Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovak redirects here.

Czechoslovak (disambiguation).

For other uses, see

Czechoslovakia
or
Czecho-Slovakia[1]
[2][3]
/tkslvaki/
(Czech and Slovak: eskoslo
vensko, esko-Slovensko,[4] pronounced [tskoslovnsko]
in both of those languages) was a sovereign state in Central
Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared
its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire,
until its peaceful dissolution into the Czech Republic and
Slovakia on 1 January 1993.
From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de
facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. On 29 June 1945, a treaty was signed between
Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, ceding CarpathoUkraine to the USSR.
From 1948 to 1990 Czechoslovakia was part of the
Marxist-Leninist Warsaw Pact and had a command or
planned economy. A period of political liberalization in
Small coat of arms in 19181960
1968, known as the Prague Spring, was forcibly ended
when several other Warsaw Pact countries invaded. In
1989, as Marxist-Leninist governments and state capitalit was also recognised by the USSR. Czechoslovakia
ism were ending all over Europe, Czechoslovaks peaceadhered to the Declaration by United Nations and
fully deposed their government in the Velvet Revolution;
was a founding member of the United Nations.
socialist price controls were removed after a period of
19461948: The country was governed by a coalipreparation. A few years afterwards, in 1993 the country
tion government with communist ministers, includwas separated into two sovereign states, again peacefully.
ing the prime minister and the minister of interior.
Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the USSR.

Basic characteristics

19481989: The country became a communist state

with a centrally planned economy. In 1960, the
country ocially became a socialist republic.

Form of state

19691990: The federal republic consisted of the

Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic.

19181938: A democratic republic.

19381939: After annexation of Sudetenland by

Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into
19901992: The federal democratic republic cona state with loosened connections among the Czech,
sisted of the Czech Republic and the Slovak RepubSlovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southlic.
ern Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by
Hungary, and the Zaolzie region was annexed by
Neighbours
Poland.
19391945: The region split into the Protectorate of
Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. A
government-in-exile continued to exist in London,
supported by the United Kingdom, United States
and its Allies; after the German invasion of Russia,

Austria 19181938, 19451992

Germany (Both predecessors, West Germany and
East Germany, were neighbours between 1949 and
1990.)
1

3 HISTORY
Hungary

3.1 Foundation

Poland

3.1.1 Origins

Romania 19181938
Soviet Union 19451991
Ukraine 19911992
Topography
The country was of generally irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands.
The eastern region was composed of the northern reaches
of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube
River basin.
Climate
The weather was predominantly continental, but varied
from the moderate temperature of Western Europe in the
west, to the more severe weather of Eastern Europe and
the western Soviet Union in the east.

Ocial names

See also: Hyphen War

Tom Garrigue Masaryk, founder and rst president

19181920: Republic of Czechoslovakia (abbreviated RS)/Czecho-Slovak State,[5] or CzechoSlovakia/Czechoslovakia

19201938: Czechoslovak Republic (SR), or
Czechoslovakia
19381939: Czecho-Slovak Republic, or CzechoSlovakia
19451960: Czechoslovak Republic (SR), or
Czechoslovakia
19601990: Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Czechoslovak troops in Vladivostok (1918)
(SSR), or Czechoslovakia
Main article: Origins of Czechoslovakia
April 1990: Czechoslovak Federative Republic
(Czech version) and Czecho-Slovak Federative ReThe area was long a part of the Austro Hungarian Empire
public (Slovak version)
until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I. The
The country subsequently became the Czech new state was founded by Tom Garrigue Masaryk[6]
and Slovak Federative Republic, SFR, or (18501937), who served as its rst president from 14
eskoslovensko (Czech version) and esko- November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was sucSlovensko (Slovak version).
ceeded by his close ally, Edvard Bene (18841948).
The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th
century, when philologists and educators, inuenced by
3 History
Romanticism, promoted the Czech language and pride
in the Czech people. Nationalism became a mass moveMain articles: History of Czechoslovakia, History of the ment in the last half of the 19th century. Taking advanCzech lands and History of Slovakia
tage of the opportunities for limited participation in political life available under the Austrian rule, Czech leaders

