500+ DEFINITIONS & EXPLANATIONS of ECONOMIC TERMS

A
ABOVE FULL EMPLOYMENT EQUILIBRIUM exists when macroeconomic
equilibrium occurs at a level of Real GDP above long-run aggregate supply (LRAS).
ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE exists when one country can produce a good or service
with less resources or factors of production compared to another country.
ABSOLUTE POVERTY exists when only the minimum level of basic needs- such
as food, shelter and clothing-can be met.
ABUNDANCE occurs when a person can obtain as much of something as they want.
It is the opposite of scarcity.
ACCELERATOR refers to a larger percentage change in investment as a result of a
percentage change in demand.
ACCOUNTING PROFIT is the difference between total revenues and total explicit
costs.
AD VALOREM TAX is an indirect tax on a good or service imposed by a
government whose amount of tax depends on the value of the item or service.
AGGREGATE DEMAND is the relationship between the aggregate quantity of
goods and services demanded-or Real GDP- and the price level the GDP deflatorholding everything else constant. AD =C+I+G+X-M.
AGGREGATE DEMAND SHOCK is any shock, such as 9/11 or a war, which
causes the aggregate demand curve to shift to the left or right.
AGGREGATE SUPPLY CURVE is the relationship between planned rates of total
production for the whole economy and the price level.
AGGREGATE SUPPLY is the sum total of planned production for the whole
economy.
AGGREGATE SUPPLY SHOCK is any shock, such as 9/11 or a dramatic change
in the weather, which causes the aggregate supply curve to shift to the left or right.
AGRICULTURAL PROTECTIONISM is the restriction of agricultural
international trade by governments. A of major concern to LDCs. It is a major reason
for the failure of the WTO Doha Round of negotiations.
AID is money and/or goods and services provided to a country. It can be tied-that is,
certain conditions are imposed by the donor-or untied. It can come from private
investment and or Overseas Development Assistance.
ALLOCATIVE EFFICIENCY occurs when no resources are wasted; when no one
can be made better off without making someone else worse off.
ANTICIPATED INFLATION is an inflation rate that has been correctly forecast.

ANTI-DUMPING measures are imposed by governments against exports of goods

and services, which are sold into their country below the cost of production.
APPRECIATION is an increase in the value of a domestic currency in terms of other
currencies. Occurs as a result of market forces.
ASEAN refers to the free trade area of The Association of South East Asian Nations.
ASEAN PLUS 3 refers to ASEAN plus the possible inclusion of China, Japan and
South Korea.
ASSET is anything of value that is owned; such as a house, shares and furniture.
AUTOMATIC STABLIZER is a mechanism that decreases the size of fluctuations
in aggregate expenditure.
AUTONOMOUS CONSUMPTION is that part of consumption which is
independent of the level of disposable income.
AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH IN GDP refers to the average percentage growth
in GDP over a period of time.
AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH IN GDP PER CAPITA refers to the average
percentage growth in GDP per capita over a period of time.
AVERAGE ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH refers to the average percentage
growth in population over a period of time.
AVERAGE FIXED COSTS (AFC) are total fixed costs divided by the number of
units produced.
AVERAGE PROPENSITY TO CONSUME (APC) is consumption divided by
disposable income at any given level of income. It is the proportion of total disposable
income that is consumed.
AVERAGE PROPENSITY TO SAVE (APS) is savings divided by disposable
income at any given level of income. It is the proportion of total disposable income
that is saved.
AVERAGE TAX RATE is the total direct tax payment divided by total income. Or
the proportion of total income paid in direct tax.
AVERAGE TOTAL COSTS (ATC) are total costs divided by the number of units
produced.
AVERAGE VARIABLE COSTS (AVC) are total variable costs divided by the
number of units produced.

B
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS is an account of a countrys transactions with the rest
of the world.
BALANCE OF TRADE is the difference between the value of visible exports and
the value of visible imports.
BALANCE OF TRADE DEFICIT refers to a situation where a countrys visible
imports exceed its visible exports.
BALANCE OF TRADE SURPLUS refers to a situation where a countrys visible
exports exceed its visible imports.
BILATERIAL FREE TRADE AGREEMENT refers to a free trade agreement
between two countries.
BRAND NAME is a name given by an organization to a product or service with the
aim to distinguish from other goods and services on the market, thereby enhancing its
value and resulting in consumer loyalty.
BALANCING ITEM refers to the estimated net value of omissions from all other
items recorded in the balance of payments accounts.
BANKRUPTCY is a situation where an entity is unable to pay its debts.
BARRIERS TO ENTRY refers to obstacles placed to make it difficult for firms to
enter an industry and provide competition to existing suppliers of a good or service. A
form of protectionism; often imposed by governments to protect their domestic
industries.
BARTER is a system of exchange where goods and services are exchanged without
the use of money. Still used by some countries, such as Myanmar.
BASE YEAR is the year selected as the point of reference for comparison.
BIRTH RATE is the number of births per 1,000 people in the population per year.
BLACK MARKET ECONOMY refers to the unofficial economic activity in an
economy. It cannot be precisely measured because the value of the activities is not
officially recorded in a countrys accounts.
BUDGET is the annual statement of accounts of a government for a forthcoming
period, usually the next twelve months. The surplus or deficit reflects the internal
health of a country or state.
BUDGET SURPLUS occurs where the governments income exceeds its
expenditure.
BUDGET DEFICIT occurs where the governments income is less than its
expenditure. Persistent deficits reflect poor management of a countrys internal
accounts/affairs.

BUFFER STOCK SCHEME refers to attempts, by producers and/or governments,

to smooth out fluctuations in prices in goods and hence producer incomes.
BUSINESS CYCLE refers to the fluctuations in economic activity over a period of
time. Usually measured by Real GDP and other macroeconomic variables.

C
CAPITAL is one of the four factors of production. It refers to man-made items. For
example, machines, robots, factories.
CAPITAL CONSUMPTION refers to the reduction in the value of capital goods
over a one-year period due to obsolescence and physical wear and tear.
CAPITAL COSTS are the cost incurred in providing capital goods.
CAPITAL DEEPENING refers to improvements in the quality of capital. Examples
include new ideas and inventions that find their way into the productive process via
new, or improvements to existing, capital goods.
CAPITAL FLIGHT is the movement of domestic financial capital across
international boundaries. It usually is a result of domestic problems-such as a war or
insurgency- and results in problems of capital deepening, particularly for LDCs
leading to increased international debt.
CAPITAL GOODS consist of one of the four factors of production produced by
people. For example, machines, robots, factories.
CAPITAL INVESTMENT is the investment in capital or capital goods.
CAPITAL MOVEMENTS is the flow of funds across international boundaries for
investment in capital goods and/or in response to, or anticipation of, obtaining a
higher interest rate.
CAPITAL WIDENING refers to an increase in the quantity of capital.
CAPITALISM refers to an economic system in which the productive resources are
owned by individuals/corporations.
CARTEL exists when a group of producers enter into a collusive agreement to limit
output and control supply in order to raise prices and profits. Results in increased
producer sovereignty. OPEC is a good example.
CENTRAL BANK refers to the official institution in a country, which controls the
money supply, and also sets interest rates. It controls monetary policy. In the majority
of countries, it operates independently of the government.
CERITUS PARIBUS is the assumption that all other variables are kept constant,
except those variables under study.

