion of iron-chromium alloy
but not the corrosion of chromium
[I0].
The isomerism of the location of substituents in aromatic compounds
exerts a
specific influence on the corrosion inhibiting potential of these substances. At
5mM
chlorosubstituted
anilines concentration in 0.1M sulfamic acid, the
efficiency of inhibitors
for zinc decreases
in order: aniline (79%)>pchloroaniline>m-chloroaniline>o-chloroaniline
(65%) [II]. The mode of inhibition
action appears to be chemisorption because the plot of log(|174
vs. log c
obtained as straight line suggests that the inhibitors cover both the anodic and
cathodic regions through general adsorption following Langmuir
isotherm.
In
turn the studies of the inhibiting impact of isomers of aminobenzoic acid indicate
that all the three isomers inhibit the corrosion of mild steel both in HCI and
H2SO4 in order: orto-> meta-> para- [12]. The inhibition is greater in HC1 t h a n in
H2SO4. The p r e d o m i n a n t behaviour is in the cathodic inhibitor mode.
Some of the surfactants belong to the group of efficient corrosion inhibitors.
The studies of the inhibition effect of some non-ionic surfactants on the corrosion
of iron in acid chloride solutions showed t h a t inhibition efficiencies increased
with increasing surfactant concentrations and a t t a i n e d a m a x i m u m around their
critical micelar concentration [13]. A comparative study indicated 3.7-dimethyl1,2,3,6,7-oktanepentol was the best inhibitor, a cathodic type-inhibitor and acted
on the cathodic reaction without modifying the m e c h a n i s m of the hydrogen
evolution reaction. The impact of cation surfactants on steel corrosion in acid
solutions is complex in n a t u r e affecting the dissolution of the metal and the
cathodic reaction of H2 evolution [14]. The inhibitory effect of the surfactants
increased with alkyl chain length and at concentrations above their critical
micele concentration. The corrosion potential of the steel was unaffected by the
presence of surfactants, however, the corrosion current decreased with increasing
concentration of surfactants. Among the high-molecular compounds, polioxyethyl
866
ether d e m o n s t r a t e s the potential to inhibit the corrosion of zinc and its alloy with
indium [15].
The use of a mixture of corrosion inhibitors oftentimes improves their
efficiency resulting in synergistic effects, however, an antagonistic effect is also
possible [16]. The interactions between inhibitors were t a k e n into account by
second order equations.
Examination of regression coefficient and their
significance indicated t h a t synergism may exist if concentrations of inhibitor
compounds are 30 mg/dm 3 and below, but if the inhibitor compounds are applied
in concentrations of 100mg/dm ~ antagonism r a t h e r t h a n synergism takes place.
The synergistic inhibition effect of sodium octylmerkaptopropionate and 8quinolinol was observed in the studies of iron corrosion in an a e r a t e d 0.5M
Na2SO4 solvent [17]. A high inhibition efficiency 98.2% was obtained by a
mixture of 3-10-4M octylmerkaptopropionate and 5 9 10-4M 8-quinolinol. It was
concluded t h a t the high synergism of the mixture is mostly a t t r i b u t e d to coverage
of the iron surface with a precipitate layer composed of iron oxide and a chelate of
8-quinolinol with Fe - o c t y l m e r c a p t o p r o p i o n a t e complexes precipitated at
defects preferentially.
The research of the inhibiting impact on the corrosion of mild steel and 1M
H2SO4 of some thiols: 2-mercaptobenzothiazol, 2-mercaptobenzimidazol, 2mercaptobenzoxazol indicate t h a t they are one mixed type inhibitors affecting
both the anodic and cathodic processes by simple blocking of the active sites of
metal [18]. The corrosion process is controlled by a charge-transfer proces. The
presence of an electron cloud on the aromatic ring, the electronegative atoms (N,
S and O) and the easily polarisable hetero atoms is likely to induce greater
adsorption of the thiol molecule on the surface of the mild steel which can lead to
an effective inhibition.
The surface coverage area (0) of mild steel by the
adsorption of different thiols was calculated from the uninhibited and inhibited
corrosion currents.
The addition of halide ions to the corrosive medium
containing thiols, similarly as in the case of the application of aspartic acid [9],
was found to increase the inhibition efficiency. The t h e r m o d y n a m i c values
indicate t h a t the presence of inhibitors increases the activation energy.
Given the experimental data for adsorption of surface-active substances on
different metals, it appears likely t h a t the mechanism of creation of mixed
adsorption layers on mercury will be subject to similar rules. The selection of
mercury as the electrode material is determined above all be a very good
reproducibility of m e a s u r e m e n t s resulting from the homogeneity and purity of
the mercury/solution interface. Adsorption surfaces were studied which are
produced either by substances which are popular corrosion inhibitors or which in
t e r m s of their chemical composition are very similar to the corrosion inhibitors
applied. Mixed adsorption surfaces were produced by two organic substances
with opposite impact upon the kinetics of Zn (II) ion reduction. In selecting these
substances the m u t u a l influence of the molecules of the adsorbants applied and
the function of their size and structure was also t a k e n into consideration. Zn (II)
ion electroreduction inhibitors: n-butanol (BU) and ethylene polyglycols with
867
m e a n molecular mass 400 (PEG 400) and 10000 (PEG 10000) were used as
components of mixed adsorption layers, with tiourea (TU) [19] and toluidine
isomers: m-toluidine (mT) and p-toluidine (pT) [20] - being used as accelerating
agents. The adsorption equilibrium within the area of the adsorption potential
similar to the potential of the zero charge (pzc) were examined using the classical
t h e r m o d y n a m i c methodology: the adsorption p a r a m e t e r s of the double layer was
determined using the F r u m k i n isotherm and the virial isotherm. Based on the
potential drop across the inner layer ~M-2, the electrostatic parameters of the
double layer were determined. The influence of mixed adsorption layers on the
Zn (II) ion reduction kinetics constitutes a new, original research methodology
which enables a description of the properties of adsorption layers at potentials
which are distant from pzc, and by the same taken close to the value of corrosion
potentials of non-precious metals.
Obtaining insight into the laws governing the formation of mixed adsprption
layers and their properties may constitute a further step on the way towards
their fuller application.
2. A D S O R P T I O N M E A S U R E M E N T S
2.1. D i f f e r e n t i a l c a p a c i t y c u r v e s of d o u b l e layer
The study of adsorption relating to the formation of mixed adsorption layers
was conducted in the following system: constant concentration of the Zn (II) ion
electroreduction inhibitor- increasing concentration of accelerating agents of the
electroreduction. Water solution IM NaCIO4 was used as the basic electrolyte.
The measurements
were conducted using a three-electrode system: mercury
electrode- saturated calomel electrode as a reference electrode- platinum spiral
as an auxiliary electrode. The double layer capacity was measured using the ac
impedance technique at a frequency of 800 Hz. A few measurements
were also
carried out at 200 to 1500 Hz in order to check the frequency dependence of the
results [21]. In the potential range studied no dispersion of the capacitance was
observed.
Figures I, 2 and 3 present the differential capacity curves of 0.55M BU with
increasing amount of TU, pT and mT, respectively.
Comparison of curve shapes for differential capacity presented in the above
Figures demonstrates that the introduction of TU or toluidine isomers to the
solution containing BU always results in increased differential capacity. The
extent of the increase as well as the area of potential at which it occurs depends
on the type of substance as well as on the mutual concentrations. In the BU-TU
system with a constant concentration of BU, the height of the BU desorption
peak clearly depends on the concentration of TU, with slight changes in the peak
potential (Figure I). In BUtoluidine isomers solutions, the desorption peak
undoubtedly constitutes the resultant of the BU and toluidine desorption peak
and its parameters change with the changes in BU concentration, with a
constant toludine concentration, and in the opposite situation. The maximum
868
v E
080 btclld If
0.60
0.40
0.20
a,,,
0.00
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
-E/V
Figure 1. Differential capacity curves ofHg/1M NaC104 + 0.55M BU for different contents of
TU: a) 0M, b) 0.005M, c) 0.033M, d) 0.088M, e) 0.33M, f) 0.55M.
t o l u i d i n e i s o m e r s c o n c e n t r a t i o n of O.05M r e s u l t s from its solubility in the

solutions u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n .
0.80
0.60
]
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
-E/V
Figure 2. Differential capacity curves ofHg/1M NaC104 + 0.55M BU for different contents of
pT" a) 0M, b) 0.0015M, c) 0.008M, d) 0.03M, e) 0.05M.
869
0.80
D
e
G 0.60
0.4O
0.20
0.00
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
-E/V
Figure 3. Differential capacity curves of Hg/1M NaC104 + 0.55M BU for different contents of
mT as indicated in Figure 2.
The differential capacity curves obtained for solutions comprising a constant

q u a n t i t y of 10-4M PEG 400 or PEG 10000 and increasing quantities of TU or pT
were presented in Figures 4 to 7. For mT, the shape of the curves is similar to
the t h a t of curves presented in Figures 6 and 7.
0.80
E
0.60
0.40
-e * - - e
0.20
0.00
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
-E/V
Figure 4. Differential capacity curves of Hg/1M NaC104 + 10-4M PEG 400 for different
contents of TU" a) 0M, b) 0.0055M, c) 0.011M, d) 0.055M, e) 0.11M, f) 0.33M, g) 0.55M
[22].
870
o.ao r
AA
C 0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.4
_~ ....
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
....
1.4
1.6
-E/V
contents of TU as indicated in Figure 4 [22].
0.40
_c
G
d
e
G 0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
I __.,
0.2
....
0.4
I,
0.6
I.
0.8
_1 .
1.0
1.2
..z_
1.4
__1
1.6
-E/V
contents of pT: a) 0M, b) 0.0015M, c) 0.005M, d) 0.008M, e) 0.01M, f) 0.03M, g) 0.05M
[23].
871
d
0.50
4 e
E
,
0.40
~2
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
-E/V
Figure 7. Differential capacity curves of Hg/1M NaC104 + 104M PEG 10000 for different
contents of pT as indicated in Figure 6 [23].
The strong adsorption properties of PEG 400 and PEG 10000 are manifested in
a significant decrease of the differential capacity over a wide range of potentials.
For the concentration of 5"10-4M PEG 400, the range is from -0.35V to - 1.60V,
while for 10-4M PEG 10000 the range of potential is still wider. It needs stressing
t h a t the increase in the concentration of PEG 10000 affects only to a slight extent
the differential capacity. Differences in the adsorption capacity of PEG 400 and
PEG 10000 undoubtedly result from differences in size and shape of the
molecules: PEG molecules with the mer n u m b e r of n<11 are zig-zag shaped,
while those with the mer n u m b e r n>>11 are m e a n d e r shaped [24,25]. Figures 4
and 5 indicate t h a t the introduction of TU to a solution containing PEG results in
increased differential capacity for the range of potentials from -0.3V to -1.2V. At
potentials close to pzc, curves show the TU-typical h u m p which is larger and
sharper in shape in the presence of PEG 10000, as compared to PEG 400. The
presence of this capacity h u m p typical of strongly adsorbent anions or polar
substances m a y be a result of changes in m u t u a l influences, mainly the
electrostatic ones, between adsorbed molecules [26]. In the presented systems,
the influences p e r t a i n both to TU as well as PEG molecules and m a y result in the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a more orderly structure of the adsorption layer.
The introduction of toluidine isomers to solutions containing PEG results in a
dramatically different shape of the differential capacity curve, compared to the
shape obtained in solutions without PEG: in the former case the curves show a
strong adsorption peak and d e m o n s t r a t e no desorption peak (of course within the
examined range of potentials), while in the latter case the adsorption peak is
hardly visible, with the desorption peak being clear and its height increasing as
872
the concentration of toluidine goes up. Similarly to the T U - PEG systems, in
solutions containing toluidine isomers, the adsorption peak is larger and sharper
in shape in the presence of PEG 10000, compared to PEG 400. The appearance of
a strong adsorption peak in the P E G - toluidine solution is connected more likely
with competitive adsorption among PEG and toluidine molecules, t h a n with the
previously postulated [27] change in the orientation of toluidine molecules. The
comparison of mT and pT differential capacity curves in the presence of PEG does
not d e m o n s t r a t e any significant differences in their shape, while in 1M NaC104
solution without PEG, desorption peaks for pT are markedly higher t h a n for mT.
2.2.
Determining
surface excess
The differential capacity of double layer values at sufficiently negative

potentials presented in Section 1.1 significantly differ from the respective values
obtained in the basic electrolyte 1M NaC104. Therefore an integration of the
differential capacity curves was conducted starting from pzc. The values of pzc
were m e a s u r e d for each solution using the streaming mercury electrode.
Interfacial tension at pzc was m e a s u r e d by the m a x i m u m bubble pressure
following Schiffrin's method.
The values of pzc obtained facilitate a projection of the orientation of molecules
adsorbed on the surface of mercury. The increase in the TU concentration results
in shifting pzc towards negative potentials which is an indication of the
adsorbtion of the polar molecule of TU oriented with its negative pole towards the
surface of mercury. The addition of toluidine isomer to the solution of 1M
NaC104 causes a clear shift of the pzc value towards negative values but only at
their lowest concentrations. A further increase of the concentration of both
isomers results in a slow shift of the pzc value towards positive potentials. Such
changes of pzc resulting from toluidine concentration changes suggest t h a t at
lower concentrations, toluidine molecules demonstrate a fiat orientation on
mercury surface, thus being more responsive to the influence of u electrons of the
aromatic ring from the surface of the electrode. At higher concentrations, the
impact is reduced as a result of the changed orientation of toluidine molecules
from fiat to oblique. Similar effects are observed in the following systems:
toluidine i s o m e r s - PEG 400, yet at toluidine concentration values significantly
higher t h a n in the 1M NaC104 solutions. In the presence of BU and PEG 10000,
the increase in the concentration of toluidine results in shifting pzc only in the
direction of negative potentials, similarly to solutions containing I- ions [28].
The introduction of BU, PEG 400 or PEG 10000 into 1M NaC104 results in
shifting the pzc towards positive potentials and only at high concentrations of BU
a small shift of the pzc in the opposite direction is observed. Up to the point
where the full covering is achieved, BU molecules have flat orientation on the
surface of the electrode [29]. As indicated by the electron density of BU molecule
on carbon atoms, the first and third carbon atoms have the highest electron
density. The atoms, which display some hydrophilic properties, together with the
oxygen atom are oriented towards the solution [30]. On the other hand, the
873
orientation of PEG molecules on the mercury surface confirms the orientation
postulated earlier by Jehring [31]: -CH2-CH2-O group is oriented towards the
mercury surface with its carbon atoms which constitute the positive pole of the
dipole, while oxygen atoms are oriented towards the solution.
The values of the surface tension determined at pzc decrease with the increase
of BU, TU and toluidine concentration in a comparable manner, despite
significantly lower concentrations of toluidine in relation to the concentrations of
BU and TU which suggests a higher surface activity of toluidine molecules with
mT demonstrating slightly stronger adsorption properties t h a n pT.
The values of pzc obtained in the mixtures studied are a resultant of the
values obtained for the individual substances. In the B U - TU mixture, with
concentration of both substances being equal, the value of pzc indicates a clear
domination of TU in shaping the adsorption equilibrium. A similar domination is
to be found in B U - mT and B U - pT systems, but only at maximum toluidine
concentration values.
The results obtained following integration of curves of differential capacity
were used to calculate the Parsons' function ~ = 7 + ~'E, where ~, is the surface
tension; a is the electrode charge; E is the electrode potential. The total surface
excess at the constant charge was determined from equation:
F;
RT c3In c org
where Corg is the concentration of organic substance if constant ionic strength is

supposed. The obtained values of total surface excess in the B U - TU, B U - pT
and B U - mT mixtures are much higher t h a n for individual substances which
indicates the synergistic character of adsorption [32, 33].
The fundamental information concerning the adsorption of the substances
studied were obtained from the relative values of surface excess F', free
adsorption energy AG ~ , interaction constants and electrostatic parameters of the
inner layer. According to the Gibbs adsorption isotherm, the relative surface
excess of TU, pT and mT is given by:
F=-
1 (0(I) )
RT c~lncp c~,Ch
(2)
where the "p" index stands respectively for TU, pT or mT and the "h" index
stands for BU, PEG 400 or PEG 10000. It was assumed in equation (2) that the
average activity coefficients of the individual substances in the solution does not
change because of the increasing concentration of TU, pT or mT. The surface
pressure 9 required to determine Fp was calculated using the Parsons' function:
t
874
O = A~ =~0 _~ [34, 35], where ~ s t a n d s for the average value obtained from the
solution containing the inhibitor a n d the accelerating agent, while ~0 s t a n d s for
the value obtained b a s e d on the solution with a c o n s t a n t concentration of the
inhibitor.
Figures 8, 9 a n d 10 p r e s e n t the dependence of surface p r e s s u r e vs. log Cp in
solutions containing a c o n s t a n t q u a n t i t y of P E G for various electrode charges.
On the other h a n d in solutions containing BU the dependence was p r e s e n t e d only
for ~M = 0 (Figure 11).
PEG 400
"7
E 30
+2
+1
E
e
PEG 10000
30
~1
-~
20
20
+1
~01
-2
10
10
-2.5
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5
~-3
0.0
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5
0.0
log cru
Figure 8. Surface pressure as a function of TU concentration in the bulk in 1M NaC104 +

10-4M PEG, the electrode charges ((~M/10-2C 9m -2) being indicated by each curve [22].
40
"7
PEG 400
30
PEG 10000
30
+4
-2
-4
+4
+2
20
20
10_
10
0
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
log cpT
Figure 9. Surface pressure as a function of pT concentration in the bulk in 1M NaC104 +

10-4M PEG, the electrode charges (~M/10-2C 9m 2) being indicated by each curve [23].
875
4o
PEG 400
PEG 10000
30_
30
+5
+4
+2
0
-2
-4
20_
20
+2
lO
10
-4
0
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
log CmT
Figure 10. Surface pressure as a function of mT concentration in the bulk in 1M NaC104 +

104M PEG, the electrode charges (cyM/10-2C 9m -2) being indicated by each curve [36].
16
c
14
e
12
10
m
//
a//
-3
-2
-1
log cp
Figure 11. Surface pressure as a function of concentration in the bulk of TU(a), pT(b), mT(c)
in 1M NaC104 + 0.55M BU at (YM= 0 [37].
876
S e l e c t e d d e p e n d e n c i e s of r e l a t i v e s u r f a c e e x c e s s e s Fp of a c c e l e r a t i n g a g e n t on
its c o n c e n t r a t i o n in a s o l u t i o n a t pzc a r e p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e s 12 a n d 13.
~E
a
o
ca
[]
0
0.0
I
0.1
I
0.2
I
0.3
I
0.4
I
0.5
0.6
Cru / M
Figure 12. Relative surface excess of TU as a function of TU concentration in the bulk at pzc
in the solutions" a) 1M NaC104 + 10 .4 M PEG 400, b) 1M NaC104 + 10 .4 M PEG 10000 [22].
3
E
x---
-3
-2
-1
0
log Cp
Figure 13. Relative surface excess of TU(a), pT(b), mT(c) as a function of bulk concentration
of these substances in 1M NaC104 + 0.55M BU at ~M = 0 [37].
877
The values of relative surface excess of TU determined in the presence of PEG
400 are comparable to the values obtained in water solutions which do not
contain the inhibitor [38], while when determined in the presence of PEG 10000
are much lower. The results obtained univocally indicate weaker adsorption of
TU in the l a t t e r case.
In the P E G - toluidine isomers system for selected concentrations of PEG, a
synergistic n a t u r e of co-adsorption was observed which results most likely from
the formation of a new structure of the adsorption layer, with fewer water
molecules. The course of the dependence of F'p as a function of the concentration
of TU, pT and mT in the presence of 0.55 M BU at pzc (Figure 13) indicates t h a t
toluidine isomers are adsorbed more strongly t h a n TU despite significantly lower
toluidine concentrations.
These systems confirm also the fact of stronger
adsorption of mT compared to pT. The effect was also observed in KC1 solutions
[28]; it is no doubt connected with a different positioning of the hydrophilic group
-NH.9 in relation to the hydrophobic r a d i c a l - C H a in the aromatic ring. On the
other hand, stronger adsorption of toluidine compared to TU results most likely
from a different affinity to mercury of the aromatic ring and the sulphur atom.
2.3. F r u m k i n a d s o r p t i o n i s o t h e r m s
The adsorption of TU and isomers of toluidine was further analysed on the
basis of the surface pressure data and by using the method previously developed
by Parsons [34,38 and 39]. Individual pressure curves were superimposed
graphically by shifting t h e m parallel to the log Cp axis. It was stated t h a t the
interaction constant in the F r u m k i n isotherm i.e., the A p a r a m e t e r varied with
electrode changes. Therefore, the constants F r u m k i n isotherm were determined
from the equation:
~x= I 0 Jexp(-2A0)
(3)
where x and p are the molar fraction in the solution and the adsorption
1
coefficient is defined as exp/AG~

0 is the coverage. The surface excess at
s a t u r a t i o n Fs was e s t i m a t e d by extrapolating the 1/Fp vs. 1/% curve at different
charges and different Ch to 1/% = 0. In the majority of the systems studied, the
surface occupied by one molecule of TU, pT and mT (Sin - 1/Fs) was larger t h a n
surface calculated from the molecular dimensions of TU, pT or mT molecule. The
variances obtained between the theoretical and experimental values of Fs may be
a result of residual presence of the molecules of the inhibitor and the remaining
molecules of w a t e r in the adsorption layer with the m a x i m u m coverage of the
surface of the electrode with adsorbants [29, 40].
Figure 14 presents the linear test of the F r u m k i n isotherm for P E G - TU
systems.
878
-9.0
-9.0
PEG 400
PEG 10000
-8.0
-8.0
-7.0
-7.0
-6.0
-6.0
+3
-5.0
4.0
0.2
0.0
0.4
0.6
~21
-5"0
4.0
0.8
I
0.0
I
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 14. Linear test of the Frumkin isotherm for 10.4 M PEG - TU systems, the electrode
charges (CYM/102C 9m -2) indicated by each line [22].
The slope of the lines p r e s e n t e d in Figure 14 indicates t h a t the values of the

i n t e r a c t i o n c o n s t a n t A in the solution containing 10 .4 M P E G 400 c h a n g e with the
decrease in ~i~ f r o m - 1 . 8 t o - 2 . 9 .
Figure 15 p r e s e n t s v a r i a t i o n in the A
p a r a m e t e r depending on the electrode charge for 10-4M and 10-4M P E G 400 and
P E G 10000.
7
0
PEG 10000
5
4
---o.
~
<>-
3
-O
--O
--r
b
I
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-2
-2
O'M/ 10 C ' m
Figure 15. Variation of the interaction parameter A due to surface charge density for TU in
the presence of: a) 10-4M, b) 5 9 10-4M PEG 400 or PEG 10000 [22].
879
Based on the values of the A p a r a m e t e r obtained, it needs concluding t h a t the
repulsive interaction between the adsorbed TU molecules is lower in the presence
of PEG 10000, as compared to PEG 400. The values of A are also lower t h a n
those obtained in w a t e r solutions [38,40] (the comparison of the A p a r a m e t e r was
conducted based on its absolute values). It needs stressing t h a t in the solution of
0.5M Na2SO4 [40], along with the increase of the positive charge of the electrode,
the repulsive interaction among the adsorbed TU molecules decreases. A similar
effect is observed in the presence of PEG 400 and PEG 10000. It is most likely
connected with the screening action of C10-4 ions being adsorbed in the vicinity of
the positive pole of the TU polar molecule whose adsorption increases with the
increase of the positive charge of the electrode.
The value of AG ~ was determined using the extrapolation of the straight lines
in Figure 14 to the value of 0 = 0. Figure 16 presents the dependencies between
AG ~ and the electrode charge for P E G - TU systems.
22
22
9
PEG 400
21 _
,~ ' ~ / ~
PEG 10000 / ~
21
bn
=D
<~ 20
/o/
20
19
18
17
16
-
15
I
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
.I
1 2
-4
-3
-2
-1
2
-2
O'M / l O
3
-2
C'm
Figure 16. Variation of the free energy of adsorption AG Odue to surface charge density for
TU in the presence of: a) 10-4M, b) 5 9 10-4M PEG 400 or PEG 10000 [22].
Linear dependencies of AG ~ on O'M indicate a preferential contribution of

stable dipoles in the generation of free energy of adsorption, similarly to the
process taking place in the water solution of TU [34]. It needs stressing t h a t in
the presence of PEG 400, changes in the value of
AG ~ against the electrode
charge are much smaller in comparison to the respective changes of AG ~ in the

presence of PEG 10000. The result indicates a greater impact of PEG 10000 on
880
the TU absorption compared with PEG 400, in particular in its higher
concentration.
Figure 17 shows linear tests of the F r u m k i n isotherm for P E G - pT systems.
-9.0 D
--9.0
EG 400
PEG 10000
-8.5
-8.0
,.....,
-8.0
--7.5
--7.0
--7.0
+4
D
+2
-6.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
I
0.4
-6.0_
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Figure 17. Linear test of the Frumkin isotherm for 10-4M P E G - pT systems, the electrode
charges ((SM/10-2C 9m 2) indicated by each line [23].
As indicated by Figure 17, the value of p a r a m e t e r A for pT in the presence of

104M PEG 400 or 10 .4 M PEG 10000 does not depend on the charge of the
electrode and ranges from-4.5 a n d - 3 . 5 respectively, while in the presence of
5 9 10-4M PEG 400 or 5 9 10 .4 M PEG 10000, the values are r e s p e c t i v e l y - 3 . 6 and
-3.1. The results obtained indicate that in the presence of 10-4M PEG 400 the
repulsive interaction among pT molecules is slightly stronger. In the remaining
systems the interactions are similar to the respective interactions in 1 M NaC104
with no PEG added. The values of AG ~ for pT both in the presence of 10nM
PEG 400 and 5 9 10 .4 M PEG 400 do not depend on the charge of the electrode and
a r e - 2 4 . 6 k J " tool -1 and - 2 3. 7kJ " mol 1. In PEG 1 0 0 0 0 - pT systems, the values of
AG ~ for pT depend linearly on the charge of the electrode, similarly to the PEG TU systems. The effect of the increased value of AG O for pT in the presence of
PEG 400 and PEG 10000, yet only for ~M > 0, compared to the appropriate values
obtained in the basic electrolyte 1M NaC104 comes as a surprise. The effect is
most likely the result of fewer water molecules being present in the adsorption
layer in the presence of adsorbed PEG molecules which to a more limited extent
inhibit pT adsorption compared to water molecules. The linear tests of the
F r u m k i n isotherm for PEG - mT systems are presented in Figure 18.
881
PEG 400
PEG 10000
-9
-8
+4
-2 -4
_
I
O. 1
I
0.2
0.3
I+2 '
0.4
'l
0.5
0.0
0.2
0.4
_ 0+2
I
0.6
Figure 18. Linear test of the Frumkin isotherm for 10.4 M PEG - mT systems, the electrode
charges (CYM/10.2 C'm "2) indicated by each line [36].
As indicated by Figure 18, the adsorption properties of mT in the presence of

PEG 400 and PEG 10000 are f u n d a m e n t a l l y different. In the presence of 10-4M
PEG 400, the value of the A p a r a m e t e r changes along with the increase in the
electrode charge f r o m - 4 . 7 t o - 5 . 9 . , while in the presence of 5 9 10-4M PEG 400,
the repellent interaction between the adsorbed molecules of mT is more limited
and the value of the constant A changes ranging from -2.9 to -3,.4 respectively.
In the presence of PEG 10000, the value of the A p a r a m e t e r does not depend on
the charge of the electrode and is similar for both c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , - 1 . 9 a n d - 2 . 2
for 10 .4 M PEG 10000 and 5 9 10 .4 M PEG 10000 respectively. The comparison of
the value of the impact of the constant A demonstrates t h a t only in the presence
of 10-4M PEG 400, the repulsive interaction among the adsorbed mT molecules is
stronger compared to the same interaction in the solution of 1M NaC104. In the
r e m a i n i n g P E G - mT systems studied, the interaction is weaker.
The values of AG ~ determined for mT in the presence of PEG 400 do not
depend on the charge of the electrode and indicate a slightly stronger adsorption
of mT in the presence of PEG 400 compared to the adsorption in the solution of
1M NaC104. In the presence of PEG 10000, similarly to pT, there is also a linear
relationship between the value of the AG ~ and the charge of the electrode. The
value of AG O for pT and mT increases along with the increase of the positive
charge of the electrode, with a stronger increase found in the presence of 5"10 .4 M
PEG 10000 compared to the increase of AG ~ observed in the presence of 10 .4 M
PEG 10000.
A slightly higher adsorption of mT compared to pT from the 1M NaC104
solution, particularly visible at positive charges of the electrode, finds no
882
c o n f i r m a t i o n in s y s t e m s c o n t a i n i n g P E G in which the value of AG ~ for m T a n d
pT are comparable. T h e r e f o r e s t r u c t u r a l differences of toluidine molecules h a v e
no i m p a c t u p o n t h e i r a d s o r p t i o n in the p r e s e n c e of P E G polymers.
F i g u r e 19 p r e s e n t s a l i n e a r test of the F r u m k i n i s o t h e r m for B U - T U a n d
B U - m T systems.
~ (~-7.0
-10.0
\,Q\-. 9 A
",," ~ ~
9149
= -6.0
-9.0
-5.0
-4.0
. .o
!i
-3.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
|
Figure 19. Linear test of the Frumkin isotherm for systems: a) 0.55 M BU + TU, b) 0.55 M
BU + roT, the electrode charges (oM/10 -2 C'm ~ indicated by each line [37].
As i n d i c a t e d by the above Figure, the values of p a r a m e t e r A d e m o n s t r a t e a

clear d e p e n d e n c e on the electrode charge only for the B U - TU systems. The
effect is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 20.
10
8
6
-o---
4
2
0
-2
6
-2
oM/lO C'm
-2
Figure 20. Variation of the interaction parameter A due to surface change density for TU in
the presence of: a) 0.55 M BU, b) 0.88 M BU [37].
883
Figure 20 shows t h a t in general the repulsive interaction among TU molecules

decreases with the decrease of the BU concentration and with the increase of the
positive charge of the electrode.
An exceptional situation is observed for
~ M ---- -t- 0.01C.m-2, at which the value of the p a r a m e t e r A effectively does not
depend on the concentration of BU. The m a x i m u m change of the p a r a m e t e r for
both concentrations of BU is very similar which can be an indication of similar
changes occurring in the TU molecule orientation in both cases.
It needs
stressing t h a t the values of p a r a m e t e r A for TU in the presence of BU are on the
whole either comparable with those obtained in the solution of 1M NaC104, or
lower. Exceptionally higher values of the p a r a m e t e r have been obtained in the
presence of 0.88 M BU for (~M < 0. The area of surface charges of (YM < 0 in the BU
TU system is equivalent to the m a x i m u m adsorption of the substances used
and it may be connected with the relatively higher values of p a r a m e t e r A at these
charges. Not insignificant is also the possibility of changes in the butanol cluster
structure and concentration in the bulk stage which can effect the surface stage
as well.
The value of the interaction constant for toluidine isomers in the presence of
0.55 M BU o f - 1 . 5 3 for mT a n d - 3 . 3 for pT does not depend on the charge of the
electrode. In the presence of 0.44 M BU, the values of p a r a m e t e r A for these
isomers indicate weaker repulsive interaction and to a slight degree depend on
the charge of the electrode. It needs stressing t h a t in each solution containing
BU the values of p a r a m e t e r A are lower in terms of the absolute values t h a n the
respective values obtained in the solution of 1M NaC104, with such changes being
more a p p a r e n t in the case of mT, as compared to pT.
The value of free adsorption energy for 0 = 0, depending on the electrode
charge in B U TU and B U toluidine isomer systems was presented in
Figure 21.
30
7....,
0
26
3~
22
d
18
_
a
14
I
-2
J
6
O"M / 10 .2 C" m "2
Figure 21. Variation of the free energy of adsorption AG 0 due to surface charge density for:
a) TU, b) mT, c) pT in the presence of 0.55 M BU and for d) TU in the presence of 0.88 M
BU [37].
884
The analysis of the above Figure indicates significantly stronger adsorption of
toluidine isomers compared to TU despite much lower concentration of toluidine
used in the experiment.
The linear nature of the relationship between
AG 0= f((~M) for toluidine isomers is a result of the chemical interaction of the

aromatic ring ~ electrons of toluidine with mercury, resulting from partial
transfer of the charge [41,42].
Absence of linearity from the relationship
presented in Figure 21 for TU in the vicinity of the pzc may be connected with a
more physical interaction between TU molecules and the surface of the electrode,
as against the adsorption at positive charges. The above effect taking part within
the area of the water capacity hump undoubtedly is also related to the relatively
loosest structure of the surface water and therefore, the existence of a high dipole
polarisability. It should also be noted that in all solutions examined containing
BU, the increase in the concentration of BU results in an increase in the value of
AG ~ both for TU and toluidine isomers. The effects contrast with the results
obtained in systems containing PEG, and in particular PEG 10000. Easier
adsorption of the substances under examination in the presence of higher
concentrations of BU is most likely connected with increased degree of order in
the adsorbed molecules on the surface of the electrode, resulting from selfassociation of BU molecules and also, as indicated earlier, lower number of water
molecules displaced by the adsorbed organic molecules.
2.4. Virial a d s o r p t i o n i s o t h e r m s
The values of Fs obtained for TU, pT and mT are in the majority of systems at
variance with the theoretical values, and therefore to describe the adsorption of
these substances, the virial isotherm was applied:
J3c = F.exp2BF
(4)
where: B is the second virial coefficient.

A linear test of the virial isotherm for PEG - TU systems is presented in
Figure 22.
Using a linear test of the virial isotherm, the value of the second virial
coefficient B was determined based on the slope of the lines, while the value of
AG 0 was determined by extrapolation of the lines to the value of F'- 0 in the
standard state of 1 mol'dm -3 in the bulk of solution and 1 molecule 9 cm -2 on the
surface of the electrode.
The value of the second virial coefficient B at pzc in the presence of PEG are
slightly lower compared to the value of B = 1.2 nm 2 9 molecule I, obtained in the
solution without PEG
[34], yet in the presence of PEG
I0000, the values are
slightly higher.
The divergent changes in the value of the B parameter in
systems containing PEG 400 or PEG I0000 are connected with the fact that the
parameter constitutes the resultant of the inter-molecular repulsive interaction
885
a n d molecule size [43]. In the c h a n g e s of the AG ~ relative to the m o l a r m a s s of
PEG, its c o n c e n t r a t i o n as well as the electrode charge, t h e r e is a n a n a l o g y to the
c h a n g e s in the r e l e v a n t v a l u e s of AG O o b t a i n e d for the F r u m k i n isotherm.
Similar effects were o b s e r v e d in o t h e r s y s t e m s studied.
18
18
-
o~
17
17
16
16
+3
+2
' ~ ~1
15
14
I
1
I
2
,""i-3
3
PEG 10000
15
14
I -3
1
+2
I0
2
18
-2
F ' v u / 1 0 molec, m
Figure 22. Linear test of the virial isotherm for TU in the presence of 10 -4 M PEG, the
electrode charges (CYM/10.2 C'm -2) indicated by each line [22].
Table 1
The values of p a r a m e t e r A b a s e d on the F r u m k i n i s o t h e r m a n d p a r a m e t e r B
b a s e d on the virial i s o t h e r m as well as the calculated v a l u e s of p a r a m e t e r B
according to P a y n e for the s y s t e m as follows: T U - 10 .4 M P E G B/nm2"molecule -1,
~M/IO-2 C.m-2
B (virial isotherm)
B - (2A+l)/2Fs
(JM
P E G 400
P E G 10000 P E G 400
P E G 10000 P E G 400
P E G 10000
+2
4.72
3.60
0.85
1.31
0.84
1.22
+1
5.08
3.80
0.88
1.43
0.90
1.28
5.28
4.04
0.91
1.44
0.93
1.34
-1
5.60
4.72
0.98
1.52
0.98
1.52
-2
6.04
4.84
1.00
1.58
1.04
1.55
886
Based on the relationship contributed by Payne [44]:
B = (2A +l)/2F s
(5)
the value of B was calculated for selected systems. A satisfactory conformity of

the values of B so calculated and the values of B determined based on the virial
isotherm was found. Table 1 presents an example of the values of A and B
p a r a m e t e r s calculated for the P E G - TU systems.
2.5. E l e c t r o s t a t i c
parameters
of the inner layer
An insight into the potential drop changes in the inner layer (I)M2 at a constant
charge caused by adsorption offers information on the structure of the double
layer. The changes are the resultant of the contribution of the free charges and
oriented dipoles. Experimental separation of the effects is in principle impossible
[45]. According to the electrostatic model of Parsons [34], the potential ~M-2 is a
sum of two components depending on the surface density of the charge:
(I)M -2 _ 4~x----L1cyM + 4~pp F'p
(6)
where: pp is the dipole m o m e n t of the isolated molecule of the accelerating agent:

for TU, ~ = 16.31"10 .30 C'm, for pT, ~ = 4.43"10 .30 C'm and for mT ~ = 4.76"10 ~0
C'm. The values of the dipole moments in the inner layer undergo usually
certain changes caused by the field of the electrode and additional interactions
with the adjacent dipoles. The analysis of equation (6) ignores these effects.
Other variables used in equation (6) or arising out of it include: Xl - the inner
layer thickness; ~ i - electrical permittivity of the inner part of the double layer; K i
- the integral capacity of the inner layer. The value of potential (I)M-2 was
calculated based on the relationship: (I)M-2 = E - E z - (I)2-S where E stands for the
potential equivalent to the given value of F'p and CyM and Ez stands for the
potential of the zero charge for the solution which does not contain the
accelerating agent, while the drop of the potential in the diffusion layer (I)2.s was
calculated based on the theory of G o u y - C h a p m a n [46]. The dependence of the
value of (I)M-2 on F'TU at a constant surface charge density and in the presence of
10 .4 M PEG is presented in Figure 23.
The relationships presented in the above Figure are linear in nature, similarly
to the results obtained in other systems containing TU [47, 48]. The linearity of
the dependence of ~M-2 on F'TU is additionally confirmed by the congruency of the
adsorption isotherms described relative to the charge. An analysis of these
relationships was conducted using the method applied previously [48]. The
p a r a m e t e r s obtained which describe the inner layer are presented in Table 2.
887
PEG 400
-0.4
PEG 10000
-3
-2
-1
-0.4
- 3 - 2 -1 0 +1 +2
~e
1
+2
-0.3
-0.3
+3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.1
-0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0
0-
2
-18
10
-2
F'wu/molec" m
Figure 23. Potential drop across the inner layer q)M-2 as a function of the quantity of TU
adsorbed at constant electrode charges (CYM/10.2 C'm -2) in the presence of 10.4 M PEG [22].
Table 2
I n n e r l a y e r p r o p e r t i e s for TU a d s o r b e d at the m e r c u r y / w a t e r - N a C 1 0 4 -
PEG
m i x t u r e interface 102 ~M/C'm -2, xl/nm, 10-~SF'Tu/molecule-m-2 102K iF ' /F'm-2122]

P EG 400
(~M
CPEG=COnSt
Ei
10 -4 M
-3
9.3
- 2 10.2
- 1 11.0
0 12.4
+1 13.3
CPEG----5" 10 -4 M
-3
7.1
-2
7.5
-1
8.4
0
9.4
+1 10.0
F'TU = 0
Ki
P EG 10000
F'TU - 1
xl
Ki
Xl
26.3
0.31
30.3
0.30
32.3
0.30
3 - 8 . 5 0.29
47.6
0.28
17.9
20.2
22.2
26.3
31.3
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.42
0.38
35.7
38.5
45.5
50.0
58.8
18.9
21.3
23.8
27.8
32.3
0.33
0.31
0.31
0.30
0.27
Ei
F ' T U -- 0
F ' T U -- 1
Ki
x1
Ki
Xl
5.2
6.2
6.8
7.5
8.0
20.8
24.4
27.0
30.3
38.5
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.18
9.8
13.3
15.6
18.5
20.8
0.47
0.44
0.39
0.36
0.34
4.3
5.1
6.1
6.7
7.8
23.3
28.6
33.3
35.7
42.0
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
8.9
11.4
14.7
16.4
19.2
0.43
0.40
0.38
0.36
0.36
C P E G ----
0.18
0.17
0.18
0.17
0.15
The v a l u e s of Ei for TU o b t a i n e d in the p r e s e n c e of P E G are in g e n e r a l lower

c o m p a r e d to the v a l u e of Ei = 11.4 o b t a i n e d for TU in w a t e r solution at aM = 0
[34]. The fact t h a t the electrical p e r m i t t i v i t y of the i n n e r l a y e r i n c r e a s e s along
888
with the increase of the positive charge of the electrode, may prove the existence
of free PEG molecules in the inner layer, subject to partial rotation. The effects
are in conformity with changes of the constant value of the interaction of A
determined on the basis of the F r u m k i n isotherm. The drop in the integral
i with the increase of TU concentration is connected with the
capacity of K F,
increase of the thickness of the inner layer Xl. Small values of Xl for F~,U = 0
indicate fiat orientation of PEG molecules adsorbed on the surface of the mercury
electrode, as previously suggested [31].
The values of K iF, determined in the presence of PEG 10000 are lower t h a n
the respective values determined in the presence of PEG 400. The effect is due to
lower values of ~i in the presence of PEG 10000, as compared to PEG 400. The
results obtained indicate a more condensed structure of the inner layer in the
presence of PEG 10000.
Figures 24 and 25 present changes in the value of (I)M-2 relative to F'p for
toluidine isomers in the presence of PEG.
>
-0.4
-0.4
PEG 10000
-0.3 _
-4
-0.2
-0.2
-2
-0. l
+2
"-a. -2
-0.1 _
-4
-0.3
j_oj_----o-o-~-__~__>___q0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
0.1
I
0.5
1
1.0
1.5
2.0
18
2.5
-2
F ' ~ j / 1 0 molec, m
Figure 24. Potential drop across the inner layer (I)M-2 as a function of the quantity of pT
adsorbed at constant electrode charges (C~M/10.2 C'm -2) in the presence of 10 -4 M PEG [23].
The relationships presented in the above Figures are linear in n a t u r e

effectively only in the presence of PEG 10000. Unfortunately, p a r a m e t e r s of the
inner layer calculated in these systems vary significantly from rational values.
The general absence of linearity in the relationship between (I)M-2 and F'p in the
presence of PEG 400 in the case of mT may be due to the changed orientation of
mT molecules on the surface of mercury, which is also indicated by the values of
889
>
-0.6
-0.20
P E G 400
-2
-0.16
-0.4
-0.12
-0.2
..- .::-
~~----__~
-0.08
"<--2
_ ~
0.0
- - ~ 2 , - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ _ . ~
--~=-
-0.04
0.2
0.4
018
1
!.2
".6
I
2.0
~
2.4
000
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
F',,,v / 1018molec-
2.5
m -2
Figure 25. Potential drop across the inner layer (I)M-2 as a function of the quantity of mT
adsorbed at constant electrode charges (cyv/10.2 C'm -2) in the presence of 10-4 M PEG [36].
the interaction c o n s t a n t A d e t e r m i n e d based on the F r u m k i n i s o t h e r m as well as

the value of the second virial coefficient obtained b a s e d on the virial isotherm.
Such a conclusion c a n n o t be d r a w n for pT. O t h e r r e a s o n s for the absence of
linearity in the relationship b e t w e e n ~M-.9 and F'p m a y include: p a r t i a l t r a n s f e r of
the charge from the pT molecule to the m e r c u r y electrode t a k i n g place during the
adsorption process [49] or competitive adsorption p r e s e n t in the solution of
molecules and ions [50].
The dependence of the value of (I)M-2 on F'p for TU or mT in the presence of BU
h a s been p r e s e n t e d in Figure 26.
The linear dependence of r
o n F'p p r e s e n t e d in the above Figures served as a
basis for the calculation of the p a r a m e t e r s of the inner layer. The values of ~i for
TU at pzc are slightly lower t h a n the value of ~i for TU in a solution without BU,
as well as slightly lower t h a n the value of ~i for TU in m e t h a n o l [51], while the
values of ~i for pT a n d mT in the presence of BU are similar to the values of ~:
d e t e r m i n e d for TU in methanol. The values of the integral capacity K i at pzc in
all s y s t e m s with BU are close to 0.306 F-m -2 obtained for TU in a w a t e r solution
[34].
The values of Xl r a n g i n g from 0.10 to 0.24 n m are m u c h lower c o m p a r e d to the
respective value of Xl for TU in a w a t e r solution. The r e a s o n for the discrepancy
is most likely the simplifications i n h e r e n t in the electrostatic model of the inner
layer [34], referred to earlier. Therefore, the analysis of electrostatic p a r a m e t e r s
in this case m a y be t r e a t e d as s o m e w h a t approximated.
890
-0.4
-17)(o/+/~~7
,-q
-0.3
-10
+3
e
-0.3
-0.2
,,
+1
+2
+3
-0.2
-0.1
-0.1
a
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
18
-2
F' e/10 molec" m
Figure 26. Potential drop across the inner layer (I)a2 as a function of the quantity of: a) TU, b)
mT adsorbed at constant electrode charges (<SM/10.2 C'm -2) in the presence of 0.55 M BU [37].
3. KINETICS OF Zn(II) ION REDUCTION IN SYSTEMS S T U D I E D

The results of studies presented earlier provide us with information on mixed
structures of adsorption layers in terms of the potential in which strong
adsorption of the studied organic substances occurs. The expansion of the scope
of research to include the study of the range of potentials in which a significantly
weaker adsorption takes place proved feasible by examining the kinetics of Zn(II)
ion reduction acting as "the adsorption probe". The concentrations used in this
Section refer to the bulk concentrations, since adsorption m e a s u r e m e n t s do not
allow determining surface concentrations of substances in systems used for this
range of potentials so very distant from the pzc.
The value of ksapp, the apparent standard rate constant for the Zn(II) ion
reduction was determined in the majority of systems using the impedance
spectrum method with the formal potential E~. The impedance spectrum of the
electrode was determined for various frequencies from 100 to 25000Hz. The
ohmic resistance of the basic electrolyte was determined as the actual component
of impedance at a frequency of 10kHz and a potential distant from the F a r a d a y
region. The activation resistance RA was calculated for the potential E~ using
the relationship: Z' = f(mZ") or Z" = f(Z') [52, 53], where Z' is the real component
and Z" an imaginary component of cell impedance.
calculated using the following relationship:
The value of
k app was
891
kapp =
RT
n2F2cRA
(7)
where c is the concentration of the depolariser.

