Respiratory System

The link between metabolism and

respiration

Respiration
Defined as the exchange of gasses between the
atmosphere, lungs and tissues.
Respiration supports aerobic metabolism by
providing both an electron acceptor (O2) and a
route of elimination for the byproducts of
metabolism CO2 + H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20
Aerobic metabolism is required in complex
organisms of our size

3 Steps of Respiration
Pulmonary Ventilation - gas exchange
between the atmosphere and lungs
External Respiration - gas exchange
between the lungs and blood
Internal respiration - gas exchange between
the blood and tissues

Components of Respiration
Upper respiratory system
nose, turbinate bones,
sinuses and pharynx
Lower respiratory system
larynx, trachea, bronchi
and lungs

Upper Respiratory System

 Composed of both
cartilage and bone
External nares - nostrils
Olfactory nerve enters at
the cribiform plate
Internal nares - opening
into the nasopharynx
Contains the nasal
conchae and the openings
to the paranasal sinuses

Nose

Turbinate/Sinuses
The function of the nose is
to warm, clean and
moisten the air
The turbinate bones
maximize surface area and
air contact with a hairlined, highly vascular
mucus membrane
The SNC contains the
olfactory region
The sinuses lighten the
skull and act as resonance
chambers for the voice.
Sinuses frequently become
infected

Pharynx
Respiratory/digestive
system pathway
Nasopharynx
-posterior to nose
-eustachian tubes
-pharyngeal tonsil
Oropharynx
-posterior to mouth
-contains palatine and
lingual tonsil
Laryngopharynx
-posterior to larynx
-continuous with
esophagus

Lower
Respiratory
System

 Responsible for
voice
production
The glottis is
the opening in
the larynx
through which
air passes.
The glottis is
covered by the
epiglottis
during
swallowing to
prevent food
entry into the
trachea

Larynx

Vocal folds/voice production

The Ventricular Folds
- uppermost folds
- false vocal chords
- They close to prevent
the passage of foreign
objects into the trachea
The vocal folds
- lowermost folds
- true vocal folds
involved in sound
production
Note: sound production
requires the vocal
folds (larynx),
pharynx, mouth,
tongue, nasal cavity
and sinuses

Trachea
Composed of hyaline
cartilage rings that keep
the airway open
4.5 inches long
Divides into right and left
primary bronchi
The mucosa is lined with
ciliated pseudostratified
columnar ep. with lots of
mucous cells. This traps
dust and allows it to be
moved into the
laryngopharynx
Carina - tracheal/bronchi
junction - cough reflex-

Bronchi
Primary bronchi branch from the trachea and go to
the right and left lungs
The right primary bronchus is nearly vertical,
shorter, wider, thus more likely to receive foreign
objects
The primary bronchi split into secondary bronchi
with each going to separate lobes of the lung
Right Lung - 3 secondary bronchi going to the
superior, middle and inferior lobes
Left Lung - 2 secondary bronchi going to the
superior and inferior lobes

Lungs

The right lung has three lobes and the left lung has
two lobes and a cardiac notch
The lungs do no attach directly to the thoracic
cavity
Each lung is enclosed by two thin membranes
called pleurae which form the pleural sac
The parietal layer covers the thoracic cavity
The visceral layer covers the lungs
The intrapleural space occurs between these layers
and contains a lubricating fluid
Pleurisy - inflammation/scarring of the pleural sac
leading to pain and a friction rub on inspiration
A collapsed lung occurs when the vacuum
between layers is disrupted

Lungs Continued
The base of the lungs sits on the diaphram
The lung apices rise above the clavicles
The hilus is where all the bronchi and
blood vessels enter the lungs
The cardiac notch is the indentation in the
left lung where the heart fits

Alveolar Sacs
The common space into
which alveoli empty
Composed of many
alveoli
Each alveolus is an air sac
composed of simple
squamous epithelium lined
heavily with capillaries
Alveoli provide a huge
surface area for gas
exchange

Alveolus Continued
Gas exchange occurs
across the
alveolar/capillary
membranes
Total surface area is 750
square feet
Septal Cells are located
here and secrete
surfactant that lowers the
surface tension so the
moist walls of the alveoli
do not stick together
Dust Cells (alveolar
macrophages) phagocytes
that remove debris

Respiration
Boyles law - The pressure of gas inside a
container is inversely proportional to the volume
of the container
The relevance of this law is demonstrated in the
expansion or compression of lung tissue
When the chest expands the intrapulmonary
pressure drops (relative to atmospheric pressure)
creating a negative pressure that pulls air into the
lungs
When the chest relaxes or is compressed the
intrapulmonary pressure increases (relative to
atmospheric pressure) creating a positive pressure
that expels air from the lungs