CHILD MALNUTRITION refers to situations where a child does not have

sufficient sustenance for a healthy life.
CLASSICAL UNEMPLOYMENT is caused when labour unions or minimum
legislation hold the real wage above the equilibrium level, not allowing the market to
clear. It is one of the two types of disequilibrium unemployment.
COLLUSION is a situation where a group of individuals or firms join together, either
officially or usually unofficially, to exercise greater producer sovereignty.
COLLUSIVE OLIGOPOLY refers to the price setting by oligopolists to prevent a
price war from occurring.
COMMAND ECONOMY is the economic system in which the government controls
all or the majority of the factors of production, makes decisions about the allocation of
scarce resources and the distribution of income.
COMMODITY AGREEMENTS are arrangements between producers to control
supply onto the market, aimed at stabilising and/or raising commodity prices. They
create a buffer stock.
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE exists where a country can produce a good or
service at a lower opportunity cost compared with another country.
COMPETITION is rivalry among buyers and sellers of the inputs and outputs of the
factors of production.
COMPLEMENTARY GOOD OR SERVICE exists when the change in price of
one good or service causes an opposite shift in the demand for another good or
service.
CONCENTRATION RATIO refers to the percentage of all sales contributed by a
small number of the largest firms in an industry.
CONSTANT PRICES is the currency expressed in terms of real purchasing power,
using a base year as a comparison.
CONSTANT RETURNS TO SCALE exists when the percentage change in a firms
output equals the percentage change in its inputs.
CONSUMER EXPENDITURE is expenditure on durable and non-durable goods
and services by consumers.
CONSUMER GOODS refer to durable and non-durable goods and services.
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX is an index of the average households purchase of
goods and services most commonly used in western countries to measure inflation.
CONSUMER SOVEREIGNTY exist where consumers, by their spending,
ultimately determines which goods and services will be produced in an economy.
CONSUMER SURPLUS is the difference between the amount a consumer is willing
to pay for a commodity and the amount that is actually paid.

CONSUMPTION is the process of using up goods and services.

CONSUMPTION FUNCTION expresses the relationship between the amount
consumed and disposable income.
CONSUMPTION GOODS are goods bought by households to use up.
CONTESTABLE MARKETS refers to markets where entry and exit is free, thereby
allowing greater competition in an industry.
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS refers to the process of putting a monetary value on
the total costs and total benefits of an economic activity, and then weighing them up
to make a decision. A major problem in economics is how do you place a monetary
value on the social or external costs and benefits of an economic activity?
COST-PUSH INFLATION refers to the sustained increase in the general price level
resulting from increased cost in the inputs of the factors of production.
COUNTER-CYCLICAL POLICY is the use of expansionary and contractionary
monetary and fiscal policies to offset wide fluctuations in economic activity.
COUNTER-PRODUCTIVE ECONOMIC ADVICE refers to advice, or terms,
imposed on a country by an international financial institution that the government of
the country believes is not in the country best economic interest. Often used in
relation to IMF loans granted to LDCs.
CREEPING INFLATION refers to a sustained low rate of increase in the general
price level. Considered not only acceptable but also good for an economy.
CROSS-PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND is a measure of the responsiveness in
quantity demanded of one good/service to the change in price of a related good/
service.
CROWDING IN refers to the likelihood of an expansionary fiscal policy will result
in an increase in investment.
CROWDING OUT refers to the likelihood of an increase in a governments
expenditure on goods and services will result in an increase in interest rates, thereby
crowding out private investment because firms borrowing costs are higher.
CRUDE BIRTH RATE is the number of births per year per 1,000 population.
CRUDE DEATH RATE is the number of deaths per year per 1,000 population.
CURRENCY TRADER is a person or organization which deals/trades in one or
more currencies. They are engaged in speculative foreign exchange transactions,
which account for the majority of all currency dealings.
CURRENT ACCOUNT is that part of the balance of payments which records the
transactions of goods/visible items and services/invisible items. Used as a measure to
determine how healthy a countrys external account is.

CURRENT ACCOUNT BALANCE refers to whether the current account is in

surplus or deficit.
CURRENT ACCOUNT BALANCE TO GDP (%) expresses the relationship in
percentage terms between the current account balance and GDP. It is a measure of
both the importance and health of a countrys external account.
CURRENT ACCOUNT DEFICIT exists where imports of goods and services
exceed their exports. Persistent deficits are a major problem for a country-particularly
LDCs- because they indicate that the country is living beyond its means. To overcome
this, a country has to increase its borrowings on its BOP capital account.
CURRENT ACCOUNT SURPLUS exists where exports of goods and services
exceed their imports. Indicates a healthy external account, and a healthy economy.
CUSTOMS UNION is a unification of two or more countries of their customs and
trade policies.
CYCLICAL UNEPLOYMENT is unemployment resulting from a downturn in the
business cycle resulting in a recession. Occurs when total demand is insufficient to
create full employment.

D
DEATH-RATE is the number of deaths per 1,000 population.
DEBT-SERVICING refers to the ability of an organization and/or country to meet
interest and principal payments on its debts/borrowings as and when they fall due.
Often represents a major external account problem for LDCs.
DECREASING RETURN TO SCALE occurs when an increase in a firms inputs
results in a less than proportional increase in its output.
DEFAULT ON LOANS exists when an organization or country fails to repay its
borrowings on the due date.
DEFICIT SPENDING exists when a governments spending exceeds its tax
revenues.
DEFLATE refers to government action to reduce aggregate demand through fiscal
and/or monetary measures.
DEFLATION is a sustained decrease in the general price level. Often accompanied
by a fall in total output and an increase in unemployment.
DEMAND is the relationship between the quantity demanded of a good or service
and its price.
DEMAND-DEFICIENT (CYCLICAL) UNEMPLOYMENT occurs as a result of a
fall in aggregate demand for goods and services. This leads to a decline in the demand
for labour. It is one of the two types of disequilibrium unemployment.

DEMAND CURVE shows the relationship between the quantity of a good or service
and its price, holding all else constant. Shown on a graph/diagram.
DEMAND SCHEDULE lists the quantities of a good or service and its price, holding
all else constant.
DEMAND-PULL INFLATION is a sustained increase in the general price level
resulting from an increase in aggregate demand.
DEMERIT GOOD is a good or service that is socially undesirable. It is the opposite
of a merit good.
DEPENDENCY RATIO is the percentage of the population under aged 15 years and
65 plus years. Refers to the fact that these people generally do not pay tax and are
dependent upon the economic activity of others.
DEPRECIATION OF CAPITAL is the reduction in the value of capital goods over
a year due to obsolescence and wear and tear.
DEPRECIATION OF CURENCY is the reduction in the value of a domestic
currency against foreign currencies under a regime of floating exchange rates.
DERVIVED DEMAND is when the demand for the final product produced results in
an increase in the demand for inputs of the factors of production.
DEVALUATION is a fall in the value of a currency operating under a fixed
exchange rate system. Results from government action.
DEVALUE is to lower the value of a currency operating under a fixed exchange rate
system. Results from government action.
DEVELOPMENT is a process that improves the lives, or standard of living, of all
people in a country. Includes both tangible and intangible factors.
DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS are measures-such as literacy, malnutrition and
the poverty level- that indicate a countrys level of economic development.
DIMISHING OR MARGINAL RETURNS occurs at the point when continual
increases in a variable factor of production applied to a fixed factor of production
results in a less than proportional increase in output.
DIRECT TAX is a tax imposed by governments directly on an individual or
organization. Most commonly applied on personal income and company profits.
DIRTY OR MANAGED FLOAT exists when a government intervenes in the
managed float of its currency. It creates an artificial value or price of the currency,
and is unsustainable in the long term.
DISECONOMIES OF SCALE exists when an increases in output leads to increases
in long-run average costs.