In certain systems, where Zn(II) ion reduction was clearly an irreversible
process, the m e a s u r e m e n t of the impedance spectrum failed to produce
satisfactory results.
Therefore in these systems the values of k app were
determined using cyclic v o l t a m m e t r y curves based on the irreversible process

theory [54]. This same method was also used to determine the value of the
reversible half wave potentials E~/2 .
Studies of the electroreduction of Zn(II) ions in the presence of TU in 1M
NaC104 showed t h a t the value of E1~/2 change along with the increase in its
concentration f r o m - 0 . 9 8 5 V to -0.975V which indicates the absence of stable
Zn(II) - TU complexes in the solution.
In a solution containing PEG 400 only, the value of E1~/2 shifts maximally
towards the value o f - l . 0 5 1 V , while in the presence of PEG 10000 the same value
is-1.095V.
The introduction of increasing quantities of TU to the solution
containing PEG results in the shift of the value of El/2 in the direction of positive
potentials and for the m a x i m u m TU concentration of 0.55M, the values of E~/2,
regardless of the concentration and the molar mass of PEG, are very similar to
those obtained in a solution which did not contain PEG. Figure 27 presents a
logarithmic dependence of ks pp of Zn(II) ion reduction on TU and PEG 400
concentrations.
It needs stressing t h a t the value of k app obtained in the solution without TU
depends to a certain extent on the concentration of PEG 400 and the m i n i m u m
value of k app - 2.63"10-Scm's -1. A similar dependence on the concentration of
PEG 400 is also found in the presence of TU (lines b and c). In the presence of
PEG 10000, the rate constant of Zn(II) reduction does not depend on its
concentration and is 6.00-10-6era's-I; a similar situation is found in the presence of
TU (line d). Based on the intersection of b, c and d lines with the dashed line, the
relationship of TU: PEG concentrations was determined in which a compensation
of the inhibiting and accelerating effect takes place. In the case of PEG 400, the
relationship between concentrations is 4000 to 220, while for PEG 10000 from
27000 to 540.
A decrease of the relationship with an increasing PEG
concentration is arguably due to an easier access of TU molecules to the surface
of the electrode in a higher PEG concentration which results from a better
ordered and less h y d r a t e d structure of the adsorption layer. The TU:PEG
concentration relationships presented referring to the compensation of the
inhibiting and accelerating effect confirm in an obvious m a n n e r the stronger
adsorption of P E G 10000 compared to PEG 400 also at potentials distant from
892
a
9
b
7X
-2
-3
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
log CT~
Figure 27. Plots of log k app for the (Hg)Zn(5"10-3M)/Zn(II) (5"10-3M) couple vs. log CTU in
the presence PEG: a) cpE~ = 0M, b) 104M PEG 400, c) 5-10-4M PEG 400, d) 5-10-4M PEG
10000. The dashed line denotes k app = 3.31.10 -3cm.s-I for the Zn(II) in 1M NaC104 [22].
the pzc.
Based on the slope of the Alogk app/Alog cTu, the electrode acceleration
process coefficient m a y be d e t e r m i n e d which for TU in 1M NaC104 (line a) is 1.00,

while in the presence of P E G 400 or PEG 10000 it increases to 1.67 and 1.47
respectively. It appears t h a t the increased efficiency of the acceleration of the
electrode process in the presence of the inhibitor compared to the 1M NaC104
solution is also due to the reduced n u m b e r of w a t e r molecules on the surface of
the electrode and most likely the increased lability of the adsorbed TU molecules
compared to their behaviour in the pure basic electrolyte.
In order to d e m o n s t r a t e the impact of the structure of PEG 400 and PEG
10000 polymers , the values of k app of the Zn (II) ion reduction in a solution
containing TU + 2.5-10 .3 M PEG 400 were determined. The selected concentration
of P E G 400 is equivalent to the n u m b e r of mers -CH2CH2-O- contained in the
893
10 .4 M PEG 10000 solution. The results indicate a limited impact of the PEG 400
concentration on the kinetics of the reduction of the pilot ion, however, the values
of ksapp in the presence of PEG 10000 are in general ten times lower t h a n they are
in the presence of PEG 400. The different inhibiting effect of both polymers
studied is undoubtedly due to their different structures: PEG 400 molecules are
zig-zag shaped, while the PEG 10000 molecules are m e a n d e r shaped [24,25]
which without doubt has some impact upon their form as the adsorbate.
Figure 28 presents a logarithmic dependency of k app of Zn(II) ion reduction on
the pT concentration in P E G - pT systems.
-2
c
-3
_
-4
-6
-3-
-2
-1
log %,,.
Figure 28. Plots of log k app for the (Hg) Zn(5 10-3M)/Zn(II) (5" 10-3M) couple vs. log CpT in
the presence PEG: a) CpEG= 0M, b) 10-4M PEG 400, c) 5"10-4M PEG 400, d) 5"10-4M PEG
10000. The dashed line denotes ksapp = 3.31.10 3cm's -1 for the Zn(II) in 1M NaC104 [23].
Similar dependencies were determined for mT; the slightly stronger

accelerating properties of pT compared to mT are reflected also in solutions
containing PEG. The dependencies presented referring to solutions containing
894
PEG are not linear compared to the respective dependencies determined for TU
(Figure 27). The similarity in the changes of the value of ksapp in the presence of
TU and toluidine isomers lies in the fact t h a t the values depend on the
concentration of PEG 400 and not on the concentration of PEG 10000. The effect
of compensation of inhibition and acceleration of Zn(II) ion electrolytic reduction
occurs in the presence of toluidine isomers at far lower concentration
relationships then in the presence of TU which seems to be due to the stronger
adsorption of such isomers on the surface of mercury. This s t a t e m e n t is of course
based on the results of adsorption m e a s u r e m e n t s conducted in the vicinity of the
pzc, however with a great degree of caution it could be applied to the Zn(II) ion
reduction potentials, a p p r o x i m a t e l y - 1 . 0 V which lie in the toluidine isomer
adsorption region, since the cathodic m a x i m u m on differential capacity curves
obtained for toluidine isomers in 1M NaC104 solution occurs at the potential of
approximately -1.3V.
The slopes describing the efficiency of the acceleration of Zn(II) ion reduction
in 1M NaC104 determined based on the straight-line sections of the curves
presented in Figure 28 are 0.64 for pT, while in the presence of both PEG 400
and PEG 10000 they are 2.44. The values for mT are 0.48 and 1.48 respectively.
The effect described which was obtained in P E G - toluidine isomer systems is
more clear t h a n in P E G - TU systems.
Figures 29 and 30 present a logarithmic dependence of the value of ksapp for
reduction of Zn(II) ions on the concentration of BU, TU and pT in BU + TU and
BU + pT systems.
0.0
e~
-1.5
a
.
-3.0
-4.5
-2.4
-2.0
-1.6
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.0
log C-ru(Bu~
3
Figure 29. Plots of log k app for the (Hg) Zn(5.10 M)/Zn(II)(5.10-SM) couple vs. log cvu in
the presence BU: a) cBu = 0M, b) 0.11M, c) 0.33M, d) 0.55M, e) 0.88M or vs. log cmj when
cvu = 0(f). The dashed line denotes ks = 3.31.103cm.s l for the Zn(II) in 1M NaC104 [33].
895
0.0
0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-2.8
-2.4
-2.0
-1.6
-1.2
log CpT(BU)
Figure 30. Plots of log k app for the (Hg) Zn(5" 10-3M)/Zn(II)(5 910-3M) couple vs. log CpT in
the presence BU" a) CBU -- 0M, b) 0.11M, c) 0.44M, d) 0.55M. The dashed line denotes
ks = 3.31" 103cm-s -z for the Zn(II) in 1M NaC104 [32].
The increase in the concentration of BU to 0.88M results in a reduced value of

ksapp to 7.4.10 .5 cm-s -1. The effect of compensation of inhibition and acceleration
of Zn(II) ion electroreduction in T U BU systems occurs in a constant
relationship between concentrations of these substances at approximately 0.08.
The efficiency of the acceleration of this process in the presence of BU is similar
to t h a t observed in the presence of PEG.
Stronger accelerating properties of Zn(II) ion electroreduction in 1M NaC104
by pT compared to mT occur also in all systems containing BU. The effect of
compensation of the process of inhibition and acceleration occurs in the systems
studied where the relationship between concentrations of pT:BU ~ 0.012 and of
mT:BU ~ 0.029. Also in these systems, the efficiency of acceleration of the Zn(II)
ion electrolytic reduction by pT and mT is higher in the presence of BU t h a n in
the pure 1M NaC104 solution.
The Zn(II) ion reduction takes place in the region of adsorption of toluidine
isomers. As indicated by adsorption m e a s u r e m e n t s , at sufficiently negative
values of ~M, the adsorption of these isomers both in the 1M NaC104 solution and
in the presence of the inhibitors used should be comparable. Therefore the
greater ability to accelerate Zn(II) ion reduction by pT as compared to mT should
be more the result of differences in the structure of weaker Zn(II) - toluidine
complexes having their source in spherical effects. The slight shifts in the value
896
r for the reduction of Zn(II) ions in the 1M NaC104 solution which together
of El/2
with an increase in the pT concentration change f r o m - 0 . 9 8 5 V to -0.995V and for
mT from -0.985V to -1.003V m a y evidence the existence of weak complexes.
The results of the m e a s u r e m e n t s of the kinetics of Zn(II) ion reduction indicate
much weaker inhibiting properties of BU compared to PEG 400 and PEG 10000.
The potential to eliminate the inhibiting influence of the organic substances
studied on the electroreduction of Zn(II) ions was also d e m o n s t r a t e d by using NaI
as a component of the basic electrolyte (x M NaI + (l-x)M NaC104). The choice of
I- ions was prompted by their -known capability to accelerate electrolyte
reduction of Cd(II) and Zn(II) ions, the strongest from among halide ions [55,56].
The logarithmic dependence of the value of ksPP for the reduction of Zn(II) ions
on the concentration of I- ions in the presence of BU or PEG is presented in
Figure 31.
-1.0
a
tz~o
-2.0
c
-3.0
b
-4.0
-5.0
-2.0
-1.6
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.0
log c,-
Figure 31. Plots of log k app for the (Hg) Zn(5.10-3M)/Zn(II)(5 910-3M) couple vs. log ci_ in the
following solutions" a) x M NaI + (1-x)M NaC104, b) with the addition of 0.55 MBU, c) with
the addition of 10.4 M PEG 400, d) with the addition of 10.4 M PEG 10000. The dashed line
denotes ksapp = 3.31.10 -3cm.sl for the Zn(II) in 1M NaC104.
The course of the dependence presented in Figure 31 indicates a far weaker

power to accelerate Zn(II) ion reduction by I- ions as compared to TU or toluidine
isotherms. As a consequence of that, both in B U - I- systems as well as PEG
10000 - I- even at the m a x i m u m concentration of I- ions of 0.8M, the effect of
compensating the inhibition of the Zn(II) ion reduction process by the accelerated
897
influence of I- ions is missing. Also in the systems studied the increase of the
efficiency (lines a and b, on the one hand, and lines a and d are almost parallel) is
absent. This effect appears however in the P E G - I- system which indicates a
slightly different adsorption of I- ions in the presence of PEG 400, as compared to
BU and PEG 10000.
4.
CONCLUSIONS
The account of mixed properties of adsorption layers presented in the above

Section is to a certain extent the result of a certain convention customarily
adopted in this type of research. It applies in particular to the thermodynamic
analysis of the systems studied. The choice of organic substances based on their
opposing impact on the Zn(II) ion reduction kinetics proved purposeful, for in
effect it allowed a significant expansion of information on mixed adsorption
layers. The information derived from adsorption m e a s u r e m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e d as
follows:
9 The values of relative surface excesses of substances accelerating the Zn(II)
electroreduction increase together with the increase of the positive charge of
the electrode which is in a g r e e m e n t with the postulated course of the TU
molecule adsorption oriented with the sulphur atom towards mercury and
toluidine molecules adsorbing with the aromatic ring.
In the presence of all inhibitors studied, the relative values of surface
excesses most often decrease in the following order: F'mT > 1-"pT > F'TU and all
this in much lower concentrations of toluidine (conditioned by its solubility in
the solutions studied), compared to the concentration of TU.
9 The increase in the positive charge of the electrode in all systems studied
results in the increase of the value of free adsorption energy AG 0 which may
be connected according to Payne [57] with squeezing w a t e r molecules out of
the surface of the electrode at aM > 0.
The linear dependence of AG o on aM accompanying mainly the ion

adsorption arrived at in the majority of systems indicates t h a t the effects
connected with the polarity of molecules (stable dipole moment) constitute the
dominating impact of the field of the electrode on the adsorbate molecule.
Larger area occupied by a single molecule calculated on the basis of the Fs
value compared to the area determined based on the molecular size indicate
flat positioning of molecules on the surface of the electrode and their m u t u a l
repulsion, confirmed by relatively larger values of the virial coefficients. It
can also result from residual presence of other molecules.
Negligible differences in the adsorption p a r a m e t e r s determined for toluidine
isomers both in the 1M NaC104 solution as well as in the presence of
inhibitors indicate t h a t the location of amino groups in the aromatic ring has
a limited impact upon the adsorption process. The stronger adsorption of
898
toluidine isomers compared to TU confirms an exceptionally strong impact of
the aromatic ring upon the adsorption process [58].
9 The values of the A parameter determined on the basis of the Frumkin
isotherm indicate repulsive interaction between the adsorbed molecules of the
accelerating agent. In all systems studied containing TU, the increase of the
positive charge of the electrode was accompanied by the reduction in the value
of the A parameter resulting from the penetration of C104 anions between the
positively charged TU amino groups at ~M > 0. In solutions containing
toluidine isomers, the value of the A parameter in general does not depend on
the charge of the electrode which suggests stability of the orientation of the
adsorbed toluidine molecules.
9 The linear dependence of the potential drop in the inner layer ~M-2 to F'p found
in the majority of systems confirms the congruence of the determined
adsorption isotherms in relation to the charge. The values of Xl arrived at
confirmed the fiat positioning of BU and PEG molecules on the surface of the
electrode postulated earlier. Relatively large values of electric permittivity of
Ei for F'p = 0 (~i > 10) obtained in some systems indicate a considerable freedom
of inhibitor molecule rotation in the field of the double electric layer.
The results of the Zn(II) ion electroreduction measurement as an ion piloting
the adsorption equilibrium in mixed adsorption layers at a potential distant from
the pzc indicate significantly higher efficiency of toluidine isomers in eliminating
the inhibiting impact of PEG as compared to TU. In systems containing BU, the
relationship between the concentration of the accelerating agent and the
inhibitor with a view to the compensation effect is weak, i.e. it does not depend on
the concentration of BU, while in the presence of PEG, such relationship does
occur.
The results arrived are indicated a higher BU adsorption lability
compared to PEG at Zn(II) ion reduction potentials which additionally enables
the adsorption of the accelerating agent.
It is worth noting that at such
potentials, the surface concentrations of the low-molecule substances studied are
undoubtedly small and occur in the area of the initial, approximately linear,
course of the isotherm which explains the stability of the relationship between
the surface concentration and the bulk concentration. The above relationship
does not apply to high-molecular compounds.
The examination of the Zn(II) ion reduction mechanism as an adsorption probe
using other inhibitors will undoubtedly allow expanding the information
available on the properties and structure of mixed adsorption layers at potentials
distant from the pzc.
The results of research presented include information which can be used to
understand better the adsorption equilibrium generated in complex corrosion
systems comprising inhibitors with a specific structure and properties.
Effectiveness of toluidine isomers as potential inhibitors of corrosion should be
greater than that of TU owing to stronger adsorption of toluidine isomers. This
adsorption is conditioned by the m e t a l - aromatic ring ~ electrons which are the
effects of a partial charge transfer between the adsorbate and metal causing on
899
the whole, fiat orientation of the adsorbed toluidine molecules. An additional
favourable effect of using toluidine as the inhibitor of corrosion is the fact that
this substance causes a local increase of pH value which does not occur while
using TU.
Comparison of h i g h - and low molecular inhibitors activity allows for making
the statement that the adsorption layers formed by high molecular inhibitors, as
a rule, are not tight which enables their penetration by various factors which can
affect the protective function change. Formation of mixed adsorption layers
created by the adsorbate molecules with chemical interactions between them (e.g.
hydrogen bonds), undoubtedly causes the increase of the adsorption layer
tightness. In metal corrosion taking place in natural conditions, besides basic
processes occurring on the metal surface and leading to oxidation of metal atoms,
and their possible transition into the aqueous phase an essential role is also
played by the redox processes caused by active components of the solution and
leading to formation of the mixed potential. After its establishment there is
formed on the metal a surface layer of a complex structure which can be
stimulated by adsorption processes which can be conditioned by both electrostatic
and donor-acceptor interactions. These considerations lead to a general
conclusion that reliable results of the investigations of organic inhibitor effects on
metal corrosion can be expected in the model systems very close to natural
conditions and the fundamental investigations enable better understanding of
the nature of these complex dependences.
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903
T h e b i o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of H a l o b a c t e r i a o n n u c l e a t i o n a n d s o d i u m
chloride crystal growth
A. LSpez-Cort@s and J. L. Ochoa
The Center for Biological Research, P.O. Box 128, La Paz 23000, BCS, Mexico
ABSTRACT
The participation of halobacteria in halite formation has been previously

considered by a number of authors. In fact, the release of bacterial nucleation
factors has been suspected but never properly documented. Some studies show
that certain chemicals are capable of modifying sodium chloride crystal habit,
and this possibility is of the outmost importance for the correct management of
salterns. For example, from over 500 compounds tested, only 12 have been found
able to modify the crystal arrangement of halite. The halobacteria can also get
entrapped in fluid inclussions within the crystal and retain viability for several
years. Thus, they may play some role in contamination of salt preserved foods.
Here we review the subject of halobacteria participation in sodium chloride
crystal formation and present some results with regard the influence of cell
surface layer (S-layer) components on crystal habit. As appears, the halobacteria
may influence crystal growth rate and crystal habit, allowing the optimization of
saltern management.
Cell morphology and cell surface components have been implicated in a wide
variety of biological and adhesion phenomena, including mineral and organic
crystal formation. Crystallization is used in industry to recover and purify many
inorganic and organic materials, but very little work has been done to investigate
the feasibility of bulk crystallization for the recovery and purification of proteins
and mineral crystals [1]. Crystallization of large molecules, such as proteins, is
less known than crystallization of mineral salts, and their mutual effects are
poorly understood. For example, it is known that for each protein there appears
to be a set of mineral substrates that promote nucleation of protein crystals at
lower critical levels of supersaturation than required for spontaneous growth
[2,3].
Judged et al. [1] studied the crystallization of ovalbumin in ammonium sulfate
and observed that crystal growth could occur without nucleation at a relative
supersaturation value of 20. The crystal size distribution was measured and the
904
crystal growth rate was found to be of second-order depending on ovalbumin
supersaturation. There was only a slight effect of the ammonium sulfate
concentration at pH above 4.9, while the effect of pH itself allowed a 10th-fold
increase in the crystal growth rate constant in the range of 4.6-5.4. Under these
conditions, the presence of other protein components did not effect the crystal
growth rate of ovalbumin. In general, protein supersaturation can eliminate
impurity effects [4] and temperature seems to favor crystallization. As a rule,
slow crystallization of proteins is due primarily to impedance of the elementary
act of entering the growth site, indicating a decisive role of entropy, not of energy
barriers, in the crystallization of biological macromolecules. Pressure may
actually inhibit crystal yields since, at equilibrium, two conformations of the
protein (in the case of lysozyme) have been postulated: one capable of being
incorporated into the nuclei of the crystal, and the other which is not [5]. The
addition of polyethylene glycol (PEG) into the crystallization medium favors
crystal growth by disordering protein aggregates either, in the medium, or at the
surface of the crystal, therefore allowing the formation of much larger crystals
[6].
In humans, the organic matrix of renal calculi influence the crystal growth
that occurs in such pathological mineral deposits and the use of antibodies
against these molecules has allowed to visualize their distribution in a variety of
normal and pathological mineralized tissues [7]. In the case of cholesterol,
nucleation time referred as the time of the first appearance of cholesterol crystals
from isotropic crystal-free biles on light microscopy, is being used to assess the
potency of nucleating agents such as immunoglobulins [8]. As demonstrated by
this test, biliary IgM (M i n m u n o g l o b u l i n s ) , are more potent t h a n biliary IgG
(G i m m u n o g l o b u l i n s ) as a potential nucleating agent. A 42 kilo D a l t o n s (KDa)
biliary glycoprotein has been also shown to be related with cholesterol
crystallization promotion on the pathogenesis of gallstone disease [9]. The protein
is an extensively glycosylated (37%) monomer with an i s o e l e c t r i c p o i n t , pI, of
4.1, probably due to its sialic content. Enzymatic N-deglycosylation removes the
carbohydrate moiety and inactivates the promoting activity. Enzymatic
proteolysis results in both a complete structure degradation and functional
inactivation.
Biomineralization is the term used to refer to biological metal precipitation,
however it should be borne in mind that not necessarily true crystal minerals are
formed through this process. Thus, the concept may be missleading. The metal
precipitates can exist either intra- or extracellularly, attached or unattached to
the cell surface. The adsorption of metals to living or dead cells, which does not
involve metabolic energy or transport processess, has been termed "biosportion"
[10]. Biosorption has been the metal-microbe interaction most widely studied and
covers both the terrestrial and the marine environment. It should be emphasized,
however, that biosorption by marine bacteria may have special implications since
they occur in a high ionic medium with high concentrations of some metals. Aside
of its use for detoxification of heavy metals in aqueous systems [11], very little
905
information is available about the influence of bacteria in metal crystal
formation. One important exception may be the cycling of manganese in the
marine environment. In general, metal-precipitating bacteria are abundant in
hydrothermal vents and the mechanism of metal precipitation may differ greatly
among the different types of microorganisms and metals.
Metal-microbe interaction can be classified into two classess [12]: a passive
process which does not require the direct participation of living organisms and
can occur whether the microbes are alive or dead; and an active process, in which
some metabolic or enzyme activities are involved. In the first type interaction
results as a consequence of the negative charge of microbial cell surfaces and
their exopolymers, or through reactions with extracellular complexing agents
that can be attached to the cell surface, or released into the medium. This passive
sorption of metals is mediated by various functional groups which promote
adsorption, ion-exchange, chelation, and/or covalent binding through carboxyl,
hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, amino, imino, imidazole, sulfate and/or sulfonate groups,
present in the cell surface, in the cell wall, or within the cytoplasm, as
polyssachhcarides or glycoproteins. A classical application of this mechanism of
sorption is wastewater treatment.
Microorganism that can produce extracellular complexing agents such as
"siderophores" do so to trap the metals by a passive mechanism that later are
internalized by an active process. The active removal of metals occurs via
extracellular precipitation, redox reactions, intracellular accumulation, or
volatilization [12]. The biomineralization of gypsum, for example, seems to be a
two-step process initiated by the binding of calcium to the cell surface following of
the binding of sulfate to the calcium. In photosinthesizing cells, the sulfate is
eventually replaced by carbonate to form calcite at the cell surface as the pH
increases. Thus, the cells provide essential nucleation sites and the chemical
conditions necessary for mineral formation [13].
2. THE P H Y S I O L O G I C A L ROLE OF CRYSTAL F O R M A T I O N

In polar and sub-polar fishes, for example, some glycopeptides protect their
body fluids from freezing. Such peptides prevent the growing of ice by a noncolligative process thus inducing the development of unusual and strikingly
similar crystal habits suggesting that the peptides show some affinity for similar
crystal faces of ice [14,15]. Ideally, the protein has an exact octapeptide repetition
and is assumed to have an helical conformation to control crystal formation [3].
Certain bacteria promote the formation of ice in super-cooled water by means of
ice nucleators; the opposite effect, inhibition of ice formation, is common for a
group of glycoproteins found in different fish and insect species. These substances
termed anti-freeze glycoproteins promote the supercooling of water with no
appreciable effect on the equilibrium freezing point, or melting temperature, by
binding to a growing ice crystal and slowing crystal growth [16]. In a similar
fashion, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and some sulphated polysaccharides are
906
involved in preventing urinary stone formation by inhibiting crystal growth and
agglomeration, and possibly also nucleation. They can prevent crystal adherence,
correct an abnormal oxalate flux, and avoid renal tubular cell damage [17]. Other
synthetic polyanions, including peptide analogs of naturally occurring proteins,
inhibit the nucleation and growth of calcium salt crystals [18] under physiological
conditions.
3. CRYSTAL PROMOTION
Bacteria interact with metals, not only because they are needed as nutrients,
but also as important agents in their geochemical cyling. Such metal cycles are
driven by diverse chemical and biological processes and may be biotechnologically
important. For example, in mining industry the bacteria may participate in the
oxidation and solubilization of metal sulfide ores and to recover valuable metals
from low grade ores. Metal precipitation by bacteria refers to the transformartion
of a soluble metal to an insoluble form. Usually, in the first stage of the process
the formation of amorphus, highly hydrated, precipitates are obtained, but with
aging they can be transformed into crystals [19].
In the crystallization of biomolecules two critical steps, the nucleation of the
initial seed and the enlargement of this seed, determine the quality of the final
crystal. However, the degree of supersaturation required to nucleate crystals is
often higher than the optimal concentration necessary for enlargement. Thus,
even under conditions suitable for crystal growth, kinetic factors may prevent the
onset of nucleation and crystal growth. Also, spontaneous nucleation may occur
at such frequencies that the resulting microcrystalline precipitates are
indistinguishable from their amorphous counterparts. It many situations, it is
advisable to decouple crystal growth from nucleation in order to grow large,
regular crystals. One must not only control the number of seeds, but also reduce
the supersaturation level and, therefore, decrease the incorporation of defects
detrimental to crystal quality.
Seeding techniques provide a preformed, regular crystal surface onto which
further molecules may be aggregated in an orderly form, generally at a lower
degree of supersaturation than is required for nucleation. Such techniques are
ideally suited to bypass the nucleation step, and hence accomplish the decoupling
between nucleation and crystal growth. Three aspects for seeding should be
considered: 1) preequilibration of the solution to be seeded and determination of
the proper supersaturation level for seeding; 2) the environment and necessary
precaution for seeding; and 3) the streak seeding technique and how it can be
used in conjunction with microseeding and macroseeding [20].
In the case of some proteins, crystallization may be affected by the aminoterminal segment that sticks out to interact with a symmetry related molecule
through an intermolecular salt-bridge. For example, removal of the r e s i d u e
lysine in position 38 (Lys 38), in the case of an endonuclease from Clostridium
thermocellum, or the substitution of its bridge-forming residues by site-directed
907
mutagenesis, promotes crystal packing arrangements different from the wild type
enzyme [21]. Flexible amino-, and/or carboxy-terminal extensions, influence
crystal nucleation but not crystal growth [21]. Following this idea, an attempt to
facilitate crystallization has been the use of engineering cysteins to promote
formation of a "back-to-back" dimmer that occurs in different crystal forms of
wild-type and m u t a n t lysozymes [22]. The designed double m u t a n t in which the
surface residues of a s p a r a g i n e Ash68, and a l a n i n e Ala93, were replaced by
cysteines, formed dimers in solution and crystallized isomorphously to wilde-type
but a much faster rate. Overall, the m u t a n t structure remained very similar to
wild-type despite the formation of two intermolecular disulfide bridges. The
results suggest that the formation of the lysozyme dimmer is a critical
intermediate in the formation of more than one crystal form and that covalent
cross-linking of the intermediate accelerates nucleation and facilitates crystal
growth.
Another role seems to be played by polysaccharides in the case of the calcifying
algae Pleurochrysis carterae, which produces structures known as coccoliths in
homogeneous cell cultures. The polysaccharides PS-1 and PS-2 have been
localized in the crystal coats of mature coccoliths, and in electron dense Golgi
particles. These polyanions are synthesized in medial Golgi cisternal and
co-aggregate with calcium ions into discrete 25 nm particles. The polysaccharides
remain with the mineral phase after the coccoliths are extruded from the cells
[23].
The effect of many different compounds on calcium stone formation has been
evaluated [24]. A few appear to inhibit the nucleation rate, growth and
suspension density (crystal mass produced) in proportion to its concentration. On
the other hand, glucose, glycerol and certain amino acids which are recognized as
osmoregulators, and are produced by halophylic microorganisms, have been also
evaluated as halite crystal habit modifiers [25]. In the same way, silica gel as an
inert particle, and the ferrocyanide ability to form dendrite crystals of halite,
have been already reported [26,27]. Altogether these data point to a dramatic
effect of different compounds on mineral and protein crystallization and have
induced us to study the influence of halobacteria, and of its components, in the
nucleation, shape and growth of NaC1 crystals under natural conditions.
4.
I N F L U E N C E OF HALOBACTERIA ON HALITE FORMATION
It seems that since halobacteria have not being connected to any dreadful
disease, and because they are easy to grow, albeit very slowly for practical
purposes, interest on their biotechnological use is very scant. In fact, their
ecological role is still poorly understood [28]. The term halobacteria refers to the
halophylic Archaea, not to halotolerant bacteria, and this distinction is of
outmost importance. The order Halobacteriales contain six genera and the
number of newly found species is increasing. Phylogenetic data indicate that they
are among the most modern Archaea, as their strong preference for aerobic life
908
would suggest. Halobacteria require a minimum of 1.5 M (9%) sodium chloride
for growth, and in most cases the optimum lies between 3.5-4.5 M (21-27%) NaC1.
Such salt concentration exceeds by far the total saltiness of sea water (which is
about 0.6 M or 3.5% of dissolved salts). As a particular feature, halobacteria
exhibit active growth and motility in saturated salt solutions, only reduced when
entrapped into the salt crystals they bump into. In the absence of salt, all except
the coccal forms of halobacteria disrupt promptly and dramatically. In any
location where the basic requirement of salt is met, halobacteria will be found.
They may become the dominant microflora in what appears to be a classical
ecological succession [28].
The halobacteria can be grouped into three major types reflecting their natural
source: in the first category are habitats in which the salt mixture derives from
evaporated seawater. The commercial salterns consist of shallow evaporating
pools containing brines of steadily increasing salinity. They are an ideal
ecosystem to observe and study microbial succession. As the brine concentrates
under the hot sun and wind, its density and, therefore, thermal storage capacity
increase, while its ability to hold dissolved oxygen declines. Certain ions reach
saturation earlier than others and precipitate out. For example, calcium and
sulfate crystallize out as gympsum. In the less-saline stages (<2M salts),
halotolerant Prokarya predominate. Between 2-3 M, halobacteria progressively
displace Prokarya. At 3 M, halobacteria alone are found as a thriving component
of a characteristic hypersaline ecosystem that includes green algae (Dunaliella
spp), brine flies, and brine shrimp. Above 3 M, a more subtle succession of
progressively more halophylic Archaea appears as the brines evaporate to the
saturation point and salt crystal begin to form. On the other hand, underground
salt mines reflect their marine origin as evaporitic sediments from past geological
era and are composed mainly of sodium chloride and mixed with lesser amounts
of potassium, magnesium and calcium salts and layers of fine clay particles. The
halobacteria can be recovered from samples of brines that have come to the
surface, and also from intact rock salt. Finally, the salt lake habitats are by no
means generic. Each is a terminal lake and collects ion-rich runoff from its own
drainage area. Chemically, they resemble the composition of surrounding rocks
and mineral deposits. Warm, slightly acid to neutral-pH lakes, such as the Great
Salt Lake and the Dead Sea, tend to have high sodium and magnesium
concentrations. Warm alkaline lakes, also called soda lakes, have high sodium
and carbonate concentrations, with very low amounts of magnesium [28].
As one could expect, hypersaline habitats are intensely stressful: first, the
halobacteria have to withstand the elevated ionic concentration that no other life
form seems to tolerate. All halobacteria require sodium ions for structural
integrity. Requirements and tolerances for other ions depends on the strain's
original habitat. To deal with the osmotic challenge that salt concentration
imposes, the halobacteria accumulate intracellular substances to balance
external stress, for example potassium ions up to 5 M. In spite of being shallow
habitats affected by wind, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in brine waters
909
is low, and becomes even more critical as temperature rises. Midday
temperatures in salterns can average 450C rising to more than 60~ occasionally.
To survive under such conditions the halobacteria have adopted several
strategies: one appears to be the flexibility of their outer layers which allow the
cells to take a variety of flattened shapes including squares, rectangles, flattened
discs, and triangles. Such morphologies help the bacteria to exchange nutrients
and gases more efficiently. In addition, active flagellar motility is common in the
majority of fresh halobacteria isolates, suggesting that such cells use positive
taxis to reach oxygen. Other halobacteria have gas vesicles which help them to
position in the water column [28].
The ability of halobacteria to survive long dry seasons indicate that brine
inclusions are perhaps the most critical strategy of the bacteria for survival. It
has been proposed that halobacteria may act as nucleation factors for halite and
other minerals [28], in a similar fashion as the nucleation protein of
Pseudomonas syringae in ice. The halobacteria however, lack peptidoglycan and
the non-coccoidal genera exhibit a high-molecular weight complex glycoprotein
bearing sulfated oligosaccharides. This protein, as a rule, has an excess of acidic
amino acids over basic amino acids, and enables the cell to bind and organize
large amounts of cation. The cytoplasm membrane is composed mainly of
isoprenyl glycerol dieter lipids with chain lengths of 20-25 carbons. Both, sulfated
and glycosylated lipids are used as taxonomic criterium.
When sodium chloride crystallizes in natural salterns, the microflora normally
present in the ponds influence the overall process in different ways. Some living
halobacteria may even get entrapped within the fluid inclusions as the crystal
develops, and thus affect the physical characteristics of the product. The
microorganism might be able to survive under such conditions for extended
periods (about 4 years) and this fact imposes some recommendations for the
proper handling and application of the contaminated product. The problem
becomes evident when the salt is used for preserving fish, meats and hides: it has
been shown that red discoloration of food preserved with salt is due to the
halobacteria that remain viable in crude solar salt after harvesting [29]. The
survival of the entrapped bacteria is determined by storage conditions, and
sometimes they may even reproduce [30]. The water content of fresh solar salt is
usually in the range between 2-6% (w/w), and in some cases up to 15% (w/w) [31].
The fluid inclusions are readily observed under low power magnification and may
be described as negative cubes, or oblongs, with slightly rounded corners. They
contain aqueous solutions and, in some cases, small gas bubbles. They range in
size from less then 1 pm in the longest dimension to several millimeters. Most
however are in the micrometer size range. If the salt is not exposed to extreme
heat, pressure, or recrystallization, inclusion fluids may be considered similar in
composition to the evaporitic fluids from which the salt crystals originated. The
extent of bacterial entrapment in fluid inclusions has been studied using pure
cultures of halobacteria added to saturated salt solutions [32].
910
With regard the influence of halobacteria in NaC1 crystal habit formation,
much less information has been collected in spite of the many investigations on
materials affecting the halite crystal habit. About 500 different organic and
inorganic compounds have been tested to modify the crystal habit of NaC1 and
only 12 have shown to be effective [33], among these urea, cysteine, creatinine,
papain,
monosodium
glutamate,
some
cadmium
salts,
the
sodium
hexametaphosphate, aluminon, and the chlorides of Zn 2 and Mn 2 cause the
formation of octahedra, while ferrocyanides were capable of modifying the habit
formation (US Patent 2 642 335 (16 June 1953) and 3 090 756 (21 May, 1963)).
A combination of cubes and octahedrons have resulted from the action of NaOH,
boric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids [34]. The addition of mercuric chloride
causes combinations of the cube and dodecahedron crystals, and antimony
chloride causes a combination of cubic, octahedron and dodecahedron ones. The
greatest effect seems to be played by the ferrocyanide salts which in
concentration as low as 10 ppm can cause the formation of vicinal faces that
prevents salt bridges between contiguous crystals. By controlling the
concentration of ferrocyanide it is possible to favor a particular crystal formation
which constitute the basis for the anti-caking and low-bulk density sodium
chloride patents.
The dendrite crystals formed at high concentrations of
ferrocyanide salts are in fact cryptocrystalline extensions of cube corners which
grow to lengths of 2.5 cm or more. On the other hand, when a combination of
sodium hexametaphosphate and a soluble aluminum salt are used, the formation
of octahedra resulting from the action of hexametaphosphate is suppressed and
cubic crystals with a basket shape are formed. Such structures have been
described as aggregates of a geometrical arrangements of tetrakaidecahedra, a
combination of 14-faced of cube-octahedron with eight hexagonal faces and six
square faces, all with edges with equal length [26].
Guerrero Negro appears to be the largest solar saltern of the world and is
located on the west coast at the middle of the Baja California Peninsula, in
M6xico. Its products, resulting from the evaporitic action of solar and wind
energy make a business worth several hundreds of millions of dollars every year
and are exported worldwide. Thus, it is just reasonable to become interested in
studying the influence of halobacteria in halite production. Our aim was not only
supported by a scientific curiosity, but also in view of increasing competition of
other countries in the international salt market. Another goal was to consider the
possibility of increase production capabilities by taking advantage of the role of
halobacteria in halite formation. To determine if halobacteria indeed influence
the production of halite, an experiment was designed to study the effect of an
endemic isolate (Haloarcula SP8807) and of its S-layer on halite crystal habit,
and crystal growth rate.
911
5. MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.1. B a c t e r i a s t r a i n s and g r o w t h c o n d i t i o n s
The bacteria strains tested in this study were Halobacterium halobium NRC
817, Haloarcula vallismortis ATCC 29252, Haloferax mediterranei ATCC 33500,
Haloarcula SP8807, Vibrio parahaemolyticus MMF6, Planococcus spp. M6P2,
and Azospirillum brasilense Cd DSM 1843. The halobacteria Haloarcula SP8807
was isolated from a commercial saltern in Pichilingue, La Paz, B.C.S., M~xico,
while the eubacteria V. parahaemolyticus, and Planococcus spp. were obtained
from an hypersaline ecosystem at Guerrero Negro, B.C.S., M6xico. All the other
halobacteria, as well as A. brasilense, which is an organism not found in
hypersaline environments, were acquired from an international collection.
The halophylic bacteria were grown in HEC medium formulated as follows in
25% seawater (g/l): NaC1, 195; MgC12"H20, 16.25; MgSOn-7H20, 25; CaC12-2H20,
0.6; KC1, 5; NaHCO3, 0.2; NaBr, 0.6; NH4C1, 2.5; FeC13"6H20, 0.0062; KH2PO4,
0.62. The carbon and nitrogen source came from yeast extract (5 g/l) and casein
hydrolysate (1.0 g/l) [35]. Incubation was done at 38~ under stirring at 150 rpm.
A. brasilense on the other hand, was cultivated in Nutrient Broth (Merck,
Germany), and incubated at 30~ under agitation as above.
5.2. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the n u m b e r and size of halite cubic crystals with
scanning electron microscopy
One ml of bacteria culture at the exponential-phase was centrifuged for 5 min.,
16,000 x g at 20~ The pellet was washed three times with sterile 30% NaC1
solution, and resuspended in 1 ml of the same solution. From this suspension,
5 ~1 drops were placed on a gold-coated glass coverslip as described by [25]. The
drops were incubated at 24~ without disturbance. After 10, 20, and 30 min.,
excess of brine was eliminated with a filter paper. The crystals were air-dried
and gold-coated at 20 mA during 8 min. The blank consisted of 5 ~1 drops of
sterile 30% NaC1 solution treated under the same conditions. The crystals were
viewed using a Philips 515 scanning electron microscope at an accelerating
voltage of 25 kV.
5.3. E v a l u a t i o n of effect of strains, s-layer and c h e m i c a l m a t e r i a l s on
the crystal form of NaC1
One ml of bacteria culture at the exponential-phase was centrifuged for 5 min.,
16,000 x g at 20~ The pellet was washed three times with sterile 30% NaC1
solution, and resuspended in 1.0 ml of the same solution. From this suspension,
twenty drops of 5 ~1 each were placed on a clean microscope slide and kept in a
chamber for 24 h at 35~ and 40% relative humidity. The slides were observed
with a phase-contrast microscope (Nikon Labophot, Japan) at low magnifications
of 2.5X, 10X and 20X.
The following samples were mixed with sterile 30% NaC1 solution: S-layer
from Haloarcula SP8807 (20 mg/ml); potassium ferrocyanide, glucose, glycerol,
casein hydrolysate, and silica gel (63-200 mm) from Sigma Chemicals Co. St.
912
Louis, Mo, and amino acids from Merck, Germany (8003-8004), at concentrations
between 200 to 2000 mg/ml. Twenty 5-~1 drops of each mixture were placed on
clean microscope slides, dried, and observed as described above.
5.4. Preparation of s-layer and spheroplast of Haloarcula SP8807

The S-layer was isolated as follows: one ml of bacteria culture in its
exponential phase was centrifuged for 5 min., 16,000 x g at 20~ The pellet was
resuspended in 0.1 M MES [2(N-morpholino)ethane sulfonic acid] buffer, pH 7.0,
plus 0.5 M sucrose, 0.25 M NaC1, and 0.01 M MgC12 [36]. After 30 min., the cells
were converted into spherical bodies by a decrease in external sodium chloride
and magnesium salt concentration. Under these conditions, the S-layer can be
removed and dissociated from the cell surface [37,38].
The new cell suspension was centrifuged for 5 min., 16,000 x g at 20~
yielding a pellet of spheroplasts and a supernatant containing the dissociated
S-layer subunits. The S-layer subunits were recovered and dialyzed according to
[39]. After dialysis, the S-layer subunits were reassembled in a salt solution
composed of 4 M NaC1, 25 mM KC1, and 80 mM MgSO4, pH 3.2 [37]. The self
assembled S-layer was examined by SDS-PAGE, transmission electron
microscopy, and tested in crystal formation studies. For negative staining
preparations we used a solution of CaC12 10 mM pH 6 to promote the reassembly
of the S-layer subunits [40,41].
5.5. S o d i u m dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electroforesis (SDSPAGE)
Electrophoresis was done using gradient PhastGel 4-15% with sodium dodecyl
sulfate (SDS) buffered strips (Pharmacia, Uppsala, Sweden). The molecular
weight markers were: bovine albumin (66 kDa),egg albumin (45 kDa),
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (36 kDa), bovine carbonic anhydrase
(29 kDa), bovine trypsinogen (24 kDa), soybean trypsin inhibitor (20.1 kDa) and
a-lactalbumin (14.2 kDa) from bovine milk (Sigma, SDS-7 Dalton Mark VII-L,
USA). The gels were stained for protein by the silver impregnation method with
PhastGel electrophoresis media (Pharmacia, Sweden), and periodic acid-Schiff
(PAS) staining procedure for the detection of glycoproteins using the
PhastSystem [38].
5.6. Negative staining for electron microscopy

Negative staining preparations for electron microscopy, EM, were done with
fixed and unfixed self-assembled S-layer. Reassembled S-layer was prefixed in
3% (v/v) glutaraldehyde in buffer solution of 4 M NaC1, 25 mM KC1, 80 mM
MgSO4, pH 3.2, during 1 h at 4~ in the dark. After this time the sample was
centrifuged for 5 min., 10,000 x g, at 20~ and the supernatant replaced with
clean fixing solution under the same conditions. The fixed S-layer was washed
and preserved at 4~ with the same buffer solution.
A few drops (10 ~1) of fixed samples containing S-layer fragments were placed
on a small sheet of Parafilm and diluted 1:40 with a buffer solution of 2 M NaC1,
913
12.5 mM KC1, 40 mM MgSO4, pH 3.2. Immediately 10 pl of sample were
transferred to a copper grid previously exposed to glow discharge. After 3 min.,
each grid with sample was stained with 2-3 drops of 2% of aqueous uranyl
acetate for 1 min. Excess stain was removed by blotting with filter paper [39].
10 ILl of unfixed samples containing reassembled S-layer in solution of CaC12
10 mM, pH 6, were placed on copper grids previously exposed to glow discharge.
After 3 min., each grid with sample was stained with 2-3 drops of 2% of aqueous
uranyl acetate for 1 min. Excess of stain was removed by blotting with filter
paper [39]. Some samples were micrographed without staining to avoid the
dilution of microcrystals. The samples were viewed in a Philips 410 transmission
electron microscope at an accelerating voltage of 80 kV.
6.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1. C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n rates
Following the methodology described above, we found no significant differences
in the weight of sodium chloride crystals harvested with, or without,
halobacteria. That is, in either case the amount of salt crystals produced was
about the same so we may conclude that the halobacteria does not improve
productivity of salterns. Interestingly, the halobacteria did affect the number and
size of the sodium chloride crystals (Fig. 1; for convenience, crystals smaller t h a n
1 mm were disregarded).
350
A4
300
<J
I-09
>-n,'
o
u_
0
n,"
w
rn
250
~2
200
150
,4
100
/m___--m/m
,m ~
::3
Z
50
. . . . .
10
3'o
4'0
T I M E (h)
Figure 1. Influence of halobacteria on the number and size of halite crystals. For convenience,
only crystals larger than 1 mm were considered. The data were used to performed a one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) test with a confidence of p < 0.05. 1 - NaC1 (1-8 mm),
2 - Halobacterium halobium NRC 817 (1-25 mm), 3 - Haloarcula vallismortis ATCC 29252
(1-15 m m ) , 4 - Haloarcula SP 8807 (1 - 15 mm).
914
When our data were statistically analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) to evaluate the effect of halobacteria on crystallization rates, we found
that the number of crystals formed in the presence of the bacteria tested, differed
significantly from the control (Fig. 1). The blank produced few crystals of similar
size, while in the presence of halobacteria many cubic crystals of different size
were generated (Fig. 1). The analysis also indicated that the shape, and/or
morphology, of the halobacteria provoked different effects on crystal habit [43]. In
particular, bacteria with triangular, or square-shape (e.g. Haloarcula SP8807)
seem to provide a template and serve as a means of mechanical nucleation to
promote crystal formation in saturated solutions [32].
6.2. Crystal f o r m a t i o n of NaC1