3.2

Interwar

such as historian Frantiek Palack (17981876) founded

many patriotic, self-help organizations which provided a
chance for many of their compatriots to participate in
communal life prior to independence. Palack supported
Austroslavism and worked for a reorganized and federal
Austrian Empire, which would protect the Slavic speaking peoples of Central European against Russian and German threats.

3
3.1.3 Ethnicity

The new country was a multi-ethnic state. The population consisted of Czechs (51%), Slovaks (16%), Germans (22%), Hungarians (5%) and Rusyns (4%).[8] Many
of the Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians and Poles[9]
and some Slovaks, felt oppressed because the political
elite did not generally allow political autonomy for minority ethnic groups. This policy, combined with inAn advocate of democratic reform and Czech autoncreasing Nazi propaganda especially in the industrialized
omy within Austria-Hungary, Masaryk was elected twice
German-speaking Sudetenland, led to unrest among the
to Reichsrat (Austrian Parliament), the rst time being
non-Czech population.
from 1891 to 1893 in the Young Czech Party and again
from 1907 to 1914 in the Czech Realist Party, which he The state proclaimed the ocial ideology that there are
no Czechs and Slovaks, but only one nation of Czechoslofounded in 1889 with Karel Kram and Josef Kaizl.
vaks (see Czechoslovakism), to the disagreement of SloDuring World War I small numbers of Czechs, the
vaks and other ethnic groups. Once a unied CzechosloCzechoslovak Legions, fought with the Allies in France
vakia was restored after World War II (after the country
and Italy, while large numbers deserted to Russia, in
had been divided during the war), the conict between
exchange for their support for the independence of
the Czechs and the Slovaks surfaced again. The governCzechoslovakia from the Austrian Empire. With the
ments of Czechoslovakia and other eastern European naoutbreak of World War I, Masaryk began working for
tions deported ethnic Germans to the West, reducing the
Czech independence in union with Slovakia. With Edpresence of minorities in the nation. Most of the Jews had
vard Bene and Milan Rastislav tefnik, Masaryk visited
been killed during the war by the Nazis and their allies.
several Western countries and won support from inuen[7]
*Jews proclaimed themselves even as Germans or Hungarians
tial publicists.
(and Jews only by religion not ethnicity), the sum is, therefore,

Bohemia and Moravia, under Austrian rule, were Czechmore than 100%.
speaking industrial centres, while Slovakia, which was
part of Hungary, was an undeveloped agrarian region.
Conditions were much better for the development of a
3.2 Interwar
mass national movement in the Czech lands than in Slovakia. Nevertheless, the two regions united and created a
The period between the two world wars saw the owering
new nation.
of democracy in Czechoslovakia. Of all the new states established in central Europe after 1918, only Czechoslovakia preserved a democratic government until the war
3.1.2 Founding
broke out. The persistence of democracy suggests that
Czechoslovakia was better prepared to maintain democracy than were other countries in the region. Thus, despite regional disparities, its level of development was
much higher than that of neighboring states. The population was generally literate, and contained fewer alienated
groups. The inuence of these conditions was augmented
by the political values of Czechoslovakias leaders and the
policies they adopted. Under Masaryk, Czech and Slovak politicians promoted progressive social and economic
conditions that served to defuse discontent.
Czechoslovakia in 1928.

Main article: History of Czechoslovakia (19181938)

Foreign minister Bene became the prime architect of the

Czechoslovak-Romanian-Yugoslav alliance (the "Little
Entente", 192138) directed against Hungarian attempts
to reclaim lost areas. Bene worked closely with France.
Far more dangerous was the German element, which after 1933 became allied with the Nazis in Germany. The
increasing feeling of inferiority among the Slovaks, who
were hostile to the more numerous Czechs, weakened the
country in the late 1930s. Many Slovaks supported an
extreme nationalist movement and welcomed the puppet
Slovak state set up under Hitlers control in 1939.