DISGUISED UNEMPLOYMENT exists in the workplace where labour produces

very little output, their marginal product is very low and inefficiency is high. In short,
too many workers are employed for a given task. Examples exist in many of Chinas
State Owned Enterprises.
DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME refers to the way in which income is distributed
among the population.
DIVISION OF LABOUR is the segregation of the factor of production-labour-into
different tasks. Occurs in most organizations.
DOHA ROUND OF TRADE NEGOTIATIONS refers to the current WTO round
of negotiations of members aimed at reductions in trade restrictions. It began in 2001
and was due to be completed in 2004, but has been extended.
DOMINANT PRICE LEADER refers to the market leader in an industry that is
usually the first to change prices.
DOUBLE COUNTING exists when expenditure is counted on both intermediate and
final goods and services. It is avoided in the preparation of national accounts.
DUAL ECONOMY is the existence of two distinct types of economies, operating
side-by-side.
DUMPING is when the price of a countrys exports is below the true costs of
production.
DUOPOLY is a market structure where there are only two sellers in a market and
interdependence plays a major role in price determination.
DURABLE CONSUMER GOODS are goods used by consumers that have a life
span of more than one year.
DUTIES are a form of protectionism. They are levies imposed by governments on
imports. Result in increased consumer prices and less competition in the marketplace.

E
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT occurs in a country when there is an increase in
Real GDP per capita plus an improvement in the standard of living. It is one of the
five major macroeconomic objectives.
ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY occurs when society is producing the goods and
services most valued by society. Occurs outside firms.
ECONOMIC GOOD is any good or service that is scarce.
ECONOMIC GROWTH is an increase in a countrys Real GDP per capita. It is one
of the five major macroeconomic objectives.
ECONOMIC PROBLEM is one of relative scarcity of resources relative to
unlimited human wants.

ECONOMIC PROFIT is the extra profit a firm earns over the combination of
accounting profit and normal profit. Also referred to a supernormal profit.
ECONOMIC REFORMS refers to changes-usually resulting in improvements- to a
countrys economic systems.
ECONOMIC STRUCTURE refers to the classification of a countrys output
produced by sectors of the economy-usually, primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.
ECONOMIC SYSTEM refers to the system that guides the use of resources to
satisfy human wants.
ECONOMIC THEORY is a principle or rule that allows us to understand and
predict economic choices.
ECONOMICS is the study of how people/societies use their scarce resources to
satisfy unlimited wants.
ECONOMIES OF SCALE occurs when increasing the scale of production leads to a
lower cost per unit of output.
EFFICIENCY is concerned with how well scarce resources are allocated to solve the
three problems of what to produce, how to produce, and for whom production should
take place.
ELASTICITY is a measure of the responsiveness of one variable to the change in
another variable.
EMBARGO is a total ban on trade. It is one of the forms of protectionism. It may be
imposed by a domestic government or from outside the country. An example of the
former is an embargo on drugs.
EMPLOYMENT refers to the paid utilisation of the factor of production-labour.
EMU refers to the European Monetary Union, a group of countries that use the single
currency-the Euro.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA is the amount of energy consumed
divided by the total population.
ENTERPRISE is a key factor of production and is the reward derived from
combining the other three factors-land, labour and capital-to produce goods and
services.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION is a deterioration in the environment
through, for example, pollution and deforestation. Major problem largely ignored by
many world leaders.
EQUATION OF EXCHANGE is expressed as formula M x V = P X Q.
EQUILIBRIUM is a situation where demand equals supply at a given price and the
market clears.

EU refers to the European Union, a group of countries that have formed a trading
bloc.
EURO is the official currency of the majority-but not all-of members of the EU.
EUROCURRENCY is the official currency of the majority-but not all-of members of
the EU.
EUROPEAN MONETARY SYSTEM (EMS) refers to the agreement whereby EU
members promoted exchange rate stability within the EU before the introduction of
the Euro.
EXCHANGE is the act of trading goods and services between countries for their
mutual economic benefit.
EXCHANGE RATE is the price of a currency expressed against another, or group pf
currencies, on the foreign exchange market.
EXCHANGE RATE THEORY refers to the economic theory of managing an
exchange rate.
EXPANDING DOWNSTREAM refers to a situation where a company expands its
operations away from the market towards the original source of raw materials.
EXPENDITURE-REDUCING POLICIES are contractionary macroeconomic
policies designed to reduce incomes and thus expenditure.
EXPENDITURE-SWITCHING POLICIES are policies which a designed to reduce
spending on imports and lead to an increase in spending on domestically produced
goods and services and exports.
EXPORTS are goods and services sold by one country to another.
EXPORTS AS A % OF GDP expresses the relationship, in percentage terms,
between exports and GDP.
EXTERNAL BALANCE refers to a countrys balance of payments on current
account. That is, whether it is in surplus or deficit. Related to the key macroeconomic
objective of external equilibrium.
EXTERNAL DEBT is the amount of money owed by a country to the rest of the
world.
EXTERNAL EQUILIBRIUM is concerned with the balance of payments on current
account of a country. That is, whether it is in balance, surplus or deficit. It is one of
the five major macroeconomic objectives. The attainment of balance over a period of
time is an indication that a country can pay its way in the world. Persistent deficits-a
major problem for many LDCs-obviously indicates that a country is living beyond its
means.
EXTERNAL SHOCK relates to an unexpected shift in aggregate demand and/or
aggregate supply.

EXTERNALITY is an effect of production or consumption that is not taken into

account by producers or consumers that affects the utility or costs of other producers
or consumers.