Pulmonary Volumes
Tidal Volume - amount breathed in and out during
normal respiration (500ml)
Anatomic Dead Space - amount of air in the
respiratory tract that does not reach the lungs
Inspiratory reserve - the amount of air the lungs
can take in after normal inhalation
Expiratory reserve - the amount of air the lungs
can expel after a normal exhalation
Residual Volume - the amount of air left in the
lungs after expiratory reserve

Pulmonary Capacity
Inspiratory capacity - tidal volume plus
inspiratory reserve = maximum amount of air a
person can breath in following a resting
expiration.
Vital Capacity - inspiratory reserve + tidal
volume + expiratory reserve. This capacity is the
maximum amount of air a person can expel after
taking the deepest breath possible
Total Lung Capacity - the vital capacity + the
residual volume
Spirometry - measures these volumes to
determine different types of lung disease

Respiratory Cycle
Inspiration
Diaphragmatic and external intercostal
contraction- contraction of the diaphram pulls the
lungs down and increase the volume of the
thoracic cavity
Accessory muscles of respiration raise the sternum
and the first two ribs for deep breaths
Expiration
Diaphragmatic/external intercostal relaxation
combined with internal intercostal contraction that
pulls the ribs down in forced expiration

Respiratory Cycle

External/internal respiration
External respiration - gas exchange between the
alveoli and alveolar capillary beds
Alveoli
Blood
PO2 105 mmHg ------------> PO2 40 mmHg
PCO2 40 mmHg <----------- PCO2 45 mmHG
Blood is oxygenated and CO2 is lost
Internal respiration - gas exchange between the
blood and tissues
Blood
Tissues
PO2 105 mmHg ------------> PO2 40 mmHg
PCO2 40 mmHg <----------- PCO2 45 mmHG

Transportation of Respiratory Gasses

O2 - transported bound to Fe in hemoglobin
(oxyhemoglobin). Hemoglobin O2 binding is
dependant on O2 concentration, temperature, pH
and DPG (Glycolysis intermediate-metabolism)
CO2 - transported in plasma as a dissolved gas
(7%), bound to hemoglobin (23% as
carbaminohemoglobin) and transported in the
plasma as bicarbonate ions
RBC contain carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O <---> H+ + HCO3 Respiratory alkalosis - hyperventilation
Respiratory acidosis - hypoventilation

Control of Respiration
The rate of air flow is modified to meet metabolic
demand
The medullary rhythmicity center contains two
sets of neurons known as the dorsal and ventral
respiratory groups.
The dorsal group is responsible for the basic
rhythm of breathing. Impulses from this area
trigger the diaphram and other inspiratory muscles
to contract and expand the thoracic cavity. The
lack of impulses from this area leads to relaxation
of the contractile muscles and subsequent
exhalation
Inspiration is active and expiration is passive

 The ventral respiratory group is inactive during

normal respiration
The ventral group becomes active during periods
of forceful inspiration or expiration by activating
accessory muscles of respiration
The pneumotaxic area located in the pons, just
above the medulla, continuously transmits
impulses to the dorsal respiratory group to finetune the rate of respiration
The pneumotaxic area controls the rate of
respiration
Strong pneumotaxic activity = shorter inspiratory
bursts from the dorsal respiratory = increased rate
of respiration
Weak pneumotaxic activity = longer inspiratory
bursts and the rate of breathing decreases

The Inflation Reflex

Regulates the depth of respiration
Stretch receptors located in the visceral pleura,
bronchioles and alveoli send sensory impulses to
the pneumotaxic area via the vagus nerve.
Increased activity of the stretch receptors activates
the pneumotaxic area to shorten the duration of
inspiration and prevent overinflation of the lungs
during forceful breathing

Central Chemoreceptors
Central Chemoreceptors - located in
chemosensitive areas of the respiratory center
(ventral portion)
-sensitive to changes in CO2 and blood pH
-increased CO2 or H+ ion conc. Trigger increased
respiratory rate
H+ + HCO3 ----> H2O + CO2
increased respiration decreases CO2 + H ion
concentration
Note central receptors are not sensitive to O2
conc.

Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Peripheral chemoreceptors exist in specialized
structures called the aortic and carotid bodies
The aortic body is located in the walls of the aortic
arch
The carotid body is located in the walls of the
carotid sinuses
An extreme drop in O2 concentration stimulates
these receptors to trigger an increase in respiratory
rate and and tidal volume.
These receptors are also sensitive to changes in
CO2 and H conc., though not as sensitive as
central receptors

Baroreceptors
These receptors monitor blood pressure
changes and can cause an alteration in the
rate of respiration

Lungs/Emotions
The emotion associated with the lungs is
grief
The lungs are highly sensitive to emotional
upset
Conscious deep diaphragmatic breathing
can be used to calm oneself or to distract
oneself from pain

Terms
Upper respiratory infectionpharyngitis/bronchitis/peumonia
Tuberculosis - mycobacterium
Pneumothorax
Pulmonary embolism
RDS - surfactant
Emphysema
Hypo/hyperventilation - CO2 levels