The Bohemian Kingdom ocially ceased to exist in 1918

by transformation into Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia
was founded in October 1918, as one of the successor
states of Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World
War I and as part of the Treaty of St. Germain. It consisted of the present day territories of Bohemia, Moravia,
Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. Its territory included
some of the most industrialized regions of the former
Austria-Hungary.
After 1933,

Czechoslovakia remained the only

3 HISTORY

democracy in central and eastern Europe.

tion, deportation, and extermination of the Czech intelligentsia; the intellectual elites and middle class made up a
considerable number of the 200,000 people who passed
3.3 Munich Agreement and German occu- through concentration camps and the 250,000 who died
during German occupation.[12] Under Generalplan Ost, it
pation
was assumed that around 50% Czechs would be t for
Germanization. The Czech intellectual elites were to be
Main article: German occupation of Czechoslovakia
In 1938, Adolf Hitler demanded control of the removed not only from Czech territories but from Europe
completely. The authors of Generalplan Ost believed
it would be best if they emigrated overseas, as even in
Siberia they were considered a threat to German rule.
Just like Jews, Poles, Serbs, and several other nations,
Czechs were considered to be untermenschen by the Nazi
state.[13]

The car in which Reinhard Heydrich was killed

The deportation of Jews to concentration camps was organized under the direction of Reinhard Heydrich, and
the fortress town of Terezn was made into a ghetto way
station for Jewish families. On 4 June 1942 Heydrich
died after being wounded by an assassin in Operation
Anthropoid. Heydrichs successor, Colonel General Kurt
Daluege, ordered mass arrests and executions and the destruction of the villages of Lidice and Leky. In 1943
the German war eort was accelerated. Under the authority of Karl Hermann Frank, German minister of state
for Bohemia and Moravia, some 350,000 Czech labourers were dispatched to the Reich. Within the protectorate, all non-war-related industry was prohibited. Most
of the Czech population obeyed quiescently up until the
nal months preceding the end of the war, while thousands were involved in the resistance movement.
For the Czechs of the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia,
German occupation was a period of brutal oppression.
Czech losses resulting from political persecution and
deaths in concentration camps totaled between 36,000
and 55,000. The Jewish population of Bohemia and
Moravia (118,000 according to the 1930 census) was
virtually annihilated. Many Jews emigrated after 1939;
more than 70,000 were killed; 8,000 survived at Terezn.
Several thousand Jews managed to live in freedom or in
hiding throughout the occupation.

Territory of the Second Czechoslovak Republic (19381939)

Sudetenland. Britain and France ceded control in the

Appeasement at the Munich Conference, ignoring the
military alliance Czechoslovakia had with France. First,
in October 1938, Nazi Germany occupied and annexed
the Sudetenland border region. In March 1939, the remainder (rump) of Czechoslovakia was invaded and
divided into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
and the puppet Slovak State. Much of Slovakia and all of
Carpathian Ruthenia were annexed by Hungary. Poland
occupied Zaolzie, an area with Polish minority, in October 1938.

Despite the estimated 136,000 deaths at the hands of the

Nazi regime, the population in the Reichsprotektorate
saw a net increase during the war years of approximately
250,000 in line with an increased birth rate.[14]
On 9 May 1945, Soviet Red Army troops entered Prague.

3.4 Communist Czechoslovakia

Main article: History of Czechoslovakia (19481989)

After World War II, pre-war Czechoslovakia was reestablished, with the exception of Subcarpathian Ruthenia, which was annexed by the Soviet Union and incorpoThe eventual goal of the German state under Nazi leader- rated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The
ship was to eradicate Czech nationality through assimila- Bene decrees were promulgated concerning ethnic Ger-

3.5

After 1989

Spartakiad in 1960
Czechoslovakia after 1969

mans (see Potsdam Agreement) and ethnic Hungarians.