F
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION refers to the scarce resources-land, labour, capital
and enterprise-used to produce economic goods and services.
FARM SUBSIDIES are payments by governments to agricultural producers. These
subsidies by the USA, EU and Japan are a major reason for the failure of the Doha
Round of Free Trade negotiations.
FEMALE ILLITERACY is the percentage of females in a population who cannot
read and write.
FERTILITY RATE is the average number of children born to each female in a
country.
FINANCIAL MARKETS are markets which savings pass through to firms and
governments for investment purposes.
FIRM is an organization that utilises the factors of production to produce and sell
goods and services.
FISCAL DEFICIT AS A % OF GDP expresses the relationship in percentage terms
between the budget deficit and GDP. It is an indicator of the internal health of an
economy-the higher the %, the sicker the economy.
FISCAL DEFICIT exists where government expenditure exceeds its tax revenues.
FISCAL POLICY refers to the governments policy on taxation (direct and indirect),
government expenditure and transfer payments and their affect on aggregate demand
and aggregate supply.
FISCAL SURPLUS exists where government tax revenues exceed its expenditure.
FIXED COSTS (FC) refer to those costs that do not vary with output in the short
run. In the long run, all costs are variable.
FIXED EXCHANGE RATE exists where the price of one currency against another
is fixed on the foreign exchange market. Currently, this is the situation with the
Chinese Yuan to the US$.
FIXED INVESTMENT refers to purchases of capital goods.
FLOATING EXCHANGE RATE is one where the price of one currency against
another is determined by market forces on the foreign exchange market.
FLOOR PRICE, or minimum price, is a price imposed above the market equilibrium
price. It is designed to assist producers.

FOREIGN AID refers to assistance to a country from private sources or public

bodies from outside a country. For LDCs, it is a major source of financing BOP
current account deficits.
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI) refers to the investment by overseas
firms in another country. Majority is undertaken by MNCs.
FOREIGN EXCHANGE MARKET refers to the institutions through which
currencies are traded on the open market.
FREE ENTERPRISE is the system that allows individuals and firms to obtain scarce
resources, organise them, and sell goods and services without major government
interference.
FREE GOOD is any good or service that is abundant.
FREE RIDER is someone that consumes a good or service without paying for it.
FREE TRADE is the movement of goods and services without protectionist barriers.
FREE TRADE AGREEMENT is an agreement that allows the movement of goods
and services without protectionist barriers between two or more countries.
FREE TRADE AREA refers to a group of countries (two or more) that engage in the
movement of goods and services without protectionist barriers.
FREELY FLOATING EXCHANGE RATE is one where the price of one currency
against another is determined by market forces on the foreign exchange market.
FRICTIONAL UNEMPLOYMENT refers to unemployment caused by new
entrants into the market, technological change and geographic movement of workers.
FULL EMPLOYMENT exists when the labour market clears allowing for structural,
seasonal and frictional unemployment. Also known as the natural rate of
unemployment. It is one of the five major macroeconomic objectives.

G
GDP IMPLICIT PRICE DEFLATOR is an index that measures the changes in
prices of all goods and services produced by an economy.
GDP PER CAPITA is the gross domestic product divided by the total population.
GIFFEN GOODS refers to goods where the income effect of a price change of
inferior goods is greater than the substitution effect. Many economists dispute this
claim.
GINI COEFFICIENT is a way of showing income inequality by converting the
Lorenz curve into a single statistic.

GLOBALISATION is a process of breaking the down barriers between countries

resulting in greater integration and interdependence. Since the 1980s, largely brought
about through massive technological changes in communications and information.
GLOBALISED ECONOMY is the movement, through globalisation, to a borderless
world economy.
GLUT is an excess of supply of a good or service over demand at the equilibrium
price.
GNI is the sum of all the incomes within a country allowing for net property income
from abroad.
GNI PER CAPITA is gross national income divided by the total population.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) is the value of a countrys total output of
goods and services before depreciation.
GROSS NATIONAL SAVINGS AS A % OF GDP expresses the relationship in
percentage terms between gross national savings and GDP. For investment to occur,
savings must first take place. Therefore, the higher the % of gross national savings to
GDP the greater will be future total output.
GROWTH IN INVESTMENT refers to the increase-usually expressed in percentage
terms-in investment that is a precursor to increased total output and employment.
GROWTH IN OUTPUT refers to the increase-usually expressed in percentage
terms-in the value of a countrys total output in goods and services.

H
HARD LOAN is a loan with commercial rates of interest and terms of repayment.
HARROD-DOMAR GROWTH MODEL refers to a model of growth, which
focuses on the constraint in growth caused by shortage of capital in LDCs.
HIDDEN UNEMPLOYMENT exists in a firm where too many people are employed
resulting in many employees producing very little. Inefficiency is high. Also known
as disguised unemployment.
HUMAN CAPITAL is the investment that takes place in the factor of productionlabour- aimed to increase productivity, well-being and job satisfaction. Occurs
through the investment in education and training of people.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX measures the average achievement of a country
in three dimensions of human development-life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rate,
and purchasing power through GDP per capita (PPP US$).
HUMAN SUFFERING INDEX is an index of ten indicators of human well-being.
Used to rank countries and make comparisons.

HYPER-INFLATION is an excessive sustained increase in the general price level.

Very damaging to an economy as it results, for example, in domestic goods and
services being non-competitive in international markets.

I
ILLITERACY is the percentage of the population who cannot read and write.
IMPERFECT COMPETITION refers to the many market structures that fall
between the two extremes of perfect competition and pure monopoly.
IMPORT SUBSTITUTION is increasing domestic production of goods and services
to replace imports. Process adopted by many LDCs in an attempt to industrialise.
IMPORTS are the purchase of goods and services from another country.
INCOME ELASTICITY OF DEMAND is the responsiveness of the quantity
demanded of a good or service to a change in income. Important tool used by
businesses and governments in their decision making process.
INCOME INEQUALITIES refers to the gap in incomes between high, middle and
low income-earners. Statistics indicate that the gap is widening, rather than
narrowing, in most countries.
INCREASING RETURNS TO SCALE occurs when output increases more than
proportionally to the increase in inputs.
INDIRECT TAX is a tax imposed by government directly on spending. Examples
include: GST, payroll tax, sales tax, land tax, stamp duty paid on the purchase of a
property.
INFANT INDUSTRY ARGUMENT refers to the argument for governments to
protect newly established industries from foreign competition, to enable them to grow
domestically and internationally.
INFANT MORTALITY RATE is the number of live-born infants who die before
one year old per 1,000 of the population.
INFERIOR GOOD is a good for which consumption falls as income rises.
INFLATION is a sustained increase in the general price level. Measured by the
Consumer/Retail Price Index.
INTEREST is the cost of borrowing money or return received for money lent. Also,
the return paid to the owners of capital.
INTEREST RATE is the price paid or received for borrowing or lending money.
INTEREST RATE DIFFERENTIAL refers to the difference in Central Bank
interest rates between countries.
INTERNAL BALANCE refers to the state of the governments fiscal budget.

INTERNATIONAL INDEBTEDNESS is the amount of borrowings a country has

obtained from overseas. Major problem for LDCs.
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF) is now primarily involved in
arranging credit and providing mainly macroeconomic advice to LDCs. Often accused
by LDCs as being interfering in their internal affairs as credit provided often comes
with stringent conditions which have political and social consequences for borrowing
governments.
INVESTMENT is expenditure on investment in goods and services or capital
creation.
INVESTMENT LOANS refer to World Bank loans that are long term, 5 to 10 years,
and are used to finance specific projects involving goods, services and works in poor
countries.
INVISIBLE BALANCE refers to the balance of all items on the balance of payments
of current account, except for the exports and imports of goods.

J
J-CURVE EFFECT refers to the way and the time frame in which the trade balance
may initially worsen before it improves, after a depreciation of the exchange rate.