Halite has a crystalline form based on a cubic symmetry [26,27]. The influence
of Haloarcula strain SP8807 on NaC1 crystal habit growth was observed by
scanning electron microscopy (Figure 2). The micrograph illustrates the close
association that occurs between the bacteria and halite crystals. In the caption
the crystal is shown as if emerging from the cell. This caption is a good physical
evidence on the role of halobacteria on crystal growth. By transmission electron
microscopy, on the other hand, and in the presence of unfixed and unstained
samples of S-layer, symmetric particles of 50 nm of diameter, which could be
microcrystals of sodium chloride in their early stage of mineralization, were
observed (Fig. 3). These two approaches suggest that either whole cells, and/or
their S-layer, can be involved in the nucleation and crystal formation of NaC1.
Haloarcula strain SP8807 also caused the formation of dendrite crystals of
halite. The SEM micrograph of Figure 4A shows crystal formations in which
dendrite crystals lie outside, and in between, cubic crystals. A high magnification
of this caption shows that the dendrite crystals are close to the halobacteria
surface, and confirms its ability to modify the crystal habit into irregular shapes
(Fig. 4B). The other strains of bacteria tested in our study were also capable of
inducing formation of dendrite crystals, except in the examples of
V. parahaemolyticus and Planococcus spp. which suggest that not all the
microbiological members present in the crystallizer ponds are involved in the
modification of crystal habit. This assumption was further supported by the
inability of A. brasilense, a non-hypersaline eubacteria, to form dendrite crystals.
SDS-PAGE analysis of purified S-layer from Haloarcula SP8807 showed a
single protein with a molecular weight of 66 kDa (Fig. 5). Noteworthy, the
staining procedure for the detection of glycoproteins failed to reveal any band in
the electrophoresis gel. It is well known that the S-layer of most halophylic
archaebacteria appear to be composed of glycoproteins [44], a report on the
detailed chemical structure of a glycopeptide of H. salinarum [45], and the
primary structure of the cell surface glycoprotein of H. halobium [46], confirmed
such observations [47,48]. The cell surface glycoprotein of H halobium has a
molecular mass of about 120 kDa (core protein = 87 kDa). Recently, Sumper et al.
[49] reported a partial chemical characterization of the S-layer glycoprotein of
915
Haloferax volcanii in which the m a t u r e polypeptide contains 794 amino acids

with a calculated molecular mass of 81 kDa. Although glycosylation is not an
obligatory step in S-layer biosynthesis, it represents an i m p o r t a n t proteinmodification reaction which can add a great potential to the diversification of
bacterial cell surface properties [50]. In this context, it is interesting to note t h a t
upon continuous cultivation under optimal conditions, some bacterial strains
loose their ability to glycosylate S-layer proteins [44].
Figure 2. (A) Micrograph of halobacterial cell showing a cubic structure assumed to be a crystal
of sodium chloride. The bar represents 1.0 gin. (B) High magnification showing some detail of a
sodium chloride crystal on the surface of an halobacterial cell. The bar represents 0.5 gm.
916
Figure 3. An unstained mount of a mineralized S-layer fragment in which the contrast comes
from the sodium chloride crystals. The arrows show symmetric bodies of 50 nm of diameter,
probably sodium chloride crystals, on an early stage of formation. The bar represents 0.5 gm.
Negatively stained preparations of S-layer from Haloarcula SP8807 strain

examined by transmission electron microscopy show structures with a
honeycomb appearance of the reassembled S-layer (Figure 6). These are the units
suspected to act as templates for crystal nucleation and growth. As in the case of
the S-layer protein isolated from Bacillus coagulans, which was recrystallized on
an air/water interface and on phospholipid films [51], the hydrophobic face of the
protein m a y actually associate with the air/water interface, leaving the
negatively charged inner face oriented itself towards the switterionic head groups
of the lipids. Hence, individual monocrystalline areas m a y grow isotropically in
all directions, until the front edge of a neighboring crystals is met, forming the
honeycomb structure observed in Fig 6. Recently it was proposed t h a t the S-layer
m a y serve also as a template for fine-grained gypsum and calcite formation [52].
917
Figure 4. Details of dendrite crystals. (A): Dendrite crystals built by flat cubic microcrystals
(arrows). Bar represents 5 gin. (B): A high magnification showing the presence of halobacterial
cells (arrows) combined with amorphous halite crystals (empty arrow). Bar represents 2 gm.
918
kDa
-,,1-,-,66
~~45
.91,,,,- 36
,~-~1--" 29
/,~1-,,--24
. '~20
14
Figure 5. SDS-PAGE 4-15% gradient gel, silver stain. Lane A: profile of proteins from
spheroplast of Haloarcula SP8807; Lane B: profile of whole-cell protein from Haloarcula
SP8807; Lane C: purified S-layer subunits from Haloarcula SP8807; Lane D: profile of
molecular weight markers.
As shown in Figure 7, the S-layer of Haloarcula SP8807 (20 pg/ml) modifies

the crystal habit of halite yielding dendrite crystals, as well as cubic crystals
(Fig. 7). The dendrite crystals and their branches at micrometer level showed flat
cubic microcrystals combined with amorphous crystals and halobacterial cells
(Fig. 4). Naked cells, or spheroplasts of Haloarcula SP8807, on the other hand,
showed to be extremely fragile to influence the crystal production. In fact, partial
lysis was observed which translated into many protein bands in SDS-PAGE.
A 66 kDa light band
from spheroplast samples (Fig. 5) confirmed the
observations of Jarrel and Sprott [36] who reported that spherical bodies
produced from logarithmic-phase cells contained a cell wall that was thinner
than the wall of the original rod shaped halobacterial cells.
919
Figure 6. Negatively stained (2% uranyl acetate) preparations of S-layer self-assembly products
of Haloarcula SP8807. (A): Unfixed S-layer reassembled with CaC12 10 mM, pH 6. The arrow
shows an area with trace of periodicity in one dimension). The bar represents 100 nm. (B): Selfassembled flat sheet-like S-layer showing a honeycomb appearance of an hexagonal arrangement
(circle), stained in presence of 2 M NaC1, 12.5 KC1, 40 mM MgSO4, pH 3.2. Bar represents
200 nm.
In addition to the above, we studied the effect of different compounds on the

induction of dendrite crystals of halite, as shown in Table 1. Again, ferrocyanide
was found the most active agent inducing the formation of dendrite crystals
and at high concentration (250 ~g/ml) caused dendrite growth of sodium chloride
crystals e n t r a p p e d within cubic crystals. Casein hydrolysate (1200 to
2000 pg/ml), and some aminoacids tested, did not induce the production of
dendrite crystals (Table 1). Similarly, the absence of dendrite crystal formation in
the presence of silica gel demonstrates t h a t this phenomenon is not the result of
a inert particle effect.
920
Figure 7. Dendrite halite crystals caused by S-layer (20 [ag/ml) from Haloarcula strain SP8807.
Bar represents 50 [am.
Table 1
Effect of dissolved and suspended materials on the formation of halite crystals
Shape
Relative
Frequency
Agent
Concentration
abundance a
(%)b
(og/ml)
Dendritic c
(+++)
100
Ferrocyanide
250
Cubic
(+++)
100
Glucose
250
Cubic
(+++)
100
Glycerol
250
Cubic
(+++)
100
Amino acids e
200-2000
Cubic
(+++)
100
Casaminoacids
200-600
Dendritic d
(++)
15
1200
Dendritic
(+)
55
Cubic
(++)
30
Dendritic d
(+++)
10
2000
Dendritic
(++)
40
Dendritic
(+)
40
Cubic
(++)
10
Cubic
(+++)
100
Silica gel
100-2000
Dendritic d
(+++)
50
Halobacteria cells
200 f
Cubic
(++)
50
Dendritic d
(+++)
50
S-layers
20g
Cubic
(++)
50
a= (+++) Abundant; (++)= common; (+)= present
921
b= Frequency found in 60 experiments
c= Inside the cubic crystals (50 gm average width of the branches)
d= Between the cubic crystals (10 gm average width of the branches)
e= D-L alalnine, L(-) proline, glycine, D-L serine, L cysteine, D-L threonine, L(-) tyrosine, L
histidine, L(+) lysine, and L glutamic acid
f= On basis of dry weigth
g= On basis of Coomassie protein determination.
In conclusion, the observation of cubic structures associated with halobacterial

cells and S-layer samples suggests that they may serve as templates in the
nucleation and halite formation. The modification of halite crystal habit,
resulting in dendrite shape, was attributed to the .proteinaceous component of the
S-layer of the halophytic archaebacteria. Monitoring the types and concentration
of dissolved organic carbon compounds, and of halobacteria, in natural solar
salterns may be an important biotechnological tool in the operation of salterns.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was part of the doctoral thesis of ALC at the CCH-UNAM
Biotechnology Program. ALC wishes to t h a n k Dr. Sergio Sfinchez-Esquivel, Dra.
Amelia Farres for their encouragement and support during such studies, Dra.
Susanne Schultze-Lam for valuable suggestions and comments, Dra. Eugenia
Klein from the Weizmann Institute of Science for the electron microscopy
facilities. The Figs. 1, 4B, 5, 6, 7, and Table 1 are reproduced from [24] with the
kind permission of Taylor and Francis Ltd., Publishers.
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925
A d s o r p t i o n - b a s e d optical t r a n s d u c t i o n in optical fibre c h e m i c a l sensors

for e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s
F. Baldini a and S.Bracci b
aIstituto di Ricerca sulle Onde Elettromagnetiche "Nello Carrara", CNR,
Via Panciatichi 64, 50127 Firenze, Italy
bCentro di Studio sulle Cause di Deperimento e Metodi di Conservazione Opere
d'Arte, CNR, Via G. Capponi 9, 50121 Firenze, Italy
1.
INTRODUCTION
Optical fibre sensors for chemical compounds have undergone remarkable

development in recent years. This is perfectly justified, both because the detection
of chemical parameters is extremely important in many industrial and chemical
processes, in environmental control and in the biomedical field, and also because
optical fibre chemical sensors offer considerable advantages compared to traditional
sensors [1,2].
The high degree of miniaturization, considerable geometrical versatility, easy
handling, absence of electromagnetic interferences, absence of electric contacts, and
the possibility of remote monitoring are only some of the advantages which optical
fibres can offer in comparison with other types of sensors.
Moreover, the ease in combining the sensing process with an optical network
provides an additional advantage for optical fibres, namely the capacity to
interrogate many sensors for different parameters simultaneously and with the
same optoelectronic unit.
An optical fibre sensor consists of three main parts: an optoelectronic system, an
optical link, and a probe. The optoelectronic system includes the source, the
photodetector and the driving electronic board. The optical source can be a lamp, a
laser, a light emitting diode or a laser diode: the last two are preferable, because
they are more easily coupled to optical fibres by means of commercially available
components and also because they can be modulated electronically, thus avoiding
the use of any mechanical coding for the optical signal (e.g. a chopper). The detecting
system consists of a photodetector (photomultiplier, photodiode, etc.) coupled to
appropriate electronics for the signal processing. Plastic or glass fibres, either single
or in bundles, are generally used as the optical link.
The most crucial part is unquestionably the probe, where modulation of the light
carried by the fibres takes place. Besides assuring the sensitivity and accuracy
926
necessary for the particular type of application, the probe m u s t be characterized by
long lifetime, ease of manufacturing, and easy connection with the optical link.
The use of a chemical transducer inside the probe, the optical properties of which
depend on the concentration of the investigated species, introduces other critical
aspects:
i) a transfer of mass often exists between the external environment and the sensor
since the chemical transducer and the investigated species can be in different
phases; thus a lengthening of the response time occurs;
ii) since the chemical transducer is often an organic compound, particular attention
m u s t be paid to its long-term stability and to its photodecomposition.
M a n y sensors have been described for the m e a s u r e m e n t of different chemical
p a r a m e t e r s [1,3]. The first optical fibre sensor was a pH sensor, and dates back to
1980 [4]; since then, m a n y chemical p a r a m e t e r s have been investigated with optical
fibres, for both aqueous and gaseous species.
After a description of the principles at the basis of an optical fibre sensor, a
general review on the optical fibre sensors for environmental and industrial
applications based on adsorption is presented.
2.
THE O P T I C A L F I B R E
Before entering into details of an optical fibre sensor, a brief description of an

optical fibre will be given.
An optical fibre is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low-loss materials,
such as silica glass. Two main parts can be identified: the core and the cladding,
which constitute the central and the outer part of the cylinder, respectively (Figure
1). In general, another layer, the jacket, covers the cladding, for protective reasons.
The refractive index of the cladding, n2, is lower than the core refractive index nl:
this is a necessary condition for the t r a n s p o r t of electromagnetic radiation.
core
..~---
......
fl 2
,:
cladding
,.,
I {
1
/
/,"
Figure 1. Cross-section of an optical

fibre.
Figure 2. Refractive index profile in

a graded-index fibre.
927
A step-index fibre is an optical fibre characterized by c o n s t a n t values of the

refractive indices of the core and the cladding.
A graded-index fibre is an optical fibre in which the refractive index of the core
n(r) changes gradually along the radius r of the cylinder, from a m a x i m u m nl on the
axis to the value n2 on the core/cladding interface (Figure 2).
According to the ray optics theory, the description of the light propagation in an
optical fibre is based on meridional and skew rays: a meridional ray is an optical ray
passing through the fibre axis, and a skew ray is a ray which never crosses the fibre
axis.
I
Figure 3. Optical path of a meridional ray in a step-index fibre.
A meridional ray is easily identified by the incident angle 3 on the core/cladding

interface, or by its complementary angle ~ which is formed by the ray with the fibre
axis (Figure 3). The angle a in the figure is the angle formed by the optical ray with
the fibre axis in the outer medium. The following relationship exists between a,
and ~:
n o sin a = nl sin ~ = nl cos
(1)
with no equal to the refractive index of the outer medium.

A skew ray is characterized by an helical path. At each reflection, a skew ray
touches the core/cladding interface and the surface of an inner cylinder of radius p.
In a step index fibre, a meridional optical ray which enters the fibre from the air
is guided, if it is incident with an angle ~ t h a t is greater t h a n the critical angle 3 c
on the interface core/cladding:
ac = arc sin( n2 /
\nl)
Total reflection takes place, and the ray is guided along the fibre if:
(2)
928
7~
-- > ~ > ac
(3)
In a graded-index fibre each ray is characterized by the i n v a r i a n t ~"

= n(r)sin 9(r)= n(r)cos ~(r)
(4)
where ~ has already been defined as the angle formed by the optical ray with the
axis of the fibre. The guiding condition is:
m
n2 < [ 3 < n l
(5)
A p a r a m e t e r is introduced to define the acceptance cone inside of which the

radiation entering the fibre is guided: the numerical aperture NA. In a step-index
fibre this p a r a m e t e r is defined as:
NA = sina a
(6)
Angle (la is the angle in the outer medium formed with the axis of the fibre by the
optical ray t h a t is characterized by a reflecting angle equal to 9 c on the interface
core/cladding.
In t e r m s of refractive indices, the numerical aperture of a fibre can be written:
:(nl
This definition is considered valid also for the graded-index fibre, with nl equal
to the m a x i m u m value of n(r), t h a t is, the refractive index on the fibre axis.
In terms of electromagnetic waves, every optical fibre can support a certain
n u m b e r of modes according to the Maxwell's equations. A monomode fibre is a fibre
in which only one mode of electromagnetic radiation is supported; on the contrary,
in a multimode fibre, more t h a n one mode is guided. Each mode is characterized by
a different value of the constant propagation ~ along the axis direction.
The values of the constant propagation can be obtained by solving the eigenvalue
equation which derives from the Maxwell's equations applied to the waveguide; as
a m a t t e r of fact an exact solution is obtained for only a few cases, among which there
is t h a t of a step-index fibre. In all the other cases, only an approximate solution can
be found. In any case, propagation constants of guided modes m u s t always satisfy
the following disequation:
n2ko < [3 < n l k o
271;
ko = ~o
(8)
929
w h e r e k0 is the p r o p a g a t i o n c o n s t a n t of a p l a n e wave in the v a c u u m , a n d ~.o is the
free-space w a v e l e n g t h of light. O t h e r limitations on the accepted ~ values depend on
the refractive index profile of the fibre.
An i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r is the V number, k n o w n also as fibre parameter. It is
defined as:
V = 2~R In 2 _ n 2 ~/2 _ 2~___R_RNA
~-0
~0
(9)
w h e r e nl is the core refractive index in a step-index fibre, or its m a x i m u m value in

a g r a d e - i n d e x fibre, n2 is the cladding refractive index a n d R the core radius.
The value of V n u m b e r is related to the n u m b e r of guided modes supported by the
fibre. In a step-index fibre, if V is less t h a n the value of 2.405, the fibre is
monomode, o t h e r w i s e it is multimode.
In a n optical fibre sensor, t r a n s m i s s i o n properties of the fibres are very i m p o r t a n t
since they m u s t be t r a n s p a r e n t at the working wavelengths. Table 1 s u m m a r i z e s the
w o r k i n g r a n g e a n d the typical a t t e n u a t i o n for the m a i n types of fibres.
Table 1
The w o r k i n g r a n g e a n d a t t e n u a t i o n of the most u s e d optical fibres
Fibre type
W o r k i n g r a n g e (~m)
Silica fibres
0 . 2 - 1.9
A t t e n u a t i o n (dB/m)
0.77 - 1.35 0.003 - 0.005

m a i n optical windows 1 . 0 5 - 1.35 0 . 0 0 0 5 - 0.002
1.45 - 1.75 0.0002 - 0.003
Plastic fibres
0.4 - 0.8
0.3 - 3
Fluoride fibres
1.5 - 4.5
0.002 - 0.02
Chalcogenide fibres
3 . 0 - 11
0.5 - 5
Polycristalline silver-halide fibres 4.0 - 20
0.5-5
Silica fibres g u a r a n t e e low a t t e n u a t i o n s for w a v e l e n g t h values of b e t w e e n 500 nm

a n d 1.9 ~m. For ~.<500 nm, as the w a v e l e n g t h decreases, the a t t e n u a t i o n increases
up to values on the order of 3 dB/m for L~200 nm. This m a k e s it n e c e s s a r y to use
very short fibre lengths.
In the visible band, plastic fibres can also be used, but their a t t e n u a t i o n permits
utilization for only s h o r t distances. W h a t m u s t be considered is t h e i r lower cost in
c o m p a r i s o n with t h a t of o t h e r fibres; therefore, in some cases, t h e i r utilization can
be t a k e n into account, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the h i g h e r a t t e n u a t i o n .
For w a v e l e n g t h s longer t h a n 2.0 ~m, different fibres m u s t be used, a l t h o u g h the
l a t t e r are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h e r a t t e n u a t i o n s . This p r e v e n t s t h e i r use if long
optical links are necessary.
930
Moreover, since all the optoelectronic components (sources, detectors, lenses, etc.)
are available at a low price only in the band ranging from 400 nm to 1.9 pm, it is
apparent that this is the optical window in which most of the optical sensors
proposed works.
3.
W O R K I N G P R I N C I P L E S OF AN OPTICAL F I B R E S E N S O R
An optical fibre sensor is a device capable of detecting a physical or chemical

p a r a m e t e r on the basis of the modulation of any property of the light carried by the
fibre: intensity, phase, polarization state, frequency/wavelength, etc.
Optical fibre chemical sensors are mainly amplitude-modulation sensors: the
intensity of the light transported by the fibres is directly modulated by the analyte
under investigation or by an appropriate sensitive reagent whose optical properties
vary with the variation in the concentration of the p a r a m e t e r being studied.
The most important working principles on which most optical fibre chemical
sensors are based are absorption and fluorescence.
3.1. A b s o r p t i o n
In addition to the substances having their own absorption bands, substances
which, by interacting with an appropriate reagent, vary their absorption (e.g. acidbase indicators vary their own absorption, depending on the concentration of the
hydrogen ions) can also be detected.
If the light crosses a liquid sample, the Lambert-Beer law is the equation which
relates light intensity I to concentration c of the absorbing species:
A = log :_v_-= tic
I
(10)
where A is known as absorbance; Io and I are the light intensities transmitted in the
absence and in the presence of the absorbing sample, respectively; ~ is the absorption
coefficient, and 1 is the optical path. Clearly, this is true if the substance under
investigation is the only one absorbing at the considered wavelength; otherwise, the
absorption of other substances present in the solution must be considered.
If, instead, an appropriate reagent is immobilised on a substrate, the
m e a s u r e m e n t is based on the reflection by the solid substrate. A special function
(function of Kubelka-Munk) must be introduced which is proportional to
concentration c of the substance under examination, according to the Kubelka-Munk
theory [5]:
F(R)= (1 - R) 2 = kc
2R
(11)
where R is the reflectance of an infinitely thick sample and k is a constant

depending on both the absorption and scattering coefficients. If the thickness of the
931
sample cannot be considered infinite, the relationship between reflectance and
concentration of the analyte is much more complex: the intensity of the light is
partly transmitted, reflected, absorbed and scattered, so t h a t equations (10) and (11)
are not followed exactly, and a proper algorithm has to be introduced.
It is i m p o r t a n t to point out t h a t the two equations are for a definite wavelength.
This means t h a t they can be correctly used only if a monochromatic source is used,
i.e. lasers or sources coupled with very narrow interference filters. If light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) are used, as often occurs in optical fibre sensors, a multiwavelength
optical b e a m is used and equations (10) and (11) are no longer valid. For example,
equation (10) would become:
A'= log II~
(12)
where the integral is evaluated on all the wavelengths emitted by the LEDs. Clearly,
A' can not be denoted as absorbance and is no longer related in linear m a n n e r to the
concentration of the chemical p a r a m e t e r .
3.2. Fluorescence
Fluorescence can be used in optical sensors for detecting a chemical substance by
using different approaches. Three main cases can be distinguished:
9 the substance under investigation is fluorescent;
9 the substance is not fluorescent, but can be labelled with a fluorophore;
9 the substance interacts with a fluorophore, causing a variation in the emission of
fluorescence.
Of particular interest, in the latter case, is the phenomenon known as
fluorescence "quenching", in which the intensity of the fluorescence decreases as a
consequence of the interaction with the substance (quencher) being tested, which
can thus be detected [6]. This is one of the most used approaches in optical-fibre
chemical sensing.
Fluorophore (F) can interact with quencher (Q) at the ground state (static
quenching), with the consequent formation of a nonfluorescent complex (FQ):
F+Q ~
F+Q
(13)
or can interact with it at the excited state (dynamic quenching):

F* +Q---> F +
O~
(14)
Then, due to the interaction with the quencher, the fluorophore comes back to the
ground state, without the emission of fluorescence.
In both cases, the relationship between the fluorescence intensity I and the
concentration of quencher [Q] is:
932
I
I0
1+ K[Q]
(15)
where Io is the fluorescence in the absence of the quencher; K is a constant equal to

the dissociation constant of equation (13) in the case of static quenching, and is the
Stern-Volmer constant in the case of dynamic quenching (the Stern-Volmer constant
is equal to the product kq.to, between the diffusion-controlled rate constant kq and
the fluorescent lifetime to of the excited state F* in the absence of the quencher).
A decrease in the intensity of the fluorescence may also be due to an energy
transfer from fluorophore F* in the excited state to another molecule, acceptor A,
whose absorption spectrum, modulated by the chemical species under investigation,
overlaps the emission spectrum of the fluorophore. Therefore, fluorescence and
absorption can be combined to detect a chemical parameter. In this case, the
fluorescence intensity in presence of acceptor, I is given by:
I
--=I-~]
Io
(16)
where Io is the intensity of the fluorescence in the absence of the acceptor, and ~l is
a term depending on the distance between fluorophore F and acceptor A.
If other chromophores are present in the solution being tested, a decrease can be
observed in the fluorescence, caused by the absorption of the excitation light
(primary inner filter effect) or of the emission light (secondary inner filter effect) by
these chromophores. It is obvious t h a t in this case, the previous equations are no
longer valid, but t h a t corrective terms are necessary.
In the case of dynamic quenching, it is more convenient to consider the timedependent decay [7]. In the presence of an interaction with the excited state, the
lifetime of the fluorophore is decreased: the higher the concentration of the
quencher, the greater the decrease in the lifetime. This is not the case for static
quenching, in which the lifetime of the fluorophore is not affected by a change in the
concentration of the quencher. Typical fluorescence decay times are in the range
between 2 and 20 nsec, while phosphorescence decay times are in the 1 psec + 10 sec
range.
According to Stern and Volmer, the relationship between the decay time and the
concentration is:
T
to
(17)
1 + Ksv[Q ]
where t and to are the decay times of the excited state of the fluorophore in the
presence and in the absence of the quencher, respectively.
Lifetime can be measured either in the time domain or in the frequency domain.
In the former case, the fluorophore is excited with a narrow pulse and the
933
fluorescence decay is monitored. In the latter case, a modulated excitation is used:
the fluorescence emission is still modulated at the same frequency, but is diminished
in amplitude and phase shifted. The extent of the amplitude decrease and of the
phase shift depends on the lifetime of the fluorophore.
When ground-state reactions are involved, lifetime measurements can be
performed if reagents and products Of the reactions are fluorescent species
characterized by different decay times, as occurs in some acid-base reactions [8,9].
The advantage of this approach lies mainly in the fact that there is no more
dependence on loading or photobleaching of the chemical transducer fixed at the end
of the optical fibres, which is one of the greatest drawbacks of intensity-modulated
chemical sensors. Moreover, no problems arise from possible fluctuations or drift in
the source intensity or photodetector sensitivity which, on the contrary, heavily
affect intensity of modulated sensors.
3.3.
Evanescent
wave field
Interaction of the chemical species with the evanescent wave field can be
exploited for sensing purposes [10]. The electromagnetic field which propagates
along the fibre inside the core extends also in the cladding region. The solution to
Maxwell's equations shows that, in the presence of total internal reflection, a
standing wave (called evanescent wave) exists in the cladding, propagates in the
direction of the fibre axis and decays exponentially in the direction perpendicular to
the core/cladding interface. The penetration depth of the evanescent wave is a key
parameter for sensing purposes; it is the distance, from the cladding, at which the
amplitude of the electromagnetic is decreased by a factor equal to 1/e and is
expressed by the following formula (valid for a step-index fibre):
dp=
~-0
1
2~n1 [sin2~_sin2~c~/2
(18)
Typical values of penetration depth are in the order of the utilized wavelength. For
example, if n1=1.5 and n2=1.33 (aqueous medium) the minimum value of the
penetration depth ( 3 = 90 ~ is about U5 and increases upwards by about 1
wavelength for angles 1~ greater than the critical angle. The penetration depth goes
to infinity in correspondence of the critical angle. However this fact can be
disregarded since, for angles close to the critical angle, the fibre is characterized by
losses due to the scattering coming from the surface roughness. In practice, the
evanescent wave field is limited to within few microns or less from the core surface.
The efficiency of the approach depends on the fraction r of the optical power
carried by the fibre which propagates in the cladding. The optical power carried by
the core represents a background since it is not modulated by the analyte: higher
this background is, lower are the performances of the evanescent wave sensors.
This fraction is clearly high for monomode fibres (r>0.5) and, in multimode fibres,
for the modes close to the cut-off condition (the so-called higher modes). In
934
multimode fibres the average power in the cladding, coming from the contribution
of all modes, has to be considered. It has been shown [11] that for weakly guiding
multimode fibres (nl -~ n2) the value of r is given by the following relationship:
r = Pcla____dd= 4x/-2
Ptot
3V
(19)
For multimode fibres typical values of r are in the range of 0.01.

Any changes in the microenvironment close to the fibre core which is ascribed to
chemical species and modifies the evanescent field distribution can be used in the
development of optical sensors. Modification of the refractive index of the cladding
due to the penetration of the chemical species in the region close to the core is the
sensing mechanism most followed. This approach is not characterized by selectivity,
which can be reached by combining the evanescent wave analysis with the
absorption or fluorescence coming either directly from the analyte or from the proper
chemical transducer, which is located in the proximity of the fibre core.
4.
THE OPTODE
The term optode (or the more used word optrode: the first is the correct term,
however, since its etymology comes from the Greek " 6 ~ ! 65o~") denotes the probe
of the optical fibre chemical sensor: that is, the chromophore with its mechanical
envelope, if existing, and the portion of the fibre in contact with this chemical
transducer.
The simplest case is when the investigated species has optical properties: in this
case, development of the optode is reduced to the manufacturing of an optimized
optical cell to be connected to the fibre.
As explained above, if a chemical transducer is utilized, use is made of a special
reagent, whose optical properties vary in accordance with the variation in the
concentration of the p a r a m e t e r under examination.
The reaction may be direct as in pH sensors in which the hydrogen ions react with
an acid-base indicator or a fluorophore, causing a variation in the absorption or
fluorescence, respectively.
In other cases, the reaction which takes place in the optode gives an opticallydetectable compound as final product. An example is the detection of carbon dioxide,
which is based on the detection of the pH of a carbonated solution, the acidity of
which changes according to the quantity of CO2 dissolved therein.
Enzyme-based sensors are included in this latter category. Detection is based on
a selective conversion, catalysed by a special enzyme, of the p a r a m e t e r under
investigation. Among the reagents or the products of the enzymatic reaction, there
is a species which is optically detectable. In glucose sensors, the consumption of
oxygen is detected when glucose reacts in the presence of glucose oxydase; in a
penicillin sensor, instead, the production of hydrogen ions in the presence of the
enzyme penicillase is exploited.
935
Two types of optode can be distinguished:
- extrinsic optodes: the chemical transducer is immobilized on an external support,
such as glass or polymeric matrix; in this case, a mechanical envelope is necessary
for attaching the support to the tip-end of the fibre;
- intrinsic optodes: the chemical transducer is directly immobilized on the fibre. This
can be done at the fibre tip or along the fibre on the core: in this case, a compact and
highly-miniaturized structure is attained, since the probe is practically the fibre
itself.
In an optode, a fast and reliable interaction with the investigated analyte m u s t
be guaranteed. Moreover, if a chemical transducer is used, an appropriate
immobilization process should be developed.
Adsorption can play an i m p o r t a n t role in both cases, either by assuring a good
exchange of the analyte between the probe and the external environment, or by
offering a simple immobilization process for the sensitive reagent.
5.
A D S O R P T I O N AS AN E X C H A N G E M E C H A N I S M F O R T H E
DETECTED ANALYTES
Adsorption of the chemical compounds under investigation on appropriate layers

deposited along the fibre core can offer some advantages on traditional bulk
procedures.
cladding
core
'
............................
" ';
modified cladding
Figure 4. Sketch of the modified fibre for sensing purposes by means of evanescent wave
technique.
Figure 4 provides a sketch of the fibre modified for sensing purposes. The
deposited layer works as new cladding for the fibre, provided t h a t it has a refractive
index smaller t h a n the refractive index of the fibre core. Since the interaction
between the light carried in the fibres and the external environment occurs by
means of the evanescent field, the sensing area is limited to a few microns from the
core/cladding interface. If the new cladding has a thickness greater t h a n the
penetration depth, the investigated volume is inside the cladding; therefore, the
effect of interfering elements which may be found in the investigated sample can be
936
eliminated through the choice of an appropriate layer. A clear a p p a r e n t example is
in the case of the analysis of species in aqueous samples, such as dissolved gases or
nonpolar and organic compounds. If the m e a s u r e m e n t is performed with bare fibres,
the evanescent field extends in the aqueous phase, and the presence of dissolved
species cannot be detected, because of the strong absorption of the water. The choice
of hydrophobic and organophilic layer can prevent the diffusion, close to the fibre
core, of w a t e r molecules. These cannot interfere with the m e a s u r e m e n t , which
makes it possible to detect the dissolved species, which is adsorbed inside the layer
(Figure 5).
0 0.,,,.
oo o o,O,o , o
Oo&,
o, o.O,
o
d_.,.o o o o . o o
water
9~ a n a l y t e
modified cladding
uJ
fibre c o r e
Figure 5. Adsorption of the analyte in the modified cladding: on the left side the exponential
decay of the electric field outside the fibre core along with the penetration depth is shown.
For sensing purposes, the ideal layer should have the following characteristics:
- a refractive index smaller t h a n the refractive index of the fibre core;
- selectivity to the investigated compounds;
- efficient adsorption and desorption processes, which would lead to a good
reversibility of the sensor;
- fast diffusion of the investigated compounds, which would m e a n a fast response
time of the sensor.
Modulation of the light carried by the fibre can be induced in two ways:
9 a change in the refractive index of the cladding after the adsorption, which gives
rise to a change in the penetration depth of the evanescent field. The selectivity
of the sensor is determined only by the selectivity of the cladding material, since
the sensor responds to all the adsorbed species. Its a d v a n t a g e lies in the
simplicity of the optoelectronic system, since no requirements are given regarding
the choice of the wavelength;
9 light absorption in correspondence with the absorption bands of the analysed
species. Higher selectivity can be attained, but a multiwavelength system should
be used either in the NIR region, if the overtones of chemical compounds are
utilized, or in the infrared region, if the vibrational bands are exploited.
937
Clearly, t e m p e r a t u r e changes can affect this type of m e a s u r e m e n t [12]. A
variation in temperature has two effects: i) a change in the cladding density, due to
the volume change, and ii) a change in the refractive indices of the core and of the
cladding. The first effect gives rise to a change in concentration of the polymer
cladding, while the second gives rise to a change in the penetration depth of the
evanescent field. In any case, a change in the detected signal is observed, and a
t e m p e r a t u r e compensation is necessary.
5.1.
Sensors based on refractive index changes
Since, in this case, the sensor is practically a refractometer, a requisite

characteristic for the deposited layer is its high capability to change its refractive
index with the adsorption of the investigated chemical compound. Refractive index
changes of the order of 10 .5 can be detected with optical fibres [13].
As already pointed out, the selectivity of the sensor in this case depends only on
the selectivity of the cladding; therefore its choice is crucial.
The first system based on this principle was proposed for the detection of
hydrocarbons in water [14]. An unclad fibre (core diameter 140 ~m) was silylated for
a length of 80 cm. Different chemical reagents (RnSiX4-n) were used to realize the
organophilic cladding: in particular, two silylating agents having the same R group
(R = -ClsH37) but different leaving group (X=OCH2CH3, X=C1), namely,
octadecyltriethoxysilane and octadecyltrichlorosilane. Other reagents used have the
same leaving group (X=C1) but different R groups (R--Ph or R=n-C10H21),
diphenyldichlorosilane and n-decyltrichlorosilane. An He-Ne laser (632.8 nm) was
used as source, and the detector consisted of appropriate electronic circuitry with a
simple pin photodiode. Laboratory tests on different contaminants indicated that the
type of coating and the method of applying it affected the capacity for absorbing
hydrocarbons. The detection limit was variable (400 rag/1 for p-xylene, 3 mg/1 for
crude oil). Reversibility of the sensor was obtained by washing the coated fibre with
acetone and methanol.
Heteropolysiloxane polymers were also used for the detection of chemical vapours
[15]: by incorporating different functions (amino, vinyl, glycidoxypropyl) inside the
polymers, different sensitivities and selectivities were obtained for different chemical
vapours. In the experimental tests, light from a laser diode 0~=670 nm) was coupled
into two fibres (core diameter 600 pm). Angular excitation of the fibre was performed
in order to excite the higher modes of the fibre and to increase the fraction of the
optical power carried by the cladding. One of the fibres was stripped for a length of
about 2.5 cm and coated with the vapour-sensitive coating; the other one was used
as a reference, as it was insensitive to the vapour in contact with this fibre. Both
fibres were inserted into a flow-cell. The signals coming out from the two fibres were
detected by two photodiodes; their ratio resulted less sensitive to temperature
changes. A detection limit of 100 ppm was obtained for toluene.
The same system was tested for methane using a polyoxyethylene lauryl ether
polymer as cladding material. A detection limit of 2% (in vol) in the air was obtained
[13].
938
Selectivity still remains a problem when this approach is followed, but in principle
the analysis of compound mixtures could be performed with several sensors, each
coated with a different organophilic compound and properly calibrated. An
appropriate processing system should be capable of discriminating the different
compounds.
On the other hand, selectivity is not a fundamental requirement for some
applications. An example of this is the detection of hydrocarbon leakages from
storage tanks, or remediation efforts. Klainer et al. developed an optical fibre sensor
for the analysis of petroleum hydrocarbons, both in water and in vapour [16]. The
new version of the system, called Petrosense CMS 5000, is at present distributed by
Whessoe Varec [17]. Figure 6 shows a photo of the optical probe: the length of the
probe is 25.5 cm, and the sensing area is limited to 2.5 cm of a glass fibre covered
with a proprietary coating which attracts C6 and higher petroleum hydrocarbons.
Table 2 describes the technical specifications as declared by the distributor.
Figure 6. Photo of the optical fibre probe for direct monitoring of hydrocarbons.
Table 2
Technical specifications of the hydrocarbon sensor
Vapor
Operating range
Water
0-20,000 ppm as TPH
Lower detection limit
<10 ppm as xylene
<0.1 ppm as xylene
Accuracy/Precision
+ 15%
12 seconds
_+ 10%
< 1 minutes
0 o _ 55oC
< 5 minutes
0 o . 55oC
Response time (initial)

Response time (to 95%)
Probe operating temperature range
12 seconds
939
5.2. S e n s o r s b a s e d on s p e c t r o s c o p i c a n a l y s i s
In this case, the new cladding should be carefully chosen so as to avoid the
overlapping between absorption peaks of its components and the absorption peaks
of the detected compounds, since this would decrease the sensitivity of the
measurement.
The spectrophotometric investigations can be performed either in the IR region
(2-20 pm) by means of fluoride or silver halide fibres, or in the NIR spectral region
(1-2 pm), where silica fibres may be used.
As previously outlined, in cases of analysis of aqueous samples, the choice of a
highly hydrophobic layer makes it possible to avoid the influence of water which
might thwart the detection of a small quantity of dissolved species: this is because
the evanescent wave field which extends within the cladding, does not ,,see" the H20
molecules, the diffusion of which inside the cladding is not possible. This is
particularly important in this spectroscopic analysis, since water is characterized in
the NIR region by the broad H20 1.440-~m OH-stretch first overtone band and in
the IR by broad vibrational bands around 2.6 ~m and 6.3~m.
IR analysis make it possible to obtain high selectivity coupled with high
sensitivity, since the 2-20 ~m spectral region is the most informative for detection
of the various molecules. It is known as the "fingerprint" region, because it covers
most of the absorption bands of the fundamental molecular vibrations.
Proposed systems have been developed for the detection of hydrocarbons [18] and
pesticides [19]. Different polymers were used for the cladding material: aliphatic
polymers, such as polyethylene and polyisobutylene or polyvinylchloride.
Due to the different IR absorption bands that characterizes the different
hydrocarbons, the capability of the method of simultaneous detection of more than
one species was demonstrated [20].
Silver halide fibres are preferable to chalcogenide fibres, since they are nonbrittle, and are quite flexible. Optical fibres are coupled to a Fourier transform
infrared spectrophotometer [21] or to tunable lasers coupled with highly-efficient
detection systems [22].
Detection limits of the order of few ppm or less have been obtained for different
hydrocarbons. A detection limit of 300 ppb for tetrachloroethylene has been recently
achieved [21].
The disadvantages are represented by the impossibility of utilizing long optical
links, due to the high attenuation of chalcogenide fibres and to the very expensive
optoelectronic system, which is neither compact nor transportable.
Also, the near-infrared spectral region 1-2 pm provides some useful information,
since at these shorter wavelengths, overtones or combination bands occur,
presenting a much weaker intensity than the fundamental bands in the infrared
region. This disadvantage is counter-balanced by the advantages coming from the
fact that, at these wavelengths, quartz fibres are characterized by low attenuation.
This means:
940
- very long optical link can be used (up to many kilometres);
- optical fibre networks can be easily developed, and multiple detection in different
sensing points is feasible.
Commercially-available silica fibres with a siloxane cladding were used and tested
for the first time by DeGrandpre and Burgess [23].
The same approach was then followed by Ache and coworkers for the detection of
hydrocarbons [24,25]. The fibres (core diameter ranging from 200 ~m to 500 ~m)
were coupled with a spectrophotometer and an halogen lamp was used as optical
source. Good detection limits were reached (0.4 ppm for p-xylene and chlorobenzene,
0.9 ppm for toluene), proving the effectiveness of the approach.
Moreover miniaturized optical fibre spectrophotometers in the NIR region
(1-2 ~m) will be available on the market in the near future, facilitating in-situ
measurements as required by new environmental regulations.
The possibility of utilizing NIR spectroscopy and multivariate calibration
techniques should make possible a selectivity in the analysis of samples containing
more than one contaminant [26].
Absorption in the UV region caused by electronic transitions can be also utilized
for the detection of hydrocarbons in air or water. Recently, a system has been
proposed using silica fibres as optical link, a diode array spectrophotometer as
detecting system, and a deuterium lamp as optical source [27]. Fibre attenuation
and sensitivity of the array spectrophotometer limit the UV spectral analysis to 225
nm. Experimental tests on toluene, naphthalene and fluorene demonstrate the
feasibility of the system with a detection limit of a few ppm for toluene and 30 ppb
and 3 ppb for naphthalene and fluorene, respectively.
6.
A D S O R P T I O N AS AN I M M O B I L I Z A T I O N P R O C E S S FOR CHEMICAL
TRANSDUCERS
When a chemical transducer is necessary, it may be immobilized by using

different techniques on either the fibre itself or on a solid support.
E n t r a p m e n t of the chemical transducer in polymeric membranes, in glassy
networks (by means of a sol-gel procedure), in Langmuir-Blodgett films, or
immobilization by means of covalent bonds and adsorption, are the main procedures
followed in manufacturing an optode.
Embedding in polymers ensures good compactness: the choice of the proper
polymer, selective to the analyte and capable of avoiding leakage of the chemical
transducer, is the critical point.
Many evanescent wave-based sensors based on the approach of using the sol-gel
process for depositing a sensitive layer on the core of the fibre have been described
[28]. A porous glassy network can be obtained from the hydrolysis of an
organometallic precursor, followed by condensative polymerization. The precursor
can easily be doped with chromophores, which are thus entrapped in the glassyoxide network. A critical issue is the porosity of the final structure, which
941
determines both the capacity of maintaining entrapped the chemical transducer and
the response time of the optode.
The realization of Langmuir-Blodgett films with an incorporated chromophore is
a very promising technique for the realization of optical fibre chemical sensors. The
deposition of these films on the fibre core allows the manufacture of extremely
compact and miniaturized evanescent-wave sensors. On the other hand, the low
stability of these films is a very critical aspect, which has so far prevented the
development of reliable sensors.
The method of coupling the optically-sensitive reagent to a support by means of
a covalent bond seems to be very promising, since it avoids losses of the bound
chromophore. A much-followed method for covalently bonding the chromophore
exploits a silylation process [29].
In the case of adsorption, the chromophore is immobilized on special supports,
such as polymeric resins. Binding results from weak electrostatic or van der Waals
interactions. This technique is very simple, but sometime presents the drawback of
progressive leakage of the reagent from the support.
All these techniques present advantages and disadvantages at the same time. The
exact criteria for choosing a particular technique will depend on the application in
question and on the materials chosen for realizing the optode.
For instance, covalent immobilization is possible only if the reagent is
characterized by a chemical functionality which is able to react with the chosen
support, or is possible for imparting a particular functionality without blocking the
reactivity to the analyte.
On the other hand, the adsorption technique is a very generally-used method
which, in principle, permits the immobilization of a great number of chemicallydifferent reagents. Clearly, the success of the immobilization strongly depends also
on the nature of the chosen support. The simplicity which characterizes this
immobilization technique also gives rise to the main problem associated with the
method: due to the non-specific interactions involved, the problem of leakage of the
reagent is often of vital importance. This, in turn, makes many of the probes realized
in this manner unsuitable for many applications, in particular for medical ones.
In addition, probes realized by adsorption are affected by the problems common
to the probes realized using others techniques.
In general, the ideal sensitive support should have the following characteristics:
- stability of the system support and chromophore;
- selectivity to the investigated analyte and, consequently, no interferences;
- reversibility;
- high sensitivity.
An aspect to be stressed is that, in general, reagents coupled to surfaces do not
react in identical manner to the free solution forms. A thorough investigation of the
spectroscopic properties of the chemical transducers after the adsorption should be
undertaken in order to better understand their behaviour [30-33].
Typical results are shown in Figures 7 and 8. Here the optical properties of an
acid-base indicator, phenol red, before and after the immobilization on beads of
942
0.4
~58
7. t. 8
0.3
0.2
0.1
6.~,8
400
500
600
700
)~ (nm)
Figure 7. Absorption spectra of phenol red in aqueous solution (1.5-10 -5 M) for different pH
values.
1.2]
[
0.9
0.6
0.3
400
500
600
700
~. (nm)
Figure 8. Reflectance spectra of phenol red immobilized on XAD-2. A'=log(1/R), where R is the
reflectance of the sample.
943
Amberlite XAD-2, a non-ionic styrene/divinylbenzene copolymer, are reported.
Broadening of the pH working range and a shift of the pK towards higher values
were observed for all the described indicators. At the same time, the disappearance
of, or a heavy reduction in, the pH dependance of the absorption band of the acidic
form is observed [33]. If the broadening of the working range and the pK shift can
be easily explained by a distribution of the dye molecules over slightly different sites
(in solution all the molecules are equivalent), the reason for the disappearance of the
acidic band is not completely clarified. A plausible explanation for this phenomenon
is that the XAD-2 beads are coated with two or more layers of the dye: the inner
layers are essentially constituted by undissociated molecules (HIn), while ionic
species (In-) predominate in the outer layer exposed to the solvent (Figure 9).
Accordingly, the inner layers act as a reservoir for undissociated HIn species, so that
a nearly constant concentration of HIn can be "seen" on the surface of the beads.
Only when that reservoir disappears can a concentration decrease of the
undissociated species be perceived.
From the above example, it is obvious that noticeable changes in the optical
properties of the chemical transducer can take place: their effects should be
considered within the design of an adsorption-based optode.
Figure 9. Sketch of the multilayered distribution of the undissociated (HIn) and dissociated (In-)
forms of the acid-base indicator.
944
An additional problem is the realization of the optode that is the coupling of the
sensing support and the fibre. This problem has been solved by using different
approaches: the simplest way is that the support is contained in a flow-cell and the
analyte, in solution or in gas phase flows in the system. The optical fibres coupled
to the flow cell bring the light from the source to the cell and from the cell to the
detector [34-36].
These sensors can operate in two different ways: i) the concentration approach
and ii) the kinetic approach. The former consists of measuring the modulated signal
before and after the passage of a fixed volume of sample solution. In this case, the
information is related to the signal change after equilibration. This volume is chosen
to encompass the desired range of sample concentration. In the second approach the
sensor is exposed to an unlimited volume of sample, and the readout of the
m e a s u r e m e n t is made at a fixed time. In this case, the time chosen depends on the
response time and the range of concentration of interest [35].
The reversibility of the sensor is very important. Whenever possible, regeneration
can be achieved by passing a solution of an appropriate composition in the system.
A configuration which overcomes the problem of reversibility has been proposed by
Egorov et al. [37]: the renewable chemical sensor uses minute amounts of beads, on
which the reagent is adsorbed and which are renewed before performing a new
analysis. The system has been tested for the detection of chromium (VI), but could
in principle be used for other analytes. However, if characterized by good sensitivity,
an irreversible sensor can be utilized as a "warning" sensor [38].
A somewhat more complicated scheme foresees the use of a m e m b r a n e for
coupling the sensing support to the fibre [43-46]. The membrane acts as a physical
barrier for maintaining the sensing support in place without impeding the chemical
sensing capacity of the reagent. In a different configuration, the chemical transducer
is adsorbed along the core surface of a silylated fibre. A polymeric layer deposited on
the modified fibre acts as a selective membrane for the analyte under investigation
[47].
The choice of the membrane has a pronounced effect on the performances of the
sensor; better selectivity can be achieved with an accurate choice of the polymer. On
the other h a n d the response time is generally subject to considerable lengthening,
since it will be governed mainly by the diffusion coefficients of the analyte in the
polymer.
Bacci et al. have proposed an optode for pH detection which does not make use of
a m e m b r a n e (Figure 10) [48]. XAD-2 is used as solid support. After the adsorption
of the acid-base indicator, the polymer beads were inserted in a stainless steel
capillary (external diameter 1.8 mm), terminated by a threaded mirrored cap. Very
small slits on the lateral surface of the capillary made possible a fast exchange with
the external environment.
Table 3 shows the main chemical species investigated with adsorption-based
optical fibre sensors: the chemical transducers, the utilized supports and references
are reported.
945
Table 3
M a i n chemical species i n v e s t i g a t e d with a d s o r p t i o n - b a s e d s e n s o r s a n d r e l a t e d
references. LOD is t h e limit of detection a n d R is the reversibility
Analyte
Support
Chemical Transducer
CI2
Nylon 66
XAD-2
o-tolidine, o-dianisidine,
N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine
Alizarin Complexone/Ce(III)
F-
XAD-4
Calcein blue/ZrC12
HCN
XAD-7
02
02
Optical
fibre
Kieselgel
Chloramine-T, 4-Methylpyridine,
Pyrimidine trio ne
Ru(DIP)3C12
pH
pH
XAD-2
XAD-2
pH
pH
Pb(II)
Cr(VI)
nl(III)
Cd(II)
Fe(III)
Ru(bipy)aC12
Bromothymol blue
Phenol red
Working Range
and/or LOD
0+5 ppm
No
0.043 ppm
1.6+9.5x10 -4 M Al(III)
1.1xl0 4 M
2.6+42x10 S M ZrC12
2.6x10 -5 M
HC1
lpl/1
No
0+800 Torr
2 Torr
0+200 Torr
1 Torr
6.5+8.0 pH
0.02 pH
0.02 pH
[36]
[34]
[44]
[38]
Yes
[47]
N2
[43]
Yes
Yes
[39]
[48]
Yes
Bromophenol blue, Chlorophenol red,
Thymol blue, 3,4,5,6-Tetrabromophenolsulphonphtalein, Bromothymol blue
Bromocresol green
6.00+9.00 pH
Yes
XAD-4
0.05 pH
3+100x10 -7 M HC1,
Diphenyldithiocarbazone
XAD-4
1.0x10 -s M
Citrate
H2NOH
1,5-Diphenylcarbohydrazide
0.01+1 ppm
Polysorb
35 ppb
MP1
1.3+4.0x10 -5 M
F
XAD-2
Eriochromo cyanine R
1.0x10 -~ M
8- Hydroxy- 7-io do quinoline-5- sulfonic 2+700x10 -5 M
KI
DEAE8.0x10 -s M
acid
Sephadex
8+ 100x 10 .6 M
2,4-Dinitroresorcinol
HC1
XAD-7
8.0x10 -6 M
XAD-4
Ref.
[40]
[41]
[35]
[37]
[45]
[421
[46]
946
XAD-2
optical fibres
threaded
mirrored cap
Y
8 mm
stainless steel
slits
capillary
Figure 10. Adsorption-based optode for pH detection.
7. C O N C L U S I O N S
Adsorption is a chemical process which finds application in the development of
optical fibre sensor for chemical parameters. The critical issues are different,
depending on whether the process is related to the interaction between the
investigated analyte and the optode, or is utilized as immobilization process for the
chemical transducer. One is a lack of selectivity (in the former case) and the other
is possible leakage (in the latter).
These problems are very important. The fact that only one of the proposed
adsorption-based sensors is available on the market, the hydrocarbon sensor from
Whessoe Varec, should not be completely ascribed to the poor reliability of the
adsorption process for sensing purposes, but also to the typical difficulties associated
with the manufacture of an optode. Most of the probes described in the literature are
hand-made, no matter which chemical compound is investigated. Manufacture of the
probe in large numbers, which is a fundamental point in the consideration of an
industrial production of a sensor, is never considered in the design of the probe and
in the choice of the materials used. This aspect, which is not at all trivial, is probably
the main reason why the appearance of m a n y optical fibre chemical sensors on the
m a r k e t has so far been prevented.
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949
A d s o r p t i o n h e a t p u m p s : a n e w w a y for e n e r g y s a v i n g a n d C F C s
replacement
G. Cacciola and G. Restuccia
National Council of Research, Institute for Research on Chemical Methods and
Processes for Energy Storage and Transformation, S. Lucia sopra Contesse,
98126 Messina, Italy
1.
INTRODUCTION
In the field of h e a t i n g and cooling production, research activity is mainly

addressed towards finding alternative solutions to vapour-compression heat
pumps, since these machines use valuable energy (electricity) as p r i m a r y energy
and polluting refrigerants, namely chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are
dangerous both for ozone depletion and the green house effect [1].
Among the new systems recently proposed, adsorption machines present m a n y
characteristics which make t h e m a good techno-economic alternative to vapourcompression machines. In fact, adsorption machines can use environmental
friendly refrigerants and efficiently medium-low t e m p e r a t u r e h e a t (100-200~ as
p r i m a r y energy. In addition they have no moving parts and a simple regulation of
energy production in response to load request can be realised [2,3].
As is well known, gas adsorption phenomena are strictly correlated to energy
transfer and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and it is likewise well known t h a t adsorption
p h e n o m e n a are regulated by t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure. Taking into account
these properties and combining the endothermic desorption with the exothermic
adsorption processes in closed cycles it is possible to realise an adsorption heat
pump whose external effect is equal to t h a t obtained with a vapour-compression
machine using an inverse Carnot cycle.
Adsorption h e a t pumps, even though having the above mentioned advantages,
still have some critical aspects which can be s u m m a r i s e d in three m a i n points:
- non-continuous (intermittent) operation;
- low h e a t transfer efficiency between the t h e r m a l fluid and the solid adsorbent
bed;
- operating pressure far from atmospheric level.
These problems have made the first prototypes uncompetitive with respect to
traditional machines. Thus research activity in this sector has focused on solving
such difficulties and very positive results have been obtained in the last years
[4-7].
950
2.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Adsorption machines are mainly composed of three principal components, as