Under the decrees, citizenship was abrogated for people
of German and Hungarian ethnic origin, who had accepted German or Hungarian citizenship during the occupations. In 1948, this provision was cancelled for the
Hungarians, but only partially for the Germans. The
government then conscated the property of the Germans and expelled about 90% of the ethnic German population, over 2 million people. Those who remained
were collectively accused of supporting the Nazis after
the Munich Agreement, as 97.32% of Sudeten Germans
voted for the NSDAP in the December 1938 elections.
Almost every decree explicitly stated that the sanctions
did not apply to antifascists. Some 250,000 Germans,
many married to Czechs, some antifascists, and also those
required for the post-war reconstruction of the country,
remained in Czechoslovakia. The Bene Decrees still
causes controversy among nationalist groups in the Czech
Republic, Germany, Austria and Hungary.[15]
Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied by (and in June 1945
formally ceded to) the Soviet Union. In the 1946 parliamentary election, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was the winner in the Czech lands, and the
Democratic Party won in Slovakia. In February 1948 the
Communists seized power. Although they would maintain the ction of political pluralism through the existence of the National Front, except for a short period
in the late 1960s (the Prague Spring) the country was
characterized by the absence of liberal democracy. Since
citizens lacked signicant electoral methods of registering protest against government policies, periodically there
were street protests that became violent. Such was the
case in the town of Plze, where riots occurred in 1953,
reecting economic discontent. Police and army units
put down the rebellion, and hundreds were injured but
no one was killed. While its economy remained more
advanced than those of its neighbours in Eastern Europe,
Czechoslovakia grew increasingly economically weak relative to Western Europe.
In 1968, when the reformer Alexander Dubek was
appointed to the key post of First Secretary of the
Czechoslovak Communist Party, there was a brief period of liberalization known as the Prague Spring. In response, after failing to persuade the Czechoslovak leaders to change course, ve other Eastern Bloc members
of the Warsaw Pact invaded. Soviet tanks rolled into

Czechoslovakia on the night of 2021 August 1968.[16]

The General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party
Leonid Brezhnev viewed this intervention as vital to the
preservation of the Soviet, socialist system and vowed to
intervene in any state that sought to replace MarxismLeninism with capitalism.[17] In the week after the invasion there was a spontaneous campaign of civil resistance
against the occupation. This resistance involved a wide
range of acts of non-cooperation and deance: this was
followed by a period in which the Czechoslovak Communist Party leadership, having been forced in Moscow to
make concessions to the Soviet Union, gradually put the
brakes on their earlier liberal policies.[18] In April 1969
Dubek was nally dismissed from the First Secretaryship of the Czechoslovak Communist Party. Meanwhile,
one plank of the reform programme had been carried out:
in 1968-9, Czechoslovakia was turned into a federation of
the Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic. The theory was that under the federation, social and
economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves
of the state would be largely eliminated. A number of
ministries, such as education, now became two formally
equal bodies in the two formally equal republics. However, the centralised political control by the Czechoslovak
Communist Party severely limited the eects of federalisation.
The 1970s saw the rise of the dissident movement in
Czechoslovakia, represented among others by Vclav
Havel. The movement sought greater political participation and expression in the face of ocial disapproval,
manifested in limitations on work activities, which went
as far as a ban on professional employment, the refusal of
higher education for the dissidents children, police harassment and prison.

3.5 After 1989

Main article: History of Czechoslovakia (19891992)
In 1989, the Velvet Revolution restored democracy. This
occurred at around the same time as the fall of communism in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland. Within
three years communist rule was extirpated from Europe.