K
KEYNESIAN THEORY advocates government intervention due to the inherently
unstable nature of the economy. Favours fiscal policy measures rather than monetary
policy measures to correct macroeconomic problems in the economy.
KINKED DEMAND CURVE is a pricing model in an oligopolistic market structure.
Rivals follows one firms decision to decrease their price, but not to increase their
price, of a good or service.
KUZNETS RATIOS refers to the percentage of income earned by the bottom 40%
expressed as a ratio of income earned by the top 20%.

L
LABOUR is one of the four factors of production. Refers to human resources
involved in productive contributions to the economy.
LABOUR FORCE is the number of people who have jobs plus those who are
unemployed.
LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY is the output per unit of labour input.
LAFFER CURVE refers to a graphical representation of the relationship between tax
rates and total revenues raised by taxation.
LAISSEZ-FAIRE is a viewpoint that advocates non-government intervention in an
economy.

LAND is one of the four factors of production. Refers to all natural resources.
LAW OF DIMISHING OR MARGINAL RETURNS advocates that, at some
point, continual increases in a variable factor of production applied to a fixed factor of
production will result in a less than proportional increase in output.
LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRY refers to countries with a low standard of living,
such that many people do not have the basic necessities of life such as adequate food,
water, clothing, heath and education.
LIFE EXPECTANCY is the average number of years a person is expected to live. It
is one indicator of the level of economic development of a country.
LIVING BELOW THE POVERTY LINE refers to the percentage of the population
living on less than US$1 per day. This is the World Bank definition. It is one indicator
of the level of economic development of a country.
LONG RUN is the time period when all factors of production are variable.
LONG-RUN AGGREGATE SUPPLY is the relationship between Real GDP and
the Price Level at full employment. Unemployment is at its natural rate.
LONG-RUN AVERAGE COST CURVE represents the cheapest way to produce
goods and services. It is derived by joining the minimum point of the various SRAS
curves.
LONG-RUN PHILLIPS CURVE shows the relationship between inflation and
unemployment when the actual rate of inflation equals the expected rate of inflation.
LONG-RUN SUPPLY CURVE describes the response of the quantity supplied to a
change in price after all technology adjustments have been made.
LORENZ CURVE measures income inequality within the population.
LOW-INCOME HOUSEHOLDS refers to households where the basic necessities
of life cannot be met. Covers approximately 3 billion of the worlds population.

M
MACROECONOMIC EQUILIBRIUM occurs where the quantity of Real GDP
demanded and supplied meet. It is where AD = SRAS.
MACROECONOMIC OBJECTIVES refers to the five key macroeconomic issues
that are of concern to governments: economic growth, economic development, full
employment, price stability, and external equilibrium.
MACROECONOMICS is the study of the whole economy.
MALE ILLITERACY refers to the number or percentage of males who cannot read
or write.

MANAGED EXCHANGE RATES is a system of exchange rates where

governments intervene to influence the price of their currency.
MARGINAL COST (MC) is the change in total cost for the last unit increase in the
variable input.
MARGINAL COST PRICING is a system of pricing in which the price charged is
equal to the opportunity cost to society of producing one more unit of good or service.
MARGINAL PRIVATE COST (MPC) is the marginal cost directly incurred by
producers.
MARGINAL PROPENSITY TO CONSUME (MPC) is the ratio of the change in
consumption to the change in disposable income.
MARGINAL PROPENSITY TO CONSUME DOMESTIC (MPCd) is the
proportion of an increase in disposable income that is spent on domestic goods and
services.
MARGINAL PROPENSITY TO IMPORT (MPM) is the proportion of an increase
in disposable income that is spent on imports.
MARGINAL PROPENSITY TO SAVE (MPS) is the ratio of the change in savings
to the change in disposable income.
MARGINAL REVENUE (MR) is the change in total revenue resulting from selling
one more unit.
MARGINAL SOCIAL BENEFIT is the total value of the benefit from one
additional unit of consumption. It includes benefits to the buyer plus any indirect
benefits to society.
MARGINAL SOCIAL COST is the total cost of producing one additional unit of
output. This includes costs borne by the producer plus any indirect costs borne by
society.
MARGINAL TAX RATE is applied to the last tax bracket of taxable income. It is
the percentage of extra income that must be paid in taxes.
MARKET ECONOMIC SYSTEM refers to a system where individuals, rather than
governments, own the factors of production and decide what, how and when to
produce.
MARKET ECONOMY refers to an economy where individuals, rather than
governments, own the factors of production and decide what, how and when to
produce.
MARKET EQUILIBRIUM PRICE is the clearing price where the demand curve
and supply curve intersect.
MARKET EXCHANGE RATE refers to the price of a currency determined by the
market forces of demand and supply of a currency.

MARKET FAILURE occurs where markets do not work at all or do not work well.
MARKET POWER refers to a market structure where a high degree of producer
sovereignty exists.
MARKET SHARE is the percentage of the total market or market segment captured
by a producer.
MARKET STRUCTURE is primarily classified by the degree of competition that
exists in the market. Structures range from perfect competition through to monopoly.
MARSHALL-LERNER CONDITION states that if the PEDx + PEDm > 1, then a
depreciation of the exchange rate will improve the balance of payments. If the PEDx
+ PEDm = 1, then the BOP will remain unchanged. If the PEDx + PEDm <1, then a
depreciation will worsen the BOP.
MAXIMUM OR CEILING PRICE is a price imposed below the market
equilibrium price. It is designed to help consumers by making the price cheaper.
MERCHANDISE EXPORTS are the visible goods one country sells to another.
MERCOSUR refers to a free trade area formed by major South American countries,
such as Brazil and Argentina.
MERGER is the joining of two entities.
MERIT GOOD is a good that is socially desirable. It has positive externalities and
will often be underprovided in a free market.
MICRO-LENDING refers to the lending of very small amount of money to private
small businesses. It is has the potential to be an important source of funding in LDCs.
MICROCREDIT refers to the provision of a credit facility or lending of very small
amount of money to private small businesses. It has the potential to be an important
source of funding in LDCs.
MICROECONOMICS is the study of the behaviour of households and firms and
how the prices of goods and services are determined.
MIDDLE-INCOME DEVELOPING COUNTRIES have a higher standard of
living compared with low-income countries, but still there are many people who still
cannot meet their basic needs.
MINIMUM BASIC LIVING STANDARD refers to being able to satisfy the basic
necessities of life, such a food, clothing, water, shelter, education and health care.
MINIMUM OR FLOOR PRICE is a price imposed above the market equilibrium
price. It is designed to assist producers.
MINIMUM WAGE LAW is a regulation that makes it illegal to hire labour below a
specified wage.