shown in Figure 1: the adsorber reactor (R) which contains the solid adsorbent
embedded in a suitable h e a t exchanger, the evaporator (E) and the condenser (C).
In the adsorber reactor both the desorption and the adsorption processes occur at
different times and at different t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure conditions. An
adsorption machine works at four t e m p e r a t u r e levels, one for each component but
in practice, as further described, it is designed so t h a t there are three
t e m p e r a t u r e working conditions, high, medium, low (Th, Tin, T1).
@ Qra+Qa
Qri + Qd
/~.
"
user
. .....
",..
Qc
~ .......
....:..,.
,:.
Figure 1. Scheme of an adsorption machine: C - condenser; E - evaporator; R - adsorbent bed.
The t h e r m o d y n a m i c cycle for h e a t p u m p i n g can be divided in two phases: the

charge and the discharge. During the first phase, the solid adsorbent is dried
and the refrigerant fluid here adsorbed evaporates t h a n k s to the h e a t furnished
to the system at high t e m p e r a t u r e Th. The desorbed vapour flows into the
condenser (C) where it condenses at medium t e m p e r a t u r e Tm and, consequently,
releases useful heat. At the beginning of this first phase the incoming h e a t into
the adsorber increases both t e m p e r a t u r e and vapour pressure till the condenser
pressure is overcome, then the vapour, previously in equilibrium on the solid,
flows towards the condenser t h a n k s to the small difference in pressure now
created between adsorber and condenser. The vapour m o v e m e n t makes the
desorption process possible under isobaric conditions. Then, during this charge
phase external h e a t (Ori + Qd) is furnished to the system at high t e m p e r a t u r e Th,
951
by means of a thermal vector fluid flowing into the heat exchanger embedded
inside the solid adsorber (R), and, at the same time, heat (Qc) is released from the
system at medium temperature Tm, from the condenser.
The discharge phase, which consists of the vapour adsorption process on the
solid adsorbent, allows the heat coming from the low temperature (T1) to be
transferred to the medium temperature source (Tm).
This phase starts with the cooling of the solid adsorbent and the consequent
decreasing of the pressure, till it reaches the evaporator vapour pressure. The
evaporator (E), in fact, is maintained at the low temperature T1 thanks to an
external fluid which transfers heat coming from the low temperature source.
As during the charge phase, the small difference in pressure between
evaporator and adsorber creates the non-equilibrium conditions which allow the
refrigerant vapour to flow from evaporator to the solid adsorbent bed where it is
adsorbed. During the cooling of the solid and afterwards the adsorption process,
thermal energy (Ora + Qa) is produced and immediately externally transferred
through the heat exchanger embedded into the solid adsorbent. In this way the
evaporator continuously produces vapour which is isobarically adsorbed in the
solid bed. This phase represents the useful effect of the system, in fact, heat (Qe)
is taken away from a low temperature and released to a medium temperature
source, realising in this way a heat pump or cooling effect, similar to that
obtainable with an inverse Carnot cycle.
3.
R E F R I G E R A N T S AND A D S O R B E N T S
One of the most important elements of any heat pump and refrigeration
system is the refrigerant, since the working conditions and the system
compatibility with the environment principally depend on it.
Generally speaking, the refrigerant requirements are: high latent heat per
unit volume and good thermal stability; furthermore, it must be non-polluting
and non-flammable. From a technical and safety point of view its vapour
pressure must be near atmospheric level, in the temperature range between 263
and 353 K. Table I shows some characteristics of several refrigerants that have
been proposed [8].
Table 1
Properties of some refrigerants
Normal Boiling
Point
K
Heat of
Vaporisation
J/g
Name
Formula
Ammonia
NH 3
239
1368
Water
H20
373
2258
Methanol
CH3OH
338
1102
952
Water, ammonia and methanol present high latent heat, but the working
p r e s s u r e s are not in a f a v o u r a b l e r a n g e (Figure 2). The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e
r e f r i g e r a n t s are r e p o r t e d in Table 2. In conclusion, since from the t h e r m o d y n a m i c
point of view the choice of a r e f r i g e r a n t is not unequivocal, it could d e p e n d on
technological criteria; n e v e r t h e l e s s the best r e f r i g e r a n t m u s t be still sought.
The s u i t a b l e a d s o r b e n t s are porous m a t e r i a l s t h a t should adsorb large
a m o u n t s of r e f r i g e r a n t fluids in v a p o u r p h a s e a n d h a v e t h e following
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : wide c o n c e n t r a t i o n c h a n g e in a small t e m p e r a t u r e range,
r e v e r s i b i l i t y of a d s o r p t i o n process for m a n y cycles, low cost, good t h e r m a l
conductivity.
Table 2
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of some r e f r i g e r a n t s
Ammonia
Methanol
- toxic
- f l a m m a b l e in some
concentrations
- not compatible with
copper
- high o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e
- good l a t e n t h e a t
- t h e r m a l l y stable
- non polluting
Water
- toxic
- flammable
- not compatible with
copper at high
temperature
- u n s t a b l e beyond 393 K
low p r e s s u r e
good l a t e n t h e a t
perfect, except for very

low o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e
at low p r e s s u r e does not
oxidise copper a n d only
p a r t i a l l y s t a i n l e s s steel
- not s u i t a b l e for cold
climate zone
10000
1000
100
10
9 methanol
9 water
20
40
60
80
100
T (~
Figure 2. Comparison of the vapour pressure of some refrigerants.
953
The most interesting classes of solid adsorbents are: zeolites, activated carbons
and silica gels. For each class, different kinds of materials are available with
different characteristics; generally, within a given class, the smaller the pore
diameter the higher the adsorption energy and the regeneration temperature.
Specific research has been carried out to study the influence of solid adsorbent
porosity modification on the adsorption properties [9].
The most studied gas-solid pairs come from the combination of the cited
refrigerants and adsorbents; these are shown in Table 3, where, for each
application, the most suitable pairs are indicated.
Table 3
Suggested applications for adsorption pairs
Freezing
Refrigeration
Air conditioning
(T< 253 K)
Zeolite- NH 3
(T ~ 273 K)
A.Carbon- CH3OH
(T= 278-288 K)
Space heating
(T ~ 333 K)
Zeolite- H20
A.Carbon-NH 3
A.Carbon-NH 3
Zeolite- H20
A.Carbon-CH3OH
Silica g e l - H20
Silica gel- HeO
From a technical point of view the general opinion among people who work in
this sector is that zeolite-water, silica gel-water, activated carbon-methanol and
activated carbon-ammonia appear to be the most suitable pairs for cooling and
heating [10]. Nevertheless, other considerations must be taken into account in
order to evaluate the most suitable pair. In fact, the use of ammonia is forbidden
or limited in several countries such as J a p a n and Germany, while the same
refrigerant is widely diffused in USA. Furthermore the expanding of southern
Europe air conditioning market offers a big opportunity for the zeolite-water pair
whose performance reaches the highest values in mild climate conditions [11].
4. T H E R M O D Y N A M I C CYCLES
The basic thermodynamic cycle is shown in Figure 3 where the gas-solid
equilibrium curves (isosteres) are also represented.
The isosteric line ~ represents an equilibrium curve where the weight ratio of
adsorbate (ma) and dry adsorbent (mo) is constant, then ~ = ma / mo.
Following the same two steps mentioned in the "operating principles"
paragraph, it is possible to describe a complete thermodynamic cycle. This starts
from the equilibrium point F which describes the process when the solid
954
p (mbar)
1000 4
~=20
16
1
Pc
lO0-
i-
Pe
10-?
Oa/
1l
//,4/
0
Te
100
Ta=Tc
'
200
Td
T (~
Figure 3. Adsorption heat pump thermodynamic cycle in a Clapeyron diagram for a zeolitewater pair: ~ - adsorbate uptake (wt. %).
adsorbent is first heated up isosterically (F-G), and the amount of energy

furnished to the system is:
Q ri = ~; C(T)dT
Where C(T) is the heat capacity of the global mass of dry adsorbent (moCpo)
and refrigerant fluid adsorbed in it (maCpa). Therefore:
C(T) = moCp o + maCPa
that can be easily transformed in:
C(T) = m oCpo (1 + ~ Cpa Cpo )
When temperature and pressure overcome TG and pc the desorption starts and
develops isobarically while the desorbed water condenses at Tc in the condenser.
During this part of the cycle, external heat is furnished to the system to make the
desorption phase possible (G-H). This amount of energy depends both on the heat
of adsorption of the refrigerant vapour as well as on the heat capacity of the
global mass of dry adsorbent and refrigerant fluid adsorbed in it. This last
955
quantity varies during the desorption phase, the following equation must then be
considered:
Qd = mo ~12[AH(~)+ Cpo (1 + ~ CPa
Cpo)~
where AH(~)is the adsorption/desorption enthalpy, which depends on ~.

Contemporaneously, at the condenser the following energy quantity is
available:
Qc = mo(~l-~2)r(pc)
where r(p) is the latent heat of condensation of the refrigerant fluid at pressure
po
The second step of the cycle starts with an isosteric cooling phase during
which the solid adsorbent is cooled down from TH to TI (H-I line), and the energy
released from the system is:
Qra = ~~ C(T)dT
When temperature and pressure reach T~ and pe the isobaric adsorption
occurs up to TF; at the end the system is again at the starting point of the cycle
(F in Figure 3). At the same time the refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator.
The heat that can be released from the system is described with a formula
similar to that of the desorption phase:
Qa -- mo ~2L[AH(~)+ Co(l + ~ CPa Cpo)~

In the evaporator the heat that must be furnished to the system at
temperature Te is:
Oe = mo(~l- ~2)r(Pe)
Adsorption machine components operate at four temperature levels (Td, Ta, To,
Te); nevertheless to release heat from the system at the same temperature, the
thermodynamic cycle is designed in order that Ta and Tc are equal.
Figure 4 and Figure 5 respectively show the energy-exchange of the adsorption
heat pump at the three temperature levels and the cyclic evolution of the energy
exchanges. From the combination of these figures the intrinsic intermittent
nature of the machine is evident; in fact, the useful effect is not continuously
available.
956
It is necessary to specify that the useful effect in the heat pump mode is the
sum of Qra, Qa and Qc when they are obtained simultaneously. In the cooling
mode (refrigeration machine), the useful effect is the heat extracted at low
temperature Qe.
Qri+Qd
Za=Zc
~III,IIIIQI~IIII~ ~ ) Q r a + Q a
HIIIIIIIIIIII~I~
l?o
It
Fiure 4. Input and outputenergies for an
adsorption heat pump.
Figure 5. Sequence of the cycle phases.
The above described adsorption system, composed of a single adsorbent bed

alternatively connected to the condenser or evaporator, was initially proposed for
energy storage systems with heat pump effect in discharge phase. But the
discontinuity of the useful effect, especially for cold production, makes this
system commercially unsuitable. Later, two-adsorbent-bed machines were
proposed [12,13] in order to operate in a continuous mode.
In the two-beds configuration, two cycles have been proposed in order to
improve the overall efficiency of the system. With the first an internal heat
recovery is realised between the two reactors which allows the heat coming from
one reactor during isosteric cooling to be used for heating the other reactor. With
the second a regenerative system is realised using a heat wave swing inside both
reactors.
The practical scheme of the two-reactors system in case of internal heat
recovery is shown in figure 6; it is composed of two adsorbent beds (reactor R1
and R2), one condenser (C), one evaporator (E), one expansion valve (Ev). The
components which allow energy exchange with the system are:
- a boiler (B), which gives thermal energy at high temperature; generally 10-20~
higher than Ta. The heat is transferred from the boiler to the heat exchanger
embedded in the solid adsorbent by means of a fluid vector. The characteristic of
this fluid depends on the working temperature, for example in case of a zeolite
adsorber which needs temperatures higher than 150~ special oils are used;
957
- a h e a t exchanger high t e m p e r a t u r e fluid vector/water, by m e a n s of which
t h e r m a l energy is furnished to the user, when the two beds are alternatively
cooled down;
- one h e a t exchanger inside the condenser to transfer h e a t to the user (heat pump
mode) or to waste it to the a m b i e n t (chiller mode);
- one h e a t exchanger inside the evaporator to transfer h e a t coming from the low
t e m p e r a t u r e source.
I B [IQ,.
f '
' ~C
,
user
'~"
"" "
c(ii
R1
" :-:'::3,'
R2
E~I~Q',b_":":
" Y
Figure 6. Scheme of a two-reactor adsorption heat pump: B - boiler; C - condenser;

E - evaporator; Ev - expansion valve; Rl, R2 - adsorbent bed.
In addition, with a couple of three-way valves the connection between different

components is realised. In detail, the valves allow to connect the condenser and
evaporator alternately with the two beds during the desorption and adsorption
phases.
The t h e r m o d y n a m i c cycle of a double bed adsorption machine is shown in
Figure 7. The adsorbent beds operate the same cycle but out of phase, so t h a t the
h e a t recovery is obtained by transferring the h e a t from bed R1 (HI-II-L1 in Figure
7a) to bed R2 (F2-G2-M2 in Figure 7b) until t e m p e r a t u r e equilibrium is obtained.
Afterwards, additional heat, supplied by the boiler, is needed to complete the
desorption from adsorbent R2
(M2-H2 in Figure 7b); simultaneously the
adsorption process develops in bed R1 (LI-F1 in Figure 7a), and it produces heat
t h a t is supplied to the user. During the next two steps, which complete the cycle,
958
the roles of the beds are exchanged: bed R2 is cooled, supplying heat to bed R1
and afterwards to the external user.
The energies involved with each step of the cycle are schematically
represented in Figure 7. Qin is the heat that must be supplied to the adsorbent
bed during isobaric desorption; it is used for heating the bed and for desorption.
Qc is the heat released in the condenser. Qr is the heat exchanged between the
two beds during recovery steps. It consists mainly of isosteric heating/cooling of
the solid adsorbent and its adsorbate content (sensible heat); a small amount of
adsorption/desorption heat is also exchanged (I-L and G-M in Figure 7). Qout is
the heat produced during the adsorption process, which is extracted from the bed.
Oe is the heat that must be supplied to the evaporator for adsorbate evaporation.
In (p)
bed 1
G! Mi
bed 2
In (p)
HI
G~ ,M2IQi"
"
Q,
F
FQ/out,~ L~ I1
H2
~
L2 I2
b
v
In (p)
M l 1 Qin
In (p)
H~
G~, ,M2
/ H2
F2Qout l~ L2 I2
L l I1
L
v
Figure 7. Thermodynamic cycle of a two-reactor adsorption heat pump operating with internal
heat recovery.
4.1. R e g e n e r a t i v e
cycles
In order to describe the heat wave propagation system, let consider the scheme
shown in Figure 8. The system is composed of two reactors, always in connection
each other by a thermal vector flowing through them. The boiler and the external
heat exchanger, connected to the circuit between the reactors, allow the extra
input and output energy needed to heat and cool the reactors [14-16].
To explain the concept of such methodology, each reactor can be ideally
represented as formed by n-isothermal beds, which can be consecutively heated
959
up by m e a n s of the e n e r g y r e l e a s e d from the c o r r e s p o n d e n t bed of the o t h e r
r e a c t o r w h i c h is cooling down. As can be seen in F i g u r e 9, the t h e r m a l vector
fluid acts also as a n a c c u m u l a t o r which allows to t r a n s f e r all the e n e r g y from one
r e a c t o r to the other. D u e to the h e a t losses a n d the irreversibilities, this is only
a n ideal b e h a v i o u r , in fact, a n e x t e r n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n from the boiler (to h e a t one
r e a c t o r to t h e m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e ) a n d from the h e a t e x c h a n g e r (to cool the
o t h e r reactor) is needed.
lXl
C ( ,
i I i _Qu Ev Qa- l
I
, : - .... ,-...~ ..... -.-.,.-.....-.---.,.

| ,"...L~
i)E
: . . . . . " ' . " ".
,.: .... -:...,: . . . . . .
"" "
" "'" ~ "':
- ~ : - :
: :" "1--""
.......::.--......,
R1
;;
~:. :.. . .,:: .:.- .. , .-.- .:-.: -..: - ::-:-.c .. : -.,
Qout
R2
9
reversible pump
|Qin
Figure 8. Scheme of the regenerative adsorption heat pump: B - boiler, C - condenser,

E - evaporator, E - heat exchanger, R], R2 - adsorbent beds.
In o r d e r to o b t a i n a b e h a v i o u r as close as possible to the ideal, the s y s t e m

should h a v e t h e following characteristics:
- low t h e r m a l i n e r t i a of the bed including the h e a t exchanger;
- low t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e of the a d s o r b e n t bed in the direction p e r p e n d i c u l a r to
the t h e r m a l vector flow a n d h i g h r e s i s t a n c e in the parallel direction;
- low flow r a t e of t h e t h e r m a l vector fluid.
W i t h t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s , the t h e r m a l effect of the h e a t or cold t h e r m a l vector
fluid i n c o m i n g into a bed h a s a step b e h a v i o u r . As a c o n s e q u e n c e also the
a d s o r b e n t bed h a s a similar t e m p e r a t u r e profile with r e s p e c t to time, as s h o w n in
F i g u r e 9.
960
.4,-a
0
Tmax
_l:
>
~
0
o
m
Train
-L.. -L
~X
rma x
Train
wX
bed R l
JI Jl J Jl JI J I .
1,i 11 11 11 ]1 1n1 ~
I
L i~t
boiler
"
Exchanger
I II
Ir
rL
bed R 2
"L ~L t4~L t3~L t2~L
tn
t.
Tmax~orO
>
Zmin
t~ ~
t. ~ -
t4~
t3~
t2~
Tmax
~"~
~
Train
o
-'~
m
x~
Figure 9. Bed and oil temperatures in the reactors of a regenerative heat pump.
In these conditions the bed should behave like a succession of small isothermal
beds. The temperature profile as a function of time is thus moving along the
whole bed obtaining a heat wave moving from one to the other edge of the bed.
The whole process is described in the following with reference to the scheme of
the system of Figure 8 and the thermodynamic cycle of Figure 10 [17].
961
1000
p (mbar)
16
8
Pc
100
Pe
l0
'Tv TG 100
',
'.200
T (~
Figure 10. Thermodynamic cycle of the regenerative adsorption heat pump.
Let us consider that initially bed R1 is at temperature TG and condensation

pressure pc while bed R2 is at temperature TI and evaporation pressure pe.
During this phase the thermal vector fluid is circulating clockwise, it is heated up
in the boiler at TH and enters into the bed R1 at the same temperature; due to the
heat transferred its temperature at the bed exit is Tc (see Figure l la). At the
same time the thermal vector fluid leaves the heat hxchanger Ex and enter into
the bed R2 at temperature TF where it cools a small portion of bed. The thermal
vector fluid leaves the bed R2 at temperature TI and goes towards the boiler
where it is heated up to TH. Continuing this process, in the beds the temperature
fronts will move, as a function of time, from one side to the other of the beds. In
the bed R1 the heat wave is between the temperature TH and Tc while in the bed
R2 it is between TF and TI.
When the temperature at the end of bed R2 is lower than TI and at the end of
bed Ra is higher than TG, the phase is considered completed and they are in the
conditions represented by point H and F of Figure 10 respectively.
When the second phase starts the fluid flow changes direction to
counterclockwise by reversing the pump rotation or by a reversing valve. The
heat transfer fluid heated in the boiler at TH will thus flow into the bed R2
heating it, from right to left in Figure l l-b. Due to the initial conditions of this
phase (TF and pe) and to the large temperature difference between the fluid and
the bed, the first part of it will be heated at TH while the oil leaves the bed at
962
YH
a)
t2i
t.\
\.
\.
k
t~
flOW direction
TO
TF
/
/ tl
~t~
TG
TF
/t~
/ t2
t. flow direction
0
T.
YH
b)
t,\
"~~to.\_
Tl
t \ ~___
YG
TF
flow direction
0
TH
TH
TH
flowdirection
-~
d)
5~
TH 1
f
Zi
/tfn /t21
/tItf / o
TG j
"/
"/
TF J
~ flow direction
T! ~
-~l -~l ~
C)
tn\
t~',
tl',
TG
2~
'
TF C _.~_ flow
\ ___._~
direction
Tj
flow direction
TF
L
TGT,
T, F~to/f
q
1 / '
~/t
TG
TG
Tr
TF
0
L
bed R~
flOWdirection
0
bed R2
Figure 11. Behaviour of the heat vector temperatures in the two beds during the four phases of
the heat pump cycle: to - initial time of the phase; tn - final time of the phase; L - bed length.
temperature TG. At the same time the heat vector enters bed R1 at TF and leaves
at TI. During this short phase the pressure in the bed R2 increases from pe to pc
due to the desorption of the initial part of the bed. This produces an adsorption
963
on most of the bed with its heating from TF to TG. Similarly, the cooling of the
initial part of the bed R1 creates a re-adsorption of refrigerant and thus a
decrease in the pressure from pc to pe. This allows a further desorption of most of
the bed with a decreasing of the t e m p e r a t u r e from TH to TI as shown in
Figure 10. At the end of this phase bed R1 is at pressure Pe, its initial part - right
side in Figure l lb - is at t e m p e r a t u r e TF while the most part is at temperature
TI. On the contrary, the reactor R2 is at pressure pc and t e m p e r a t u r e TG except
the initial part - right side in Figure 1 lb -that is at TH.
These conditions are equal to the initial conditions but with opposite heat
vector flow direction and reactor out of phase. Continuing with the same flow
direction, the cycle continues similar to the first phase but with adsorption in R1
and desorption in R2 (Figure 1 l-c). The last phase is similar to the second one.
As described, the thermodynamic cycle reported in Figure 10 differs from that
described in Figure 3 because the heating and cooling of the bed (F-G and H-I)
are not isosteric processes but are closer to isothermal processes.
This cycle allows a much higher heat recovery t h a n t h a t operating with
"isothermal beds" previously described and is called regenerative cycle, as a
result higher COPs are also obtained.
5. THERMODYNAMIC PERFORMANCES
On the basis of the expressions of the various amounts of energy involved in
the cycle as reported in the previous paragraph, here are presented the
performances of a two-reactor adsorption machine operating in heat pump or in
chilling mode.
The Coefficient Of Performance of a heat pump operating without internal
heat recovery is the ratio of the useful heat produced to t h a t supplied for its
operation. In detail, it is the energy obtained from the isosteric cooling of the bed,
the adsorption heat and the condensation heat over the heat for desorption and
isosteric heating of the bed:
coP h =
Qra + Q a +Qc
Qri +Qd
When the adsorption system is working as chiller, the useful effect is the
energy entering into the evaporator, which comes from the ambient being cooled,
while the input energy is the same as the heat pump mode operation:
COPc
Qe
Qri + Qd
In those cycles with internal heat recovery between the two beds, this amount
of energy is mainly for isosteric heating and cooling but the recovery phase could
964
continue even during part of adsorption/desorption step. For example, in figure 7
the heat recovery also includes the G-M and I-L parts of the cycle in order to
reach the equilibrium in temperature of both beds. The extension of the recovery
phase is dependent upon the operating conditions of the machine that determine
the shape of the thermodynamic cycle. Since the energy recovered can be
calculated after definition of the thermodynamic cycle, there is therefore no
general formula for its calculation. On this basis the coefficient of performance
for heat pump and chilling operation are respectively:
COP h =
COPc =
Qra + Q a + Q c - Q r
Qri + Q a - Q r
Qe
Ori +Od - O r
where Qr is the energy recovered.

The increase in performance obtainable by heat recovery cycles with respect to
non recovery ones is immediately evident by comparing the cooling COP
formulae. For the heating COP the increase is due to the fact that the same
amount is subtracted from both terms of the ratio, so that the COP increases as
much as the amount of the heat recovered.
Many research groups have calculated the performance rate in terms of COP
both for heating and cooling applications by means of different mathematical
models for basic cycles as for heat recovery and regenerative cycles [18-21]. These
evaluations have been made for different adsorber-adsorbate pairs.
In the case of machines working with uniform distribution of temperature
reactors, the thermodynamic analysis has evidenced that the COP depends on
the maximum temperature of the desorption phase, on the evaporation and
condensation temperature and on the minimum temperature of the adsorption
phase, taking into account that this last parameter is generally equal to the
condensation temperature.
Figures 12 and 13 show the COP behaviour as a function of the maximum
temperature cycle and of evaporation temperature respectively. The curves
reported in the figures are related to zeolite-water pair in heat pump mode;
Figure 13 also shows the influence of the condensation temperature on COP. In
both figures the performances obtainable with a basic cycle and with a two-bed
internal heat recovery cycle are reported.
Analogously, Figures 14 and 15 show the performances of the system for
cooling applications.
One important characteristic that can be deduced from these results,
especially for Figures 13 and 15, is that the performance slightly decreases when
the so called temperature lift increases. This means that when the temperature
difference between condenser and evaporator increases, the COP of the system
965
does not drastically decrease as happens in commercialised

u s i n g f o r e x a m p l e a m m o n i a - w a t e r p a i r [22] ( F i g u r e 16).
1.7
absorption
machines
1.6
with recovery
1.5
0
o
9 Te=15~
9 Te=10~
9 Te= 5~
1.4
1.3
without recovery
1.2
100
150
9 Te=
0~
200
250
Td(~
Figure 12. C O P vs. desorption temperature in heat pump operation for zeolite-water pair:
Te - evaporation temperature; Tc = Ta = 55~
1,8
1.7
with recovery
1.6
9 1.5
cD
1.4
9
9
9
9
without recovery
1.3 1.2
Tc=45~
Tc=50~
Tc=55~
Tc=60~
10
15
Te(~
Figure 13. COP vs. evaporation temperature in heat pump operation for zeolite-water pair:
Tc - condensation temperature; Td = 200 ~
966
0.9
with recover,
0.8
0.7
0.6
9
0.5
0.4
~ o
9 Tc=25~
9 Tc=30~
ut recovery
0.3
9 Tc=35~
0.2
9 Tc=40~
I
0.1
100
50
150
200
250
Td(~
Figure 14. COP vs. desorption temperature in cooling operation for zeolite-water pair:
Tc - condensation temperature; Tc = 5 ~
1
0.9
with r
0.8
0.7
0.6
9
o 0.5
without recovery
Te= 4~
0.4
0.3
9 Te=
6~
Te= 8~
9 Te=10~
0.2
0.1
20
25
30
35
40
Tc(~
Figure 15. COP vs. condensation temperature in cooling operation for zeolite-water pair:
Te - evaporation temperature; Ta = 200 ~
The above m e n t i o n e d property, more evident for zeolite-water pair, a s s u m e s

an economic relevance for a chilling machine; in fact in this case the condensation
a n d adsorption h e a t can be r e l e a s e d to the a m b i e n t by a simple h e a t e x c h a n g e r
i n s t e a d of a cooling tower.
967
0,9
0,8
0 0,7
0,6
(z-w) without recovery
~I
0,4
25
30
35
40
45
50
AT
Figure 16. Cooling COP vs. temperature lift for zeolite-water (z-w) and for ammonia-water
pair: AT = Tc- Te.
The performance related to other gas-solid pairs has been calculated and
results are published in specialised literature [23]. In Figures 17, 18 and 19
several results have been grouped together and the COP relative to activated
carbon-methanol and activated carbon-ammonia are reported. Also in these cases
0.6
Ta=35~
0.5
0.4
O 0.3
0.2
cry
0.1
[
I I
70
90
V
I
110
9 w i t h o u t recovery
I
130
150
Td(~
Figure 17. Cooling COP vs. desorption temperature for the activated carbon-methanol pair:
Ta-adsorption and condensation temperature; Te = -10~
968
t h e t h e r m o d y n a m i c performances both for the basic and for internal h e a t

recovery cycles are shown. Performances reported in Figure 19 refer to an
evaporation t e m p e r a t u r e not o b t a i n a b l e w i t h water (Te - - 1 0 ~
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
.w!t recovery
9 wit
outrecover
i
70
90
110
150
130
Td(~
Figure 18. Cooling COP vs. desorption temperature for the activated carbon-methanol pair:
Te - evaporation temperature; Ta = 35 ~ - adsorption and condensation temperature.
0.6
0.5
0.4
9
0.3
9 methanol
0.2
9 ammonia
0.1
70
90
110
130
150
Td(~
Figure 19. Cooling COP vs. desorption temperature for activated carbon-methanol and
activated carbon-ammonia pairs: Ta = Tc = 25 ~ Te = -10 ~
969
All the above mentioned results refer to ideal systems where the heat capacity
of the heat exchanger is neglected. If this heat capacity is suitably considered the
calculated COP decreases even if an internal heat recovery is realised. This is
due to the inert h e a t capacity t h a t subtracts heat from the useful process of the
system (the adsorption process).
In order to calculate the influence of the heat capacity of the heat exchanger a
new p a r a m e t e r has been defined [24]:
._.
m m 9C P m
m a "Cp a
where m = metal and a = adsorbent.

The K p a r a m e t e r indicates the increment of the inert h e a t capacity due to the
presence of the heat exchanger. In figure 20 the COP related to zeolite-water
pair is represented for different values of K. As can be seen when the K
coefficient reaches values near 2 the COP decrease is near 10%.
A further performance improvement with respect to the internal heat recovery
system can be obtained with a regenerative cycle [25]. A comparison of COPs
calculated for the two cases in the same operative conditions is shown in Figures
21 and 22 for heating and cooling applications respectively.
1.5
9
r~
0.5
9 heat pump
9 refrigeration
I
0.5
1.5
Figure 20. COP vs. metal/adsorbent heat capacity ratio for zeolite-water pair.
970
1.8
Te =
1.7
5~
T c = 38~
1.6
1.5
-"
9
1.4
1.3
9 zeolite-water, basic cycle
1.2
9 zeolite-water, h e a t recovery cycle
1.1
9 z e o l i t e - a m m o n i a , r e g e n e r a t i v e cycle
0.9
50
100
150
200
250
Td(~
Figure 21. Heating COPs of basic, heat recovery and regenerative cycles.
0.8
0.7
Te =
5~
Tc = 38~
0.6
0.5
9
0.4
0.3
9 z e o l i t e - w a t e r , b a s i c cycle
0.2
9 z e o l i t e - w a t e r , h e a t r e c o v e r y cycle
0.1
9
50
z e o l i t e - a m m o n i a , r e g e n e r a t i v e cycle
100
150
200
250
Td(~
Figure 22. Comparison of cooling COP for basic, heat recovery and regenerative cycles.
971
6. P R O T O T Y P E S A N D T E S T S
The first adsorption machines prototypes for heating and cooling applications
were realised with tube and fin heat exchangers. This type of typology was
chosen recognising the low heat transfer property of the solid adsorbent and
consequently to attempt increasing the heat exchanger surface at the solid
adsorbent side. In these prototypes the adsorbent material, generally in beads or
in little extrudates of cylindrical shape, was positioned among fins in order to
completely fill the empty space.
With this type of adsorbent bed it was shown that the limiting factor to obtain
good performance was the slow heat transfer inside the reactor bed. This was
evidenced by the low value of the global heat transfer coefficient, in fact, using a
tube and fin heat exchanger, values of UA between 60 and 360 W/~ were
obtained [26].
With a fin and tube heat exchanger embedded in the adsorber bed Douss [27]
developed experimental tests with an activated carbon-methanol single reactor.
The COP of the system was experimentally measured and its behaviour is shown
in Figure 23 with respect to the maximum desorption temperature.
Comparing the COP calculated with experimental tests and with the
thermodynamic model the effect of heat losses from the reactor, neglected in the
model is evident.
0.55
0.5
0.45
9
0.4
0.35
0.3
50
70
90
110
130
T d (~
Figure 23. Cooling COP vs. desorption temperature for carbon-methanol pair: Te = 5~
Tc = 15 ~
972
Utilising the same type of adsorber reactor, Douss [28] realised a two-bed
system with internal heat recovery using the zeolite-water pair. Measured values
are: COPe = 0.67 and COPh = 1.56 for cooling and heat pump application
respectively. The same values measured for a machine without heat recovery are
respectively COPe = 0.52 and COPh = 1.38. These results were obtained under the
following operative conditions: Th = 200~ Ta = 60~ Tc = 40~ Te = 25~
From another experimental test on a different tube and fin heat exchanger
[29], values of COPh = 1.2 in heat pump operation were obtained under the
following operative conditions:
Th = 200~ Ta = 70~ Tc = 60~ Te = 5~
From the experimental activity on this type of machine, where the solid
adsorbent bed is realised in non consolidated form, many limits of the system
were evidenced:
9 high adsorber weight and in particular high ratio between metal mass of heat
exchanger and adsorbent mass;
9 large volume of the system;
9 low heat transfer and consequently long length of the cycle.
Regarding the high weight ratio of metal and solid adsorbent, this evidently
affects the COP of the machine. In fact, when the equivalent heat capacity of the
metal + solid adsorbent increases, the COP decreases, as mentioned above and
shown in Figure 20. Obviously higher values of metal weight derive from the
necessity to improve the heat transfer, thus a compromise must be found and in
this evaluation the thickness of fins and tubes can play an important role.
In the above mentioned cases the specific power both per unit mass and per
unit volume of adsorbent were low. In fact, values of 20-50 W/kg of adsorbent in
case of chiller operation and of 50-100 W/kg of adsorbent in heat pump mode
were obtained.
For the above mentioned reasons research activity has been addressed to the
improvement of heat transfer both through the modification of morphologic and
thermo-physic characteristics of the solid adsorbent and through the design of
the solid adsorbent-heat exchanger assembly.
The reasons for these types of proposed solutions can be found if the heat
transfer inside the adsorbent bed is accurately analysed. Referring to Figure 24,
the global heat transfer coefficient between the thermal vector fluid flowing
inside the heat exchanger and the solid adsorbent is represented by the following
expression:
U
.__
1
1 + s m + 1 + sa
hf )~m hw )~a
where: 1/hf is the thermal resistance at the tube wall on the heat vector fluid side;
Sm/)~mis the thermal resistance in the tube, whose wall is thick Sin, negligible with
respect to the others; 1/hw is the thermal resistance at the tube wall on the
adsorbent side; Sa/)~a is the thermal resistance in the adsorbent.
973
adsorbent
heat exchanger wall
Sa
Sm
Figure 24. View of a section of the heat exchanger- adsorbent connection.
Regarding the improvement of the heat transfer many studies are in progress,
all of which are focused on the adsorber bed and on the thermal contact between
the solid adsorber and the heat exchanger surface.
In fact, the parameters that control the heat transfer in the adsorber bed are
the equivalent thermal conductivity of the solid adsorbent, ~.a, the wall thermal
resistance between the heat exchanger surface and the adsorbent bed 1/hw, the
wall thermal resistance between the heat transfer fluid and the heat exchanger
surface 1/hf. The equivalent thermal conductivity of the solid bed is generally
very low because the adsorbent is a porous material and also because it is
available in grain or pellet forms, thus the thermal contact between the particles
is very poor.
The wall heat transfer between the solid adsorbent and the heat exchanger
depends on the contact surface which must not be limited to points, as it is when
a pellet bed is used.
Finally, the wall heat transfer at the thermal fluid side depends on many
factors, such as the geometry of heat exchanger, the type of fluid and the flowdynamic regime that must be used in order to have a suitable regenerative effect
in the system.
In the case of pellets in tube and fin heat exchanger, the contribution of each
resistance to the global heat exchanger coefficient is shown in Figure 25. As can
be seen, by reducing both 1/hw and Sa/~a the global heat transfer coefficient can
reach the values needed for an important increase in the heat transfer and
consequently in the specific power of the system.
The most interesting practical solutions presented in literature to improve the
heat transfer inside the adsorber bed (~.a and hw) follow two different
methodologies:
a) preparation of solid adsorbent composites with high thermal conductivity and
external geometry well adapted for good contact with the heat exchanger wall,
in this case the adsorbent composite is over few centimetres thick;
b) preparation of solid adsorbent thin layer (less t h a n 5 mm) connected with the
heat exchanger wall by physical or chemical method in order to guarantee a
negligible thermal resistance between the heat exchanger wall and the
adsorber bed.
974
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
CD
r
0.05
4.a
9~t3
" 0.04
0.03
0.02
4.a
0.01
0
,
Sa/~
1/hw
1/hf
Figure 25. Values of the thermal resistances for a pelletised bed 10 mm thick.
Obviously both methodologies could have negative consequences that must be

carefully considered and minimised in order to have an economical system. In
fact, following the first methodology the mass transfer through the thick bed
could decrease the adsorption kinetic. With the second methodology the ratio
between the metal and adsorber weight could be high with a negative effect on
the performance of the machine and on the cost of the total system.
Following the first methodology two types of compact composite materials were
developed at CNRS in Orsay (France) [30,31]. The first consists of adsorbent
zeolite powder (13 X) mixed with metallic foam and compressed. Using copper
and nickel foams good equivalent thermal conductivity of the bed were obtained.
The second consolidated adsorbent, is obtained by compression of 13 X-zeolite
powder mixed with expanded natural graphite. In this case an anisotropic solid
bed is obtained thanks to the characteristics of the oriented graphite layers. This
anisotropic behaviour is also useful for the practical application of efficient
regenerative cycles.
Using the second methodology a research activity has been developed in the
framework of the European Communities Joule program. A team comprising
University of Delft (NL), Gastec Institute (NL) and CNR-TAE Institute (I)
developed a solid adsorption bed consisting of zeolite directly synthesised on the
heat exchanger wall [32]. In this case zeolite A was used because of its very
hydrophilic nature and different types of metals (oxides) such as stainless steel,
nickel, copper, titanium, etc. as well as different configurations/forms were
considered. The zeolite layer thickness was optimised taking into account two
opposite necessities, the first related to a practical realisation of a homogeneous
975
layer with good mechanical and chemical properties and the second connected
with the performance and cost of the adsorption machine. A zeolite layer of I mm
synthesised on a stainless steel tube of 0.5 mm wall thickness was finally chosen.
Another type of thin layer bed has been realised at CNR-TAE Institute in
Messina (Italy), which consists of pressed zeolite bricks (3-5 mm thick) bound
with aluminium hydroxide and chemically tied with a thin aluminium sheet [33].
In this case the equivalent thermal conductivity of the bed is very close to the
thermal conductivity of the zeolite crystals and a high hw coefficient is foreseen.
At the Institute for Technical Thermodynamics, Aachen (Germany), a zeolite
layer has been deposited on a metallic matrix-like honeycomb structure by a
spray method and pore forming materials such as melamine or tartaric acid have
been added to the mixture of zeolite, distilled water and binder [34], in order to
improve the mass transfer. The organic components are completely removed
during the dry process of the zeolite, increasing the macro pore fraction of the
material. A thickness of 3.5 mm was obtained in this way.
7.
CONCLUSIONS
Adsorption processes are at the heart of several potential new energy

technologies which can find suitable applications in the domestic sector as
reversible heat pumps, and in the industrial sector as refrigerating systems and
heat transformers using industrial waste heat as the primary energy source.
They can also be used for technologies to be applied in the transportation sector,
for automobile air conditioning or for food preservation in trucks. The use of
environmental friendly materials like zeolite as adsorbent and water as
refrigerant make this system very acceptable in any sector. Obviously the
concrete possibility of economic and efficient machines depends on the solution to
the problems still open today.
From a thermodynamic point of view the recent study offers good opportunities
for the regenerative cycle especially for the so called "heat wave propagation
system". Nevertheless major efforts must be done to make this cycle practical.
Especially taking into account that the low properties of heat and mass transfer
of the adsorption bed must be contemporaneously solved without any COP
decrease. The solution of these two problems mainly depends on the design of the
solid adsorbent bed and its connection with heat exchanger. Finally, it is always
important to look for other adsorption materials that can be efficiently used in a
cycle whose highest desorption temperature is lower than 100~ in order that
solar energy or traditional boilers can be used.
Even the partial solution of the problems still unsolved to date, will allow the
adsorption systems to find an important role as new energy technologies with
high efficiency and low pollution.
976
NOMENCLATURE
A
C
Cp
AH
h
K
m
p
r(p)
s
Q
T
U
surface area
heat capacity
specific heat
enthalpy of adsorption
heat transfer coefficient
heat capacity ratio
mass
pressure
latent heat of condensation
thickness
thermal energy
temperature
global heat transfer coefficient
thermal conductivity
adsorbate uptake
Subscript
a
adsorption, adsorbent
c
condensation, cooling
d
desorption
e
evaporation
f
fluid
h
high, heating
in
input
1
low
m
medium, metal
o
dry adsorbent
out
output
r
recovery
ra
isosteric cooling
ri
isosteric heating
u
useful
w
wall
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1.
2.
3.
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977
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N. Douss and F. Meunier, Heat Recovery System & CHP, 8, 5 (1988) 383.
N. Douss, F. Meunier and L. M. Sun, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 27 (1988) 310.
978
29. A. Brigandi, G. Cacciola, G. Maggio and G. Restuccia, 48 ~ Congresso
Nazionale ATI, Taormina, Italy, (1993) 737.
30. J.J. Guilleminot, A. Choisier, J. B. Chalfen, S. Nicolas and J.L. Reymonet,
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32. G. Cacciola, G. Restuccia, A. Muller, J.C. Jansen and H. van Bekkum,
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"Heat Transfer Enhancement by Additives", Munchen (1994).

Adsorption and adsorptive-type separations

protection: A Bibliography (1967-1997)
979
for e n v i r o n m e n t a l
M. S. Ray
School of Chemical Engineering, Curtin University of Technology,
GPO Box U1987, P e r t h 6845, W E S T E R N AUSTRALIA
Abstract This chapter provides a bibliographic listing of published journal papers from 1967
to 1997 concerned with adsorption, adsorptive separations, and related topics with particular
emphasis on environmental protection. The bibliography provides a quick and easy, but
comprehensive, reference source. The references are taken from the fifty most important
chemical engineering journals, but do not include papers from the chemistry journals, or
books, or conference/symposium series. A listing of the journals surveyed is included at the
end of this chapter. The references are arranged chronologically (and then alphabetically by
first author surname) within the following subject groups:
PSA and Cyclic @stems, and Applications

Liquid-Phase Adsorption
Ion Exchange, Chromatography, and Related Separations
The following topics, concerned with industrial applications, are included in a separate
bibliography in Volume 1: Fundamental Principles of Adsorption, Theory and Models,
Adsorption Design Methods and Data, Adsorbent Materials.