9 CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Unlike Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, the end of communism in this country did not automatically mean the
end of the communist name: the word socialist was
removed from the name on 29 March 1990 and replaced
by federal.
In 1992, because of growing nationalist tensions in the
government, Czechoslovakia was peacefully dissolved by
parliament. On 1 January 1993 it formally separated into
two independent countries: the Czech Republic and the
Slovak Republic.

Heads of state and government

See also: Leaders of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia

List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia

19281938: Four lands (Czech: zem, Slovak: krajiny): Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia, divided into districts (okresy).
Late 1938 March 1939: As above, but Slovakia
and Ruthenia gained the status of autonomous
lands.
19451948: As in 19281938, except that Ruthenia
became part of the Soviet Union.
19491960: 19 regions (kraje) divided into 270
okresy.
19601992: 10 kraje, Prague, and (from 1970)
Bratislava (capital of Slovakia); these were divided
into 109114 okresy; the kraje were abolished temporarily in Slovakia in 19691970 and for many
purposes from 1991 in Czechoslovakia; in addition,
the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic were established in 1969 (without the
word Socialist from 1990).

List of Prime Ministers of Czechoslovakia

7 Population and ethnic groups

5

Foreign policy
Main article: Demographics of Czechoslovakia

5.1

International agreements and membership

In the 1930s, the nation formed a military alliance with

France, which collapsed in the Munich Agreement of
1938. After World War II, active participant in Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), Warsaw
Pact, United Nations and its specialized agencies; signatory of conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.[19]

8 Politics
Main articles: History of Czechoslovakia (19181938)
and Politics of Communist Czechoslovakia

After World War II, a political monopoly was held by

the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSC). Gustv
Husk was elected rst secretary of the KSC in 1969
(changed to general secretary in 1971) and president of
Czechoslovakia in 1975. Other parties and organizations
6 Administrative divisions
existed but functioned in subordinate roles to the KSC.
Main article: Administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia All political parties, as well as numerous mass organizations, were grouped under umbrella of the National
Front. Human rights activists and religious activists were
severely repressed.
19181923: Dierent systems in former Austrian
territory (Bohemia, Moravia, a small part of Silesia)
compared to former Hungarian territory (Slovakia
and Ruthenia): three lands (zem ) (also called dis- 9 Constitutional development
trict units (obvody)): Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia,
plus 21 counties (upy) in todays Slovakia and three Main article: Constitutional Court of Czechoslovakia
counties in todays Ruthenia; both lands and counties were divided into districts (okresy).
Czechoslovakia had the following constitutions during its
19231927: As above, except that the Slovak and history (19181992):
Ruthenian counties were replaced by six (grand)
counties ((ve)upy) in Slovakia and one (grand)
county in Ruthenia, and the numbers and boundaries
of the okresy were changed in those two territories.

Temporary constitution of 14 November 1918

(democratic): see History of Czechoslovakia
(19181938)

7
The 1920 constitution (The Constitutional Document of the Czechoslovak Republic), democratic, in
force until 1948, several amendments
The Communist 1948 Ninth-of-May Constitution
The Communist 1960 Constitution of the
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic with major
amendments in 1968 (Constitutional Law of Federation), 1971, 1975, 1978, and 1989 (at which
point the leading role of the Communist Party
was abolished). It was amended several more
times during 19901992 (for example, 1990, name
change to Czecho-Slovakia, 1991 incorporation of
the human rights charter)

10

Economy

which became the ocial rate once the currency became convertible in the early 1990s.
Fiscal year: Calendar year.
Fiscal policy: The state was the exclusive owner of
means of production in most cases. Revenue from
state enterprises was the primary source of revenues
followed by turnover tax. The government spent
heavily on social programs, subsidies, and investment. Budget was usually balanced or left small surplus.

11 Resource base
Main article: Resource base of Communist Czechoslovakia

Main article: Economy of communist Czechoslovakia

After World War II, the economy was centrally planned,
with command links controlled by the communist party,
similarly to the Soviet Union. The large metallurgical industry was dependent on imports of iron and non-ferrous
ores.