MIXED ECONOMY refers to an economic system in which the economic decisions

regarding the allocation of scarce resources is partly determined by the private sector
and partly by the government.
MODELS OR THEORIES are simplified representations of the real world.
MONETARIST is an economist who assigns a high degree of importance to
variations in the money supply as the main determinant of aggregate demand.
MONETARY POLICY refers to changes in the money supply and interest rates to
affect aggregate demand and aggregate supply. In most countries, these policy
decisions are made by the Central Bank. In some countries, such as China, Myanmar
and North Korea these policy decisions are made by the government; consequently,
monetary policy and fiscal policy are controlled by governments-not at good situation.
MONETARY UNION refers to the replacement of the currencies of the majority
members of the EU with a single currency, the Euro.
MONEY is a medium of exchange.
MONOPOLIST is a single supplier that supplies the whole industry.
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION is a type of market structure in which a large
number of firms compete with similar items.
MONOPOLY is a type of market structure where there is a single supplier that
supplies the whole industry.
MONOPOLY POWER exists where producer sovereignty is maximized.
MONOPSONY refers to a single buyer of a good or service. Such an entity exerts
very significant market power.
MOST DEVELOPED COUNTRY (MDC) refers to a country where its people have
the basic necessities of life, plus the majority of people have money for luxuries. A
country that has a high level of economic development- Real GDP per capital plus a
high standard of living.
MULTILATERAL FREE TRADE AGREEMENT is a free trade agreement
entered into by three or more countries.
MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES/CORPORATIONS (MNC) refers to
companies that have production units in more than one foreign country.
MULTIPLIER is the change in equilibrium Real GDP divided by the change in
autonomous expenditure, which causes Real GDP to change.

N
NAFTA refers to North American Free Trade Agreement. Member countries include
the USA, Canada and Mexico.

NATIONAL DEBT is the central government debt.

NATIONAL INCOME is the value of the goods and services available to a country
during a year.
NATIONALISATION is the government act of placing a privately owned company
under public ownership.
NATURAL MONOPOLY occurs when a monopoly can supply the entire market at
a lower price than two or more smaller firms.
NATURAL RATE OF UNEMPLOYMENT is the unemployment rate when the
economy is at full employment and the labour market clears. It includes any frictional,
seasonal and structural unemployment.
NATURAL RESOURCES refer to the factors of production that are not man-made.
NEGATIVE EXTERNALITY is a market activity that negatively affects other
people. It is a form of market failure.
NEGATIVE TAX is effectively a subsidy paid by the government.
NET IMPORTER OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT refers to a country
that imports more investment than it exports.
NET INVESTMENT is the net additions to the capital stock-gross investment minus
depreciation.
NET NATIONAL PRODUCT (NNP) is GDP minus depreciation.
NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES (NICS) refers to a small group of
countries with advanced industrial, financial and services sectors in their economy.
Examples include: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Greece and Mexico.
NOMINAL GDP is the output of final goods and services valued at current prices.
NOMINAL INTEREST RATE is the price or borrowing or lending money at
current prices.
NOMINAL VALUES refer to the value of variables expressed in current prices.
NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS (NGO) refers to organizations that are
not government bodies. They are involved in unofficial aid programmes in LDCs-e.g.
the Red Cross and Oxfam.
NON-PRICE COMPETITION generally refers to the branding and advertising of
products/services to increase sales, market share and profits by firms, without having
to engage in price competition.
NON-RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES refers to natural resources that can
only be used once.

NORMAL GOOD is a good or services for which demand increases when income
increases.
NORMAL PROFIT refers to the opportunity cost of capital.
NORMATIVE STATEMENT is an expression of opinion that cannot be verified by
observation or statistical fact.

O
OECD is the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE (ODA) is aid transferred by public
bodies. Divided into bilateral aid and multilateral aid.
OFFICIAL RESERVES refers to governments holdings, in the vaults of their
Central Bank, of gold, securities and foreign currencies.
OLIGOPOLY is a type of market structure in which a small number of producers
compete with each other.
OPEC is the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. It is a oil cartel. Sets
production quotas.
OPEN ECONOMY is an economy that has economic links with other economies.
OPPORTUNITY COST is the cost of any economic activity measured in terms of
the best alternative that is foregone. When the best alternative is chosen from a range
of alternatives, the second best choice is the opportunity cost. It is one of the most
important economic principles.
OUTSOURCING refers to the transfer of the manufacturing of a good or performing
of a service from within the firm to outside the firm. For example, many IT services
are being transferred from firms in Western countries to India, because of Indias
comparative advantage and it can perform these functions at a substantially lower
cost.
OVER-CONSUMPTION exists where consumption of a good or service exceeds its
available long-term supply. Clean water, a very scarce resource in the 21st Century,
used for drinking, cooking and sanitation is a good example in LDCs.
OVER-VALUED CURRENCY refers to any currency whose price is set by a
government above the free market equilibrium rate. The Myanmar Kyat is a good
example. The Argentina Peso until its devaluation in January 2002 is another
example.

P
PARADOX OF THRIFT refers to an increased desire to save-an increase in MPSthat leads to a reduction in the equilibrium level of saving.

PEGGED CURRENCY exists where the price of one currency is fixed to another.
PERFECT COMPETITION is a market structure in which the decisions of buyers
and sellers have no effect on the market price. It is a structure where consumer
sovereignty is maximised.
PERFECTLY ELASTIC DEMAND is demand with an elasticity of infinity.
PERFECTLY ELASTIC SUPPLY is supply with an elasticity of infinity.
PERFECTLY INELASTIC DEMAND is demand with an elasticity of zero.
PERFECTLY INELASTIC SUPPLY is supply with an elasticity of zero.
PERSISTENT BOP CURRENT ACCOUNT DEFICITS refers to a country that
has sustained deficits on its current account. It is indicative of poor financial health of
its external account, and failure to achieve one of the five key macroeconomic
objectives. Has an impact on the other four macroeconomic objectives.
PHILLIPS CURVE shows the trade-off between unemployment and inflation.
POPULATION DOUBLING TIME is the number of years it will take for a
population to double, assuming a constant rate of increase.
POPULATION GROWTH RATE is the percentage increase in population in a
year.
POPULATION--RATE OF NATURAL INCREASE is the birth rate minus the
death rate expressed as a percentage, ignoring net migration.
POSITIVE EXTERNALITIES refer to activities external to the market that affect
other people in a positive way.
POSITIVE STATEMENT is an expression that can be verified by observation
and/or fact.
POVERTY refers to those members of society who cannot enjoy the basic necessities
of life. There are two types of poverty: absolute and relative.
PRESENT VALUE OF DEBT/EXPORTS expresses the ratio of the present value
of a countrys debt to its exports. As exports are the means without borrowing to
repay external debt, this ratio indicates a countrys ability to meet its external debt
commitments.
PRICE CEILING is a price imposed below the market equilibrium price.
PRICE CONTROL refers to a government regulation of free market prices.
PRICE DIFFERENTIATION is a situation in which price differences for similar
products reflect only the marginal cost in providing those goods and services to
different groups of buyers.