A general bibliography of the chemical engineering journal literature from 1967-1988 has
been published by the author [ 1], and can provide access to a wider range of topics. An earlier
bibliography [2] provides access to the literature prior to 1967. A complete bibliographic
listing of the chemical engineering journal literature from 1989 to 1997 (with subsequent sixmonthly updates) is available on a CD-ROM database [3].
Keywords: Adsorptive separations; environmental applications; PSA; parametric pumping;

ion exchange; chromatography.
References
1. M.S. Ray, Chemical Engineering Bibliography (1967-1988), Noyes Publications, New
Jersey, USA (1990).
2. K. Bourton, Chemical and Process Engineering Unit Operations: A Bibliographical Guide;
MacDonald and Co., London (1967).
3. Engineering and Applied Science Database on CD-ROM (includes CHERUB Chemical
Engineering Database, 1989-1997), published by Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology,
Australia. Full details are available from the author.
980
PSA AND
CYCLIC
SYSTEMS,
AND APPLICATIONS
1967
Alexis, R.W., Upgrading hydrogen via heatless adsorption, Chem. Eng. Prog., 63(5), 69-71 (1967).
Levinson, S.Z., and Orochko, D.l., Staged countercurrent multisectional contactors for continuous adsorptive
treatment of petroleum products, Int. Chem. Eng., 7(4), 649-654 (1967).
Silbernagel, D.R., New uses for molecular sieves in olefin plants, Chem. Eng. Prog., 63(4), 99-102 (1967).
1968
Wilhelm, R.H.; Rice, A.W.; Rolke, R.W., and Sweed, N.H., Parametric pumping, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 7(3),
337-349(1968).
1969
Dellosso, L., and Winnick, J., Mixed-gas adsorption and vacuum desorption of carbon dioxide on molecular
sieve, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 8(4), 469-482 (1969).
Fair, J.R., Sorption processes for gas separation, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 14 July, 90-110 (1969).
Kazakova, E.A.; Khiterer, R.Z., and Bomshtein, V.E., Purification of exhaust gases from nitric acid plants, Brit.
Chem. Eng., 14(5), 667-668 (1969).
Ozawa, Y., Regeneration of coked catalyst in adiabatic fixed beds at lower temperatures, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Process Des. Dev., 8(3), 378-383 (1969).
Pigford, R.L.; Baker, B., and Blum, D.E., An equilibrium theory of the parametric pump, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund.,
8(1), 144-149 (1969).
Ponder, T.C., Adsorption systems for alkane recovery, Hydrocarbon Process., 48(10), 141 (1969).
Stewart, H.A., and Heck, J.L., Pressure swing adsorption, Chem. Eng. Prog., 65(9), 78-83 (1969).
Sweed, N.H., and Wilhelm, R.H., Parametric pumping (The stop-go method), Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 8(2), 221231 (1969).
1970
Broughton, D.B.; Neuzil, R.W.; Pharis, J.M., and Brearley, C.S., Parex process for recovering paraxylene, Chem.
Eng. Prog., 66(9), 70-75 (1970).
Chi, C.W., and Wasan, D.T., Fixed-bed adsorption drying, AIChE J., 16(1), 23-31 (1970).
DiNapoli, R.N., Adsorption systems for LNG gas pretreatment, Hydrocarbon Process., 49(12), 93-96 (1970).
Jenczewski, T.J., and Myers, A.L., Separation of gas mixtures by pulsed adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 9(2),
216-221 (1970).
Michelson, K.J., and Price, C.D., Molecular sieve pre-drying, Chem. Eng. Prog., 66(5), 73-74 (1970).
Petukhov, S.S.; Tumanov, A.I., and Trokhina, G.A., Combined process for removal of impurities from air using
synthetic zeolites, Int. Chem. Eng., 10(3), 405-409 (1970).
Tan, V.A., et al., Continuous fluid bed adsorber with centrifugal separation of the solid phase, Brit. Chem. Eng.,
15(10), 1295-1296 (1970).
1971
Alexis, R.W., and Dailey, L.W., Molecular sieve driers, Hydrocarbon Process., 50(5), 145-148 (1971).
Baker, B., and Pigford, R.L., Cycling-zone adsorption: Quantitative theory and experimental results, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Fund., 10(2), 283-292 (1971).
Barnebey, H.L., Activated charcoal in the petrochemical industry, Chem. Eng. Prog., 67(11), 45-48 (1971).
Bahere, C.A., Feed-gas drying with molecular sieves, Hydrocarbon Process., 50(8), 126-128 (1971).
Gupta, R., and Sweed, N.H., Equilibrium theory of cycling-zone adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 10(2), 280283(1971).
Turnock, P.H., and Kadlec, R.H., Separation of nitrogen and methane via periodic adsorption, AIChE J., 17(2),
335-342(1971).
van der Vlist, E., Oxygen and nitrogen enrichment in air by cycling zone adsorption, Sep. Sci., 6(5), 727-732
(1971).
1972
Brooking, H.L., and Walton, D.C., The specification of molecular sieve adsorption systems, Chem. Eng. (Rugby,
Engl.), January, 13-18 (1972).
Butts, T.J.; Gupta, R., and Sweed, N.H., Parametric pumping separations of multicomponent mixtures: An
equilibrium theory, Chem. Eng. Sci., 27(5), 855-866 (1972).
981
Chen, H.T.; Rak, J.L.; Stokes, J.D., and Hill, F.B., Separations via continuous parametric pumping, AIChE J.,
18(2), 356-361 (1972).
Harper, C., A molecular sieve plant as the main helium purifier for a high temperature, gas cooled nuclear
reactor, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.), July, 271-276 (1972).
Patrick, R.R.; Schrodt, J.T., and Kermode, R.I., Thermal parametric pumping of air-sulfur dioxide, Sep. Sci.,
7(4), 331-344 (1972).
1973
E1-Rifai, M.A.; Saleh, M.A., and Youssef, H.A., Steam regeneration of a solvents adsorber, Chem. Eng. (Rugby,
Engl.), January, 36-38 (1973).
Miller, W.C., Adsorption cuts SO2, NOx and Hg, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 6 August, 62-63 (1973).
Otani, S., Adsorption separates xylenes, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 17 September, 106-107 (1973).
Various, Removal of organics by adsorption (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 1 September, 823-831 (1973).
1974
Bond, A., Compressed-air drying systems, Process Eng. (London), March, 52-53 (1974).
Bourgeois, S.V.; Groves, F.R., and Wehe, A.H., Analysis of fixed-bed sorption: Flue gas desulfurization, AIChE
J., 20(1), 94-103 (1974).
Chen, H.T.; Lin, W.W.; Stokes, J.D., and Fabisiak, W.R., Separation of multicomponent mixtures via thermal
parametric pumping, AIChE J., 20(2), 306-310 (1974).
Chen, H.T.; Park, J.A., and Rak, J.L., Equilibrium parametric pumps, Sep. Sci., 9(1), 35-46 (1974).
Gregory, R.A., Comparison of parametric pumping with conventional adsorption, AIChE J., 20(2), 294-300
(1974).
Meir, D., and Lavie, R., Continuous cyclic zone adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci., 29(5), 1133-1138 (1974).
Wankat, P.C., Cyclic separation processes, Sep. Sci., 9(2), 85-116 (1974).
Weaver, K., and Hamrin, C.E., Separation of hydrogen isotopes by heatless adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci., 29(9),
1873-1882 (1974).
1975
Cummings, W.P., Save energy in adsorption, Hydrocarbon Process., 54(2), 97-98 (1975).
Nandi, S.P., and Walker, P.L., Carbon molecular sieves for concentration of oxygen from air, Fuel, 54(3), 169178(1975).
Raghuraman, K.S., and Johansen, T., Hydrogen by PSA process, Processing (Sutton, Engl.), October, 10-11
(1975).
Wang, L.K., et al., Treatment of industrial effluents by activated carbon, J. Applied Chem. Biotechnol., 25,475502 (1975).
Wankat, P.C., Multicomponent cycling zone separations, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 14(2), 96-102 (1975).
Wankat, P.C.; Dore, J.C., and Nelson, W.C., Cycling zone separations, Sep. Purif. Methods, 4(2), 215-266
(1975).
1976
Camero, A.A., and Sweed, N.H., Separation of nonlinearly sorbing solutes by parametric pumping, AIChE J.,
22(2), 369-376 (1976).
Chen, H.T.; Rastog, A.K.; Kim, C.Y., and Rak, J.L., Nonequilibrium parametric pumps, Sep. Sci., 11(4), 335346 (1976).
Dote, J.C., and Wankat, P.C., Multicomponent cycling zone adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci., 31(10), 921-928
(1976).
Hsu, H.H.; Wang, K.B., and Fan, L.T., Gaseous pollutant removal by single bed cyclic adsorber with
synchronous thermal contact, Sep. Sci., 11(2), 109-132 (1976).
Nandi, S.P., and Walker, P.L., Separation of oxygen and nitrogen using 5A zeolite and carbon molecular sieves,
Sep. Sci., 11(5), 441-454 (1976).
Rice, R.G., Progress in parametric pumping, Sep. Purif. Methods, 5(1), 139-188 (1976).
Sun, Y.C., and Killat, G.R., Adsorption for vapor control, Hydrocarbon Process., 55(9), 241-242 (1976).
Svedberg, U.G., Numerical solution of multicolumn adsorption processes under periodic countercurrent
operation, Chem. Eng. Sci., 31(5), 345-354 (1976).
1977
Grevillot, G., and Tondeur, D., Equilibrium staged parametric pumping, AIChE J., 22(6), 1055-1063 (1976);
23(6), 840-851 (1977).
982
Wankat, P.C., Fractionation by cycling zone adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci., 32(11), 1283-1288 (1977).
1978
Heck, J.L., and Johansen, T., PSA process improves large-scale hydrogen production, Hydrocarbon Process.,
57(1), 175-177 (1978).
Narraway, R., PSA gas generators, Processing (Sutton, Engl.), January, 29 (1978).
Nelson, W.C.; Silarski, D.F., and Wankat, P.C., Continuous flow equilibrium-staged model for cycling zone
adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 17(1 ), 32-38 (1978).
Wankat, P.C., Continuous recuperative-mode parametric pumping, Chem. Eng. Sci., 33(6), 723-734 (1978).
Wood, R., Nitrogen from PSA process, Process Eng. (London), June, 44-47 (1978).
1979
Adler, M.S., and Johnson, D.R., A flexible butylene separation process, Chem. Eng. Prog., 75(1), 77-79 (1979).
Corr, F.; Dropp, F., and Rudelstorfer, E., PSA produces low-cost high-purity hydrogen, Hydrocarbon Process.,
58(3), 119-122 (1979).
Gay, P., PSA vs piped gas, Process Eng. (London), February, 41,43 (1979).
Parmele, C.S.; O'Connell, W.L., and Basdekis, H.S., Vapor-phase adsorption cuts pollution and recovers
solvents, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 31 December, 58-70 (1979).
Rice, R.G.; Foo, S.C., and Gough, G.G., Limiting separations in parametric pumps, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund.,
18(2), 117-123 (1979).
Yang, R.T., and Shen, M.S., Calcium silicates as regenerative sorbents for hot-gas desulfurization, AIChE J.,
25(5), 811-819 (1979).
1980
Andrieu, J., and Smith, J.M., Rate parameters for adsorption of carbon dioxide in beds of carbon particles,
AIChE J., 26(6), 944-948 (1980).
Foo, S.C.; Bergsman, K.H., and Wankat, P.C., Thermal-mode cycling zone adsorption for multicomponent
separations, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 19(1), 86-93 (1980).
Hill, F.B., Recovery of weakly adsorbed impurity by pressure swing adsorption, Chem. Eng. Commun., 7(1), 3744 (1980).
Jacob, P., and Tondeur, D., Nonisothermal adsorption: Separation of gas mixtures by modulation of feed
temperature, Sep. Sci. Technol., 15(8), 1563-1578 (1980).
Johansson, R., and Neretnieks, I., An experimental study of adsorption on activated carbon in countercurrent
flow, Chem. Eng. Sci., 35(4), 979-986 (1980).
Thomas, W.J., Gas separation by adsorption, Chem. Ind. (London), 3 May, 366-372 (1980).
1981
Chan, Y.N.I.; Hill, F.B., and Wong, Y.W., Equilibrium theory of a pressure swing adsorption process, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 36(2), 243-252 (1981).
Rice, R.G., Adsorptive distillation, Chem. Eng. Commun., 10(1), 111-126 (1981).
Vanderschuren, J., Plate efficiency of multistage fluidized-bed adsorbers, Chem. Eng. J., 21 ( 1), 1-10 (1981 ).
Various, Gas handling (special report), Processing (Sutton, Engl.), July, 15-21, 48 (1981).
1982
Chihara, K.; Suzuki, M., and Smith, J.M., Cyclic regeneration of activated carbon in fluidized beds, AIChE J.,
28(1), 129-134 (1982).
Ezell, E.L., and Gelo, J.F., Cut cracked-gas drying costs, Hydrocarbon Process., May, 191-193 (1982).
Frey, D.D., Model of adsorbent behavior applied to use of layered beds in cycling zone adsorption, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 17(13), 1485-1498 (1982).
Hill, F.B.; Wong, Y.W., and Chan, Y.N.I., Temperature swing adsorption for hydrogen isotope separation,
AIChE J., 28(1), 1-6 (1982).
Knopf, F.C., and Rice, R.G., Adsorptive distillation: Optimum solids profiles, Chem. Eng. Commun., 15(1), 109124(1982).
Milewski, M., and Berak, J.M., Effect of adsorbent preparation parameters on selectivity for xylene isomers
separation, Sep. Sci. Technol., 17(2), 369-374 (1982).
Moseman, M.H., and Bird, G., Desiccant dehydration of natural gasoline, Chem. Eng. Prog., 78(2), 78-83
(1982).
Santacesaria, E., et al., Separation of xylenes on Y-zeolites, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 21(3), 440-457
(1982).
983
Tien, C., and Wang, S.C., Dynamics of adsorption columns with bacterial growth outside adsorbents, Can. J.
Chem. Eng., 60, 363-376 (1982).
Wong, Y.W., and Hill, F.B., Separation of hydrogen isotopes via single-column pressure swing adsorption,
Chem. Eng. Commun., 15(5), 343-356 (1982).
1983
Barrow, J.A., Proper design saves energy (adsorption dehydrators), Hydrocarbon Process., January, 117-120
(1983).
Capes, P., Solvent-recovery adsorption system, Process Eng. (London), January, 33 (1983).
Carter, J.W., and Wyszynski, M.L., Pressure swing adsorption drying of compressed air, Chem. Eng. Sci., 38(7),
1093-1100 (1983).
Fernandez, G.F., and Kenney, C.N., Modelling of the pressure swing air separation process, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
38(6), 827-834 (1983).
Knaebel, K.S., and Hill, F.B., Analysis of gas purification by pressure swing adsorption: Priming the parametric
pump, Sep. Sci. Technol., 18(12), 1193-1220 (1983).
Knaebel, K.S., and Pigford, R.L., Equilibrium and dissipative effects in cycling zone adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Fund., 22(3), 336-346 (1983).
Tsai, M.C.; Wang, S.S., and Yang, R.T., Temperature-swing adsorption for hydrogen-methane separation,
AIChE J., 29(6), 966-975 (1983).
Wang, S.S., and Yang, R.T., Multicomponent separation by cyclic processes: A process for combined
hydrogen/methane separation and acid gas removal in coal conversions, Chem. Eng. Commun., 20(1), 183190(1983).
Watson, A.M., Use pressure swing adsorption for lowest cost hydrogen, Hydrocarbon Process., March, 91-95
(1983).
Zuech, J.L.; Hines, A.L., and Sloan, E.D., Methane adsorption on 5A molecular sieve (4-690kPa), Ind. Eng.
Chem. Process Des. Dev., 22( 1), 172-174 (1983).
1984
Ladisch, M.R.; Voloch, M.; Hong, J.; Blenkowski, P., and Tsao, G.T., Cornmeal adsorber for dehydrating
ethanol vapours, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 23(3), 437-443 (1984).
Lee, M.H.; Petty, L.E.; Wilson, R.H., and Galvin, C., The ultra low temperature reaction adsorption process,
Chem. Eng. Prog., 80(5), 33-38 (1984).
Lynch, D.T., The use of adsorption/desorption models to describe the forced periodic operation of catalytic
reactors, Chem. Eng. Sci., 39(9), 1325-1328 (1984).
Mills, B., and Rothery, E., Gas drying, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.), April, 19-23 (1984).
Morbidelli, M.; Storti, G.; Carra, S.; Niederjaufner, G., and Pontoglio, A., Study of a separation process using a
molecular sieve for chlorotoluene isomers, Chem. Eng. Sci., 39(3), 383-394 (1984).
Rieke, R.D., Cycling zone adsorption: Variable-feed mode of operation, Sep. Sci. Technol., 19(4), 261-282
(1984).
Wang, S.C.P., and Tien, C., Interaction between adsorption and bacterial activity in granular activated carbon
columns, AIChE J., 30(5), 786-801 (1984).
1985
Anon., Applications of pressure-swing adsorption, Process Eng. (London), September, 67-71 (1985).
Cen, P.L., and Yang, R.T., Separation of five-component gas mixture by pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 20(9), 725-748 (1985).
Cen, P.L.; Chen, W.N., and Yang, R.T., Ternary gas mixture separation by pressure swing adsorption, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Process Des. Dev., 24(4), 1201-1208 (1985).
Cheng, H.C., and Hill, F.B., Separation of helium-methane mixtures by pressure swing adsorption, AIChE J.,
31(1), 95-102 (1985).
Costa, C., and Rodrigues, A., Design of cyclic fixed-bed adsorption procesess, AIChE J., 31(10), 1645-1665
(1985).
Knaebel, K.S., and Hill, F.B., Pressure swing adsorption: Development of an equilibrium theory for gas
separations, Chem. Eng. Sci., 40(12), 2351-2360 (1985).
Platt, D., and Lavie, R., Pressure cyclic zone adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci., 40(5), 733-740 (1985).
Raghavan, N.S.; Hassan, M.M., and Ruthven, D.M., Numerical simulation of a PSA system, AIChE J., 31(3),
385-392; 31(12), 2008-2025 (1985).
984
Tamon, H., and Toei, R., Solar-powered adsorber dehumidifier, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 24(2), 450457 (1985).
Tondeur, D., and Wankat, P.C., Gas purification by pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Purif. Methods, 14(2), 157212(1985).
Tsai, M.C.; Wang, S.S.; Yang, R.T., and Desai, N.J., Temperature-swing separation of hydrogen-methane
mixture, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 24(1), 57-62 (1985).
Wang, J.H., and Smith, J.M., Thermal regeneration of the phenol-carbon system, AIChE J., 31(3), 496-498
(1985).
Yang, R.T., and Doong, S.J., Gas separation by pressure swing adsorption: A pore-diffusion model for bulk
separation, AIChE J., 31 (11), 1829-1842 (1985).
1986
Carta, G., and Pigford, R.L., Analytical solution for cycling-zone adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci., 41(3), 511-518
(1986).
Cen, P.L., and Yang, R.T., Bulk gas separation by pressure swing adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 25(4), 758768 (1986).
Cen, P.L., and Yang, R.T., Separation of binary gas mixture into two high-purity products by new pressure-swing
adsorption cycle, Sep. Sci. Technol., 21(9), 845-864 (1986).
Crabb, K.S.; Perona, J.J.; Byers, C.H., and Watson, J.S., Vacuum sorption pumping studies with pure gases on
molecular sieves, AIChE J., 32(2), 255-262 (1986).
Doong, S.J., and Yang, R.T., Parametric study of pressure swing adsorption process for gas separation: Criterion
for pore diffusion limitation, Chem. Eng. Commun., 41, 163-180 (1986).
Doong, S.J., and Yang, R.T., Bulk separation of multicomponent gas mixtures by pressure swing adsorption,
AIChE J., 32(3), 397-410 (1986).
Garg, D.R., and Yon, C.M., Adsorptive heat recovery drying system, Chem. Eng. Prog., 82(2), 54-60 (1986).
Kayser, J.C., and Knaebel, K.S., Pressure swing adsorption: Experimental study of an equilibrium theory, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 41 (11), 2931-2938 (1986).
Pritchard, C.L., and Simpson, G.K., Design of an oxygen concentrator using the rapid pressure-swing adsorption
principle, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 64(6), 467-472 (1986).
Raghaven, N.S.; Hassan, M.M., and Ruthven, D.M., Numerical simulation of a PSA system using a pore
diffusion model, Chem. Eng. Sci., 41 (11), 2787-2794 (1986).
Ray, M.S., Pressure swing adsorption: A review of UK patent literature, Sep. Sci. Technol., 21 (1), 1-38 (1986).
Underwood, R.P., Model of a pressure-swing adsorption process for nonlinear adsorption equilibrium, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 41(2), 409-412 (1986).
1987
Beevers, A., Adsorption for biotech separations, Processing (Sutton, Engl.), September, 41,43 (1987).
Doong, S.J., and Yang, R.T., Comparison of gas separation performance by different pressure swing adsorption
cycles, Chem. Eng. Commun., 54, 61-72 (1987).
Doong, S.J., and Yang, R.T., Bidisperse pore diffusion model for zeolite pressure swing adsorption, AIChE J.,
33(6), 1045-1049 (1987).
Guo, D.; Venkat, C., and Weiss, A.H., Cyclic adsorption of styrene and of plasticizer on BPL carbon, Adsorpt.
Sci. Yechnol., 4(1 ), 15-24 (1987).
Hachiya, K.; Takeda, K., and Yasunaga, T., Pressure-jump method to adsorption-desorption kinetics, Adsorpt.
Sci. Yechnol., 4( 1), 25-44 (1987).
Lu, X.; Rothstein, D.; Madey, R., and Huang, J.C., Pressure swing adsorption for system with Freundlich
isotherm, Sep. Sci. Technol., 22(6), 1547-1556 (1987).
Michele, H., Purification of flue gases by dry sorbents, Int. Chem. Eng., 27(2), 183-197 (1987).
O'Shea, S., et al., Gas adsorption phenomena in evacuated tubular solar collectors, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 4(4),
275-285 (1987).
Shin, H.S., and Knaebel, K.S., Pressure swing adsorption: A theoretical study of diffusion-induced separations,
AIChE J., 33(4), 654-662 (1987).
Yang, R.T., Gas Separation by Adsorption Processes, Butterworth Publishers, Massachusetts, USA (1987).
1988
Basta, N., New developments in pressure swing adsorption, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 26 September, 26-31 (1988).
Chiang, A.S.T., Arithmetic of PSA process scheduling, AIChE J., 34(11), 1910-1913 (1988).
985
Chiang, A.S.T.; Hwong, M.Y.; Lee, T.Y., and Cheng, T.W., Oxygen enrichment by pressure swing adsorption,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 27(1), 81-86 (1988).
Chynoweth, E., PSA on-site nitrogen generation, Processing (Sutton, Engl.), February, 30 (1988).
Davis, M.M.; McAvoy, R.L., and LeVan, M.D., Periodic states for thermal swing adsorption of gas mixtures,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 27(7), 1229-1235 (1988).
Duprat, F.; Gassend, R., and Gau, G., Inductive adsorption: A new method of isomer separation, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 27(5), 831-836 (1988).
Farooq, S.; Hassan, M.M., and Ruthven, D.M., Heat effects in pressure swing adsorption systems, Chem. Eng.
Sci., 43(5), 1017-1033 (1988).
Ferraz, M.C.A., Preparation of activated carbon for air pollution control, Fuel, 67(9), 1237-1241 (1988).
Gollakota, S.V., and Chriswell, C.D., Study of an adsorption process using silicate for sulfur dioxide removal
from combustion gases, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 27(1), 139-143 (1988).
Kapoor, A., and Yang, R.T., Separation of hydrogen-lean mixtures for high-purity hydrogen by vacuum swing
adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(1), 153-178 (1988).
Kapoor, A., and Yang, R.T., Optimization of a pressure swing adsorption cycle, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 27(1),
204-206 (1988).
Kayser, J.C., and Knaebel, K.S., Integrated steps in pressure swing adsorption cycles, Chem. Eng. Sci., 43(11),
3015-3022 (1988).
Koo, Y.M., and Wankat, P.C., Modeling of size-exclusion parametric pumping, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(4), 413428(1988).
LeVan, M.D.; Mao, R., and McLaughlin, G.P., Ethylene recovery from low-grade gas stream by adsorption on
zeolites and controlled desorption, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 66(4), 686-690 (1988).
Lu, X.; Rothstein, D.; Madey, R., and Huang, J.C., Pressure swing adsorption for a system with a Langmuir
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Shin, H.S., and Knaebel, K.S., Pressure swing adsorption: Experimental study of diffusion-induced separation,
AIChE J., 34(9), 1409-1416 (1988).
Sircar, S., Separation of methane and carbon dioxide gas mixtures by pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 23(6), 519-530 (1988).
Sircar, S., Air fractionation by adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(14), 2379-2396 (1988).
Sircar, S., and Kratz, W.C., Pressure-swing adsorption process for production of 23-50% oxygen-enriched air,
Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(4), 437-450 (1988).
Sircar, S., and Kratz, W.C., Simultaneous production of hydrogen and carbon dioxide from steam reformer offgas by pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(14), 2397-2416 (1988).
Toftegard, B., and Jorgensen, S.B., Stationary profiles for periodic cycled separation columns, Ind. Eng. Chem.
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Purif., 2(3), 115-119 (1988).
1989
Buzanowski, M.A.; Yang, R.T., and Hass, O.W., Direct observation of effects of bed pressure drop on adsorption
and desorption dynamics, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(10), 2392-2394 (1989).
Davis, M.M., and LeVan, M.D., Experiments on optimization of thermal swing adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 28(6), 778-785 (1989).
Douss, N., and Meunier, F., Experimental study of cascading adsorption cycles, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(2), 225-236
(1989).
986
Farooq, S.; Ruthven, D.M., and Boniface, H.A., Numerical simulation of a pressure swing adsorption oxygen
unit, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(12), 2809-2816 (1989).
Haggin, J., Nitrogen production for blanketing applications, Chem. Eng. News, 3 April, 27-29 (1989).
Huang, C.C., and Fair, J.R., Parametric analysis of thermal swing cycles for multicomponent adsorption, AIChE
J., 35(10), 1667-1677 (1989).
Jozewicz, W., and Kirchgessner, D.A., Activation and reactivity of novel calcium-based sorbents for dry sulfur
dioxide control in boilers, Powder Technol., 58(3), 221-230 (1989).
Kawai, M., and Kaneko, T., Present state of PSA air separation in Japan, Gas Sep. Purif., 3(1), 2-6 (1989).
Kayser, J.C., and Knaebel, K.S., Pressure swing adsorption: Development of an equilibrium theory for binary gas
mixtures with nonlinear isotherms, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(1), 1-8 (1989).
Kubota, K.; Hata, C., and Hayashi, S., Study of simulated moving bed adsorber based on the axial dispersion
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Kumar, R., Adsorption column blowdown: Adiabatic equilibrium model for bulk binary gas mixtures, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 28(11), 1677-1684 (1989).
Kumar, R., and Van Sloun, J.K., Purification by adsorptive separation, Chem. Eng. Prog., 85(1), 34-40 (1989).
Long, R.B., and Speight, J.G., Scale-up studies for separating heavy petroleum feedstocks by adsorption, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res., 28(10), 1503-1507 (1989).
Otowa, T., et al., Methane adsorption as a calorie upgrading PSA in the SNG process, Gas Sep. Purif., 3(3), 139142(1989).
Pande, D.R., and Fabiani, C., Feasibility studies on the use of a naturally occurring molecular sieve for methane
enrichment from biogas, Gas Sep. Purif., 3(3), 143-147 (1989).
Ruthven, D.M., and Ching, C.B., Countercurrent and simulated countercurrent adsorption separation processes
(review article), Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(5), 1011-1038 (1989).
Sircar, S., and Kratz, W.C., Oxygen production by pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol., 24(5), 429-440
(1989).
Storti, G.; Masi, M.; Carra, S., and Morbidelli, M., Optimal design of multicomponent countercurrent adsorption
separation processes involving nonlinear equilibria, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(6), 1329-1346 (1989).
Suh, S.S., and Wankat, P.C., New PSA process for high enrichment and recovery, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(3), 567574(1989).
Suh, S.S., and Wankat, P.C., Pressure swing adsorption process for binary gas separation with Langmuir
isotherms, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(10), 2407-2411 (1989).
Suh, S.S., and Wankat, P.C., Combined cocurrent-countercurrent blowdown cycle in pressure swing adsorption,
AIChE J., 35(3), 523-529 (1989).
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(1989).
1990
Ackley, M.W., and Yang, R.T., Kinetic separation by pressure swing adsorption: Method of characteristics
model, AIChE J., 36(8), 1229-1238 (1990).
Anon., PSA nitrogen generator, Process Eng. (London), May, 23 (1990).
Anon., PSA nitrogen generator, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), September, 213-214 (1990).
Banerjee, R.; Narayankhedkar, K.G., and Sukhatme, S.P., Exergy analysis of pressure swing adsorption
processes for air separation, Chem. Eng. Sci., 45(2), 467-476 (1990).
Du, Z.; Sarofim, A.F., and Longwell, J.P., Activation energy distribution in temperature-programmed desorption:
Modeling and application to the soot-oxygen system, Energy Fuels, 4(3), 296-303 (1990).
Farooq, S., and Ruthven, D.M., A comparison of linear driving force and pore diffusion models for a pressure
swing adsorption bulk separation process, Chem. Eng. Sci., 45(1), 107-116 (1990).
Farooq, S., and Ruthven, D.M., Continuous countercurrent flow model for a bulk PSA separation process, AIChE
J., 36(2), 310-314 (1990).
Hart, J.; Battrum, M.J., and Thomas, W.J., Axial pressure gradients during the pressurization and
depressurization steps of a PSA gas separation cycle, Gas Sep. Purif., 4(2), 97-102 (1990).
Hassan, M.M.; Fatehi, A.I., and Loughlin, K.F., Non-linear isothermal packed bed adsorbers: Comparison of
Peclet and cell numbers, Gas Sep. Purif., 4(1), 50-57 (1990).
Islam, M.R., and Chakma, A., Simulation of activated carbon adsorbers used in gas plants, Gas Sep. Purif., 4(2),
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Jianyu, G., and Zhenhua, Y., Analog circuit for simulation of pressure swing adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
45(10), 3063-3070 (1990).
Jozewicz, W.; Chang, J.C.S., and Sedman, C.B., Bench-scale evaluation of calcium sorbents for acid gas
emission control, Environ. Prog., 9(3), 137-142 (1990).
Kulvaranon, S.: Findley, M.E., and Liapis, A.I., Increased separation by variable-temperature stepwise
desorption in multicomponent adsorption processes, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29(1), 106-115 (1990).
LeVan, M.D., Multiple periodic states for thermal swing adsorption of gas mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29(4),
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Liow, J-L., and Kenney, C.N., The backfill cycle of the pressure swing adsorption process, AIChE J., 36(1), 5365(1990).
Loureiro, J.; Costa, C., and Rodrigues, A., Dynamics of adsorptive reactors: Instantaneous non-linear adsorption
and finite zero order irreversible reaction, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 68(1), 127-138 (1990).
Lu, X., et al., Pressure swing adsorption for a system with a Langmuir-Freundlich isotherm, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
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Richardson, J.F., Separation processes (review paper), Gas Sep. Purif., 4(1), 2-7 (1990).
Rota, R., and Wankat, P.C., Intensification of pressure swing adsorption processes, AIChE J., 36(9), 1299-1312
(1990).
Ruthven, D.M., and Farooq, S., Air separation by pressure swing adsorption, Gas Sep. Purif., 4(3), 141-148
(1990).
Shu, C.M., et al., Experimental and computational studies on propane-propylene separation by adsorption and
variable-temperature stepwise desorption, Sep. Technol., 1(1), 18-28 (1990).
Sircar, S., Production of hydrogen and ammonia synthesis gas by pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
25(11), 1087-1100 (1990).
Smith, O.J., and Westerberg, A.W., Mixed-integer programming for pressure swing adsorption cycle scheduling,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 45(9), 2833-2842 (1990).
Tezel, F.H., et al., Adsorptive separation of krypton from nitrogen: Development of a pilot unit, Can. J. Chem.
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1991
Battrum, M.J., and Thomas, W.J., Carbon monoxide recovery by pressure swing adsorption, Chem. Eng. Res.
Des., 69(2), 119-129 (1991).
Bracey, W.; Akman, U., and Sunol, A.K., Fractionation of aqueous fructose-glucose mixtures by adsorption and
supercritical desorption, Food Bioprod. Process., 69(C2), 97-101 (1991).
Chen, A.Q., and Wankat, P.C., Analytical scaling of thermal swing adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(12), 15751584(1991).
Chen, A.Q., and Wankat, P.C., Scaling rules and intensification of thermal swing adsorption, AIChE J., 37(5),
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Cooney, D.O., Determining external film mass transfer coefficients for adsorption columns, AIChE J., 37(8),
1270-1274 (1991).
Farooq, S., and Ruthven, D.M., Numerical simulation of a kinetically controlled pressure swing adsorption bulk
separation process based on a diffusion model, Chem. Eng. Sci., 46(9), 2213-2224 (1991).
Garcia, A.A., Strategies for the recovery of chemicals from fermentation: A review of the use of polymeric
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Gladden, L.F., Influence of pellet structure on selectivity during pressure swing adsorption separations, Chem.
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Haggin, J., New PSA hydrogen process, Chem. Eng. News, 13 May, 29 (1991).
Hart, J., and Thomas, W.J., Gas separation by pulsed pressure swing adsorption, Gas Sep. Purif., 5(2), 125-133
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Jasra, R.V.; Choudary, N.V., and Bhat, S.G.T., Separation of gases by pressure swing adsorption (a review), Sep.
Sci. Technol., 26(7), 885-930 (1991).
Joshi, S., and Fair, J.R., Adsorptive drying of hydrocarbon liquids, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30(1), 177-185 (1991).
Kasuya, F., and Tsuji, Y., High purity CO gas separation by pressure swing adsorption, Gas Sep. Purif., 5(4),
242-246(1991).
Kikkinides, E.S., and Yang, R.T., Simultaneous sulfur dioxide/NOx removal and sulfur dioxide recovery from
flue gas by pressure swing adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30(8), 1981-1989 (1991).
988
Kluge, G., et al., Experimental investigation and mathematical modelling of the purge step in pressure swing
adsorption, Gas Sep. Purif., 5(4), 235-241 (1991).
Kumar, R., Adiabatic adsorption column: Pressure reduction to subatmospheric levels, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(8),
1093-1108(1991).
Kumar, R., and Golden, T.C., Thermal swing adsorption process for removing trace impurities from a multicomponent gas mixture (landfill gas), Gas Sep. Purif., 5(1 ), 21-24 (1991).
Leng, L.J., and Kenney, C.N., The simple cycle of the pressure swing adsorption process, Chem. Eng. Res. Des.,
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31(4), 708-714(1991).
Matz, M.J., and Knaebel, K.S., Recycled thermal swing adsorption: Applied to separation of binary and ternary
mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30(5), 1046-1054 (1991).
Mutasim, Z.Z., and Bowen, J.H., Pressure swing adsorption in non-isothermal, non-equilibrium conditions:
Single adsorbate, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 69(2), 108-118 (1991).
Pechler, N., and Emig, G., Adsorptive purification of large waste gas streams, Gas Sep. Purif., 5(4), 247-251
(1991).
Petkovska, M., et al., Temperature-swing gas separation with electrothermal desorption step, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
26(3), 425-444 (1991).
Ritter, J.A., and Yang, R.T., Air purification and vapor recovery by pressure swing adsorption: A comparison of
silicalite and activated carbon, Chem. Eng. Commun., 108,289-306 (1991).
Ritter, J.A., and Yang, R.T., Pressure swing adsorption: Experimental and theoretical study on air purification
and vapor recovery, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30(5), 1023-1032 (1991).
Rodrigues, A.E.; Loureiro, J.M., and LeVan, M.D., Simulated pressurization of adsorption beds, Gas Sep. Purif.,
5(2), 115-124 (1991).
Ruthven, D.M., Comparison of performance of PSA and membrane systems for nitrogen production, Gas Sep.
Purif., 5(1), 9-10 (1991).
Scott, D.M., Similarity solutions for pressurisation and depressurisation with a two-component gas in an
adsorbing bed, Chem. Eng. Sci., 46(12), 2977-2982 (1991).
Smith, O.J., and Westerberg, A.W., The optimal design of pressure swing adsorption systems, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
46(12), 2967-2976 (1991).
Thorogood, R.M., Developments in air separation, Gas Sep. Purif., 5(2), 83-94 (1991).
Ysezos, M., and Wang, X., Study on the kinetics of hazardous pollutants adsorption and desorption by biomass:
Mechanistic considerations, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 50(4), 507-522 (1991).
Vyas, S.N., et al., Bulk separation and purification of methane/carbon dioxide mixtures on 4A/13X molecular
sieves by using pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(10), 1419-1430 (1991).
Zhu, L.; Tu, J., and Shi, Y., Separation of carbon monoxide-carbon dioxide-nitrogen gas mixture for high-purity
CO by pressure swing adsorption, Gas Sep. Purif., 5(3), 173-176 (1991).
1992
Alpay, E., and Scott, D.M., The linear driving force model for fast-cycle adsorption and desorption in spherical
particle, Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(2), 499-502 (1992).
Anon., TSA process for propane/propylene split, Chem. Eng. Prog., 88(3), 12 (1992).
Banerjee, R.; Narayankhedkar, K.G., and Sukhatme, S.P., Exergy analysis of kinetic pressure swing adsorption
processes: Comparison of different cycle configurations, Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(5), 1307-1311 (1992).
Bossy, A.; Tonduer, D., and Jedrzejak, A., A non-linear equilibrium analysis of blowdown policy in pressureswing-adsorption separation, Chem. Eng. J., 48(3), 173-182 (1992).
Farooq, S., and Ruthven, D.M., Effect of equilibrium selectivity in a kinetically controlled PSA separation,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(8), 2093-2094 (1992).
Inui, T., et al., Performance of iron-incorporated A-type zeolites for oxygen/nitrogen separation from air by
pressure swing adsorption, Gas Sep. Purif., 6(4), 185-190 (1992).
Kumar, R., et al., Gas mixture fractionation to produce two high purity products by pressure swing adsorption,
Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 27(4), 509-522 (1992).
Kumar, R., et al., Novel adsorption-distillation hybrid scheme for propane/propylene separation, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 27(15), 2157-2170 (1992).
Lemcoff, N.O., and LaCava, A.I., Effect of regeneration pressure level in kinetically controlled pressure swing
adsorption, Gas Sep. Purif., 6(1), 9-14 (1992).
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Lu, Z.P., et al., Intraparticle convection effect on pressurization and blowdown of adsorbers, AIChE J., 38(6),
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Lu, Z.P., et al., Dynamics of pressurization and blowdown of an adiabatic bed, Gas Sep. Purif., 6(1), 15-24
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Lu, Z.P., et al., Intraparticle diffusion/convection models for pressurization and blowdown of adsorption beds
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Mutasim, Z.Z., and Bowen, J.H., Multicomponent pressure swing adsorption for non-isothermal non-equilibrium
conditions, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 70(4), 346-353 (1992).
Portsmouth, R.L., and Gladden, L.F., Transport in zeolites: Application to pressure and temperature swing
process, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 70(2), 186-188 (1992).
Rao, M.B., and Sircar, S., Production of motor fuel grade alcohol by concentration swing adsorption, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 27(14), 1875-1888 (1992).
Rodrigues, M.I., et al., Dynamic modelling, simulation and control of continuous adsorption recycle extraction,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(1), 263-270 (1992).
Shah, G.C., Improve activated carbon bed adsorber operations, Hydrocarbon Process., 71 (11), 61-63 (1992).
Smith, O.J., and Westerberg, A.W., Acceleration of cyclic steady state convergence for pressure swing
adsorption models, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(6), 1569-1573 (1992).
Smith, O.J., and Westerberg, A.W., The optimal design of pressure swing adsorption systems, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
47(15), 4213-4217 (1992).
Storti, G., et al., Performance of a six-port simulated moving-bed pilot plant for vapor-phase adsorption
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Various, Application of gas and liquid phase adsorption (topic issue), Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(14), 1822-2040
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Zhong, G.M., et al., Pressurization of a single-component gas in an adsorption column, Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(3),
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1993
Aitani, A.M., Sour natural gas drying, Hydrocarbon Process., 72(4), 67-73 (1993).
Alpay, E.; Kenney, C.N., and Scott, D.M., Simulation of rapid pressure swing adsorption and reaction processes,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 48(18), 3173-3186 (1993).
Baron, G., Modelling PSA processes, Gas Sep. Purif., 7(2), 111-118 (1993).
Eldridge, R.B., Olefin/paraffin separation technology: A review, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(10), 2208-2212
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Ellis, D.I.; Heggs, P.J., and Lawrie, M.G., The removal of Freon-12 from air using pressure swing adsorption,
Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 71(2), 169-180 (1993).
Farooq, S.; Rathor, M.N., and Hidajat, K., A predictive model for a kinetically controlled pressure swing
adsorption separation process, Chem. Eng. Sci., 48(24), 4129-4142 (1993).
Fish, B.B.; Cart, R.W., and Aris, R., Design and performance of a simulated countercurrent moving-bed
separator, AIChE J., 39(11), 1783-1790 (1993).
Georgiev, J.K., On the possibility of effective helium extraction from air, Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(15), 2401-2418
(1993).
Germerdonk, R., and Wang, A., Pollutant adsorption during activated carbon and steam regeneration in technical
columns (experiments, modelling): Influence of radial maldistribution during adsorption and desorption,
Chem. Eng. Process., 32(6), 359-368 (1993).
Germerdonk, R., and Wang, A., Pollutant adsorption during activated carbon and steam regeneration in technical
columns (experiments, modelling): Influence of process parameters on exit concentration during steam
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Golden, T.C., et al., Carbon-based oxygen selective dessicants for use in nitrogen PSA, Gas Sep. Purif., 7(4),
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Gong, S.Y., and Lee, W.K., The effect of the time length of pressure changing steps on concentration in the gas
phase in the pressure swing adsorption process, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 28(11), 1995-2006 (1993).
Gouvalias, G.S., and Markatos, N.C., Mathematical modeling of heat and mass transfer in packed-bed
adsorbers/regenerators, AIChE J., 39(11), 1799-1809 (1993).
Guan, J., and Ye, Z., Analog curcuit for simulation of pressure swing adsorption: Kinetic model, Chem. Eng.
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Huang, C.C.; Hwu, T.L., and Hsai, Y.S., Regeneration of a fixed bed of activated carbon adsorbed organic
vapour by using hot nitrogen purge, Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(15), 2431-2448 (1993).
Ivo, R., and Pavel, D., Pressure swing adsorption: Analytical solution for optimum purge, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
48(4), 723-734 (1993).
Kikkinides, E.S.; Yang, R.T., and Cho, S.H., Concentration and recovery of carbon dioxide from flue gas by
pressure swing adsorption, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(11), 2714-2720 (1993).
Lu, Z., et al., Pressure swing adsorption processes: Intraparticle diffusion/convection models, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 32(11), 2740-2751 (1993).
Lu, Z.P., et al., Pressurization and blowdown of adsorption beds: Effect of the momentum and equilibrium
relations on isothermal operation, Chem. Eng. Sci., 48(9), 1699-1708 (1993).
Lu, Z.P., et al., Simulation of a three-step one-column pressure swing adsorption process, AIChE J., 39(9), 14831496(1993).
Meunier, F., Thermal swing adsorption refrigeration (heat pump), Sep. Yechnol., 3(3), 143-150 (1993).
Ng, M.; Schork, J.M., and Fabergas, K.R., The mass transfer zone in nitrogen PSA columns, Gas Sep. Purif.,
7(3), 159-166 (1993).
Ruthven, D.M.; Xu, Z., and Farooq, S., Sorption kinetics in PSA systems, Gas Sep. Purif., 7(2), 75-82 (1993).
Schoofs, G.R., Operation of adsorbers for purifying ammonia synthesis make-up gas, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
32(4), 613-619 (1993).
Schoofs, G.R., and Petit, P., Repressurization of adsorption purifiers for cryogenic air separation, Chem. Eng.
Sci., 48(4), 753-760 (1993).
Schork, J.M.; Srinivasan, R., and Auvil, S.R., A shortcut computational method for designing nitrogen PSA
adsorbents, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(10), 2226-2235 (1993).
Schulte-Schulze-Berndt, A., and Krabiell, K., Nitrogen generation by pressure swing adsorption on carbon
molecular sieves, Gas Sep. Purif., 7(4), 253-258 (1993).
Scott, D.M., Effects of bed pressure drop on adsorption and desorption with Langmuir isotherms, Chem. Eng.
Sci., 48(17), 3001-3006 (1993).
Shirley, A.I., and LaCava, A.I., Novel pressurization methods in pressure swing adsorption systems for the
generation of high-purity gas, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(5), 906-910 (1993).
Sircar, S., Recent trends in pressure swing adsorption: Production of multiple products from a multicomponent
feed gas, Gas Sep. Purif., 7(2), 69-74 (1993).
Sircar, S., and Hanley, B.F., Fractionated vacuum swing adsorption process for air separation, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
28(17), 2553-2566 (1993).
Sundaram, N., A noniterative solution for periodic steady states in gas purification pressure swing adsorption,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(8), 1686-1691 (1993).
Takeguchi, T.; Tanakulrungsank, W., and Inui, T., Separation and/or concentration of carbon dioxide from
carbon dioxide/nitrogen gaseous mixture by PSA using metal-incorporated microporous crystals with high
surface area, Gas Sep. Purif., 7(1), 3-10 (1993).
Tondeur, D., and Chlendi, M., Front analysis and cycle policy in PSA operations, Gas Sep. Purif., 7(2), 105-110
(1993).
Various, Papers from the Symposium on Gas Separation by PSA (14 February 1992, The Netherlands), Gas Sep.
Purif., 7(2), 67-1 t8 (1993).
Wankat, P.C., Feed purge cycles in pressure swing adsorption, Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(17), 2567-2586 (1993).
Westgate, P.J., and Ladisch, M.R., Air drying using corn grits as the sorbent in a pressure swing adsorber, AIChE
J., 39(4), 720-723 (1993).
1994
Alpay, E.; Kenney, C.N., and Scott, D.M., Adsorbent particle size effects in the separation of air by rapid
pressure swing adsorption, Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(18), 3059-3076 (1994).
Anon., Reduce the risk of adsorbent bed fires during vapor recovery, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), December, 127 (1994).
Basta, N., New sorbents and adsorption processes, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), November, 39-43 (1994).
Chiang, A.S.T., et al., Experimental study on a four-bed PSA air separation process, AIChE J., 40(12), 19761982 (1994).
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Chou, C.T., and Huang, W.C., Incorporation of a valve equation into the simulation of a pressure swing
adsorption process, Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(1), 75-84 (1994).
991
Chou, C.T., and Huang, W.C., Simulation of a four-bed pressure swing adsorption process for oxygen
enrichment, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 33(5), 1250-1258 (1994).
Crittenden, B.D., et al., Dynamics of pressurization and depressurization during pressure swing adsorption,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(16), 2657-2670 (1994).
Farooq, S.; Rathor, M.N., and Hidajat, K., A modified continuous countercurrent flow model for a PSA
separation process, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 72(1), 114-118 (1994).
Kirkby, N.F., and Morgan, J.E.P., A theoretical investigation of pressure swing reaction, Chem. Eng. Res. Des.,
72(4), 541-550 (1994).
Kovvali, S.A.; Vemury, S., and Admassu, W., Modeling of multicomponent countercurrent gas permeators, Ind.
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Kumar, R., Pressure swing adsorption process: Performance optimum and adsorbent selection, Ind. Eng. Chem.
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Kumar, R., et al., A versatile process simulator for adsorptive separations, Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(18), 3115-3126
(1994).
Lu, Z.P., and Rodrigues, A.E., Pressure swing adsorption reactors: Simulation of three-step one-bed process,
AIChE J., 40(7), 1118-1137 (1994).
Naumov, V.A.; Vorotynthev, V.B., and Kusiy, G.V., Non-isothermal regeneration of molecular sieve adsorbers
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1997
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Cao, Y., and Fenouil, L.A., Comments and reply on "Design of entrained-flow and moving-, packed-, and
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Shirley, A.I., and Lemcoff, N.O., High-purity nitrogen by pressure-swing adsorption, AIChE J., 43(2), 419-424
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1991
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1003
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Yadava, K.P.; Tyagi, B.S., and Singh, V.N., Effect of temperature on the removal of lead(II) by adsorption on
china clay and wollastonite, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 51(1), 47-60 (1991).
Yenkie, M.K.N., and Natarajan, G.S., Adsorption equilibrium studies of some aqueous aromatic pollutants on
granular activated carbon samples, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(5), 661-674 (1991).
1992
Balkose, D., and Baltacioglu, H., Adsorption of heavy metal cations from aqueous solutions by wool fibers, J.
Bhutani, M.M.; Mitra, A.K., and Kumari, R., Sorption and radiochemical study of Cr(VI) ions at a stannic
oxide/solution interface, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 8(t), 44-56 (1992).
Bruckner, P., et al., Adsorption and immersion of benzene in active carbons, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 8(1), 57-68
(1992).
Choudhary, V.R.; Nayak, V.S., and Mamman, A.S., Diffusion of straight- and branched-chain liquid compounds
in H-ZSM-5 zeolite, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(2), 624-628 (1992).
Do, D.D.; Hu, S.G., and Nguyen, T.S., Separation of dipeptides on a reverse-phase column: Effect of non-linear
intrinsic adsorption kinetics, Biochem. Eng. J., 49(3), B41-B49 (1992).
Duprat, F., Model of adsorption equilibrium of pyridine ternary mixture at saturation conditions, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 31(8), 1907-1913 (1992).
E1-Geundi, M.S., Homogeneous surface diffusion model for the adsorption of basic dyestuffs onto natural clay in
batch adsorbers, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 8(4), 217-225 (1992).
Furlan, L.T.; Chaves, B.C., and Santana, C.C., Separation of liquid mixtures of p-xylene and o-xylene in Xzeolites: The role of water content on the adsorbent selectivity, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(7), 1780-1784
(1992).
Garcia-Delgado, R.A.; Cotoruelo-Minguez, L., and Rodriguez, J., Equilibrium study of single-solute adsorption
of anionic surfactants with polymeric XAD resins, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(7), 975-988 (1992).
1004
Garcia-Delgado, R.A.; Cotoruelo-Minguez, L., and Rodriguez, J.J., Adsorption of anionic surfactant mixtures by
polymeric resins, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(8), 1065-1076 (1992).
Garrido, A.; Garcia, P., and Brenes, M., The recycling of table olive brine using ultrafiltration and activated
carbon adsorption, J. Food Eng., 17(4), 291-305 (1992).
Hasany, S.M., and Saeed, M.M., A kinetic and thermodynamic study of silver sorption onto manganese dioxide
from acid solutions, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(13), 1789-1800 (1992).
Ito, Y., et al., Uranium adsorption characteristics of a circulating fluidized-bed adsorber, AIChE J., 38(6), 879886 (1992).
Juang, R.S., and Su, J.Y., Sorption of copper and zinc from aqueous sulfate solutions with bis(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid-impregnated macroporous resin, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(12), 2774-2779 (1992).
Juang, R.S., and Su, J.Y., Separation of zinc and copper from aqueous sulfate solutions using bis(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid-impregnated macroporous resin, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(12), 2779-2783 (1992).
Kago, T., et al., Preparation and performance of amidoxime fiber adsorbents for recovery of uranium from
seawater, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31 (1), 204-209 (1992).
Leitao, A., et al., Modeling of solid-liquid adsorption: Effects of adsorbent loads on model parameters, Can. J.
Chem. Eng., 70(4), 690-698 (1992).
Lin, S.H., Concentration-dependent diffusion of dye in adsorptive dyeing systems, J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol., 54(4), 387-392 (1992).
Lu, C.S., and Huang, S.D., Removal of organophosphorus pesticides from aqueous solution by using adsorptive
bubble separation techniques, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(13), 1733-1742 (1992).
McKay, G.; Kelly, J.C., and McConvey, I.F., The adsorption of pollutants from aqueous effluents using a tworesistance mass-transfer model, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 8(1), 13-33 (1992).
Medrzycka, K.B., The effect of surfactant adsorption on the evaporation of volatile hydrocarbons from their
aqueous solutions, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(8), 1077-1092 (1992).
Mellah, A., et al., Adsorption of organic matter from a wet phosphoric acid using activated carbon: Equilibrium
study, Chem. Eng. Process., 31(3), 191-194 (1992).
Milonjic, S.K.; Boskovic, M.R., and Ceranic, T.S., Adsorption of uranium(VI) and zirconium(IV) from acid
solutions on silica gel, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(12), 1643-1660 (1992).
Narsimhan, G., and Uraizee, F., Kinetics of adsorption of globular proteins at an air-water interface, Biotechnol.
Prog., 8(3), 187-196 (1992).
Payne, G.F., and Maity, N., Solute adsorption from water onto a "modified" sorbent in which the hydrogen
binding site is protected from water: Thermodynamics and separations, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(8), 20242033 (1992).
Pizzio, L.R.; Caceres, C.V., and Blanco, M.N., Parameters for the adsorption of tungsten from meta-tungstate
solution on to alumina, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 8(3), 142-152 (1992).
Radeke, K.H., and Hartmann, G., On the temperature dependence of adsorption of organic materials from
aqueous solution, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 8(3), 153-156 (1992).
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competing adsorbates, ionic strength, and background electrolyte, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(14), 1985-2000
(1992).
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Rudisill, E.N.; Hacskaylo, J.J., and LeVan, M.D., Coadsorption of hydrocarbons and water in BPL activated
carbon, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(4), 1122-1130 (1992).
Saleem, M., et al., Selective adsorption of uranium on activated charcoal from electrolytic aqueous solutions,
Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 27(2), 239-254 (1992).
Sanciolo, P.; Harding, I.H., and Mainwaring, D.E., The removal of chromium, nickel, and zinc from
electroplating wastewater by adsorbing colloid flotation with a sodium dodecylsulfate/dodecanoic acid
mixture, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(3), 375-388 (1992).
Saska, M., et al., Continuous separation of sugarcane molasses with a simulated moving-bed adsorber:
Adsorption equilibria, kinetics, and application, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(13), 1711-1732 (1992).
Silem, A., et al., Adsorption of organic matter from a wet phosphoric acid using activated carbon: Batch-contact
time study and linear driving force models, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 70(3), 491-498 (1992).
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811-820 (1992).
1005
Tinge, J.T., and Drinkenburg, A.A.H., Absorption of gases into activated carbon-water slurries in a stirred cell,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(6), 1337-1346 (1992).
a new adsorbent: Desorption of phosphate and regeneration of adsorbent, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31 (6), 15101513 (1992).
Urano, K.; Tachikawa, H., and Kitajima, M., Process development for removal and recovery of phosphorus from
wastewater by a new adsorbent: Recovery of phosphate and aluminum from desorbing solution, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 31(6), 1513-1515 (1992).
Valsaraj, K.T., Adsorption of trace hydrophobic compounds from water on surfactant-coated alumina, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 27(12), 1633-1642 (1992).
Zamzow, M.J., and Murphy, J.E., Removal of metal cations from water using zeolites, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
27(14), 1969-1984 (1992).
1993
Bakoyannakis, D.N., et al., Studies of alizarine adsorption from solution on to aluminium hydroxide gels, J.
Chanda, M., and Rempel, G.L., Poly(4-vinylpyridine) gel-coated on silica: High capacity and fast kinetics in
uranyl sulfate recovery, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(4), 726-732 (1993).
Chatzopoulos, D.; Varma, A., and Irvine, R.L., Activated carbon adsorption and desorption of toluene in the
aqueous phase, AIChE J., 39(12), 2027-2041 (1993).
E1-Geundi, M.S., Pore diffusion model for the adsorption of basic dyestuffs onto natural clay in batch adsorbers,
EI-Geundi, M.S., Branched-pore kinetic model for basic dyestuff adsorption onto natural clay, Adsorpt. Sci.
Technol., 9(3), 199-211 (1993).
El-Guendi, M.S., and Aly, I.H., Equilibrium studies during the adsorption of acid dyestuffs into maize cob,
EI-Naggar, I.M., et al., Sorption behavior of uranium and thorium on cryptomelane-type hydrous manganese
dioxide from aqueous solution, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 11(3), 521-540 (1993).
Fox, I., and Malati, M.A., An investigation of phosphate adsorption by clays and its relation to the problems of
eutrophication of the River Stour in Kent, J. Chem. Yechnol. Biotechnol., 57(2), 97-108 (1993).
Gonzalez-Pradas, E., et al., Removal of 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-l,1 dimethylurea from aqueous solution by
natural and activated bentonite, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 56(1), 67-72 (1993).
Goto, A., et al., A test of uranium recovery from seawater with a packed bed of amidoxime fiber adsorbent, Sep.
Sci. Technol., 28(6), 1273-1286 (1993).
Gusler, G.M.; Browne, T.E., and Cohen, Y., Sorption of organics from aqueous solution onto polymeric resins,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(11), 2727-2735 (1993).
Hawash, S.; Farah, J.Y., and EI-Geundi, M.S., Investigation of nickel ion removal by means of activated clay,
Kapoor, A., and Viraraghavan, T., Adsorption of mercury from wastewater by fly ash, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
9(3), 130-147 (1993).
Lameloise, M.L., and Viard, V., Modelling and simulation of a glucose-fructose simulated moving bed adsorber,
Food Bioprod. Process., 71 (C 1), 27-32 (1993).
Lee, S.Y., et al., Multicomponent liquid-phase diffusion and adsorption in porous catalyst particles, Chem. Eng.
Sci., 48(3), 595-608 (1993).
Leitao, A., and Rodrigues, A., Modelling of solid-liquid adsorption: Effects of adsorbent heterogeneity, Chem.
Eng. J., 51(3), 159-166 (1993).
Lin, S.H., Adsorption of disperse dye by powdered activated carbon, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 57(4), 387391 (1993).
Lin, S.H., Adsorption of disperse dye by various adsorbents, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 58(2), 159-164
(1993).
Luo, C.S., and Huang, S.D., Adsorption of copper ion with metal hydroxide from ammonia solution, Sep. Sci.
Yechnol., 28(6), 1253-1272 (1993).
Mattuschka, B., and Straube, G., Biosorption of metals by a waste biomass, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol.,
58(1), 57-64 (1993).
Otu, E.O.; Byerley, J.J., and Robinson, C.W., Kinetic modelling of gold cyanide multi-cycle adsorption and
elution using activated carbon in the presence of foulants, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 71(6), 925-933 (1993).
1006