After World War II, the country was short of energy, relying on imported crude oil and natural gas from Soviet
Union, domestic brown coal, and nuclear and hydroelectric energy. Energy constraints were a major factor in the
1980s.

Industry: Extractive industry and manufacturing 12 Transport and communications

dominated the sector, including machinery, chemicals, food processing, metallurgy, and textiles. The Main article: Transport in Czechoslovakia
sector was wasteful in its use of energy, materials,
and labor and was slow to upgrade technology, but
the country was a major supplier of high-quality machinery, instruments, electronics, aircraft, airplane
13 Society
engines and arms to other socialist countries.
Agriculture: Agriculture was a minor sector, but Main article: Society of Communist Czechoslovakia
collectivized farms of large acreage and relatively efcient mode of production enabled the country to be
relatively self-sucient in food supply. The country
depended on imports of grains (mainly for livestock
feed) in years of adverse weather. Meat production 14 Education
was constrained by shortage of feed, but the country
still recorded high per capita consumption of meat. Main article: Education in Czechoslovakia
Foreign trade: Exports were estimated at US$17.8
billion in 1985. Exports were machinery (55%),
fuel and materials (14%), and manufactured consumer goods (16%). Imports stood at estimated
US$17.9 billion in 1985, including fuel and materials (41%), machinery (33%), and agricultural and
forestry products (12%). In 1986, about 80% of foreign trade was with other socialist countries.

Education was free at all levels and compulsory from age

6 to 15. The vast majority of the population was literate. There was a highly developed system of apprenticeship training and vocational schools supplemented general secondary schools and institutions of higher education.

Exchange rate: Ocial, or commercial, rate was

crowns (Ks) 5.4 per US$1 in 1987. Tourist, or non- 15 Religion
commercial, rate was Ks 10.5 per US$1. Neither
rate reected purchasing power. The exchange rate Main article: Religion in Czechoslovakia
on the black market was around Ks 30 per US$1,

23

REFERENCES

In 1991: Roman Catholics 46%, Evangelical Lutheran The famous tennis players Ivan Lendl, Miloslav Me,
5.3%, Atheist 30%, n/a 17%, but there were huge dier- Hana Mandlkov, Martina Hingis, Martina Navratilova
ences in religious practices between the two constituent and Daniela Hantuchov were born in Czechoslovakia.
republics; see Czech Republic and Slovakia.

16

Health, social welfare and housing

Main article: Health and social welfare in Communist

Czechoslovakia
After World War II, free health care was available to all
citizens. National health planning emphasised preventive
medicine; factory and local health care centres supplemented hospitals and other inpatient institutions. There
was substantial improvement in rural health care during
the 1960s and 1970s.

17

Mass media

Main article: Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia

During Communist rule, the mass media in Czechoslovakia were controlled by the Communist Party. Private
ownership of any publication or agency of the mass media
was generally forbidden, although churches and other organizations published small periodicals and newspapers.
Even with this information monopoly in the hands of
organizations under KS control, all publications were
reviewed by the governments Oce for Press and Information.

19 Culture
Czech Republic / Slovakia
List of Czechs / List of Slovaks
MD (International Womens Day)
Jazz in dissident Czechoslovakia

20 Postage stamps
List of people on stamps of Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia stamp reused by Slovak Republic
after 18 January 1939 by overprinting country and
value

21 Timeline
22 See also
Eects on the environment in Czechoslovakia from
Soviet inuence during the Cold War
Former countries in Europe after 1815
Kingdom of Bohemia (Czech Kingdom)
1968 Red Square demonstration