PRICE DISCRIMINATION is the practice of charging a higher price to some

customers and not others for an identical good or service when there is no difference
in cost.
PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND (PED) is the responsiveness of quantity
demanded of a good or service to a change in its price.
PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY (PES) is the responsiveness of quantity
supplied of a good or service to a change in its price.
PRICE FIXING occurs when individuals or firms collude to set the price of a good
or service above the market price. It is illegal in most countries.
PRICE INDEX is a measure of the level of prices in one period expressed as a
percentage of their level in another period.
PRICE LEVEL is the average level of prices as measured by a price index.
PRICE STABILITY is one the five key macroeconomic objectives. It is used as an
indicator of the economic health of an economy. Price stability impacts on the other
four macroeconomic objectives.
PRICE TAKER is a firm that cannot influence the price of its output. Exists for
firms, for example, that operate in a perfectly competitive market structure.
PRICES AND INCOME POLICY is government policies that restrict the increase
of prices and incomes in order to achieve price stability.
PRIMARY HEALTH CARE refers to the provision of health services based upon
preventing, rather than curing, diseases. For example, providing clean water and
immunization.
PRIMARY PRODUCTION is that sector of the economy engaged in producing
goods that can be found in, or depend upon, nature.
PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLEMENT RATE is the percentage of children of
primary school age that attend primary school.
PRIVATE DEBT refers to the external debt of a country provided by private
sources/firms.
PRIVATE GOOD is a good or service consumed by only one person.
PRIVATE INVESTMENT is investment by firms/individuals.
PRIVATIZATION is the process of selling a public corporation to private
shareholders.
PRODUCER SURPLUS is the difference between a producers total revenue and the
opportunity cost of production.
PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION refers to real and/or perceived slight differences
in a good or service.

PRODUCTION involves the conversion of natural, human and capital resources into
goods and services.
PRODUCTION FUNCTION shows the relationship between how output varies
when the employment of inputs changes.
PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY CURVE (PPC) refers to the boundary between
attainable and unattainable levels of production.
PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY FRONTIER (PPF) refers to the boundary between
attainable and unattainable levels of production.
PRODUCTION QUOTAS are restrictions on the amount of production. A topical
example is the OPEC production quotas.
PRODUCTIVE EFFICIENCY occurs within a firm. It exists when they are
producing output with the minimum amount of inputs. The incentive for a firm to
achieve this is the profit motive. Also known as technical efficiency.
PRODUCTIVTY is the increase in output per unit of input.
PROGRESSIVE INCOME TAX is where the marginal rate of tax applied is greater
than the average tax rate as incomes increase.
PROPORTIONAL INCOME TAX is where the average and marginal tax rates are
the same, regardless of income levels.
PROTECTIONISM is the restriction of international free trade by governments.
Measures include quotas, tariffs, embargoes and import duties.
PROTECTIONIST BARRIERS refers to the government establishing any form of
restriction on the free trade of goods and services. They can include measure such as
tariffs through to administrative and health constraints.
PUBLIC GOOD is a good or service that is non-excludable and non-rivalrous.
PURCHASING POWER PARITY (PPP) exists where money has equal value
across countries.

Q
QUANTITY DEMANDED is the amount of a good or service that consumers plan
to buy at each price in a given period of time.
QUANTITY OF LABOUR DEMANDED is the number of labour hours hired by all
firms in an economy.
QUANTITY OF LABOUR SUPPLIED is the number of hours of labour services
that households supply to firms.

QUANTITY SUPPLIED is the amount of a good or service that producers plan to

sell at each price in a given period of time.
QUANTITY THEORY OF MONEY states that an increase in the quantity of
money will lead to an equal percentage increase in the price level.
QUOTAS are restrictions on the quantity of a good or service that a firm is permitted
to sell or that a country is permitted to import.

R
REAL EXCHANGE RATE refers to the price of a currency against another after
discounting for inflation.
REAL GDP is the nominal value of output of final goods and services discounted by
the increase in the price level.
REAL INCOME is nominal income discounted by the increase in the price level
(inflation).
REAL INTEREST RATE is nominal interest rate discounted by the increase in the
price level (inflation).
RECESSION is a decline in Real GDP in two or more successive quarters.
REFLATION refers to the use of tax cuts, increased government expenditure and
easier monetary policy to increase aggregate demand, aggregate supply and
employment.
REGIONAL TRADING BLOC refers to regionally-based economies forming a free
trade area. For example, ASEAN and NAFTA.
REGRESSIVE INCOME TAX is where the marginal rate of tax is lower than the
average tax rate as income increases.
RELATIVE POVERTY exists where a proportion of the population in a country
cannot enjoy the standard of living normal to their society. This type of poverty will
always exist where there is any substantial degree of income and asset inequality
within a given society.
RELATIVE SCARSITY refers to a situation where there is not enough of one scarce
resource compared to another. For example, Singapore has a relative scarcity of land
compared to capital.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION is the assignment of scarce resources to specific uses.
That is, deciding the questions of what will be produced, how and when?
RESOURCES are the factors of production.
RETAIL PRICE INDEX measures the average level of the prices of a basket of
goods and services consumed by the typical household.

RETURNS TO SCALE refers to increases in output that result from increasing all
inputs by the same percentage.
REVALUATION is government action to increase the price of its currency relative
to other currencies.
RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION refers to the movement of labour from the
countryside to the cities. The best example today exists in China where tens of
millions per year are migrating each year; and will continue to do so for the
foreseeable future.

S
SAVINGS is disposable income minus consumption. S = Yd C.
SAVINGS FUNCTION is the relationship between savings and disposable income.
SCARSE RESOURCE is not enough of a factor of production.
SCARSITY exist when human wants exceed the amount that available resources can
produce.
SEASONAL UNEMPLOYMENT refers to unemployment caused by seasonality in
demand or supply of a good or service.
SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLEMENT RATE is the percentage of secondary
school age children that are enrolled at school.
SELF-SUFFICIENCY exists where each individual consumes only what they
produce.
SERVICES refer to purchases that do not have physical characteristics-e.g. teaching,
shipping and financial advice.
SHORTAGE is an excess of demand over supply of a good or service at the
equilibrium price.
SHORT RUN is the period of time in which at least one factor of production is fixed.
SHORT TERM DEBT is borrowings that must be paid back within one to three
years.
SHORT-RUN AGGREGATE SUPPLY is the relationship between Real GDP and
the price level, holding everything else constant.
SHORT-RUN AGGREAGTE SUPPLY CURVE is a curve showing the
relationship between Real GDP and the price level, holding everything else constant.
SHORT-RUN PHILLIPS CURVE shows the relationship between unemployment
and inflation, holding the expected rate of inflation and the natural rate of
unemployment constant.