Petersen, F.W., and Kruger, S., The adsorption of gold cyanide onto porous adsorbents: Relation between liquidphase concentration, suspended solids, and mass-transfer mechanisms, Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(10), 1849-1858
(1993).
Petersen, F.W.; van Deventer, J.S.J., and Lorenzen, L., The interaction between metal cyanides, fine particles and
porous adsorbents in an agitated slurry, Chem. Eng. Sci., 48(16), 2919-2926 (1993).
Pizzio, L.R.; Caceres, C.V., and Blanco, M.N., Tungsten adsorption on to alumina from ammonium meta- and
para-tungstate solutions: UV-visible spectra of the solutions, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 9(1), 36-47 (1993).
Quach, T.; Koch, D.F.A., and Lawson, F., Adsorption of gold cyanide on gangue minerals, Chem. Eng. Aust.,
18(3), 6-9 (1993).
Rao, M.B., and Sircar, S., Concentration-thermal swing adsorption process for separation of bulk liquid mixtures,
Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(10), 1837-1848 (1993).
Rauf, M.A.; Hussain, M.T., and Hasany, S.M., Adsorption of europium on manganese dioxide from binary
mixtures of aqueous sulfuric acid and methanol, Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(13), 2237-2246 (1993).
Reunanen, J., et al., Column adsorption in multi-solute water, Chem. Eng. Process., 32(5), 291-300 (1993).
Rivera-Utrilla, J., et al., Removal of tannic acid from aqueous solutions by activated carbons, Chem. Eng. J.,
52(1), 37-40 (1993).
Rorrer, G.L.; Hsien, T.Y., and Way, J.D., Synthesis of porous-magnetic chitosan beads for removal of cadmium
ions from waste water, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(9), 2170-2178 (1993).
Saleem, M., et al., Selective adsorption of europium on activated charcoal from aqueous solutions, Adsorpt. Sci.
Technol., 9( 1), 1-16 (1993).
Saleem, M., et al., Surface characterization and thermodynamics of adsorption of Pr, Nd and Er on alumina from
aqueous solution, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 9(1), 17-29 (1993).
Simpson, E.J., et al., Sorption equilibrium isotherms for volatile organics in aqueous solution: Comparison of
head-space gas chromatography and on-line UV stirred cell results, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(10), 2269-2276
(1993).
Sircar, S., Gibbsian thermodynamics and column dynamics for adsorption of liquid mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 32(10), 2430-2437 (1993).
Yang, O.B., et al., Use of activated carbon fiber for direct removal of iodine from acetic acid solution, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 32(8), 1692-1697 (1993).
Yoshida, H.; Okamoto, A., and Kataoka, T., Adsorption of acid dye on cross-linked chitosan fibers: Equilibria,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 48(12), 2267-2272 (1993).
Yu, M.C., and Middleman, S., Air entrapment during liquid infiltration of porous media, Chem. Eng. Commun.,
123, 61-70 (1993).
1994
Abbasi, W.A., and Streat, M., Adsorption of uranium from aqueous solutions using activated carbon, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 29(9), 1217-1230 (1994).
Akman, U., and Sunol, A.K., Equilibrium theory for exsorption: A gas-liquid-adsorbent mass-transfer operation,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(21), 3555-3564 (1994).
Bohra, P.M., et al., Adsorptive recovery of water soluble essential oil components, J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol., 60(1), 97-102 (1994).
Brewster, M.D., and Passmore, R.J., Use of electrochemical iron generation for removing heavy metals from
contaminated groundwater, Environ. Prog., 13(2), 143-148 (1994).
Budinova, T.K., et al., Removal of metal ions from aqueous solution by activated carbons obtained from different
raw materials, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 60(2), 177-182 (1994).
Butani, M.M., and Kumari, R., Surface and charge characteristics of the oxide/solution interface towards
chromium(VI) sorption, Adsorpt. Sci. Yechnol., 11 (3), 145-154 (1994).
Cooney, D.O., and Xi, Z., Activated carbon catalyzes reactions of phenolics during liquid-phase adsorption,
AIChE J., 40(2), 361-364 (1994).
Dabrowski, A., et al., Application of the Dubinin-Radushkevich equation for describing adsorption from
solutions on to various carbons, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 10, 105-122 (1994).
Egawa, H., et al., Recovery of uranium from seawater: Development of amidoxime resins with high
sedimentation velocity for passively driven fluidized bed adsorbers, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 33(3), 657-661
(1994).
Ellis, J., and Korth, J., Removal of nitrogen compounds from hydrotreated shale oil by adsorption on zeolite,
Fuel, 73(10), 1569-1573 (1994).
1007
Eltekova, N.A., and Eltekov, Y.A., Application of the DR and DS equations to benzene adsorption from water
solutions, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 10, 203-210 (1994).
Harmon, T.C., and Roberts, P.V., The effect of equilibration time on desorption rate measurements with
chlorinated alkenes and aquifer particles, Environ. Prog., 13(1), 1-8 (1994).
Hassan, N.M., The adsorption of long-chain n-paraffin from isooctane solution on crystalline urea, Sep. Technol.,
4(1), 62-64 (1994).
Hassan, N.M.; AI-Ameeri, R.S., and Oweysi, F.A., Adsorption of n-paraffin wax from isooctane solution on
crystalline urea, Sep. Sci. Technol., 29(7), 897-906 (1994).
Ho, Y.S.; Wase, D.A.J., and Forster, C.F., The adsorption of divalent copper ions from aqueous solution by
Sphagnum moss peat, Process Safety Environ. Prot., 72(B3), 185-194 (1994).
Hobday, M.D., et al., The use of low-rank coal-based adsorbents for the removal of nitrophenol from aqueous
solution, Fuel, 73(12), 1848-1854 (1994).
Holtzapple, M.T., and Brown, R.F., Conceptual design for a process to recover volatile solutes from aqueous
solutions using silicalite, Sep. Technol., 4(4), 213-229 (1994).
Holtzapple, M.T.; Flores, K.L., and Brown, R.F., Recovery of volatile solutes from dilute aqueous solutions
using immobilized silicalite, Sep. Technol., 4(4), 230-238 (1994).
Jain, A.K., and Gupta, A.K., Adsorptive drying of isopropyl alcohol on 4A molecular sieves: Equilibrium and
kinetic studies, Sep. Sci. Technol., 29(11), 1461-1472 (1994).
Kabay, N., Preparation of amidoxime-fiber adsorbents based on poly(methacrylonitrile) for recovery of uranium
from seawater, Sep. Sci. Technol., 29(3), 375-384 (1994).
Kabil, M.A., and Ghazy, S.E., Separation of some dyes from aqueous solutions by flotation, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
29(18), 2533-2539 (1994).
Kataoka, T.; Muto, A., and Nishiki, T., Adsorption equilibria of soluble silica into an OH-type strong anion
exchange resin from a dilute solution, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 72(6), 777-782 (1994).
Kesraoui-Ouki, S.; Cheeseman, C.R., and Perry, R., Natural zeolite utilisation in pollution control: A review of
applications to metal's effluents, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 59(2), 121-126 (1994).
Kusakabe, K.; Goto, A., and Morooka, S., Kinetics of uranium adsorption from seawater with imidedioxime
adsorbent, Sep. Sci. Technol., 29(12), 1567-1578 (1994).
Leyva-Ramos, R., and Geankoplis, C.J., Diffusion in liquid-filled pores of activated carbon: Pore volume
diffusion, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 72(2), 262-271 (1994).
Nassar, M.M., and EI-Geundi, M.S., Studies of the dimensionless mass-transfer coefficient during the adsorption
of basic and acid dyes on to bagasse pith, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 11(2), 73-82 (1994).
Nirdosh, I.; Vogl, A.K., and Carroll, S.M., Removal of 23~ and other metals from sulphuric acid leach uranium
mill solution by solvent extraction, adsorption and precipitation, Dev. Chem. Eng. Mineral Process., 2(2),
171-180(1994).
Parker, W.J.; Bell, J.P., and Melcer, H., Modelling the fate of chlorinated phenols in wastewater treatment plants,
Environ. Prog., 13(2), 98-104 (1994).
Peng, F.F., and Di, P., Removal of arsenic from aqueous solution by adsorbing colloid flotation, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 33(4), 922-928 (1994).
Periasamy, K., and Namasivayam, C., Process development for removal and recovery of cadmium from
wastewater by a low-cost adsorbent: Adsorption rates and equilibrium studies, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 33(2),
317-320 (1994).
Pizzio, L.R.; Cacares, C.V., and Blanco, M.N., Adsorption of tungsten and alumina from sodium tungstate
solutions: Estimation of equilibrium and kinetic parameters, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 11(3), 133-144 (1994).
Pradas, E.G., et al., Adsorption of cadmium and zinc from aqueous solution on natural and activated bentonite, J.
Pradas, E.G., et al., Adsorption of chlorophyll-a from acetone solution on natural and activated bentonite, J.
Chem. Yechnol. Biotechnol., 61(2), 175-178 (1994).
Rao, M.B., and Sircar, S., Liquid-phase adsorption of bulk ethanol-water mixtures by alumina, Adsorpt. Sci.
Technol., 10, 93-104 (1994).
Rauf, M.A., et al., Adsorption studies of europium on manganese dioxide from aqueous sulphuric acid and 1propanol mixtures, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 11(3), 155-160 (1994).
Rauf, M.A., et al., Adsorption of europium onto titanium oxide from aqueous solutions, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
11(3), 187-191 (1994).
1008
Reed, B.E.; Arunachalam, S., and Thomas, B., Removal of lead and cadmium from aqueous waste streams using
granular activated carbon (GC) columns, Environ. Prog., 13(1), 60-64 (1994).
Sekiguchi, K., et al., Effect of seawater temperature on uranium recovery from seawater using amidoxime
adsorbents, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 33(3), 662-666 (1994).
Stang, M.; Karbstein, H., and Schubert, H., Adsorption kinetics of emulsifiers at oil-water interfaces and their
effect on the mechanical emulsification, Chem. Eng. Process., 33(5), 307-312 (1994).
Taha, F., et al., Electrokinetic properties of cassiterite and quartz particles in the presence of cationic, anionic and
non-ionogenic surfactants, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 11(3), 161 - 174 (1994).
Takatsuji, W., and Yoshida, H., Removal of organic acids from wine by adsorption on weakly basic ion
exchangers: Equilibria for single and binary systems, Sep. Sci. Technol., 29(11), 1473-1490 (1994).
Taylor, R.M., and Kuennen, R.W., Removing lead in drinking water with activated carbon, Environ. Prog., 13(1),
65-71 (1994).
Yang, X.; Tsai, G.J., and Tsao, G.T., Enhancement of in-situ adsorption on the acetone-butanol fermentation by
Clostridium acetobutylicum, Sep. Yechnol., 4(2), 81-92 (1994).
Yoshida, H.; Nishihara, H., and Kataoka, T., Adsorption of BSA on DEAE-dextran: Equilibria, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 29(17), 2227-2244 (1994).
Young, D.F., and Ball, W.P., A-priori simulation of tetrachloroethane transport through aquifer material using an
intraparticle diffusion model, Environ. Prog., 13(1), 9-20 (1994).
Zouboulis, A.I.; Lazaridis, N.K., and Zamboulis, D., Powdered activated carbon separation from water by foam
flotation, Sep. Sci. Technol., 29(3), 385-400 (1994).
1995
Ahmad, H., et al., Thermodynamics of the adsorption of cobalt on lead dioxide from aqueous solution, Adsorpt.
Sci. Yechnol., 12(2), 139-150 (1995).
AI-Asheh, S., and Duvnjak, Z., Adsorption of copper and chromium by Aspergillus carbonarius, Biotechnol.
Prog., 11 (6), 638-642 (1995).
Batabyal, D.; Sahu, A., and Chaudhuri, S.K., Kinetics and mechanism of removal of 2,4-dimethyl phenol from
aqueous solutions with coal fly ash, Sep. Technol., 5(4), 179-186 (1995).
Blasinski, H.; Kazmierczak, J., and Wolborska, A., Kinetics of adsorption from single and binary solutions on
activated carbons with chemically different surfaces, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 12(4), 297-306 (1995).
Brandani, S., and Ruthven, D.M., Analysis of ZLC desorption curves for liquid systems, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
50(13), 2055-2060 (1995).
Carriere, P.P.E.; Reed, B.E., and Cline, S.R., Retention and release of lead by a silty loam and a fine sandy loam:
Kinetics, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(18), 3471-3488 (1995).
Celik, M.S., A method for isolating precipitation from adsorption in surfactant solid systems, Adsorpt. Sci.
Technol., 12(1), 19-26 (1995).
Chang, Z., et al., A study on the adsorption of gold(III) and macroporous crosslinked polyacrylate (MET) resins:
Adsorption equilibrium, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(17), 3299-3312 (1995).
Chang, Z., et al., A study on the adsorption of gold(III) with macroporous crosslinked polyacrylate MET resins:
Particle diffusion process, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(18), 3509-3522 (1995).
Chang, Z., et al., Study on the adsorption of gold(III) with macroporous crosslinked polyacrylate MET resins:
Liquid diffusion process, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(19), 3681-3696 (1995).
Chatzopoulos, D., and Varma, A., Aqueous-phase adsorption and desorption of toluene in activated carbon fixed
beds: Experiments and model, Chem. Eng. Sci., 50(1), 127-142 (1995).
Choudhary, V.R.; Mayadevi, S., and Singh, A.P., Simple apparatus for the gravimetric adsorption of liquid
vapors on solid catalysts/adsorbents, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 34(1), 413-415 (1995).
Costa, E.T.H.; Winkler-Hechenleitner, A.A., and Gomez-Pineda, E., Removal of cupric ions from aqueous
solutions by contact with corncobs, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(12), 2593-2602 (1995).
Halhouli, K.A.; Darwish, N.A., and A1-Dhoon, N.M., Effects of pH and inorganic salts on the adsorption of
phenol from aqueous systems on activated decolorizing charcoal, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(17), 3313-3324
(1995).
Hasany, S.M., and Chaudhary, M.H., Removal of cobalt from aqueous solutions using Haro River sand, Adsorpt.
Sci. Yechnol., 12(4), 307-316 (1995).
Hassan, N.M., et al., Adsorption decontamination of radioactive waste solvent by activated alumina and bauxites,
Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 30(11), 2403-2420 (1995).
1009
Juang, R.S., and Chang, H.L., Column sorption of citric acid from aqueous solutions using tri-n-octylamineimpregnated macroporous resins, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(6), 917-932 (1995).
Kahraman, F., Solvent-in-pulp extraction of boron from slurries, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 13(5), 901-922 (1995).
Karadag, E.; Saraydin, D., and Guven, O., Behaviors of acrylamide/itaconic acid hydrogels in uptake of uranyl
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1010
Teirlinck, P.A.M., and Petersen, F.W., Factors influencing the adsorption of gold-iodide onto activated carbon,
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1011
Farhadpour, F.A., and Bono, A., Sorptive separation of ethanol-water mixtures with a bi-dispersed hydrophobic
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1012
Matsuyama, H., et al., Selective separation of rare earth metals by solvent extraction in the presence of new
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1013
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1014
Halhouli, K.A.; Darwish, N.A., and AI-Jahmany, Y.Y., Effects of temperature and inorganic salts on the
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Huang, J.G., and Liu, J.C., Enhanced removal of As(V) from water with iron-coated spent catalyst, Sep. Sci.
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Eng. Chem. Res., 36(10), 4347-4352 (1997).
Matatov-Meytal, Y.I., and Sheintuch, M., Abatement of pollutants by adsorption and oxidative catalytic
regeneration, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(10), 4374-4380 (1997).
Mayer, A.F.; Hartmann, R., and Deckwer, W.D., Diffusivities of clavulanic acid in porous sorption systems with
ion pairing, Chem. Eng. Sci., 52(24), 4561-4568 (1997).
McKay, G., and Porter, J.F., Equilibrium parameters for the sorption of copper, cadmium and zinc ions onto peat,
J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 69(3), 309-320 (1997).
McKay, G., and Porter, J.F., A comparison of Langmuir-based models for predicting multicomponent metal ion
equilibrium sorption isotherms on peat, Process Safety Environ. Prot., 75(B3), 171-180 (1997).
McKay, G.; E1-Geundi, M., and Nassar, M.M., Equilibrium studies for the adsorption of dyes on bagasse pith,
Miller, C.J.; Olson, A.L., and Johnson, C.K., Cesium absorption from acidic solutions using ammonium
molybdophosphate on a polyacrylonitrile support (AMP-PAN), Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(1), 37-50 (1997).
Miyabe, K., and Takeuchi, S., Model for surface diffusion in liquid-phase adsorption, AIChE J., 43(11), 29973006 (1997).
Mostafa, M.R., Adsorption of mercury, lead and cadmium ions on modified activated carbons, Adsorpt. Sci.
Technol., 15(8), 551-558 (1997).
Myasoedova, G.V.; Shcherbinina, N.I., and Zakhartchenko, E.A., Sorption of platinum group metals and gold
chlorocomplexes by amine polymeric sorbents, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(6), 1107-1118 (1997).
Nassar, M.M., The kinetics of basic dye removal using palm-fruit bunch, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 15(8), 609-618
(1997).
Nassar, M.M., and Magdy, Y.H., Removal of different basic dyes from aqueous solutions by adsorption on palmfruit bunch particles, Chem. Eng. J., 66(3), 223-226 (1997).
1015
Oludipe, J.O., Studies on the sorption of metal ions from aqueous media: Effect of hydrogen peroxide on the
sorption kinetics, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 15(5), 361-372 (1997).
Otu, E.O., Elution of gold from activated carbon using supercritical carbon dioxide, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(6),
1107-1114 (1997).
Ouki, S.K., and Neufeld, R.D., Use of activated carbon for the recovery of chromium from industrial
wastewaters, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 70(1), 3-8 (1997).
Paajanen, A.; Lehto, J., and Santapakka, T., Sorption of cobalt on activated carbons from aqueous solutions, Sep.
Sci. Technol., 32(1 ), 813-826 (1997).
Petersen, F.W., and VanDeventer, J.S.J., Competitive adsorption of gold cyanide and organic compounds onto
porous adsorbents, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(13), 2087-2103 (1997).
Qadeer, R., and Saleem, M., Adsorption of UO22+ ions on activated charcoal: pH effect, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
15(5), 373-376 (1997).
Safarik, I.; Nymburska, K., and Safarikova, M., Adsorption of water-soluble organic dyes on magnetic charcoal,
J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 69(1 ), 1-4 (1997).
Safarik, I., and Safarikova, M., Copper phthalocyanine dye immobilized on magnetite particles: An efficient
adsorbent for rapid removal of polycyclic aromatic compounds from water solutions and suspensions, Sep.
Sci. Technol., 32(14), 2385-2392 (1997).
Sakoda, A.; Nomura, T., and Suzuki, M., Activated carbon membrane for water treatments: Application to
decolorization of coke furnace wastewater, Adsorption, 3(1 ), 93-105 (1997).
Seco, A., et al., Absorption of heavy metals from aqueous solutions onto activated carbon in single Cu and Ni
systems and in binary Cu-Ni, Cu-Cd and Cu-Zn systems, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 68(1), 23-30 (1997).
Shethna, H.K., and Towler, G.P., Design of mixed-solvent processes for chemisorption with ultrahigh recovery,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(12), 5307-5320 (1997).
Song, K.C.; Lee, H.K., and Moon, H., Simultaneous removal of the radiotoxic nuclides CS 137 and 1129 from
aqueous solution, Sep. Purif. Technol., 12(3), 215-228 (1997).
Sun, G., and Xu, X., Sunflower stalks as adsorbents for color removal from textile wastewater, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 36(3), 808-812 (1997).
Taiwei, C.; Jinzhou, D., and Zuyi, T., Static and kinetic studies of the adsorption/desorption of H+ and OH- ions
on alumina in aqueous sodium nitrate solution, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 15(5), 349-360 (1997).
Taiwei, C.; Jinzhou, D., and Zuyi, T., Adsorption of H+, OH- and background electrolyte ions on alumina: Point
of zero charge, triple layer model (TLM) parameters and thermodynamic parameters, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.,
15(6), 455-464 (1997).
Tan, H.K.S., New algorithms for the computation of column dynamics of multicomponent liquid-phase
adsorption, Adsorption, 3(2), 137-150 (1997).
Tsezos, M.; Georgousis, Z., and Remoudaki, E., Ionic competition effects in a continuous uranium biosorptive
recovery process, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 70(2), 198-206 (1997).
Various, Production and use of carbon-based materials for environmental cleanup (symposium papers), Energy
Fuels, 11(2), 249-353 (1997).
Wang, R.C.; Kuo, C.C., and Shyu, C.C., Adsorption of phenols onto granular activated carbon in a liquid-solid
fluidized bed, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 68(2), 187-194 (1997).
Wang, Z., and Govind, R., Biofiltration of isopentane in peat and compost packed beds, AIChE J., 43(5), 13481356 (1997).
White, D.A., and Asfarsiddique, A., Removal of manganese and iron from drinking water using hydrous
manganese dioxide, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(6), 1133-1145 (1997).
White, D.A., and Bussey, R.L., Water sorption properties of modified clinoptilolite, Sep. Purif. Technol., 11(2),
137-141 (1997).
Williams, C.J., and Edyvean, R.G.J., Optimization of metal adsorption by seaweeds and seaweed derivatives,
Process Safety Environ. Prot., 75(B 1), 19-26 (1997).
Ziolkowska, D., and Garbacz, J.K., Adaptation of single gas adsorption equations for the description of
adsorption from non-aqueous liquid solutions of iodine onto active carbons, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 15(3),
155-164 (1997).
Zouboulis, A.I.; Matis, K.A., and Lanara, B.G., Removal of cadmium from dilute solutions by hydroxyapatite:
Flotation studies, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(10), 1755-1767 (1997).
1016
ION EXCHANGE,
CHROMATOGRAPHY,
AND RELATED
SEPARATIONS
1967
Copeland, J.P.; Henderson, C.L., and Marchello, J.M., Influence of resin selectivity on film diffusion-controlled
ion exchange, AIChE J., 13(3), 449-452 (1967).
Gilwood, M.E., Saving capital and chemicals with countercurrent ion exchange, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 18
December, 83-88 (1967).
Klein, G.; Tondeur, D., and Vermeulen, T., Multicomponent ion exchange in fixed beds, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund.,
6(3), 339-364 (1967).
Lai, C.L., and Roth, J.A., Dynamic simulation of gas chromatographic column, Chem. Eng. Sci., 22(10), 12991304 (1967).
Solt, G.S., Continuous countercurrent ion exchange, Brit. Chem. Eng., 12(10), 1582-1586 (1967).
Tallmadge, J.A., Ion exchange treatment of mixed electroplating wastes, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev.,
6(4), 419-423 (1967).
1968
George, D.R.; Riley, J.M., and Ross, J.R., Potassium recovery by chemical precipitation and ion exchange,
Chem. Eng. Prog., 64(5), 96-99 (1968).
Hall, G.R.; Streat, M., and Creed, G.R.B., Ion exchange in nuclear chemical processes, Trans. IChemE, 46, T53T59 (1968).
Lifshutz, N., and Dranoff, J.S., Inversion of concentrated sucrose solutions in fixed beds of ion exchange resin,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 7(2), 266-269 (1968).
Michalson, A.W., High quality water via ion exchange, Chem. Eng. Prog., 64(10), 67-73 (1968).
Ryan, J.M.; Timmins, R.S., and O'Donnell, J.F., Production-scale gas chromatography, Chem. Eng. Prog., 64(8),
53-59(1968).
Schneider, P., and Smith, J.M., Adsorption rate constants from chromatography, AIChE J., 14(5), 762-771
(1968).
Tuichiev, I.S.; Rizaev, N.U.; Merenkov, K.V., and Yusipov, M.M., Hydrodynamic properties of ion exchange
resins during fluidization, Int. Chem. Eng., 8(2), 221-223 (1968).
Turner, J.C.R., and Snowdon, C.B., Liquid-side mass-transfer coefficients in ion exchange: Nernst-Planck model,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 23(3), 221-230; 23(9), 1099-1104 (1968).
Turner, J.C.R.; Snowdon, C.B.; Jones, D.C., and Ward, J.W.C., Estimation of ion-exchange equilibrium
diagrams involving weakly dissociated electrolytes, Trans. IChemE, 46, T232-T235 (1968).
1969
Cooke, J.P., Understanding a gas chromatograph, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 10 March, 134-144 (1969).
Copeland, J.P., and Marchello, J.M., Film-diffusion controlled ion-exchange with a selective resin, Chem. Eng.
Sci., 24(9), 1471-1474 (1969).
Eberly, P.E., Diffusion studies in zeolites and related solids by gas chromatography, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 8(1),
25-30(1969).
Kadlec, V., and Matejka, Z., Mixed-bed deionisation by weak electrolyte ion-exchange resins regenerated in-situ
by carbon dioxide, J. Appl. Chem., 19, 352-355 (1969).
Kuong, J.F., Maximising ion-exchanger throughput, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 15 December, 160 (1969).
Pollio, F.X.; Kunin, R., and Petralia, J.W., Treat sour water by ion exchange, Hydrocarbon Process., 48(5), 124126 (1969).
Timmins, R.S.; Mir, L., and Ryan, J.M., Large-scale chromatography: New separation tool, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.),
19 May, 170-178 (1969).
1970
Campbell, D.O., and Buxton, S.R., Rapid ion exchange separations, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 9(1),
89-99 (1970).
McGovern, T.J., and Dranoff, J.S., Sucrose inversion by partially deactivated ion-exchange resin beds, AIChE J.,
16(4), 536-538 (1970).
Streat, M., and Brignal, W.J., Representation of ternary ion exchange equilibria, Trans. IChemE, 48, T151-T155
(1970).
Turner, J.C.R., and Snowdon, C.B., Liquid-side mass transfer coefficients in ion exchange, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
25(11), 1673-1678 (1970).
1017
Weber, O.W.; Miller, I.F., and Gregor, H.P., Absorption of carbon dioxide by weak-base ion exchange resins,
AIChE J., 16(4), 609-614 (1970).
1971
Colwell, C.J., and Dranoff, J.S., Nonlinear equilibrium anJ axial mixing effects in intraparticle diffusioncontrolled sorption by ion-exchange resin beds, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 10(1), 65-70 (1971).
Danes, F., Batch process application to ion-exchange unit operation, Chem. Eng. Sci., 26(8), 1277-1288 (1971).
Gardiner, W.C., and Munoz, F., Mercury removal from waste effluent via ion exchange, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 23
August, 57-59 (1971 ).
Gondo, S.; Itai, M., and Kusunoki, K., Computational and experimental studies on a moving ion-exchange bed,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 10(1), 140-146 (1971).
Heines, V., A history of chromatography, Chemtech, May, 280-285 (1971).
Hsu, H.W., Optimum adsorbent volume in liquid adsorption chromatography, Sep. Sci., 6(5), 645-652 (1971).
Kunin, R., and Downing, D.G., Ion-exchange system boasts more pulling power, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 28 June,
67-69 (1971).
Maldacker, T.A., and Rogers, L.B., Effect of loading on separation efficiency using steric exclusion
chromatography, Sep. Sci., 6(6), 747-758 (1971).
Mir, L., Comparison of static bed and moving bed chromatography, Sep. Sci., 6(4), 515-536 (1971).
Moreland, A.K., and Rogers, L.B., Effects of slow mass transfer using microporous adsorbents in gas-solid
chromatography, Sep. Sci., 6(1 ), 1-24 (1971 ).
Smuts, T.W.; Jordaan, J.T., and Pretorius, V., Phenomenological plate height equation for packed
chromatographic columns, Sep. Sci., 6(5), 653-684 (1971).
Various, Gel permeation chromatography (topic issue), Sep. Sci., 6(1), 47-164; 6(2), 207-330 (1971).
1972
Cloete, C.E., and de Clerk, K., Distillation vs. chromatography: Comparison based on purity index, Sep. Sci.,
7(4), 449-456 (1972).
Conrard, P.; Caude, M., and Rosset, R., Separation of close species on ion exchangers, Sep. Sci., 7(5), 465-490
(1972).
Dodds, J.A., and Tondeur, D., Design of cyclic fixed-bed ion-exchange operations, Chem. Eng. Sci., 27(6),
1267-1282; 27(12), 2291-2298 (1972).
Golden, L.S., and Irving, J., Osmotic and mechanical strength of ion-exchange resins, Chem. Ind. (London), 4
November, 837-844 (1972).
Holliday, D.C., Continuous ion exchange: Design and development, Chem. Ind. (London), 16 September, 717723 (1972).
Parker, K.J., Ion exchange in the sugar industry, Chem. Ind. (London), 21 October, 782-790 (1972).
Qureshi, M.; Qureshi, S.Z.; Gupta, J.P., and Rathore, H.S., Progress in ion-exchange studies on insoluble salts of
polybasic metals, Sep. Sci., 7(6), 615-630 (1972).
1973
Buys, T.S., and de Clerk, K., Effect of temperature on production rate in chromatography, Sep. Sci., 8(5), 551566(1973).
Conrard, P.; Caude, M., and Rosset, R., Separation of close species on ion exchangers, Sep. Sci., 8(1), 1-10;
8(2), 269-278 (1973).
Johnson, J.F.; Macphail, M.G.; Cooper, A.R., and Bruzzone, A.R., Effect of column length on chromatographic
fractionation of polymers, Sep. Sci., 8(5), 577-584 (1973).
Lal, B.B., and Douglas, W.J.M., Techniques for measuring sorption of water by ion-exchange resin spheres, lnd.
Eng. Chem. Fund., 12(3), 381-384 (1973).
Letan, R., Continuous ion-exchanger, Chem. Eng. Sci., 28(3), 981-985 (1973).
Martin, J.R., and Johnson, J.F., Cost-efficiency comparisons of some polymer chromatographic fractionation
techniques, Sep. Sci., 8(5), 619-622 (1973).
Meares, P., Characteristics and uses of ion exchange membranes, Chem. Ind. (London), 1 December, 103-107
(1973).
Metzger, V.G.; Barford, R.A., and Rothbart, H.L., Chromatography and countercurrent distribution, Sep. Sci.,
8(2), 143-160 (1973).
Millar, J.R., Fundamentals of ion exchange, Chem. Ind. (London), 5 May, 409-413 (1973).
1018
Ouano, A.C., and Barker, J.A., Computer simulation of linear gel permeation chromatography, Sep. Sci., 8(6),
673-700(1973).
Stevens, B., Chromatographic refining unit, Process Eng. (London), March, 82-84 (1973).
Weiss, G.H., and Dishon, M., Resolution in nonuniform chromatographic systems, Sep. Sci., 8(3), 337-344
(1973).
Williams, R.C., Ion exchange resins in power stations, Chem. Ind. (London), 19 May, 465-470 (1973).
1974
Braud, C., and Selegny, E., Interrelation of swelling and selectivity of ion-exchange resins, Sep. Sci., 9(1), 13-26
(1974).
Bull, P.S.; Evans, J.V., and Nicholson, F.D., Condensate polishing performance of powdered ion-exchange
resins, J. Appl. Chem. Biotechnol., 24, 475-486 (1974).
Caude, M.; Conrard, P., and Rosset, R., Displacement development on ion exchangers, Sep. Sci., 9(4), 269-286
(1974).
Dodds, J.A., and Tondeur, D., Design of cyclic fixed-bed ion-exchange operations, Chem. Eng. Sci., 29(2), 611620(1974).
Kirchner, J.G., Thin-layer chromatography, Chemtech, February, 79-82 (1974).
Lal, B.B., and Douglas, W.J.M., Equilibrium water sorption and volumetric behavior of ion-exchange resin
spheres, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 13(3), 223-227 (1974).
Nikelly, J.G., Porous-layer open-tubular gas chromatography columns, Sep. Purif. Methods, 3(2), 423-441
(1974).
Scott, C.D., High-pressure ion-exchange chromatography applied to separation of complex biochemical mixtures,
Sep. Purif. Methods, 3(2), 263-298 (1974).
Singhal, R.P., Separation and analysis of nucleic acids and their constituents by ion-exclusion and ion-exchange
column chromatography, Sep. Purif. Methods, 3(2), 339-398 (1974).
Various, Liquid-liquid extraction and ion exchange in analytical chemistry (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 17
August, 639-647 (1974).
Various, Chromatographic separations (topic issue), Sep. Purif. Methods, 3(1), 1-86, 133-244 (1974).
Whitlock, L.R., and Siggia, S., Fusion reaction gas chromatography, Sep. Purif. Methods, 3(2), 299-338 (1974).
1975
Bolto, B.A., Sirotherm ion-exchange desalination, Chemtech, May, 303-307 (1975).
Braud, C., and Selegny, E., Interrelation of swelling and selectivity of ion-exchange resins, Sep. Sci., 10(1), 47110; 10(2), 175-244; 10(3), 331-358 (1975).
Farkas, E.J., and Himsley, A., Fundamental aspects of behavior of ion exchange equipment, Can. J. Chem. Eng.,
53,575-585 (1975).
Kataoka, T.; Nishiki, T., and Ueyama, K., Mass transfer with liquid anion exchange, Chem. Eng. J., 10(3), 189196(1975).
Pawlowski, L., and Zytomirski, S., Influence of ion exchange capacity and total concentration of solution of ions
of different valency on their chromatographic separation, Sep. Sci., 10(1 ), 33-38 (1975).
Prengle, H.W., et al., Recycle wastewater by ion exchange, Hydrocarbon Process., 54(4), 173-184 (1975).
Rendell, M., Future of large-scale chromatography, Process Eng. (London), April, 66-70 (1975).
Vermeer, D.J.; Lynn, S., and Vermeulen, T., Cation-exchange column behavior in desalination process with
regenerant recovery, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 14(3), 290-297 (1975).
1976
Cooper, A.R., and Lynn, T.R., Coiled high-efficiency liquid chromatography columns, Sep. Sci., 11(1), 39-44
(1976).
de Rosset, A.J.; Neuzil, R.W., and Korous, D.J., Liquid column chromatography as a predictive tool for
continuous countercurrent adsorptive separations, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 15(2), 261-266 (1976).
Ito, Y., and Bowman, R.L., Foam countercurrent chromatography, Sep. Sci., 11(3), 201-206 (1976).
Kadlec, V., and Hubner, P., Ion exchange deionisation with recirculation of regenerant by heat, Chem. Ind.
(London), 4 September, 744-746 (1976).
Kataoka, T.; Nishiki, T., and Ueyama, K., Simultaneous mass transfer of acid and ions in a liquid anion
exchanger, Chem. Eng. J., 12(3), 233-238 (1976).
Mostafa, H.A., and Said, A.S., Theoretical-plate concept for fixed-bed adsorption and ion-exchange, Trans.
IChemE, 54, T132-T134 (1976).
1019
Roland, L.D., Ion exchange: Operational advantages of continuous plants, Processing (Sutton, Engl.), January,
11-12 (1976).
Slater, M.J., and Lucas, B.H., Flow patterns and mass transfer rates in fluidized-bed ion-exchange equipment,
Can. J. Chem. Eng., 54, 264-270 (1976).
Smirnov, N.N., Mathematical models of ion-exchange process, Int. Chem. Eng., 16(2), 234-240 (1976).
Sussman, M.V., Continuous chromatography (review paper), Chemtech, April, 260-264 (1976).
Talmon, Y., and Rubin, E., Chromatographic separation by foam, Sep. Sci., 11(6), 509-533 (1976).
Weatherley, L.R., and Turner, J.C.R., Ion-exchange kinetics: Comparison between a macroporous and a gel
resin, Trans. IChemE, 54, T89-T94 (1976).
1977
Holl, W., and Sontheimer, H., Ion exchange kinetics of the protonation of weak-acid ion-exchange resins, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 32(7), 755-762 (1977).
Pauls, R.E., and Rogers, L.B., Comparisons of methods for calculating retention and separation of
chromatographic peaks, Sep. Sci., 12(4), 395-415 (1977).
Pauls, R.E., et al., Experimental variables in recycle gas chromatography, Sep. Sci., 12(3), 289-306, (1977).
Pusch, W., Ion-exchange membranes, Int. Chem. Eng., 17(1), 62-75 (1977).
Shah, D.B., and Ruthven, D.M., Measurement of zeolitic diffusivities and equilibrium isotherms by
chromatography, AIChE J., 23(6), 804-809 (1977).
Umbreit, G.R., Chromatographic anomalies, Chemtech, February, 101-106 (1977).
Various, Novel ion exchangers (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 6 August, 634-652 (1977).
1978
Barker, P.E.; Ellison, F.J., and Hatt, B.W., Countercurrent chromatographic unit for continuous fractionation of
dextran, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 17(3), 302-309 (1978).
Chihara, K.; Suzuki, M., and Kawazoe, K., Adsorption rate on molecular sieving carbon by chromatography,
AIChE J., 24(2), 237-246 (1978).
Danesi, P.R., and Chiarizia, R., Mass transfer rate with liquid ion exchangers, J. Appl. Chem. Biotechnol., 28,
581-598(1978).
De, A.K., and Sen, A.K., Synthetic inorganic ion-exchangers, Sep. Sci. Technol., 13(6), 517-540 (1978).
Hubner, P., and Kadlec, V., Kinetic behavior of weak-base anion exchangers, AIChE J., 24(1), 149-154 (1978).
Marra, R.A., and Cooney, D.O., Multicomponent sorption operations: Bed shrinking and swelling in an ionexclusion case, Chem. Eng. Sci., 33(12), 1597-1602 (1978).
Smith, R.P., and Woodburn, E.T., Prediction of multicomponent ion exchange equilibria for ternary systems from
binary systems data, AIChE J., 24(4), 577-587 (1978).
Wiley, J.R., Decontamination of alkaline radioactive waste by ion exchange, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev.,
17(1), 67-71 (1978).
1979
Abe, M., and Kasai, K., Synthetic inorganic ion-exchange materials, Sep. Sci. Technol., 14(10), 895-908 (1979).
Agarwal, J.C., and Klumpar, I.V., Role of liquid ion exchange in processing of complex solutions, J. Chem.
Technol. Biotechnol., 29, 730-740 (1979).
Erickson, K.L., and Rase, H.F., Fixed-bed ion exchange with differing ionic mobilities and nonlinear equilibria,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 18(4), 312-317 (1979).
Goto, S.; Sato, N., and Teshima, H., Periodic operation for desalting water with thermally regenerable ionexchange resin, Sep. Sci. Technol., 14(3), 209-218 (1979).
Gupta, A.R., Isotope effects in ion-exchange equilibria in aqueous and mixed solvent systems, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
14(9), 843-858 (1979).
Hadzismajlovic, D.E., et al., Mass transfer in liquid spout-fluid beds of ion exchange resin, Chem. Eng. J., 17(3),
227-236 (1979).
Knaebel, K.S.; Cobb, D.D.; Shih, T.T., and Pigford, R.L., Ion-exchange rates in bifunctional resins, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Fund., 18(2), 175-180 (1979).
Various, Ion exchange in the water industry (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 3 March, 142-165 (1979).
1980
Brown, J.M., and Wilson, D.J., Macroreticular resin columns, Sep. Sci. Technol., 15(8), 1533-1555 (1980).
Burfield, D.R., and Smithers, R.H., Desiccant efficiency in solvent drying: Applications of cationic exchange
resins, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 30, 491-496 (1980).
1020
Calmon, C., Explosion hazards of using nitric acid in ion-exchange equipment, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 17
November, 271-274 (1980).
Curtis, M.A., et al., Liquid chromatographic fractionations of mixtures of polystyrene oligomers, Sep. Sci.
Technol., 15(7), 1413-1428 (1980).
Kennedy, D.C., Predict sorption of metals on ion-exchange resins, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 16 June, 106-118 (1980).
MacLean, G.T., Effect of synthetic flocculant on ion-exchange resin, Sep. Sci. Technol., 15(8), 1555-1563
(1980).
Omatete, O.O.; Clazie, R.N., and Vermeulen, T., Column dynamics of ternary ion exchange, Chem. Eng. J.,
19(3), 229-250 (1980).
Ruthven, D.M., and Kumar, R., An experimental study of single-component and binary adsorption equilibria by a
chromatographic method, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 19(1), 27-32 (1980).
Soldatov, V.S., and Bichkova, V.A., Ternary ion-exchange equilibria, Sep. Sci. Technol., 15(2), 89-1 l0 (1980).
Takahashi, T., and Gill, W.N., Hydrodynamic chromatography, Chem. Eng. Commun., 5(5), 367-380 (1980).
Various, Advances in ion-exchange water treatment (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 20 September, 712-743
(1980).
Various, Chromatographic processes (symposium papers), Sep. Sci. Technol., 15(3), 587-696; 15(4), 697-798
(1980).
1981
Annino, R.., Chromatographs can run on air, Chemtech, August, 482-487 (1981).
Barker, P.E., and Chuah, C.H., A sequential chromatographic process for the separation of glucose/fructose
mixtures, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.), August, 389-393 (1981).
Dyer, A.; Enamy, H., and Townsend, R.P., Plotting and interpretation of ion-exchange isotherms in zeolite
systems, Sep. Sci. Technol., 16(2), 173-184 (1981).
Gomez-Vaillard, R.; Kershenbaum, L.S., and Streat, M., Performance of continuous, cyclic ion-exchange
reactors, Chem. Eng. Sci., 36(2), 307-326 (1981).
Goto, S.; Goto, M., and Teshima, H., Simplified evaluations of mass-transfer resistances from batch-wise
adsorption and ion-exchange data, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 20(4), 368-375 (1981).
Huang, J.C.; Forsythe, R., and Madey, R., Gas-solid chromatography of methane-helium mixtures: Transmission
of step increase in concentration of methane through activated carbon adsorber bed at 25~ Sep. Sci.
Technol., 16(5), 475-486 (1981).
Matsuda, H.; Yamamoto, T.; Goto, S., and Teshima, H., Periodic operation for desalination with thermally
regenerable ion-exchange resins (dynamic studies), Sep. Sci. Technol., 16(1), 31-42 (1981 ).
Moharir, A.S.; Saraf, D.N., and Kunzru, D., Effect of crystal size distribution on chromatographic peaks in
molecular sieve columns, Chem. Eng. Commun., 11(6), 377-386 (1981).
Phillips, J.B.; Wright, N.A., and Burke, M.F., Probabilistic approach to digital simulation of chromatographic
processes, Sep. Sci. Technol., 16(8), 861-884 (1981).
Rahman, K., and Streat, M., Mass transfer in liquid fluidized beds of ion exchange particles, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
36(2), 293-306 (1981).
Raman, M.S., Polymer resins for water treatment, Chemtech, April, 252-255 (1981).
Rice, R.G., and Foo, S.C., Continuous desalination using cyclic mass-transfer ion exchange with bifunctional
resins, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 20(2), 150-155 (1981).
Said, A.S., Theory of nonlinear chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 16(2), 113-134 (1981).
Various, Pharmaceutical applications of ion exchange and solvent extraction (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London),
3 October, 677-690 ( 1981).
Various, Advances in chromatography (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 17 October, 710-732 (1981).
1982
Clifford, D., Multicomponent ion-exchange calculations for selected ion separations, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund.,
21(2), 141-153 (1982).
Graham, E.E., and Dranoff, J.S., Application of Stefan-Maxwell equations to diffusion in ion exchangers, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Fund., 21(4), 360-369 (1982).
Graham, E.E., and Fook, C.F., Rate of protein absorption and desorption on cellulosic ion exchangers, AIChE J.,
28(2), 245-250 (1982).
Huang, J.C., et al., Gas-solid chromatography of methane-helium mixtures: Moment analysis of breakthrough
curves, Sep. Sci. Technol., 17(12), 1417-1424 (1982).
1021
Husain, S.W., et al., Synthesis and ion-exchange properties of lanthanum tungstate, Sep. Sci. Technol., 17(7),
935-944 (1982).
Koff, F.W.; Sifniades, S., and Tunick, A.A., Ion-exchange process for recovery of hydroxylamine from Raschig
synthesis mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 21 (2), 204-216 (1982).
Kojima, T., et al., Fundamental study on recovery of copper with a cation-exchange membrane, Can. J. Chem.
Eng., 60, 642-658 (1982).
Novosad, J., and Myers, A.L., Thermodynamics of ion exchange as an adsorption process, Can. J. Chem. Eng.,
60, 500-503 (1982).
Pelosi, P., and McCarthy, J., Preventing fouling of ion-exchange resins, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 9 August, 75-78; 6
September, 125-128 (1982).
Rao, M.G., and Gupta, A.K., Ion exchange processes accompanied by ionic reactions, Chem. Eng. J., 24(2), 181190(1982).
Rousar, I., and Ditl, P., Kinetic characteristics of batch adsorber or ion exchange device operated under
nonisothermal conditions, Chem. Eng. Commun., 18(5), 341-354 (1982).
Schenk, H.J., et al., Development of sorbers for recovery of uranium from seawater, Sep. Sci. Technol., 17(11),
1293-1308 (1982).
Slater, M.J., The relative sizes of fixed bed and continuous countercurrent flow ion exchange equipment, Trans.
IChemE, 60, T54-T58 (1982).
Various, Ion exchange in the petrochemical industry (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 21 August, 561-573
(1982).
1983
Abe, M., and Hayashi, K., Synthetic inorganic ion-exchange materials, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 1(1), 97-112
(1983).
Altshuller, D., Design equations and transient behaviour of the countercurrent moving-bed chromatographic
reactor, Chem. Eng. Commun., 19(4), 363-376 (1983).
Barba, D.; del Re, G., and Foscolo, P.U., Numerical simulation of multicomponent ion-exchange operations,
Chem. Eng. J., 26(1), 33-40 (1983).
Barker, P.E.; England, K., and Vlachogiannis, G., Mathematical model for the fractionation of dextran on a semicontinuous countercurrent simulated moving bed chromatograph, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 61, 241-247 (1983).
Begovich, J.M.; Byers, C.H., and Sisson, W.G., A high-capacity pressurized continuous chromatograph, Sep.
Sci. Technol., 18(12), 1167-1192 (1983).
Bobman, M.H.; Golden, T.C., and Jenkins, R.G., Ion exchange in selected low-rank coals: Equilibrium and
kinetics, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 1(4), 791-826 (1983).
Choppin, G.R., and Ohene-Aniapam, F., Equilibrium sorption of Am(IIl), Ce(III), and Eu(III), on Biorex-70 ionexchange resin, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 1(3), 585-596 (1983).
Fujine, S.; Saito, K.; Shiba, K., and Itoi, T., Liquid mixing in a large-sized column for ion exchange, Solvent
Extr. Ion Exch., 1(1), 113-126 (1983).
Goto, M.; Hayashi, N., and Goto, S., Separation of electrolyte and nonelectrolyte by ion retardation resin, Sep.
Sci. Technol., 18(5), 475-484 (1983).
Shih, C.K., et al., Large-scale liquid chromatography separation system, Chem. Eng. Prog., 79(10), 53-57 (1983).
Turner, J.C.R., and Murphy, T.K., A CSTR method for determining ion-exchange equilibria, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
38(1), 147-154 (1983).
Various, Uses of ion exchange in the food industry (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 7 November, 804-824
(1983).
1984
Bailly, M., and Tondeur, D., Reversibility and performances in productive chromatography, Chem. Eng.
Process., 18(6), 293-302 (1984).
Bonmati R., et al., Industrial gas chromatography process applied to essential oils, Sep. Sci. Technol., 19(2),
113-156(1984).
Costa, E.; Lucas, A., and Gonzalez, M.E., Ion exchange: Determination of interdiffusion coefficients, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Fund., 23(4), 400-405 (1984).
Jenkins, I.L., Ion exchange in the atomic energy industry with particular reference to actinide and fission product
separation (review paper), Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 2(1), 1-28 (1984).
Jepson, B.E., and Shockey, G.C., Calcium hydroxide isotope effect in calcium isotope enrichment by ion
exchange, Sep. Sci. Technol., 19(2), 173-182 (1984).
1022
Klein, G., Calculation of ideal or empirically modified mass-action equilibria in heterovalent multicomponent ion
exchange, Comput. Chem. Eng., 8(3), 171-178 (1984).
Miller, G.H., and Wankat, P.C., Moving port chromatography: A method of improving preparative
chromatography, Chem. Eng. Commun., 31 ( 1), 21-44 (1984).
Scott, F., Larger high-pressure liquid-chromatography systems, Process Eng. (London), February, 26-31 (1984).
Tsuji, M., and Abe, M., Synthetic inorganic ion-exchange materials, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 2(2), 253-274
(1984).
van der Meer, A.P.; Woerde, H.M., and Wesselingh, J.A., Mass transfer in countercurrent ion-exchange plate
column, Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 23(4), 660-664 (1984).
Walton, H.F., Counter-ion effects in partition chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 19(11), 849-856 (1984).
1985
Egawa, H.; Nonaka, T., and Maeda, H., Studies of selective adsorption resins, Sep. Sci. Technol., 20(9), 653-664
(1985).
Hyun, S.H., and Danner, R.Po, Gas adsorption isotherms by use of perturbation chromatography, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Fund., 24(1), 95-101 (1985).
Hyun, S.H., and Danner, R.P., Adsorption equilibrium constants and intraparticle diffusivities in molecular sieves
by tracer-pulse chromatography, AIChE J., 31 (7), 1077-1085 (1985).
Kamiyanagi, K., and Furusaki, S., Analysis of chromatography by transfer functions, Int. Chem. Eng., 25(2), 301308 (1985).
Law, H.H.; Wilson, W.L., and Gabriel, N.E., Separation of gold cyanide ion from anion-exchange resins, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 24(2), 236-238 (1985).
Mathur, J.N., and Khopkar, P.K., Ion exchange behaviour of chelating resin Dowex A-1 with actinides and
lanthanides, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 3(5), 753-762 (1985).
Riveros, P.A., and Cooper, W.C., Extraction of silver from cyanide solutions with ion-exchange resins, Solvent
Extr. Ion Exch., 3(3), 357-376 (1985).
Sommer, C.C., et al., Recycle gas chromatography using coarse packings, Sep. Sci. Technol., 20(7), 523-540
(1985).
Wildhagen, G.R.S.; Qassim, R.Y.; Rajagopal, K., and Rahman, K., Effective liquid-phase diffusivity in ion
exchange, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund., 24(4), 423-432 (1985).
Yoshida, H.; Kataoka, T., and Ikeda, S., Intraparticle mass transfer in bidispersed porous ion exchanger, Can. J.
Chem. Eng., 63(3), 422-435 (1985).
1986
Ecknig, W., and Polster, H.J., Supercritical chromatography of paraffins on a molecular sieve: Analytical and
preparative scale, Sep. Sci. Technol., 21(2), 139-156 (1986).
Frey, D.D., Prediction of liquid-phase mass-transfer coefficients in multicomponent ion exchange: Comparison of
matrix, film-model, and effective-diffusivity methods, Chem. Eng. Commun., 47, 273-294 (1986).
Geldart, R.W.; Yu, Q.; Wankat, P.C., and Wang, N., Improving elution and displacement ion-exchange
chromatography by adjusting eluent and displacer affinities, Sep. Sci. Technol., 21(9), 873-886 (1986).
Golden, L., Industrial use of ion exchange resins, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.), October, 31-34 (1986).
Jackson, M.B., and Pilkington, N.H., Effect of the degree of crosslinking on the selectivity of ion-exchange
resins, J. Chem. Yechnol. Biotechnol., 36(2), 88-94 (1986).
Jun, S.H., and Ruckenstein, E., Separation of multicomponent mixture of proteins by potential barrier
chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 21(2), 111-138 (1986).
Lefevre, L.J., Ion exchange: Problems and troubleshooting, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), 7 July, 73-75 (1986).
Strelow, F.W.E., Influence of resin loading on cation exchange distribution coefficients of some elements in
hydrochloric acid, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 4(6), 1193-1208 (1986).
Wilson, D.J., Modeling of ion-exchange column operation, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 21 (8), 767-788; 21 (10), 991-1008
(1986).
Yoshida, H., and Kataoka, T., Recovery of amine and ammonia by ion exchange method: Comparison of ligand
sorption and ion exchange accompanied by neutralization reaction, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 4(6), 1171-1192
(1986).
Yoshida, H.; Kataoka, Y., and Fujikawa, S., Kinetics in a chelate ion exchanger, Chem. Eng. Sci., 41(10), 25172530 (1986).
Yu, Q., and Wang, N.H.L., Multicomponent interference phenomena in ion exchange columns, Sep. Purif.
Methods, 15(2), 127-158 (1986).
1023
1987
Arve, B.H., and Liapis, A.I., Modeling and analysis of affinity chromatography in finite bath, AIChE J., 33(2),
179-193(1987).
Higgins, I.R., and Denton, M.S., CSA continuous countercurrent ion exchange technology, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
22(2), 997-1016 (1987).
Huang, T.C.; Huang, Y.C., and Tsai, F.N., Intraparticle diffusion-controlled kinetics of phenol adsorption on ion
exchange resins, Chem. Eng. Commun., 56, 77-86 (1987).
Kataoka, T., and Yoshida, H., Dynamics in a thermally regenerable ion exchange column, Chem. Eng. J., 36(1),
41-50 (1987).
Kataoka, T., et al., Liquid-side ion-exchange mass transfer in ternary system, AIChE J., 33(2), 202-210 (1987).
Mikhail, E.M., and Misak, N.Z., Ion exchange characteristics of ceric tungstate: Kinetics of exchange, J. Chem.
Misak, N.Z., and Mikhail, E.M., Ion-exchange characteristics of a new manganese oxide, Solvent Extr. Ion
Exch., 5(5), 939-976 (1987).
Tavlarides, L.L.; Bae, J.H., and Lee, C.K., Solvent extraction, membranes and ion exchange in
hydrometallurgical dilute metals separation, Sep. Sci. Technol., 22(2), 581-618 (1987).
Various, Ultrapure water by ion exchange (topic issue), Chem. Ind. (London), 16 February, 104-118 (1987).
Various, Preparative-scale chromatography (topic issue), Sep. Sci. Technol., 22(8), 1791-2110 (1987).
Way, J.D., et al., Facilitated transport of carbon dioxide in ion exchange membranes, AIChE J., 33(3), 480-487
(1987).
Yan, T.Y., and Shu, P., Regeneration of ion-exchange resin in nonaqueous media, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 26(4),
753-755(1987).
1988
Barker, P.E., and Ganetsos, G., Chemical and biochemical separations using preparative and large-scale batch
and continuous chromatography, Sep. Purif. Methods, 17(1), 1-66 (1988).
13iscans, I3.; Riba, J.P., and Couderc, J.P., Continuous equipment for ion exchange in fluidized bed: Prospects
and problems, Int. Chem. Eng., 28(2), 248-257 (1988).
13olden, W.13., and Groves, F.R., Batch sorption by ligand exchange: Determination of intraparticle diffusivity,
Chem. Eng. Commun., 64, 125-136 (1988).
Forsythe, R., et al., Gas-solid chromatography: Longitudinal and intraparticle diffusion of acetylene in activated
carbon, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(14), 2319-2328 (1988).
Geckler, K.E.; Shkinev, V.M., and Spivakov, 13.Y., Liquid-phase polymer-based retention: A new method for
selective ion separation, Sep. Purif. Methods, 17(2), 105-140 (1988).
Haas, C.N., Existence of ternary interactions in ion exchange, AIChE J., 34(4), 702-703 (1988).
Howard, A.J.; Carta, G., and 13yers, C.H., Separation of sugars by continuous annular chromatography, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 27(10), 1873-1882 (1988).
Huang, T.C., and Cho, L.T., Adsorption of phenol on anion exchange resins in presence of p-nitrophenol, Chem.
Eng. Commun., 74, 169-178 (1988).
Hwang, Y.L.; Helfferich, F.G., and Leu, R.J., Multicomponent equilibrium theory for ion-exchange columns
involving reactions, AIChE J., 34(10), 1615-1626 (1988).
Kataoka, T., and Yoshida, H., Kinetics of ion exchange accompanied by neutralization reaction, AIChE J., 34(6),
1020-1026 (1988).
Kawasaki, T., Specification of general theory of quasi-static linear gradient chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
23(14), 2365-2378 (1988).
Keum, D.K., and Lee, W.K., Simulation of moving feed-port chromatography by rate model with mass transfer
effect, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(14), 2349-2364 (1988).
Miyai, Y.; Ooi, K., and Katoh, S., Recovery of lithium from seawater using a new type of ion-sieve adsorbent
based on magnesium-manganese oxide, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(1), 179-192 (1988).
Mustafa, S.; Hussain, S.Y., and Ali, H., Ion exchange sorption of phosphate, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 6(4), 725738(1988).
Riveros, P.A., and Cooper, W.C., Kinetic aspects of ion exchange extraction of gold, silver, and base-metal
cyano complexes, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 6(3), 479-504 (1988).
Sanders, S.J., et al., Modeling the separation of amino acids by ion-exchange chromatography, Chem. Eng. Prog.,
84(8), 47-54 (1988).
Sengupta, A.K., and Lim, L., Modeling chromate ion-exchange processes, AIChE J., 34(12), 2019-2029 (1988).
1024
Sisson, W.G.; Begovich, J.M.; Byers, C.H., and Scott, C.D., Continuous chromatography, Chemtech, August,
498-502 (1988).
Solt, G.S., The basis of deionization plant design, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.), January, 14-15 (1988).
Solt, G.S.; Nowosielski, A.W., and Feron, P., Predicting performance of ion-exchange columns, Chem. Eng. Res.
Des., 66(6), 524-530 (1988).
Staniewski, J.W.; Latto, B., and Hamielec, A.E., Sorption of water by poly-(sodium acrylate) resin from organic
solutions and mixtures, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 66(4), 371-377 (1988).
Taffe, P., Compact water-deionizer unit, Processing (Sutton, Engl.), July, 23-26 (1988).
Takeda, K., et al., Equilibrium principle of displacement chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(14), 2329-2348
(1988).
Thonchk, N.K., et al., Extraction of thiocyanate ions from coal gasification effluents by ion exchange, Chem.
Eng. Res. Des., 66(6), 503-517 (1988).
Various, Ion exchange and chromatographic separations (symposium papers), Sep. Sci. Technol., 23(12), 18531928 (1988).
Wankat, P.C., and Koo, Y.M., Scaling rules for isocratic elution chromatography, AIChE J., 34(6), 1006-1019
(1988).
Ward, K.J.; Kaliaguine, S.C.; Tanguy, P.A., and Jean, G., Numerical simulation of a chromatograph column:
Linear case, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 27(8), 1474-1480 (1988).
1989
Agosto, M.; Wang, N.H.L., and Wankat, P.C., Moving-withdrawal liquid chromatography of amino acids, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res., 28(9), 1358-1364 (1989).
Allen, R.M.; Addison, P.A., and Dechapunya, A.H., Characterization of binary and ternary ion exchange
equilibria, Chem. Eng. J., 40(3), 151-158 (1989).
Ball, M., and Harries, R.R., Resins for high-purity water production, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 45(2), 97108(1989).
Barker, P.E.; Ganetsos, G., and England, K., Dextran fractionation using preparative-scale continuous
chromatography, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 46(3), 209-218 (1989).
Bolden, W.B.; White, T., and Groves, F.R., Continuous fixed-bed ligand exchange: The shrinking core model,
AIChE J., 35(5), 849-852 (1989).
Carta, G., et al., Separation of metals by continuous annular chromatography with step elution, Chem. Eng.
Commun., 79, 207-228 (1989).
Chitrakar, R., and Abe, M., Synthetic inorganic ion-exchange materials, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 7(4), 721-734
(1989).
Ding, H.; Yang, M.C.; Schisla, D., and Cussler, E.L., Hollow-fiber liquid chromatography, AIChE J., 35(5), 814820 (1989).
Fish, B.B., and Carr, R.W., Experimental study of countercurrent moving-bed chromatographic reactor, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 44(9), 1773-1784 (1989).
Gosling, I.S.; Cook, D., and Fry, M.D.M., Role of adsorption isotherms in design of chromatographic separations
for downstream processing, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 67(3), 232-242 (1989).
Hartford, R.W.; Kojima, M., and O'Connor, C.T., Lanthanum ion exchange on H-ZSM5, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
28(12), 1748-1752 (1989).
Hsu, T.B., and Pigford, R.L., Salt removal from water by continuous ion exchange using thermal regeneration,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 28(9), 1345-1352 (1989).
Hudson, M.J., and Matejka, Z., Extraction of copper by selective ion exchangers with pendent ethyleneimine
groups: Investigation of active sites, Sep. Sci. Technol., 24(15), 1417-1426 (1989).
Jama, M.A., and Yucel, H., Equilibrium studies of sodium-ammonium, potassium-ammonium, and calciumammonium exchanges on clinoptilolite zeolite, Sep. Sci. Technol., 24(15), 1393-1416 (1989).
Kawasaki, T., A fundamental structure of the general theory of overload quasi-static linear gradient
chromatography, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 24(14), 1109-1158 (1989).
Khan, Z.H., and Hussain, K., Non-destructive analysis of crude oil by gel permeation chromatography, Fuel,
68(9), 1198-1202 (1989).
Kocjan, R., and Przeszlakowski, S., Retention of heavy metals and their separation on silica gel modified with
calconecarboxylic acid, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 24(3), 291-302 (1989).
Lamey, S.; Hesbach, P., and Childers, E., Separation of mild gasification liquid products using open-column
chromatography, Energy Fuels, 3(5), 636-641 (1989).
1025
Larin, A.V., Criterion for the quantitative assessment of ideal conditions in chromatography, Adsorpt. Sci.
Technol., 6(4), 212-218 (1989).
Lee, W.C.; Huang, S.H., and Tsao, G.T., Design equations of chromatography by perturbation method, Chem.
Eng. J., 40(3), 165-174 (1989).
Lin, B., and Guiochon, G., Numerical simulation of chromatographic band profiles at large concentrations:
Length of space increment and height equivalent to a theoretical plate, Sep. Sci. Technol., 24(1), 31-40