18

Sports

The Czechoslovakia national football team was a consistent performer on the international scene, with eight
appearances in the FIFA World Cup Finals, nishing in
second place in 1934 and 1962. The team also won the
European Football Championship in 1976, came in third
in 1980 and won the Olympic gold in 1980.
The Czechoslovak national ice hockey team won many
medals from the world championships and Olympic
Games. Peter astn, Jaromr Jgr, Dominik Haek,
Peter Bondra, Petr Klma, Marin Gbork, and Pavol
Demitra all come from Czechoslovakia.
Emil Ztopek, winner of four Olympic gold medals in
athletics, is considered one of the top athletes in history.
Vra slavsk was an Olympic gold medallist in gymnastics, winning seven gold medals and four silver medals.
She represented Czechoslovakia in three consecutive
Olympics.

Moravia
Bohemia

23 References
[1] THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS..
[2] Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0
[3] Roach, Peter (2011), Cambridge English Pronouncing
Dictionary (18th ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2
[4] Jn Kaala: Mme nov nzov federatvnej republiky
(The New Name of the Federal Republic), In: Kultra
Slova (ocial publication of the Slovak Academy of Sciences udovt tr Institute of Linguistics) 6/1990 pp.
192197 (PDF).

[5] Votruba, Martin. Czecho-Slovakia or Czechoslovakia.

Slovak Studies Program.
University of Pittsburgh.
Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2009.
[6] Czechs Celebrate Republics Birth, 1933/11/06 (1933).
Universal Newsreel. 1933. Archived from the original
on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
[7] Z. A. B. Zeman, The Masaryks: The Making of Czechoslovakia (1976)
[8] The War of the World, Niall Ferguson Allen Lane 2006.
[9] Playing the blame game at the Wayback Machine
(archived 30 June 2008), Prague Post, 6 July 2005
[10] korpila F. B.; Zempisn atlas pro mansk koly;
Sttn Nakladatelstv; second edition; 1930; Czechoslovakia
[11] http://rozhledy2010.blogspot.sk/2011/04/
ceskoslovensko-1930-scitani2.html
[12] Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (18001945), Walter Regg Cambridge University
Press (28 October 2004), page 353
[13] HITLER'S PLANS FOR EASTERN EUROPE Selections from Janusz Gumkowski and Kazimierz Leszczynski
POLAND UNDER NAZI OCCUPATION. Archived
from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 13 February
2014.
[14] Vaclav Havel A Political Tragedy in 6 Acts by John
Keane, published 2000, page 54
[15] East European Constitutional Review Archived 15 May
2013 at the Wayback Machine
[16] Russia Invades Czechoslovakia: 1968 Year in Review,
UPI.com Archived 31 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
[17] John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New
York: The Penguin Press), 150.
[18] Philip WIndsor and Adam Roberts, Czechoslovakia 1968:
Reform, Repression and Resistance (London: Chatto &
Windus, 1969), pp. 97143.
[19] Ladislav Cabada and Sarka Waisova, Czechoslovakia and
the Czech Republic in World Politics (Lexington Books;
2012)

24

Sources

Czechoslovak Republic at the Wayback Machine

(archived 4 March 2007)

25 Further reading
Heimann, Mary. Czechoslovakia: The State That
Failed (2009).
Hermann, A. H. A History of the Czechs (1975).
Kalvoda, Josef.
(1986).

The Genesis of Czechoslovakia

Le, Carol Skalnick. National Conict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918
87 (1988).
Mantey, Victor. A History of the Czechoslovak Republic (1973).
Myant, Martin. The Czechoslovak Economy, 1948
88 (1989).
Naimark, Norman, and Leonid Gibianskii, eds. The
Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 19441949 (1997) online edition
Orzo, Andrea. Battle for the Castle: The Myth of
Czechoslovakia in Europe 19141948 (Oxford University Press, 2009); online review
Paul, David. Czechoslovakia: Prole of a Socialist
Republic at the Crossroads of Europe (1990).
Renner, Hans. A History of Czechoslovakia since
1945 (1989).
Seton-Watson, R. W. A History of the Czechs and
Slovaks (1943).
Stone,
Norman,
eds.Czechoslovakia:
191888 (1989).