SHUTDOWN POINT is where the firm is just covering its total variable costs.
SOCIAL COSTS refers to those costs of a good or service that are not borne by the
producer but by society as a whole. They include the cost of negative externalities.
SOCIAL COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS attempts to identity and quantify in
monetary terms the social costs and benefits of an economic activity. Examples
include the effects from pollution and environmental degradation.
SOFT LOAN is a loan on more favourable terms compared with market terms.
SPECIFIC TAX is a tax set at a fixed amount per unit on a good or service.
STAGFLATION refers to the combination of very high rates of inflation and very
high rates of unemployment.
STANDARD OF LIVING covers range of tangible and intangible goods, services
and benefits that people enjoy in a society. Items include health care, education, free
speech, employment, and freedom from oppression.
STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT LOANS refers to loans made the World Bank that
are short term, 1 to 3 years, and help finance institutional reform in poor countries.
STRUCTURAL UNEMPLOYMENT refers to the type of unemployment that
results from a fundamental change in the structure of the economy.
SUBSIDY is a government payment to producers of a good or service.
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE is the production of farm output mainly for own
consumption.
SUBSISTENCE FARMING is the production of farm output mainly for ones own
consumption.
SUBSITUTION EFFECT is the tendency of people to substitute away from more
expensive commodities to cheaper commodities.
SUBSTANTIAL DEBT WRITE-OFF refers to a situation where a lender forgives a
borrower a major part of the borrowers debt.
SUBSTITUTES are goods or services that may be used in place of another.
SUPERNORMAL PROFIT refers to the extra profit over normal profit. If the AC
curve is below the AR (demand)curve then a firm can earn supernormal profit.
SUPPLY is the relationship between the quantity supplied and its price.
SUPPLY CURVE is graph or diagram showing the relationship between the quantity
supplied and the price of a good or service, holding everything else constant.
SUPPLY SCHEDULE is a list of quantity supplied at different prices, holding
everything constant.

SUPPLY-SIDE POLICIES refer to government policies designed to increase output.

Examples include tax reductions and concessions.
SUSBSISTENCE FARMERS refers to farmers that produce just enough for their
own consumption. They are common in most LDCs.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT refers to the use of the factors of production by
the current generation that result in the resources being available for future
generations.

T
TARIFFS are taxes imposed by the government of an importing country. They are a
major form of protectionism, particularly of agricultural protectionism by the USA,
EU and Japan against agricultural imports from LDCs.
TAX INCIDENCE refers to the distribution of the tax burden among various groups
in society.
TAX RATE is the percentage rate of tax levied on a particular activity.
TECHNOLOGICAL UNEMPLOYMENT is unemployment caused by
technological changes in an economy that leads to a reduction in the demand for
labour.
TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY occurs within a firm. It exists when they are
producing output with the minimum amount of inputs. The incentive for a firm to
achieve this is the profit motive. Also known as productive efficiency.
TECHNOLOGY refers to the method of converting resources into goods and
services.
TECHNOLOGY DEFLATION is a sustained decrease in the price of goods and
services that result from improvements and application of technology.
TERMS OF TRADE is the rate at which exports will trade for imports. It expresses a
price relationship and measured through the Terms of Trade Index.
TERMS OF TRADE INDEX is the ratio of export prices to import prices expressed
as an index.
THEORY OF DEMAND states that the quantity demanded and price are inversely
related, other things being equal.
THIRD WORLD DEBT is the total external deficits of LDCs.
TOKEN INTEREST RATE refers to a very low price of borrowing money or paid
on money lent. Exists under conditions of deflation. For example, in Japan in the early
years of 2000.
TOTAL COST (TC) is the sum of the costs of all the inputs used in production.
TC = TFC + TVC.

TOTAL DEBT SERVICE AS A % OF EXPORTS expresses the relationship, in

percentage terms, between a countrys total interest payments on external borrowings
and the value of their exports. The higher the figure, the less export income a country
has to fund future economic growth and development.
TOTAL DEBT SERVICE AS A % OF GDP expresses the relationship, in
percentage terms, between a countrys total interest payments on external borrowings
and the value of their GDP. The higher the figure, the less export income a country
has to fund future economic growth and development.
TOTAL FIXED COST (TFC) is the cost of all the fixed inputs.
TOTAL REVENUE (TR) is the price of goods or services multiplier by quantity
sold. TR = P X Q.
TOTAL VARIABLE COST (TVC) is the cost of all variable inputs.
TRADEABLE PERMITS refers to an international scheme that allows pollution
permits to be bought and sold between countries. The scheme is designed to control
worldwide pollution and its effects on the environment.
TRADE CYCLE refers to is the long term fluctuation of national income.
TRADE LIBERALIZATION is the freeing-up of trade by a country and between
countries. It is a major objective of the current WTO Doha Trade negotiations.
TRADE UNION is an organization formed to represent the interest of the factor of
production, labour.
TRADING BLOC is a group of countries that have joined together to benefit from
free trade and economic integration.
TRANSFER PAYMENTS refer to payments made by the government to redistribute
income. Examples include pensions, travel and health concessions for the elderly, the
provision of government low cost housing, and child and family benefits. They are
common in MDCs, but not in LDCs.
TRANSFER PRICING is the process, undertaken by MNCs, of minimizing their tax
bills by setting their internal prices so that the highest value added work appear to be
done in the countries with the lowest tax rates. Transfer pricing problems present a
loss of tax revenue for governments. Can be major problem for a country, particularly
LDCs.
TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS (TNCS) are companies that have
production units in one or more foreign countries.

U
UNANTICIPATED INFLATION is inflation that it not expected or planned for.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT refers to situations where a person desires to work more

hours than is currently available to them.
UNDER-VALUED CURRENCY refers to the price of a currency that is below is the
free market rate. Currently, this is a criticism by the USA, Japan and other countries
levelled against the Chinese Yuan.
UNEMPLOYMENT EQUILIBRIUM exists where macroeconomic equilibrium at
Real GDP is below long run aggregate supply.
UNEMPLOYMENT is the number of adult workers who are not employed but are
seeking jobs. The figure includes frictional, seasonal and structural unemployment.
UNEMPLOYMENT RATE is the number of unemployed expressed as a percentage
of the total labour force. The figure includes frictional, seasonal and structural
unemployment.
UNIT ELASTIC DEMAND is an elasticity of demand of 1. The quantity demanded
and price change in equal proportions.
UNPRODUCTIVE FARMLAND refers to agricultural land that cannot be used or
provide adequate food, whether used to grow crops or graze animals.
URBAN POPULATION is the percentage of the total population living in towns or
cities.

V
VALUE ADDED is the value of a firms output minus the value of inputs brought in
from other firms.
VARIABLE COST (VC) is a cost that varies with the output level.
VARIABLE INPUTS are inputs whose quantity can be varied in the short run.
VEBLEN GOODS are goods that are have snob value and are bought to display
wealth. Their demand curve slopes upwards from left to right, as the higher the price
the greater the quantity demanded.
VELOCITY OF CIRCULATION refers to the average number of time a unit of
money is used annually to buy the goods and services that make up GDP.
VIRTUAL MONOPOLY refers to a firm that has monopoly power because of its
dominance of an industry, but it is not the only supplier of a good or service.
VISIBLE BALANCE is the difference between the value of exports and imports of
goods.
VISIBLE TRADE is the value of exports and imports of goods.
VOLUNTARY EXPORT RESTRAINT (VER) is a self-imposed restriction by an
exporting country on the volume of its exports.

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WANTS refer to the unlimited desires of people for a good or service.
WEALTH is the total assets of an individual, firm or government minus its total
liabilities.
WORLD BANK is an international financial institution owned by its members
responsible for providing technical assistance and funding to poor countries.
WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO) is an international agreement of
member nations committed in principle to free multinational trade through the
reduction of trade barriers. In reality, as the Doha Round demonstrates, this key
principle does not always work in practice to the detriment of LDCs.