(1989).
Lin, B.; Ma, Z., and Guiochon, G., Influence of axial dispersion on the bald profile in nonlinear chromatography
using the Lax-Wendroff method, Sep. Sci. Technol., 24(11), 809-830 (1989).
Liu, X.; Liu, J.C., and Cheng, J.K., New inorganic ion exchangers containing phosphorus, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
24(1), 63-78 (1989).
McCoy, B.J., Adsorption chromatography of a heterogeneous mixture, Chem. Eng. Sci., 44(4), 993-996 (1989).
Mustafa, S., et al., Temperature effect on ion exchange sorption of phosphate, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 7(4), 705720 (1989).
Oh, M.; Smith, J.M., and McCoy, B.J., Diffusion and adsorption in arrested-flow chromatography, AIChE J.,
35(7), 1224-1226 (1989).
Ostman, C.E., and Colmsjo, A.L., Separation of polycyclic aromatic compounds from complex oil samples using
bonded phase backflush HPLC and GC-MS techniques, Fuel, 68(10), 1248-1250 (1989).
Perrut, M., and Jusforgues, P., A new fractionation process: Preparative chromatography with a supercritical
eluent, Int. Chem. Eng., 29(4), 646-653 (1989).
Sagara, F., et al., Preparation and adsorption properties of manganese oxide-cellulose hybrid-type ion-exchanger
for lithium ion: Application to enrichment of lithium ion from seawater, Sep. Sci. Technol., 24(14), 12271244(1989).
Saunders, M.S.; Vierow, J.B., and Carta, G., Uptake of phenylalanine and tyrosine by a strong-acid cation
exchanger, AIChE J., 35(1), 53-68 (1989).
Schaeffer, S.T.; Zalkow, L.H., and Teja, A.S., Supercritical fluid isolation of monocrotaline from Crotalaria
spectabilis using ion-exchange resins, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 28(7), 1017-1020 (1989).
Sheth, A.C.; Prasad, J., and Butler, W.A., Desulfurization of alkali metal sulfates using anion-exchange resins,
AIChE J., 35(3), 519-523 (1989).
Strelow, F.W.E., Distribution coefficients and ion exchange behavior of some chloride complex forming
elements with bio-rad AG5OW-X8 cation exchange resin in mixed nitric-hydrochloric acid solutions, Solvent
Extr. Ion Exch., 7(4), 735-747 (1989).
Venkateswarlu, K.S., et al., Use of strong-base organic anion exchangers for removal of suspended alumina
particles in light water-heavy water systems, Sep. Sci. Technol., 24(5), 467-474 (1989).
Yoshida, H., and Kataoka, T., Recovery of mercuric chloride using chloride-form ion exchanger, AIChE J.,
35(2), 318-320 (1989).
Yoshida, H., and Ruthven, D.M., Adsorption of gaseous ethylamine on H-form strong-acid ion exchangers,
AIChE J., 35(11), 1869-1875 (1989).
Yu, Q., and Wang, N.H.L., Computer simulations of dynamics of multicomponent ion exchange and adsorption
in fixed beds: Gradient-directed moving finite element method, Comput. Chem. Eng., 13(8), 915-926 (1989).
1990
Allen, R.M., and Addison, P.A., Ion exchange equilibria for ternary systems from binary exchange data, Chem.
Eng. J., 44(3), 113-118 (1990).
Anon., Solid electrolyte separation offers pure gases, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.), March, 30 (1990).
Bain, P.E., A model predicting equilibrium for plutonium sorption by anion exchange resin, Solvent Extr. Ion
Exch., 8(2), 341-352 (1990).
Bi, Y., and Wen-Bin, H., Two-barrel bile-acids-sensitive microelectrodes based on liquid ion exchanger,
Biotechnol. Prog., 6(1), 62-66 (1990).
Bolden, W.B., and Groves, F.R., Amine recovery by ligand exchange: Pore diffusion model, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 29(1), 116-121 (1990).
Breeman, D.J., Backflush column removes GC sample water, Hydrocarbon Process., 69(3), 90-91 (1990).
Byers, C.H., et al., Sugar separations on a pilot scale by continuous annular chromatography, Biotechnol. Prog.,
6(1), 13-20 (1990).
Carta, G., and Bauer, J.S., Analytic solution for chromatography with nonuniform sorbent particles, AIChE J.,
36(1), 147-150 (1990).
1026
Chen, S.H.; Chao, K.J., and Lee, T.Y., Lanthanum-NaY zeolite ion exchange: Thermodynamics and
thermochemistry, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29(10), 2020-2024 (1990).
Chen, T.L., and Hsu, J.T.A., Prediction of particle size effects on liquid chromatography performance by
multilayer model, Chem. Eng. Commun., 98, 55-64 (1990).
Ching, C.B.,; Chu, K.H., and Ruthven, D.M., A study of multicomponent adsorption equilibria by liquid
Costantino, U.; Marmottini, F., and Vivani, R., Ion exchange properties of zirconium phosphate phosphite with
alkaline earth metal ions, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 8(4), 713-728 (1990).
Cramer, S.M., and Subramanian, G., Recent advances in the theory and practice of displacement
chromatography, Sep. Purif. Methods, 19(1), 31-92 (1990).
Czok, M., and Guiochon, G., Comparison of the results obtained with different models for the simulation of
preparative chromatography, Comput. Chem. Eng., 14(12), 1435-1444 (1990).
De Carlo, E.H., Separation of lanthanide series elements in marine Fe-Mn crusts by ion-exchange
chromatography and determination by IC/AES, Sep. Sci. Technol., 25(6), 781-798 (1990).
DeCarli, J.P.; Carta, G., and Byers, C.H., Displacement separations by continuous annular chromatography,
AIChE J., 36(8), 1220-1228 (1990).
Ding, H., and Cussler, E.L., Overloaded hollow-fiber liquid chromatography, Biotechnol. Prog., 6(6), 472-478
(1990).
Dye, S.R.; DeCarli, J.P., and Carta, G., Equilibrium sorption of amino acids by a cation-exchange resin, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 29(5), 849-857 (1990).
Erkey, C., and Akgerman, A., Chromatography theory: Application to supercritical fluid extraction, AIChE J.,
36(11), 1715-1721 (1990).
Frey, D.D., Numerical simulation of multicomponent chromatography using spreadsheets, Chem. Eng. Educ.,
24(4), 204-207 (1990).
Gu, T., et al., Displacement effect in multicomponent chromatography, AIChE J., 36(8), 1156-1162 (1990).
Gu, T.; Tsai, G-J., and Tsao, G.T., New approach to a general nonlinear multicomponent chromatography model,
AIChE J., 36(5), 784-788 (1990).
Inoue, K.; Yoshizuka, K., and Baba, Y., Adsorption of metal ions on a novel amine-type chelating resin, Solvent
Extr. Ion Exch., 8(2), 309-324 (1990).
Johansson, H.J.; Pettersson, T.N., and Berglof, J.H., Development of a chromatographic process for large-scale
purification of Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnoi., 49(3), 233-242 (1990).
Kawasaki, T., and Niikura, M., Overload quasi-static linear gradient chromatography: Theory versus
hydroxyapatite high-performance liquid chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 25(4), 397-436 (1990).
Kelley, F.D., and Chimowitz, E.H., Near-critical phenomena and resolution in supercritical fluid
Kim, M.G.; Amos, L.W., and Barnes, E.E., Study of the reaction rates and structures of a phenol-formaldehyde
resol resin by ]3C-NMR and gel permeation chromatography, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29(10), 2032-2037
(1990).
Komatsu, Y., et al., Adsorption behavior of cobalt(II) ions on layered dihydrogen tetratitanate hydrate fibers in
aqueous solutions in the range from 298-523K, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 8(1), 173-186 (1990).
Kubota, K., and Hayashi, S., An analysis of the elution curve in preparative chromatography with moving feed
ports, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 68(3), 420-426 (1990).
Kullberg, L.H., and Clearfield, A., Thermodynamics of alkali and alkaline earth metal ion-exchange on
zirconium sulphophosphonates, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 8(1), 187-198 (1990).
Lafferty, C., and Hobday, M., The use of low rank brown coal as an ion exchange material: Basic parameters and
the ion exchange mechanism, Fuel, 69(1), 78-83 (1990).
Lafferty, C., and Hobday, M., The use of low rank brown coal as an ion exchange material: Ionic selectivity and
factors affecting utilization, Fuel, 69(1), 84-87 (1990).
Lee, T.Y., et al., Lanthanum-NaY zeolite ion exchange: Kinetics, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29(10), 2024-2028
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36(10), 1569-1576 (1990).
Mardan, A.; Alstad, J., and Liljenzin, J.O., Development of a non-corroding radio-chromatographic system and
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1027
Mardan, A., and Liljenzin, J.O., Sulfonation and performance of surface-sulfonated (5 and 10 mm diameter)
highly crosslinked porous and (15 micron diameter) 10% crosslinked gel-type resins, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch.,
8(1), 137-150 (1990).
Mardan, A.; Alstad, J., and Liljenzin, J.O., Elution behavior comparison of dyno-resins for rare-earths/2-hydroxy
isobutyric acid system, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 8(1), 151-172 (1990).
Mustafa, S.; Hussain, S.Y., and Ahmad, R., Phosphate/hydroxide exchange studies on Amberlite IRA-400,
Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 8(2), 325-340 (1990).
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Rice, R.G., and Heft, B.K., Radial flow chromatography in compressed pancake-shaped beds, Chem. Eng.
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Sun, Y.D.; Grevillot, G., and Tondeur, D., Modelling and optimization of the cyclic regime of an ion-exchange
process for sugar juice softening, Biochem. Eng. J., 43(2), B53-B66 (1990).
Takahashi, Y., and Goto, S., Adsorption isotherms of amino acids and kinetic analysis of ion-exchange
chromatographs by the moment method, Sep. Sci. Technol., 25(11), 1131-1140 (1990).
Trobajo, C., et al., Lamellar inorganic ion exchangers: Li+, Na +, H+ ion exchange in gamma-titanium phosphate,
Usuda, S., et al., Desorption behavior of plutonium from anion-exchange resin with HNO3-HI mixed acid
solution, Sep. Sci. Technol., 25(11), 1225-1238 (1990).
Vasheghani-Farahani, E., et al., Swelling of ionic gels in electrolyte solutions, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29(4), 554560 (1990).
Yoshida, H., and Kataoka, T., Recovery of mercury from a mercury(II)-form chelate resin by electrolytic
desorption, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 29(10), 2152-2154 (1990).
Zuyi, T., and Jinlong, N., Shell-progressive model with changing bulk concentration and exchanger volume in
ion exchange, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 8(1), 99-116 (1990).
1991
Ackley, M.W., and Yang, R.T., Diffusion in ion-exchanged clinoptilolites, AIChE J., 37(11), 1645-1656 (1991).
Adams, R.J.W., and Hudson, M.J., Reversible extraction of ionic species using electrochemically assisted ion
exchange: Cobalt(II) using alpha-zirconium hydrogen phosphate, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 9(3), 497-514
(1991).
Akintoye, A.; Ganetsos, G., and Barker, P.E., The inversion of sucrose on a semicontinuous countercurrent
chromatographic bioreactor-separator, Food Bioprod. Process., 69(C 1), 35-44 (1991 ).
Alen, R.; Sjostrom, E., and Suominen, S., Application of ion-exclusion chromatography to alkaline pulping
liquors: Separation of hydroxy carboxylic acids from inorganic solids, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 51(2),
225-234 (1991).
Baksh, M.S.A., and Yang, R.T., Chromatographic separations by pillared clay, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(10), 13771394(1991).
Barker, P.E., and Bridges, S., Continuous annular chromatography for the separation of beet molasses, J. Chem.
Barker, P.E., and Joshi, K., The recovery of fructose from inverted sugar beet molasses using continuous
chromatography, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 52(1), 93-108 (1991 ).
Bloomingburg, G.F., et al., Continuous separation of proteins by annular chromatography, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
30(5), 1061-1067 (1991).
Bridger, N.J.; Jones, C.P., and Neville, M.D., Electrochemical ion exchange, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol.,
50(4), 469-482 (1991).
Bruening, M.L., et al., A novel, highly selective anion-exchange column prepared by binding Pd 2+ to an
immobilized ligand, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 26(6), 761-772 (1991).
Campbell, D., and Foundos, A., Chromatographs meet environmental needs, Hydrocarbon Process., 70(2), 63-65
(1991).
Cerny, J.; Sebor, G., and Mitera, J., Comparison of the selectivity of extrographic and chromatographic
fractionations, Fuel, 70(7), 857-860 (1991).
Das, N.R., and Lahiri, S., Liquid ion exchangers and their uses in the separation of zirconium, niobium,
molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 9(2), 337-350 (1991).
1028
Ganetsos, G., and Barker, P.E., Large-scale chromatography in industrial processing, J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol., 50(1), 101-108 (1991).
Goetz, V., and Graves, D.J., Axial dispersion in a magnetically stabilized fluidized-bed liquid chromatography
column, Powder Technol., 64(1), 81-92 (1991).
Gu, T.; Tsai, G.J., and Tsao, G.T., Multicomponent adsorption and chromatography with uneven saturation
capacities, AIChE J., 37(9), 1333-1340 (1991).
Gu, T.; Tsai, G.J., and Tsao, G.T., A theoretical study of multicomponent radial flow chromatography, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 46(5), 1279-1288 (1991).
Harkins, D.A., and Schweitzer, G.K., Preparation of site-selective ion-exchange resins, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(3),
345-354 (1991).
Harries, R.R., Ion exchange kinetics in ultra-pure water systems, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 51(4), 437-448
(1991).
Helfferich, F.G., The h- and w-transformations in multicomponent fixed-bed ion exchange and adsorption:
Equivalent mathematics, different scope, Chem. Eng. Sci., 46(12), 3320-3323 (1991).
Hsu, T.B., and Pigford, R.L., Mass transfer in a thermally regenerable ion-exchange resin by continuous cycling,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30(5), 1067-1075 (1991).
Huang, H., et al., The sorption behavior of boric acid on weak-base anion exchange resin, Solvent Extr. Ion
Exch., 9(2), 319-336 (1991 ).
Hufton, J.R., and Danner, R.P., Gas-solid diffusion and equilibrium parameters by tracer pulse chromatography,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 46(8), 2079-2092 (1991).
Jacobson, S.; Golshan-Shirazi, S., and Guiochon, G., Isotherm selection for band profile simulations in
preparative chromatography, AIChE J., 37(6), 836-844 (1991).
Jaroniec, M.; Madey, R., and Lu, X., Application of gas-solid adsorption chromatography for characterizing
adsorbent heterogeneity, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(2), 269-278 (1991).
Jeng, C.Y., and Langer, S.H., Rate process analysis in the liquid chromatographic reactor: An application of the
first statistical moment, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30(7), 1489-1499 (1991).
Kawakita, T., and Matsuishi, T., Elution kinetics of lysine from a strong cation-exchange resin with ammonia
water, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(7), 991-1004 (1991).
Kawakita, T., et al., Breakthrough curve of lysine on a column of a strong cation-exchange resin of the
ammonium form, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(5), 619-636 (1991).
Kawakita, T.; Matsuishi, T., and Koga, Y., Optimization of lysine adsorption process using strong cationexchange resin, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(6), 869-884 (1991).
Landau, I.; Belfer, A.J., and Locke, D.C., Measurement of limiting activity coefficients using non-steady-state
gas chromatography, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30(8), 1900-1906 (1991).
Lobarzewski, J.; Kowalska-Pylka, H., and Cybulski, W., A simple affinity chromatography method for the
separation of gastric proteases from mucous substances, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 52(3), 359-368
(1991).
Lukac, M., and Perina, Z., A dynamic model of physical processes in chromatographic glucose-fructose
separation, Chem. Eng. Sci., 46(4), 959-966 (1991).
Ma, Z., and Guiochon, G., Application of orthogonal collocation on finite elements in the simulation of nonlinear chromatography, Comput. Chem. Eng., 15(6), 415-426 (1991).
Mannhardt, K., and Novosad, J.J., Chromatographic movement of surfactant mixtures in porous media, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 46(1), 75-84 (1991).
Maranon, E., and Sastre, H., Ion exchange equilibria of heavy metals onto chemically modified apple residues,
Masoliver, J., and Weiss, G.H., Transport equations in chromatography with a finite speed of signal propagation,
Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(2), 279-290 (1991).
Moon, J.K., and Lee, W.K., Adsorption characteristics of cresols with eluent composition in adsorption
Oi, T., et al., Fractionation of lithium isotopes in cation-exchange chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(10),
1353-1376(1991).
Orford, C.D.; Adlard, M.W., and Perry, D., Isolation of gamma-(L-alpha-aminoadipyl)-L-cysteinyl-D-valine
from culture broths by covalent chromatography, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 50(4), 523-534 (1991).
Rice, R.G., and Heft, B.K., Separations via radial flow chromatography in compacted particle beds, AIChE J.,
37(4), 629-632 (1991).
1029
Row, K.H., and Raw, J.I., Parameter estimation of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and monomers of uracil and
thymine in reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(1), 15-24 (1991).
Surakitbanharn, Y.; Muralidharan, S., and Freiser, H., Separation of palladium(II) from platinum(II), iridium(Ill),
and rhodium(IIl) using centrifugal partition chromatography, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 9(1), 45-60 (1991 ).
Suwondo, E., et al., Simulation via orthogonal collocation on finite element of a chromatographic column with
nonlinear isotherm, Chem. Eng. Commun., 102, 161-188 (1991 ).
Takahashi, Y., and Goto, S., Continuous separations of amino acids by using an annular chromatograph with
rotating inlet and outlet, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(1), 1-14 (1991).
Takase, H., and Yoshimura, Y., Mass transfer from a slurry adsorbent to an ion-exchange resin, Int. Chem. Eng.,
31(2), 351-358 (1991).
Ysuji, M., and Komarneni, S., An evaluation method of chromatographic parameters from the ion-exchange
isotherm of A13+-substituted tobermorite cation exchanger, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(5), 647-660 (1991).
Whitley, R.D., et al., Effects of protein aggregation in isocratic nonlinear chromatography, AIChE J., 37(4), 555568(1991).
Wong, J.W.; Albright, R.L., and Wang, N.H.L., Immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC):
Chemistry and bioseparation applications, Sep. Purif. Methods, 20(1), 49-106 (1991).
Worthy, W., New perfusion-chromatography separation method, Chem. Eng. News, 18 November, 25-26 (1991).
Yang, B.L., and Goto, S., Complete separation of albumin and hemoglobin by metal chelate affinity
chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(5), 637-646 (1991 ).
Yasuda, S., and Kawazu, K., Separation of germanium from ethylene glycol distillates by N-methylglucamine
resin, Sep. Sci. Technol., 26(9), 1273-1278 (1991).
Yu, Q., and Do, D.D., Reversed displacement chromatography of adsorptions with unfavourable equilibrium
isotherms, Biochem. Eng. J., 46(3), B93-B98 (1991).
Zecchini, E.J., and Foutch, G.L., Mixed-bed ion-exchange modeling with amine-form cation resins, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 30(8), 1886-1892 (1991).
1992
Alexandratos, S.D., and Kaiser, P.T., Reaction kinetics of polystyrene-based phosphinic acid ion exchange/redox
resins with metal ions, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 10(3), 539-550 (1992).
Anon., Advances in ion exchange, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), September, 63-71 (1992).
Anon., Ion exchange for esterification, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.), 10 December, 14-15 (1992).
Barker, P.E., et al., Bioreaction-separation on continuous chromatographic systems, Biochem. Eng. J., 50(2),
BZ3-BZ8 (1992).
Bauza, R., et al., Separation of mono-, di-, and tri-stearin from an industrial mixture of glycerides by normal- and
reverse-phase HPLC, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(5), 645-662 (1992).
Bhandari, V.M.; Juvekar, V.A., and Patwardhan, S.R., Sorption studies on ion exchange resins: Sorption of
strong acids on weak base resins, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31 (4), 1060-1073 (1992).
Bhandari, V.M.; Juvekar, V.A., and Patwardhan, S.R., Sorption studies on ion exchange resins: Sorption of weak
acids on weak base resins, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(4), 1073-1080 (1992).
Bhandari, V.M.; Juvekar, V.A., and Patwardhan, S.R., Modified shrinking core model for reversible sorption on
ion-exchange resins, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 27(8), 1043-1064 (1992).
Bhattacharyya, D.K., and Dutta, N.C., Role of hydrous titanium oxide on the uptake of several tracer cations, and
separation of carrier-free 125mTefrom I25Sb and 13Zlfrom 132Te,Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(3), 399-408 (1992).
Binous, H., and McCoy, B.J., Chromatographic reactions of three components: Application to separations, Chem.
Eng. Sci., 47(17), 4333-4344 (1992).
Bricio, O.; Coca, J., and Sastre, H., A comparative study of kinetic models for ion-exchange using macroporous
resins and concentrated solutions, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 10(2), 381-400 (1992).
Bridges, S., and Barker, P.E., Modelling continuous chromatographic separations, Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(5), 12991306 (1992).
Brooks, C.A., and Cramer, S.M., Steric mass-action ion exchange: Displacement profiles and induced salt
gradients, AIChE J., 38(12), 1969-1978 (1992).
Calvarin, L.; Roche, B., and Renon, H., Anion exchange and aggregation of dicyanocobalamin with quaternary
ammonium salts in apolar environment, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(7), 1705-1709 (1992).
Carta, G., et al., Chromatography of reversibly reacting mixtures: Mutarotation effects in sugar separations,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(7), 1645-1658 (1992).
1030
Cavender, M.R.; Chiang, H.L., and Myers, K., Optimize ion exchange resins replacement, Chem. Eng. Prog.,
88(9), 56-59 (1992).
Chase, H.A., and Draeger, N.M., Expanded-bed adsorption of proteins using ion-exchangers, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
27(14), 2021-2040 (1992).
Chiarizia, R.; Horwitz, E.P., and Dietz, M.L., Acid dependency of the extraction of selected metal ions by a
strontium-selective extraction chromatographic resin: Calculated vs. experimental curves, Solvent Extr. Ion
Exch., 10(2), 337-362 (1992).
de Bokx, P.K.; Baarslag, P.C., and Urbach, H.P., Calculation and experimental verification of solute retention in
liquid chromatography using binary eluents, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(7), 875-900 (1992).
De Lucas, A.; Zarca, J., and Canizares, P., Ion-exchange equilibrium of Ca2+, Mg 2+, K +, Na +, and H+ ions on
Amberlite IR-120: Experimental determination and theoretical prediction of the ternary and quaternary
equilibrium data, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(6), 823-842 (1992).
Durao, M.I.G.; Costa, C.A.V., and Rodrigues, A.E., Saturation and regeneration of ion exchangers with volume
changes, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31 (11), 2564-2572 (1992).
Eccles, H., and Greenwood, H., Chelate ion-exchangers: The past and future applications, a user's view, Solvent
Extr. Ion Exch., 10(4), 713-728 (1992).
Economopoulos, N., et al., A plant kinetic study of alcoholic fermentation using reversed-flow gas
EI-Naggar, I.M., and Aly, H.F., Kinetics of Cs +, Sc3+, and Eu 3+ exchange on crystalline atimonic acid, Solvent
Extr. Ion Exch., 10(1), 145-158 (1992).
Gu, T., et al., Modeling of gradient elution in multicomponent non-linear chromatography, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
47(1), 253-262 (1992).
Heininger, M.W., and Meloan, C.E., A resin with selectivity for the removal and recovery of chromate from
contaminated water, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 10(1), 159-172 (1992).
Horwitz, E.P.; Chiarizia, R., and Dietz, M.L., A novel strontium-selective extraction chromatographic resin,
Hossain, M.M., and Do, D.D., The effects of denaturation in the displacement chromatographic behaviour of
proteins, Biochem. Eng. J., 49(3), B29-B39 (1992).
Huang, S.Y., and Jin, J.D., Operation strategy for displacement chromatography: Selection of optimum mobile
phase for separation of weak adsorptive nucleotides, Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(1), 21-30 (1992).
Kaur, P., et al., Studies on the sorption behaviour of some amino acids on silica gel pretreated with alkalis in
relation to chromatography, Adsorpt. Sci. Technol., 8(3), 157-173 (1992).
Kim, S.U., et al., Peak compression in stepwise pH elution with flow reversal in ion exchange chromatography,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(7), 1717-1730 (1992).
Larson, K.A., and Wiencek, J.M., Liquid ion exchange for mercury removal from water over a wide pH range,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(12), 2714-2722 (1992).
Lee, K.N., and Lee, W.K., A theoretical model for the separation of glucose and fructose mixtures by using a
semicontinuous chromatographic refiner, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(3), 295-312 (1992).
Leung, B.K.O., and Hudson, M.J., A novel weak-base anion-exchange resin which is highly selective for the
precious metals over base metals, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 10( 1), 173-190 (1992).
Levy, D., et al., Immobilization of quaternary ammonium anion exchangers in sol-gel glasses, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
27(5), 589-598 (1992).
Lewandowski, R., and Lameloise, M.L., Study of exclusion equilibrium between a sucrose-NaCl solution and an
ion exchange resin, Chem. Eng. Process., 31(4), 207-212 (1992).
Mijangos, F., and Diaz, M., Metal-proton equilibrium relations in a chelating iminodiacetic resin, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 31(11), 2524-2532 (1992).
Miyabe, K., and Suzuki, M., Chromatography of liquid-phase adsorption on octadecylsilyl-silica gel, AIChE J.,
38(6), 901-910 (1992).
Mohammad, A.W.; Stevenson, D.G., and Wankat, P.C., Pressure drop correlations and scale-up of size exclusion
chromatography with compressible packings, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(2), 549-561 (1992).
Oi, T., et al., Fractionation of strontium isotopes in cation-exchange chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(5),
631-644 (1992).
Olson, K.C., and Gehant, R.L., Applications of ultrafast HPLC to process development of recombinant DNAderived proteins, Biotechnol. Prog., 8(6), 562-566 (1992).
1031
Panneman, H.J., and Beenackers, A.A.C.M., Solvent effects on the hydration of cyclohexene catalyzed by a
strong acid ion exchange resin: Solubility of cyclohexene in aqueous sulfolane mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res., 31(4), 1227-1231 (1992).
Park, C.M., and Meyer, W., Separation of ~37Cs, 9~ and 232Th in aqueous solution by using a multistage
countercurrent batch contactor ion-exchange system, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(2), 223-238 (1992).
Rodrigues, A.E., et al., Influence of adsorption-desorption kinetics on the performance of chromatographic
processes using large-pore supports, Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(17), 4405-4414 (1992).
Samanta, S.K.; Ramaswamy, M., and Misra, B.M., Studies on cesium uptake by phenolic resins, Sep. Sci.
Yechnol., 27(2), 255-268 (1992).
Savkovic-Stevanovic, J., et al., Reaction distillation with ion exchangers, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(5), 613-630
(1992).
Sengupta, A.K., and Zhu, Y., Metals sorption by chelating polymers: A unique role of ionic strength, AIChE J.,
38(1), 153-157 (1992).
Soldatov, V.S., Mathematical modelling of ion exchange equilibria, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 55(3), 298300 (1992).
Tsuji, M., and Komarneni, S., An extended method for analytical evaluation of distribution coefficients on
selective inorganic ion exchangers, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(6), 813-822 (1992).
Velayudhan, A., and Ladisch, M.R., Effect of modulator sorption in gradient elution chromatography: Gradient
deformation, Chem. Eng. Sci., 47(1), 233-240 (1992).
Viard, V., and Lameloise, M.L., Modelling glucose-fructose separation by adsorption chromatography on ion
exchange resins, J. Food Eng., 17(1), 29-48 (1992).
Yang, B.L., and Goto, S., Separation and concentration of adenosine triphosphate and adenosine monophosphate
by using two chromatographic columns, Sep. Sci. Technol., 27(4), 547-556 (1992).
Yoshida, H.; Shimizu, K., and Kataoka, T., Recovery of amine and paints from electrodeposition wastewater by
an H-form ion exchanger: Desorption process, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 31(3), 934-941 (1992).
1993
Ashrafizadeh, S.N.; Weber, M.E., and Vera, J.H., Cation exchange with reverse micelles, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
32(1), 125-132 (1993).
Besirli, N., and Baysal, B.M., Ion-exchange studies with some complex ions on ion-exchange resil~s, Solvent
Extr. Ion Exch., 11(3), 541-554 (1993).
Bhandari, V.M.; Juvekar, V.A., and Patwardhan, S.R., Sorption of dibasic acids on weak base resins, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 32( 1), 200-206 (1993).
Blazy, P., et al., Selective recovery of rhenium from gas-scrubbing solutions of molybdenite roasting using direct
precipitation and separation on resins, Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(11), 2073-2096 (1993).
Carta, G., and Rodrigues, A.E., Diffusion and convection in chromatographic processes using permeable
supports with a bidisperse pore structure, Chem. Eng. Sci., 48(23), 3927-3935 (1993).
Chiarizia, R., et al., Uptake of metal ions by a new chelating ion-exchange resin: Acid dependencies of transition
and post-transition metal ions, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 11(5), 967-986 (1993).
Choudhary, V.R., and Mayadevi, S., Adsorption of methane, ethane, ethylene, and carbon dioxide on high-silica
pentasil zeolites and zeolite-like materials using gas chromatography pulse technique, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
28(13), 2197-2210 (1993).
Egawa, H., et al., Recovery of uranium from seawater: Long-term stability tests for high-performance chelating
resins containing amidoxime groups and evaluation of elution process, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32(3), 540-547
(1993).
Egawa, H., et al., Recovery of uranium from seawater: System arangements for the recovery of uranium from
seawater by spherical amidoxime chelating resins utilizing natural seawater motions, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
32(4), 709-715 (1993).
EI-Naggar, I.M., et al., Ion-exchange equilibrium of the CuZ+/H+, ZnZ+/H+ and pb2+/H ions on hydrated ferric
oxide, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 11(4), 683-692 (1993).
Felinger, A., and Guiochon, G., The change of pressure drop during large-scale chromatography of viscous
samples, Biotechnol. Prog., 9(5), 450-455 (1993).
Fernandez, A.; Suarez, C., and Diaz, M., Kinetics of metal ion exchange in iminodiacetic resins at low
concentrations, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 58(3), 255-260 (1993).
Fish, B.B.; Carr, R.W., and Aris, R., Optimization of the countercurrent moving-bed chromatographic separator,
AIChE J., 39(10), 1621-1627 (1993).
1032
Fries, W., and Chew, D., Ion exchange to remove heavy metals, Chemtech, 23(2), 32-35 (1993).
Gonzalez-Patino, F.; Catalan, J., and Galan, M.A., Affinity chromatography: Effect of particle size on adsorption
equilibrium and mass transfer kinetics, Chem. Eng. Sci., 48(9), 1567-1574 (1993).
Hashim, M.A.; Chu, K.H., and Tsan, P.S., Ion-exchange equilibria of conalbumin and myoglobin, Food Bioprod.
Process., 71(C4), 273-278 (1993).
Hayashita, T., et al., Effect of ring-size variation within dibenzocrown ether resins upon ion-pair sorption of
alkali-metal cations from aqueous and aqueous methanol solutions, Sep. Sci. Technol., 28(17), 2607-2620
(1993).
Hejtmanek, V., and Schneider, P., Axial dispersion under liquid-chromatography conditions, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
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Kaneko, H.; Tsuji, M., and Tamaura, Y., Thermodynamic study of M3+/H+ exchange systems on titanium
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Komatsu, Y.; Fujiki, Y., and Sasaki, T., Ion-exchange separation of sodium and potassium ions on dihydrogen
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Konishi, Y., et al., Recovery of zinc, cadmium, and lanthanum by biopolymer gel particles of alginic acid, Sep.
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Kraaijeveld, G., and Wesselingh, J.A., The kinetics of film-diffusion-limited ion exchange, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
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Locke, B.R., and Arce, P., Modeling electrophoretic transport of polyelectrolytes in beds of nonporous spheres,
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Lumetta, G.J., et al., Preliminary evaluation of chromatographic techniques for the separation of radionuclides
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Metwally, M.S., and Samy, T.M., Selectivity of M+-H+ ion-exchange absorption on sulfonic resins in ternary
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Park, W.K., and Michaels, E.D., Displacement band chromatography of hydrogen sulfites for enrichment of
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1033
Romdhane, I.H., and Danner, R.P., Polymer-solvent diffusion and equilibrium parameters by inverse gas-liquid
Rudge, S.R.; Basak, S.K., and Ladisch, M.R., Solute retention in electrochromatography by electrically induced
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Sarmidi, M.R., and Barker, P.E., Saccharification of modified starch to maltose in a continuous rotating annular
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Tsuji, M.; Komarneni, S., and Abe, M., Ion-exchange selectivity for alkali metal ions on a cryptomelane-type
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Whitley, R.G.; Van Cott, K.E., and Wang, N.Iq.L., Analysis of nonequilibrium adsorption/desorption kinetics and
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Yamamoto, S.; Suehisa, T., and Sano, Y.J., Preparative separation of proteins by gradient-elution and stepwiseelution chromatography: Zone-sharpening effect, Chem. Eng. Commun., 119, 221-230 (1993).
Yonemoto, T., et al., A novel continuous rotating annular liquid chromatograph with a multichannel peristaltic
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Zhong, G.M., and Meunier, F., Linear perturbation chromatography theory: Moment solution for two-component
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Zhong, G.M., and Meunier, F., Interference theory: Moment solution for two-component nonequilibrium
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1994
Alan, D.J., and Franses, E.I., Ion adsorption and ion exchange in ultrathin films of fatty acids, AIChE J., 40(6),
1046-1054 (1994).
Ashley, K.R., et al., Sorption behavior of pertechnetate on Reillex-HPQ anion exchange resin from nitric acid
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Bhagat, R.D., and Turel, Z.R., Radiochemical separation of thallium(I) using cerium(IV) molybdate as an ionexchanger, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 29(5), 663-670 (1994).
Bloomingburg, G.F., and Carta, G., Separation of protein mixtures by continuous annular chromatography with
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1034
Carrere, H., et al., Whey proteins extraction by fluidized ion exchange chromatography: Isotherms determination
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Chang, R.M., and Lee, W.C., An affinity adsorbent derived from aminopropyl silica for serine protease
Chaudhary, A.J., et al., Heavy metals in the environment: Anion exchange properties of poly-4-vinyl pyridine
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Chiarizia, R., and Horwitz, E.P., Uptake of metal ions by a new chelating ion-exchange resin: Calculations on the
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Chiarizia, R.; Horwitz, E.P., and Alexandratos, S.D., Uptake of metal ions by a new chelating ion-exchange
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Ching, C.B.; Chu, K.H., and Hidajat, K., Multicomponent separation using a column-switching chromatographic
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Cortina, J.L., et al., Solvent impregnated resins containing di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid: Preparation and
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Cortina, J.L., et al., Solvent impregnated resins containing di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid: Study of the
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Davies, V.R., Troubleshoot ion-exchange equipment, Chem. Eng. Prog., 90(1), 63-71 (1994).
de Lucas Martinez, A.; Zarca Diaz, J., and Canizares, P.C., Ion-exchange equilibrium in a binary mixture:
Models for its characterization, Int. Chem. Eng., 34(4), 486-497 (1994).
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El-Naggar, I.M." Abdel Hamid, M.M., and Aly, H.F., Kinetics and mechanism of isotopic exchange for
Co2+/*Co2+ in tin(IV) antimonate, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 12(3), 651-665 (1994).
Felinger, A., and Guiochon, G., Optimizing experimental conditions for minimum production cost in preparative
Fernandez, A.; Rendueles, M., and Diaz, M., Co-ion behavior at high concentration cationic ion exchange, Ind.
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Fernandez, A.; Rodrigues, A.E., and Diaz, M., Modelling of K-Na exchange in fixed beds with highly
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Giona, M., et al., Simplified analysis of chromatographic-column dynamics, Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(4), 541-548
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Grzywnowicz, K., and Lobarzewski, J., A purification method for specific serine proteases using one-step affinity
Guria, C., and Chanda, M., Shell-core models for ion-exchanger loading in finite bath: Sorption of aqueous
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Gusler, G.M., and Cohen, Y., Equilibrium swelling of highly cross-linked polymeric resins, Ind. Eng. Chem.
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Hairston, D., Markets for ion exchange resins, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), June, 57-59 (1994).
Haupt, R.A., and Sellers, T., Characterizations of phenol-formaldehyde resol resins, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 33(3),
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Horwitz, E.P.; Chiarizia, R., and Alexandratos, S.D., Uptake of metal ions by a new chelating ion-exchange
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Ihsanullah, H., Optimization of various factors for the separation of technetium using anion-exchange resins, Sep.
Sci. Yechnol., 29(2), 239-248 (1994).
Kabay, N., Use of weak-acid cation-exchange resins Purolite C105(H +) and Purolite C106(H for the adsorption
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Kallrath, J., et al., Simulation of chromatographic reactors, Comput. Chem. Eng., 18(supplement), $331-$336
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Kitakawa, A.; Yonemoto, T., and Tadaki, T., A mathematical model for the separation of amino acids using ion
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1035
Mehablia, M.A.; Shallcross, D.C., and Stevens, G.W., Prediction of multicomponent ion exchange equilibria,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 49(14), 2277-2286 (1994).
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Miyabe, K., and Suzuki, M., Mass-transfer phenomena on the surface of adsorbents in reversed-phase
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Murty, B.N.; Yadav, R.B., and Syamsundar, S., Preparation of high-purity zirconia from zircon: An anionexchange purification process, Sep. Sci. Yechnol., 29(2), 249-260 (1994).
Nash, K.L., et al., Uptake of metal ions by a new chelating ion exchange resin: Protonation constants via
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Parkinson, G., Industrial scale innovations in chromatography, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), August, 30-33 (1994).
Pehlivan, E., and Yildiz, S., Column chromatography and kinetics of nucleosides and nucleic acid bases on
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Robinson, S.M.; Arnold, W.D., and Byers, C.H., Mass-transfer mechanisms for zeolite ion exchange in
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Sabharwal, K.N.; Vasudeva Rao, P.R., and Srinivasan, M., Extraction of actinides by bifunctional phosphinic
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Suchorebraya, S.A., et al., On the studies of molybdenum(Vl) sorption on titanium phosphate's ion exchangers,
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Sep. Sci. Technol., 29(10), 1311-1318 (1994).
Tan, H.K.S., and Spinner, I.H., MuIticomponent ion exchange column dynamics, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 72(2), 330341 (1994).
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Tyc, I., and Green, B.R., Phenol-formaldehyde based weak-base resins for the recovery of gold, Solvent Extr. Ion
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Vamos, R.J., and Haas, C.N., Reduction of ion-exchange equilibria data using an error in variables approach,
AIChE J., 40(3), 556-569 (1994).
Whitley, R.D.; Zhang, X., and Wang, N.H.L., Protein denaturation in nonlinear isocratic and gradient elution
1995
Ahrnad, J., The use of impregnated silica gel layers and modified celluloses in thin-layer chromatographic
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Alexandratos, S.D., and Hussain, L.A., Bifunctionality as a means of enhancing complexation kinetics in
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Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 34(8), 2796-2810 (1995).
Ashley, K.R., et al., Sorption behavior of perrhenate and oxochromium(VI) on Reillex-HPQ anion exchange
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Ayar, A., Yildiz, S., and Pehlivan, E., Ligand-exchange chromatography of some amino acids on Co(II)-loaded
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Bilewicz, A., and Narbutt, J., Specific and nonspecific interactions of amine complexes of silver, zinc, and
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1036
Bunzl, K., Calculation of the Helfferich number to identify the rate-controlling step of ion exchange for a batch
process, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 34(8), 2584-2587 (1995).
Cannell, K.P., and Vincent, J.B., Metal ion concentration, time, and pH dependence of metal ion binding to a
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Chiarizia, R., et al., Uptake of metal ions by a new chelating ion-exchange resin: Alkaline earth cations, Solvent
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Chowdiah, V., and Foutch, G.L., A kinetic model for cationic-exchange-resin regeneration, Ind. Eng. Chem.
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Clearfield, A., Inorganic ion exchangers: A technology ripe for development, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 34(8), 28652872 (1995).
Cloete, F.L.D., and Marais, A.P., Recovery of very dilute acetic acid using ion exchange, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
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De Kock, F.P., and Van Deventer, J.S.J., Statistical thermodynamic model for competitive ion exchange, Chem.
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de Lucas, A., et al., Ion-exchange equilibria of DL-lysine monohydrochloride on Amberlite IRA-420, Solvent
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de Lucas, A.; Canizares, P., and Rodriguez, J.F., Removal of alkaline catalysts from polyols by ion exchange:
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Ersoz, M.; Vural, U.S., and Yildiz, S., Sorption of aromatic amines on a new ligand exchanger of sporopolleninbound Co 2+ ion, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(18), 3555-3566 (1995).
Farschman, C.A.; Manos, J.B., and Pinto, N.G., Short-fiber chromatography columns: Potential for process-scale
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Fernandez, A.; Diaz, M., and Rodrigues, A., Kinetic mechanisms in ion exchange processes, Chem. Eng. J.,
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Gerstner, J.A., et al., Take another look at displacement chromatography, Chemtech, 25(11), 27-32 (1995).
Hashim, M.A.; Chu, K.H., and Tsan, P.S., Effects of ionic strength and pH on the adsorption equilibria of
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Hayashi, H., et al., Thermodynamics of alkali and alkaline earth metal ion-exchange on cerium(IV) hydrogen
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Jarvis, N.V.; Wagener, J.M., and Hancock, R.D., Evaluation of a diethanolamine chelating resin using two-phase
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Jen, S.C., and Pinto, N.G., Nonlinear chromatography of beta-lactoglobulins A and B, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
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Kataoka, T., et al., Mass transfer of dilute soluble silica in a fixed bed of an OH--type strong anion exchange
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Kitakawa, A., et al., Modeling and simulation of continuous rotating annular ion-exchange chromatography for
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1037
Krishnamurthy, R., et al., Conditions promoting metal-catalyzed oxidations during immobilized Cu-iminodiacetic
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Ladisch, M.; Westgate, P., and Brewer, M., Framework for correlating composition dependent equilibrium
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Law, R.V.; Sherrington, D.C., and Korosu, H., Solid state 13C-MAS/NMR studies of anion exchange resins and
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Lee, W.C.; Hsiao, C.C., and Ruaan, R.C., Affinity chromatography of glucose-specific lectin using silica-based
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Limoni-Relis, B., and Schmuckler, G., Interseparation of platinum metals in concentrated solution by gel
permeation chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 30(3), 337-346 (1995).
Lorenz, L.F., and Christiansen, A.W., Interactions of phenolic resin alkalinity, moisture content, and care
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Maeda, H.; Egawa, H., and Jyo, A., Preparation of chelating resins selective to boric acid by functionalization of
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Martinez, M.; Carrancio, A., and Aracil, J., Evaluation of kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of amino acids
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Matsunaga, H.; Sun, W., and Chow, A., Extraction characteristics of niobium(V) and tantalum(V) on
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Meier, L.; Terrell, K., and Vincent, J.B., Use of thermolysin metalloprotein affinity metal chromatography in the
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Melis, S.; Cao, G., and Morbidelli, M., A new model for the simulation of ion exchange equilibria, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 34(11), 3916-3924 (1995).
Menendez, F., et al., Separation of cobalt(II) and nickel(II) ions from acid aqueous solutions by Co2+-2H+ ionexchange into gamma-titanium phosphate, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 13(1), 179-187 (1995).
Miyabe, K., and Suzuki, M., Solvent effect on adsorption phenomena in reversed-phase liquid chromatography,
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Miyabe, K., and Suzuki, M., Chromatographic study on liquid-phase adsorption on octadecylsilyl-silica gel,
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Mohammad, A., and Tiwari, S., Thirty-five years of thin-layer chromatography in the analysis of inorganic
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Nesbitt, A.B., and Petersen, F.W., Feasibility of recovering high-valency metal cyanide complexes with a
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1039
1996
Aly, H.M., Kinetic studies on Na + and K+ exchange on cerium phosphate, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 14(1), 171177 (1996).
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1040
Frey, D.D., Local-equilibrium behavior of retained pH and ionic strength gradients in preparative
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1041
Mehablia, M.A.; Shallcross, D.C., and Stevens, G.W., Ternary and quaternary ion exchange equilibria, Solvent
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1042
Zhong, G., and Guiochon, G., Analytical solution for the linear ideal model of simulated moving bed
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Achuthan, P.V.; Janardanan, C., and Ramanujam, A., Water sorption isotherms and ionic hydration of uranium
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1043
Hasnat, A., and Juvekar, V.A., Dynamics of ion-exchange involving multivalent cations, Chem. Eng. Sci.,
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Kitakawa, A.; Yamanishi, Y., and Yonemoto, T., Complete separation of amino acids using continuous rotating
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Lilga, M.A,; Orth, R.J., and Sukamto, J.P.H., Metal ion separations using electrically switched ion exchange,
Sep. Purif. Yechnol., 11(3), 147-158 (1997).
Lucas, A.D., et al., Potassium removal from water-methanol-polyol mixtures by ion exchange on Amberlite 252,
Chem. Eng. J., 66(2), 137-148 (1997).
Luo, R.G., and Hsu, J.T., Rate parameters and gradient correlations for gradient-elution chromatography, AIChE
J., 43(2), 464-474 (1997).
Luo, R.G., and Hsu, J.T., Optimization of gradient profiles in ion-exchange chromatography for protein
purification, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(2), 444-450 (1997).
Ma, Z., and Wang, N.H.L., Standing wave analysis of SMB chromatography: Linear systems, AIChE J., 43(10),
2488-2508 (1997).
Mardan, A., Enrichment of boron-10 by inverse-frontal chromatography using quaternized 4-vinylpyridinedivinylbenzene and anion-exchange resin, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(13), 2115-2125 (1997).
Marquez, N.; Subero, N., and Anton, R.E., Effect of alkylate isomerism upon surfactant retention in an HPLC
column and partitioning between water and oil, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(6), 1087-1098 (1997).
Matijasevic, L.; Vasic-Racki, D., and Pavlovic, N., Separation of glucose/fructose mixtures: Analysis of elution
of profiles, Chem. Eng. J., 65(3), 209-212 (1997).
McNulty, J.Y., The many faces of ion-exchange resins, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), June, 94-100 (1997).
Milan, Z., et al., Ammonia removal from anaerobically treated piggery manure by ion exchange in columns
packed with homoionic zeolite, Chem. Eng. J., 66(1), 65-72 (1997).
Miyabe, K., and Takeuchi, S., Surface diffusion phenomena in reversed-phase liquid chromatography with
methanol/water and acetonitrile/water mixtures, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(10), 4335-4341 (1997).
Miyoshi, H., Diffusion coefficients of ions through ion-exchange membranes for Donnan dialysis using ions of
the same valence, Chem. Eng. Sci., 52(7), 1087-1096 (1997).
Muralidharan, P.K., and Ching, C.B., Determination of multicomponent adsorption equilibria by liquid
Nakayama, M., and Egawa, H., Recovery of gallium(III) from strongly alkaline media using a Kelex-100-loaded
ion-exchange resin, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(10), 4365-4368 (1997).
Nikolaev, N.P.; Muraviev, D.N., and Muhammed, M., Dual-temperature ion-exchange separation of copper and
zinc by different techniques, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(1), 849-866 (1997).
1044
Noriega, J.A.; Tejeda, A., and Magana, I. Modeling column regeneration effects on dye-ligand affinity
Oi, T.; Shimazaki, H., and Ishii, R., Boron isotope fractionation in liquid chromatography with boron-specific
resins as column packing material, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(11), 1821-1834 (1997).
Pais, L.S.; Loureiro, J.M., and Rodrigues, A.E., Separation of 1,1'-bi-2-naphthol enantiomers by continuous
chromatography in simulated moving bed, Chem. Eng. Sci., 52(2), 245-258 (1997).
Porter, C.E.; Riley, F.D., and Vandergrift, R.D., Fermium purification using Teva resin extraction
Prazeres, D.M.F., A theoretical analogy between multistage ultrafiltration and size-exclusion chromatography,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 52(6), 953-960 (1997).
Ramirez-Vick, J.E., and Garcia, A.A., Recent developments in the use of group-specific ligands for affinity
bioseparations, Sep. Purif. Methods, 25(2), 85-130 (1997).
Rastogi, R.K.; Mahajan, M.A., and Chaudhuri, N.K., Separation of thorium from uranium product at the tail end
of thorium fuel reprocessing using macroporous cation-exchange resin, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(10), 1711-1723
(1997).
Rendueles, M.; Fernandez, A., and Diaz, M., Coupling of ion exchange with industrial processes: Application in
fertilizer production and modeling of the key elution step, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(1), 143-168 (1997).
Rendueles, M.; Fernandez, A., and Diaz, M., Sorption of counter and co-ions at high concentration in ion
exchangers, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(4), 665-688 (1997).
Rincon, J., et al., Selection of a cation exchange resin to produce lactic acid solutions from whey fermentation
broths, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(2), 329-346 (1997).
Robichaud, M.J.; Sathyagal, A.N., and Can', P.W., An improved oil emulsion synthesis method for large, porous
zirconia particles for packed- or fluidized-bed protein chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(15), 25472559 (1997).
Roddick, F.A., and Britz, M.L., Production of hexanoic acid by free and immobilised cells of Megasphaera
elsdenii: Influence of in-situ product removal using ion exchange resin, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 69(3),
383-391 (1997).
Rogers, R.D.; Griffin, S.T., and Horwitz, E.P., Aqueous biphasic extraction chromatography (ABEC): Uptake of
pertechnetate from simulated Hanford tank wastes, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(4), 547-562 (1997).
Shalliker, R.A., et al., Examination of various pore size zirconias for potential chromatographic applications,
Powder Yechnol., 91 ( 1), 17-24 (1997).
Shelley, S., Ion exchange curb water and chemical use, Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), December, 117-118 (1997).
Simon, G., et al., Preparative-scale separation of amino acids by using thermal ion exchange parametric pumping,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 52(4), 467-480 (1997).
Sujatha, V.; Sarma, C.B., and Raju, G.J.V.J., Studies on ionic mass transfer with coaxially placed helical tapes on
a rod in forced convection flow, Chem. Eng. Process., 36(1), 67-74 (1997).
Tanaka, Y., and Ysuji, M., Thermodynamic study of alkali metal ions/proton exchanges on an alpha-type
manganese dioxide, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(4), 709-729 (1997).
Tsaur, Y., and Shallcross, D.C., Comparison of simulated performance of fixed ion exchange beds in linear and
radial flow, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(4), 689-708 (1997).
Tsaur, Y., and Shallcross, D.C., Modeling of ion exchange performance in a fixed radial flow annular bed, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res., 36(6), 2359-2367 (1997).
van Buel, M.J.; van der Wielen, L.A.M., and Luyben, C.C.A.M., Effluent concentration profiles in centrifugal
partition chromatography, AIChE J., 43(3), 693-702 (1997).
Various, New adsorbents and ion exchange materials (topic issue), Adsorption, 3(1), 5-105 (1997).
Varotsis, N., and Pasadakis, N., Rapid quantitative determination of aromatic groups in lubricant oils using gel
permeation chromatography, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(12), 5516-5519 (1997).
Vlasenko, E.V.; Gavrilova, T.B., and Daidakova, I.V., Intermolecular interactions in gas chromatography on
carbon black coated with monolayers of hydrocarbons with different electronic structures, Adsorpt. Sci.
Yechnol., 15(2), 79-90 (1997).
Warshawsky, A., et al., Solvent-impregnated resins via acid-base interaction of poly(4-vinylpyridine) resin and
di(2-ethylhexyl) dithio-phosphoric acid, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 15(2), 259-284 (1997).
Williams, C.J., and Edyvean, R.G.J., Ion exchange in nickel biosorption by seaweed materials, Biotechnol. Prog.,
13(4), 424-428 (1997).
1045
Wolfgang, J.; Prior, A., and Byers, C.H., Continuous separation of carbohydrates by ion-exchange
chromatography, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(1 ), 71-82 (1997).
Wu, D.J., et al., Recovery and purification of paclitaxel using low-pressure liquid chromatography, AIChE J.,
43(1), 232-242 (1997).
Yun, T.; Zhong, G.M., and Guiochon, G., Experimental study of the influence of the flow rates in SMB
Zagorodni, A.A.; Muiraviev, D.N., and Muhammed, M., The separation of Zn and Cu using chelating ion
exchangers and temperature variations, Sep. Sci. Technol., 32(1), 413-429 (1997).
Zheng, L.G., Some practical properties of sec-alkyl (C11-13) hydrogen styrylphosphonate, Solvent Extr. Ion
Exch., 15(6), 1043-1049 (1997).
Zheng, Z.; Anthony, R.G., and Miller, J.E., Modeling multicomponent ion exchange utilizing hydrous crystalline
silicotitanates by a multiple interactive ion exchange site model, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36(6), 2427-2434
(1997).
Zhong, G., and Guiochon, G., Simulated moving bed chromatography: Effects of axial dispersion and mass
transfer under linear conditions, Chem. Eng. Sci., 52(18), 3117-3132 (1997).
Zhong, G., and Guiochon, G., Simulated moving bed chromatography: Comparison between the behaviors under
linear and nonlinear conditions, Chem. Eng. Sci., 52(23), 4403-4418 (1997).
Zhong, G.M.; Smith, M.S., and Guiochon, G., Effect of the flow rates in linear, ideal, simulated moving-bed
Zurer, P.S., Chromatography and mass spectrometry, Chem. Eng. News, 31 March, 42-47 (1997).
LIST OF J O U R N A L S S U R V E Y E D
Abbreviation
Adsorption Journal
Adsorption Science and Technology
Advances in Chemical Engineering
American Institute of Chemical Engineers Journal
Ammonia Plant Safety
Biotechnology Progress
Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering
Catalysis Reviews in Science and Engineering
Chemical Engineering (McGraw-Hill, New York)
The Chemical Engineer (IChemE, UK)
Chemical Engineering in Australia
Chemical Engineering Communications
Chemical Engineering Education
Chemical Engineering Journal
(including Biochemical Engineering Journal)
Chemical and Engineering News
Chemical Engineering and Processing
Chemical Engineering Progress
Chemical Engineering Research and Design
Chemical Engineering Science
Chemistry and Industry
Chemtech
Computers in Chemical Engineering
Developments in Chemical Engineering
and Mineral Proceesing
Energy and Fuels
Energy World
Environmental Progress
Food and Bioproducts Processing
Fuel
Adsorption
Adsorpt. Sci. Technol.
Adv. Chem. Eng.
AIChE J.
Ammonia Plant Safety
Biotechnol. Prog.
Can. J. Chem. Eng.
Catal. Rev. Sci. Eng.
Chem. Eng. (N.Y.)
Chem. Eng. (Rugby, Engl.)
Chem. Eng. Aust.
Chem. Eng. Commun.
Chem. Eng. Educ.
Chem. Eng. J.
(Biochem. Eng. J.)
Chem. Eng. News
Chem. Eng. Process.
Chem. Eng. Prog.
Chem. Eng. Res. Des.
Chem. Eng. Sci.
Chem. Ind. (London)
Chemtech
Comput. Chem. Eng.
Dev. Chem. Eng. Mineral Process.
Energy Fuels
Energy World
Environ. Prog.
Food Bioprod. Process.
Fuel
1046
Gas Separation and Purification