and
E.
Strouhal,
Crossroads and Crises,

Wheaton, Bernard; Zdenek Kavav. The Velvet

Revolution: Czechoslovakia, 19881991 (1992).
Williams, Kieran, Civil Resistance in Czechoslovakia: From Soviet Invasion to Velvet Revolution,
196889,
in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.),
Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience
of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present
(Oxford University Press, 2009).
Windsor, Philip, and Adam Roberts, Czechoslovakia 1968: Reform, Repression and Resistance
(1969).
Wolchik, Sharon L. Czechoslovakia: Politics, Society, and Economics (1990).

10

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26

External links

Online books and articles

U.S. Library of Congress Country Studies,
Czechoslovakia
(English) (Czech) Orders and Medals of Czechoslovakia including Order of the White Lion
Yuri Andropov to the {Soviet} Central Committee about the Demonstration in Red Square Against
the Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia, 20
September 1968 from Andrei Sakharov's KGB le
archived at Yale University.
Hungarian language map indicating border changes
after the creation of Czechoslovakia.
Map
Map

EXTERNAL LINKS

11

27
27.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Czechoslovakia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia?oldid=672294490 Contributors: Derek Ross, WojPob, Mav, Zundark, Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Taw, -- April, Roadrunner, Mintguy, Soulpatch, Olivier, Edward, Patrick, Pit~enwiki, Menchi, Mic, Sannse,
Paul Benjamin Austin, Ahoerstemeier, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Rlandmann, Bogdangiusca, Jiang, Cherkash, GCarty, Tobias Conradi,
Hashar, Wik, Zoicon5, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Morwen, Topbanana, Wetman, Jusjih, Qertis, Jeq, Denelson83, Robbot, Juro, Altenmann, Calmypal, Chris Roy, Merovingian, Henrygb, Dukeofomnium, DHN, Halibutt, Rasmus Faber, Matty j, Saforrest, JackofOz,
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27.2

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File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-039-44,_Heydrich-Attentat.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/

Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-039-44%2C_Heydrich-Attentat.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image was provided to
Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal

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Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as
provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Carte_du_Conseil_de_l'Europe.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Carte_du_Conseil_de_l%
27Europe.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, based on Image:Euro 2008.png Original artist: JLogan
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File:Czechoslovak_Republic_(1939).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Czechoslovak_Republic_
%281939%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This vector image includes elements that have been taken or adapted from
this: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blank_map_of_Europe_October_1938_-_March_1939.svg' class='image'><img
alt='Blank map of Europe October 1938 - March 1939.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Blank_
map_of_Europe_October_1938_-_March_1939.svg/20px-Blank_map_of_Europe_October_1938_-_March_1939.svg.png' width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Blank_map_of_Europe_October_1938_-_March_
1939.svg/30px-Blank_map_of_Europe_October_1938_-_March_1939.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/5/5a/Blank_map_of_Europe_October_1938_-_March_1939.svg/39px-Blank_map_of_Europe_October_1938_-_March_1939.
svg.png 2x' data-le-width='450' data-le-height='456' /></a> Blank map of Europe October 1938 - March 1939.svg (by Alphathon).
Original artist: TRAJAN 117
File:Czechoslovakia.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Czechoslovakia.png License: Public domain
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File:Czechoslovakia01.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Czechoslovakia01.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Map is created according to this external source: http://anamnesis.info/resources/193818BK.gif Original artist: This map has been
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srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/
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1.5x,
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height='15' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/23px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 1.5x,
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Czechoslovakia_location_

Blank_map_of_Europe.svg Original artist: Blank_map_of_Europe.svg: maix?

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Zirlands codes of colors
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svg License: Public domain Contributors:

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-x-'s le
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File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_(1918-1938_and_1945-1961).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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