Hydrocarbon Processing
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
Process Design and Development
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
Journal of Applied Chemistry
Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology
Journal of Food Engineering
Journal of Institute of Energy
Journal of Institute of Fuel
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries
Powder Handling and Processing
Powder Technology
Plant/Operations Progress
Process Engineering
Processing
Process Safety and Environmental Protection
Process Safety Progress
Separation and Purification Methods
Separation Science
Separation Science and Technology
Separation Technology
Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange
Transactions of IChemE
Gas Sep. Purif.

Hydrocarbon Process.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
J. Appl. Chem.
J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol.
J. Food Eng.
J. Inst. Energy
J. Inst. Fuel
J. Loss Prev. Process Ind.
Powder Handling Process.
Powder Technol.
Plant/Operations Prog.
Process Eng. (London)
Processing (Sutton, Engl.)
Process Safety Environ. Prot.
Process Safety Prog.
Sep. Purif. Methods
Sep. Sci.
Sep. Sci. Technol.
Sep. Technol.
Solvent Extr. Ion Exch.
Trans. IChemE
1047
Subject Index
A
Activated carbon
for enrichment and separation of
toxic metals, 771
modification for the analytical
purposes, 772-783
Activated Carbon Fibres (ACF), 740
Adhesion
soot particles to polymeric surface,
194-198
work, 178
Adsorbent
activated carbons, 639,640,
808-810,817
activated carbons for ELCD, 821 et
seq.
BWC test, 822,824
GWC test, 822,824
SHED test, 822,824
production, 825-830
adsorption - active based on natural
sorbents, 700-715
adsorption of NOx, 435
boehmite, 394
carbon materials for vapour
pollutants, 397 et seq.
activated carbons from
lignocelulosic origin, 398,406-414
glassy carbons, 398, 407-415
carbon nanotubes, 639,640
dessicant materials, 839
elutrilithe, 382,383
for tobacco smoke, 852
GAC, 763
gibbsite, 394
natural, their structure and
properties, 659-670
new composite, 381 et seq.

selective and reversible for
adsorption of NOx
CuO - based, 444-449
mixed metal oxides, 442-444
sulfated metal oxides, 449-481
superconducting, 442
slag media, 533
zeolites, 245 et seq., 639,640
Adsorption
and space craft applications
carbon dioxide removal (Skylab),
460-463
future directions, 466,467
trace contaminant control,
458-460
water recovery, 463-466
CFCs in faujasite zeolite, 275-280
in polarographic/voltammetric
environmental analysis, 111 et seq.
from very diluted atmospheres by
carbons
differential heats, 419,422,423
under dynamic conditions,
417-430
in life support systems, 455 et seq.
inside zeolites - molecular modelling,
246,259-265,273-275
in space environmental control, 455
et seq.
microbial, 843
of cations on carbonates, 367-369
of cations on clay minerals, 362-367
of corrosion inhibitors, 867-89determining surface excess,
872-877
1048
differential capacity curves of
EDL, 867-872
of exchangeable of ions on the metal
oxides, 355-362
of metals to living or dead cells, 904
of microorganisms to surfaces, 842
of phosphorus by slag media, 533 et
seq.
of the toxic ions by activated
carbons, 783- 797
of trace metal cations in soils, see
also Sorption, 319 et seq.
of vapour polutants by carbons, 397
et seq.
nitric oxides, 435 et seq.
from combustion gases, 435 et
seq.
on ion - exchanged zeolites,
437-441
on electrode, 112,113
on ideal activated carbon for ELCD
test, 824
on layer deposited along optical
fibre, 935-937
on powdered activated carbon,
726,727
on solid aerosol surfaces, 571 et seq.
of organic compounds on inorganic
oxides, 580-606
of organic pollutants on
heterogeneous surfaces, 577-580
phenomena in electroanalysis,
111,112
sampling and sample preparation,
8-14
surfactants
application in carbody
experimental techniques, 178-180
on diesel engine soot, 177,178,
190-194
washing, 177 et seq.
supercritical gases by nanospaces,
635 et seq.
Adsorption excess, 179

of surfactants at interface, 203
Adsorption heat pumps, 949
general idea, 949
operating principles, 950,951
prototypes and tests, 971-975
refrigerants and adsorbents, 951-953
thermodynamic cycles, 953-963
thermodynamic performances,
963-970
Adsorption isotherm
DR, 643
for phenol compounds, 386-389
Frumkin, 867,877
Gibbs, 179, 873
on unwashed diesel engine soot,
188,189
virial, 867,884
Adsorption potential
Lennard-Jones, 640,643
Steel, 640
Adsorption, see also Sorption
phenomena in environmental
systems, 285
Adsorptive Stripping Potentiometry
(AdSP),112
Adsorptive Stripping Tensammetry
(AdST),122
Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry
(AdSV),ll2
Air Purification (AP), 213
Air Revitalization System (ARS), 457
Airborne microbes, 834-836
Amino-Methyl Phosphonic Acid
(AMPA), 724
Analysis of surfactants
in the aquatic environment, 135 et
seq.
solved and unresolved
questions, 135-168
in the aquatic environment
initial steps, 137,138
ionic surfactants, 140-150
non-ionic surfactants, 150-162
1049
separation of surfactants and
their metabolites, 138-140
Anodic Stripping Voltammetry
(ASV),II3
Apollo, 463
Aquatic environment, 135
concentrations of surfactants, 149
Artificial kidney, 77
Artificial liver, 77
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS),
798
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AES),
8OO
B
Boyd-Adamson-Myers (BAM) theory,
746
Bed Capacity Factor (BCF), 216
Benzoic Acid(BA),82
Benzoylperoxide(BPO),82
Bibliography,
on adsorption and adsorptive type
separations for environmental
protection, 979 et seq.
Biological fluids, 77-85
Biomineralization, 904,905
Biosorption
and detoxification of heavy metals,
904
and metal-bacteria interactions,
904-906
marine environmental, 904
Bismuth Active Substances (BIAS)
method, 152
Blood Urea Nitrogen(BUN),83
Breakthrough curves, 545
for different beds, 848,853
for GAC beds, 729-733
for slag media, 545-547
Breakthrough moment, 733
Butane Working Capacity (BWC) test,
822
C
Capillary Electrochromatography
(CEC), 31
Capillary Electrophoresis (CE), 31, 83
Capillary Gel Electrophoresis(CGE),31
Capillary Isoelectric Foeusing(CIEF),31
Capillary Isotachophoresis(CITP),31
Capillary Zone Electrophoresis
(CZE),31, 84
Carbody surfaces
contact angle measurements,
201-204
wetting by adsorption surfactants,
198-203
Carbody washing
adsorption of surfactants as
condition, 208-210
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), 323
Cell surface layer (S-layer), 903
CFCs, 246
Chemical transducer, 926,940
Chemisorption
and surface reactions on
metaloxides, 606-626
on solid aerosol surfaces, 571 et seq.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 214, 949
Chornobyl nuclear power plant, 698
natural sorbents as decontamination
agents, 698-700
Chromatography
definitions and applications, 14-31
Clapeyron diagram, 954
Cobalt Thiocynate Active Substances
(CTAS) method, 154
Coefficient Of Performance (COP), 963
Colloid science
in the soil systems, 351 et seq.
Combustion gas, 435,436
Complexation
behaviour of organophosphorus
polymer-supported reagents,
475-492
selective of metal ions, 473 et seq.
1050
Computational studies
on the design of zeolite catalysts and
novel adsorbents, 245
for pollution control, 246 et seq.
Computer simulation methods, 246
Molecular Dynamics (MD) method,
246
Monte Carlo (MC) method, 246
Condensation Nucleus Counter (CNC),
846
Contaminant
pesticides in the surface water,
723,724
Control
of air pollution by adsorption, 807
adsorbents, 807
adsorption isotherms, 811,812
fixed bed probes, 812-816
of environment in space station,
455-458
Corrosion
mechanism, 863
Corrosion inhibitors, 863-867
Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC),
181
Crystal growth
the influence of bacteria in, 903
Crystal promotion, 906,907
Crystallization
environmental applications, 903-905
physiological role, 905
D
Detergency
carbody surface, 204-207
Diesel- Exhaust Particles (DEP), 178
Diesel engine soot
characterization, 185-189
Diffusion
inside zeolites - molecular modelling,
246,259-265
Diffusion coefficient, 399
Dimethyl Methylphosphonate
(DMMP), 213
Double Electrical Layer, see also
Electrical Double Layer
basis for electrochemical
analysis, 111
Dual Mechanism Bifunctional
Polymers (DMBPs), 481-484
E
Electric Double Layer (EDL), see also
Double Electrical Layer, 287, 288, 867
charge density, 886
diffuse charge density, 353
Gouy- Chapman (GC) model, 353
Gouy-Chapman-Stern-Grahame
(GCSG) model, 288
Inner Helmholtz Plane (IHP), 355
MUSIC model, 354
soil/soil solution interface, 322
Stern layer model, 322
zeta potential, 354
Electroanalytical methods
polarography/voltammetry, 111-113
Adsorptive Stripping
Potentiometry (AdSP),112
Tensammetry (AdST), 122
Voltammetry (AdSV),112,113
Anodic Stripping Voltammetry
(ASV),III-113
Electrochemical Detector (ECD),78
Electrode
charge, 873
potential, 873
Elutrilithe, 381
chemical composition, 383
Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence
(EDXRF), 794
Engine
diesel, 435
gasoline, 435
1051
catalysts, 435,436
lean- burn, 436
reach- burn,
442
Enrichment (E), 216
Enthalpy
of adsorption on glassy carbons, 428
Environmental
analysis, 770,771
evaluation of the environmental
profiles, 772-774
Environmental analysis, 78
adsorption phenomena, 3 et seq.
adsorption in polarographic/
voltammetric, 111 et seq.
Adsorption Stripping Voltammetry
(AdSV) methods,112-125
chromatographic methods, 14-33
miscellaneous electroanalytical
methods, 125-131
electrocapillary, 129-131
other methods, 131
tensammetry, 127-129
micellaneous methods, 31-33
sampling methods 4,8-14
steps, 3,14
Environmental Control and Life
Support System (ECLSS), 456
design of, 456-458
Environmental media, 3
Environmental pollution
diesel engines and DEP, 178
general problem, 571-574
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), 463
Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS),
838
Equation
Dubinin - Isotova (DI), 413
Dubinin - Radushkevich (DR), 401
Freundlich, 725
Kelvin, 195
Koryta, 113
Young, 203
Equivalent Background Concentration

(EBC) model, 725
Evaporative Loss Control Devices
(ELCD) filtres, 821
Extraction
biovailability of metals, 341-344
metal leachability from the soil to
phosphorous - based complexants,
474-492
the ground water, 344,345
selective sequential from soils,
331-335
solvent with soluble complexants,
473
F
Fibre Optical Chemical Sensor (FOCS),
925
adsorption-based optical
transduction in, 925 et seq.
applications, 940-946
construction, 925,926
working principles, 930-934
Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
(FANS)
FTIR, 780,783
G
G immunoglobulins (IgG), 904
Gas Chromatography (GC),21-26
Gas-Liquid Chromatography(GLC),78
Gasoline Working Capacity (GWC), 822
equipment, 823
Gemini, 463
Global environmental problems, 214
emission control of greenhouse
gases, 214
emission control of ozone depletion
gases, 214
recovery of CFCs and VOC, 214
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), 905
Granular Activated Carbon (GAC), 724
1052
Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption
Spectrometer (GFAAS), 786
Greenhouse effect, 949
Groundwater treatment, 766
H
Halobacteria, 903
Hamaker constant, 197, 375
Hanging Mercury Drop
Electrode (HMD E), 155
Heterogeneous atmospheric organic
chemistry, 572,627
Heterogeneous catalysts
environment- friendly, 246
Friedel-Crafts, 246
hazardous, 246
molecular shape selectivity, 259
zeolites, 245 et seq.
High Performance Liquid
Chromatography(HPLC),15-21
Homogeneous Surface Diffusion Model
(HSDM), 728
HPLC - Mass Spectrometry(MS),82
HPLC,78
Ideal Adsorbed Solution Theory (IAST),

725
In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU),
466
Indirect Tensammetric Method
(ITM),156
Indirect Tensammetric Technique
(ITT),156
Indoor
air pollutants, 833-836
Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic
Emission Spectrometer (ICPAES), 538
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic
Emission Spectroscopy(ICP-AES), 123
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectroscopy(I CP-MS), 124
Infrared Spectroscopy (IRS), 442
International Space Station (ISS),

456-458
Inverse Gas Solid Chromatography
(IGSC), 399
Ion exchange, 449-451
and sewages, 504-521
in soil materials, 320-328
new trends, 521-523
removal of metallic ions from water
kinetics model in natural water
system, 745
selecticity, 498-504
water recovery, 504-521
with crosslinked polymer beads,
473-492
Ion exchangers
active carbon, 772
selective (tabulated data), 489-503
Ionic surfactants
anionic surfactants, 140-146
cationic surfactants, 146-150
K
KINEQL program, 285,294
Kinetics
gas adsorption on activated carbons,
813
ionic solute adsorption, 745
main steps, 745
mathematical model, 748-755
of chemisorption and surface
reactions, 610-612
of ion sorption processes, 299-306
factors influencing, 299,300
models, 300
KINEQL, 300-306
of phosphorus adsorption, 535-548
of physisorption on carbon
materials, 399,400,407
of zinc ion reduction, 890
L
Lambert - Beer law, 180, 930
1053
Langmuir-Blodgett films, 940, 941
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), 763
backgrounds, 764
Linear Alkylobenzene Sulphonate
(LAS),I39
Linear Driving Force (LDF), 730
Liquid-Liquid Extraction(LLE), 37, 84
Liquid-Solid Extraction(LSE),37
Local environmental problems, 214
removal SOx and NOx from flue gas,
214
solvent vapor fractionation, 214
SVR, 214
Low Molecular Weight Organic Acid
(LMWOA), 342
Molecular modelling, see also

Computation Studies
adsorption and diffusion in zeolites,
245
in relevance to environmental
multitechnique methods, 246,
247-266
protection, 245 et seq.
Molecular shape selectivity, 259
Monitoring, 8-14
general problem, 3
monitored substances, 2-7
sampling methods, 8-14, 37-39
M-Toluidine (MT), 867
MUltiSIte Complexation (MUSIC)
model, 354
M
M immunoglobulins (IgM), 904
Man-made hydrocarbon emissions, 822
Mars atmosphere, 466
Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC),
462
Mass Transfer Zone (MTZ), 812
Mercury, 463
Methyl Methacrylate(MMA),82
4,4' Methylenedianiline(MDA), 78
Methylene Blue Active Substance
(MBAS) method, 140
Methylenediisocyanite(MDI),78
Micellar Electrokinetic Capillary
Chromatography(MECC), 31
Micellar Electrokinetic
Chromatography (MEKC),83
Micellar Electrokinetic Gas
Chromatography (MEGC),84
Micropore filling mechanism, 644
MINEQL program, 291
Mixed adsorption layers
formed by corrosion inhibitors, 863
et seq.
Modelling
of metal ion sorption phenomena,
285 et seq.
N
N,N-Dimethyl P-Toluidine(DMPT),82
Nanoparticles or nanomaterials,
638-640
Nanopore Molecular Engineering, 654
Nanospace system, see also
Nanoparticles, 635,638-640
adsorption in, 640-642
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), 457
Natural Organic Matter (NOM), 724
n-butanol (BU), 866
Non-ionic surfactants, 150-169
Nucleation
and sodium chloride crystal growth,
903 et seq.
O
Opthode
adsorption based, 934,935,946
Optical fibre
description, 926-930
Ozone depletion, 949
Ozone/UV, 763
1054
Parson's function, 873

Percolation
HCH/chlorobenzenes contaminated
groundwater, 763
water from landfill, 763
Pollutants
anionic organic and inorganic, 381
applications of the adsorption
phenomena for their analyses, 3 et
seq.
cationic organic and inorganic, 381
environmental, 5-7
anthropogenic, 5
natural, 5
secondary, 5
neutral organic and inorganic, 381
phenol compounds, 382,383
vapour, 400 et seq.
Polycyclic Aromatic Nitrogen
Heterocyclic (PANHs) compounds, 13
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG), 139, 904
Polymethyl Methacylate(PMMA),82
Polyurethane surface, 178
Polyurethane (PU),78
Pore Diffusion Model (PDM), 537,538
Potential zero charge (pzc), 867,872
Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE), 352
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA), 213
application for the environment, 213
et seq.
Air Purification (AP), 213, 216,
219, 230-232
defence applications, 213
fundamental of environmental
PSA processes, 214,215-218
mathematical modelling, 218-241,
PSA-SVR, 219,220-230,232-241
Production
of shape selective of alkylaromatics,
259-265
Pseudosurfactant, 144,145
P-Toluidine (PT), 867
Rapid Small Scale Column Test

(RSSCT), 728
Raw material
almond shells, 398
lignocellulase, 398
olive stones, 398
organic copolymers, 398
Recovery
of CFCs and VOC, 214
of gasoline vapour, 821
of gold and platinum metals,
504-508
of humidity condensate, 455
of metal ions from aqueous
solutions, 473 et seq.
of organics from chemical processes
and storage-tanks, 214
of proteins, 903
of silver, 508-509
of water, 463-466
Relative Standard Deviation (RSD),
801
Removal
nitrogen oxides, 269
by selective catalytic reduction,
269-275
of contaminants in defense
applications, 214
of disperse impurities from water,
670-682
of hazardous compounds in
biological fluids, 77 et seq.
of inorganic cations from water,
691-700
of microorganisms and particulates
from indoor air, 833
adsorbent based removal systems,
839,840
control strategies, 838,839
fundamentals and mechanisms,
841-844
laboratory test, 844-861
1055
of CFCs, 246
of liquid soils from a surface, 177
of metallic ions from water and
pollutants from wastewater, 381 et
seq.
of nitric oxides, 436 et seq.
of oil and petroleum pollutants from
water, 710-715
of organic molecules and ions form
water, 682-691
of pesticides from the surface water,
733-737
of phosphorus by slag, 523 et seq.
characteristics of the adsorbents,
538-540
from water and wastewater, 533
kinetic models, 535-548
Pure Diffusion Model (PDM), 536,
548,549
using soil and slag media, 534
of SOx and NOx from flue gases, 214
of trace gas-phase contaminations,
455,460-463
sewages, 504-521
chromium, 516
copper, 514
lead, 513
mercury, 510-513
nickel and vanadium, 515
tin and cobalt, 509
zinc, 519-521
Respirable Suspended Particulates
(RSP), 833
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR),

435
nitric oxide with hydrocarbons,
435,436
Separation of surfactants and their
metabolites, 138-140
gas stripping technique, 139
ion - exchange, 139
liquid/liquid extraction, 138

solid/phase extraction, 139
Sequential Quadratic Programming
(SOP), 294
Sewage Treatment Plant (STP), 533
SHED emission test, 821
Skylab, 460,461
Slag media, 533
Soil
adsorbing and complexing
properties, 369-373
environmental general problems,
351-353
geochemical phases, 329-331
phase distribution of metals,
336-341
solids, 319-323
solution, 321,322
trace metal cation sorption in, 319 et
seq.
types, 320
Solid aerosol
composition, 573-577
industrial, 571-573
Solid Phase Extraction (SPE), 11, 37
application to environmental
analyses, 37,65-73
impact of various factors, 51-64
overview, 37-39
basic steps of SPE, 45-47
chemical characteristic of the
sorbent, 41,42
physical characteristic of the
sorbent, 39,40
sorbent selection, 43,44
SPE format, 44,45
Solvent Vapor Recovery (SVR), 213
Sorption
of trace metal cations in soils, 319 et
seq.
phenomena in environmental
systems, 285 et seq.
Sorption equilibria
of metal ions, 286-299
1056
factors influencing, 286-288
models, 288
SCFM, 288
SPE procedure for blood MDA,82
SPE,77
Super Critical Fluid Chromatography
(SCFC),30,31
Super Fluid Critical Extraction
(SFCE),77
Supercritical gas, 637
control with solid nanospaces,
635 et seq.
practical importance, 635,654
physical properties, 637
Surface Active Substance (SAS), 111,
682
Surface charge, 771
Surface Complex Formation Model
(SCFM), 285,288Surface Diffusion Model (SDM), 535
Surface pressure, 873
Surface tension
critical of a carbody surface, 198,199
surfactant solutions, 179,182-185
Surfactant
applications, 136,137
main types and mixtures, 136
Surfactant solution
aquatic, 135
characterization, 180
Surfactants, 180,181
Synthesis
of organophosphorus polymersupported reagents, 475-492
Synthesis of acyclic enones
by solid acid catalysts, 246-253
T
Temperature Programmed Desorption
(TPD), 442
Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA),
220
Tetrahydrofurane (THF), 399
Thin Layer Chromatography(TLC),

26-30
Thiourea (TU), 867
Toxic compounds to human health
selective retention, removal and
elution for analysis of,85-106
Trace analysis
by atomic spectroscopy, 797-803
slurry sampling technique, 802
Transport
of metal ions in natural systems,
285, 306-312
HYDROGEOCHEM model, 285,
308-312
U
Ultraviolet Detector (UVD),78
V
Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD),
463
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC),
213, 416
W
Wastewater treatment, 381 et seq.,
728-742
advanced adsorption techniques, 763
advanced oxidation by means of
ozone/UV, 763,7655,769
environmental analysis, 770,771
environmental profiles, 772-774
GAC on reactivation basis,
763,765,767
by adsorptive slag media, 533
by filtration, 737
by ion exchange, 473
in space craft, 463-466
ion exchange, 497, 745
natural sorbents, 659-700
adsorption- active based on,
700-715
1057
new composite adsorbents, 382-394
Water
purification, 659 et seq.
treatment, 745
Water production
by activated carbon filtration, 723 et
seq.
GAC filtration, 737-742
general problems, 725-727
HSDM, 728,729
membrane/GAC filtration, 738-740
ozone-GAC - filtration, 741
Water Recovery System (WRS), 457
Zeolites
model of cages and windows in
zeolite Y, 253,254
pore dimensions and architecture,
249,250

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Adsorption and Its Applications in Industry and Environmental Protection Vol II Applications in Environmental Protection

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PREFACE

Every aspect of h u m a n activity is closely connected with the natural

Lublin, September, 1998.

Complete List of Authors

University of Illinois, Environmental Enegineering Program,

Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Environmental

Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., 7201 Hamilton Boulevard, Allentown,

College of Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529-0163, USA

National Institute of Hygienic Sciences, 18-1 Kamiyoga 1-Chome,

Adsorption and its Applications in Industry and Environmental Protection

Environmental pollutants and application of the adsorption

eliminating interference and measuring features of analyses. The aims of these

2. SHORT CHARACTERISTIC OF MONITORED S U B S T A N C E S

atmosphere, hydrosphere, and soil. The following groups of substances are

manufacture of chlorophenols and related products; other sources include the

thiolate, O-pinacolyl methylphosphono-fluoridate, etc.) and bis(2-chloroethyl)

cryogenic traps and adsorption belongs to these methods. Adsorption aspirative

3.2. Sample preparation

Figure 2. Flow-chart summarising treatment sample prior to the HPLC analysis of

The detection and determination of pollutants in complex environmental

4.1. High Performance Liquid Chromatography

Ion-exchange chromatography is a separation procedure in which ions of

Figure 5. Gas chromatographic separation on aluminium oxide column of prominent furans,

Figure 6. Typical gas chromatogram of the 2-hydrazinobenzothiazole-derivative aldehydes.

4.3. Thin Layer Chromatography

Figure 9. A chromatogram of pesticide residues: tree scanning at wavelengths 220, 265

Petrovi6 and co-workers [44] described a study on the retention behaviour of

Listing the application of adsorption TLC for military purposes, it is impossible

4.4. Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

D. A. Skoog, D. M. West and F. J. Holler, Fundamentals of Analytical

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling

Adsorption and its Applications in Industry and Environmental Protection

It has been the convention to extract an analyte as a means of sample

Figure 1. Removal of background interferences using SPE.

Figure 2a. 50 p silica magnified x60.

Figure 2b. 50 ~t silica magnified x600.

On a n a n o m e t e r scale, the silica is found to have a very porous structure,

Figure 3. Porous nature of silica sorbent.

"----]i--OH .... O\H

Figure 4. Heterogeneous nature of silica surface.

Silica may be chemically modified to create a covalently bonded surface

Figure 5. Chemically modified silica surface.

Figure 6. Monomeric bonding chemistry on silica surface.

o/ " o / " o / " o

Figure 7. Polymeric bonding chemistry on silica surface.

C~..c~(C=/'/,e OH--~~ O// C,~..c~.CH.CH2.

S03 with propyl linkage

Benzyl sulfonic (SCX)

SO3 with benzyl linkage

Carboxylic acid (CBA)

Carboxylic acid group

NH(CH3)3 group with

Figure 9. Cartridge format for solid phase extraction.

2.5. Basic steps of an SPE p r o c e d u r e

Figure 11. Impact of conditioning modified silica surface.

The third step in a solid phase extraction procedure is typically column

Increasing Flow Rate

Increasing Solvent Strength

Water =v Methanol r Hexane

Hexane ~ Methanol =~ Water

Since an analyte may be retained through multiple interactions on a

3. IMPACT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON SOLID P H A S E EXTRACTION

Figure 13. Diffusion into pores of silica.

Nitrogen Drying of Bonded Phases