2P :

sing a multimeter

The practical work supporting Chapter 2 introduces you to using a

multimeter to make measurements from circuits. Once you are able to test
circuits, you will understand better how they work and be able to locate and
correct faults.
.
Navigation
What do meters measure?

Analogue multimeters

Digital multimeters

Making measurements

Back to Contents
.
What do meters measure?
A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current,
a voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points,
and an ohmmeter measures resistance. A multimeter combines these
functions, and possibly some additional ones as well, into a single instrument.
Before going in to detail about multimeters, it is important for you to have a
clear idea of how meters are connected into circuits. Diagrams A and B below
show a circuit before and after connecting an ammeter:
A

to measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the

ammeter to be connected in series

ammeters must have a LOW resistance

Think about the changes you would have to make to a practical circuit in order
to include the ammeter. To start with, you need to break the circuit so that the
ammeter can be connected in series. All the current flowing in the circuit must
pass through the ammeter. Meters are not supposed to alter the behaviour of
the circuit, or at least not significantly, and it follows that an ammeter must
have a very LOW resistance.
Diagram C shows the same circuit after connecting a voltmeter:
A

to measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed:

the voltmeter is connected in parallel
voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance
This time, you do not need to break the circuit. The voltmeter is connected in
parallel between the two points where the measurement is to be made. Since
the voltmeter provides a parallel pathway, it should take as little current as
possible. In other words, a voltmeter should have a very HIGH resistance.
Which measurement technique do you think will be the more useful? In fact,
voltage measurements are used much more often than current measurements.
The processing of electronic signals is usually thought of in voltage terms. It
is an added advantage that a voltage measurement is easier to make. The
orginal circuit does not need to be changed. Often, the meter probes are
connected simply by touching them to the points of interest.
An ohmmeter does not function with a circuit connected to a power supply. If
you want to measure the resistance of a particular component, you must take
it out of the circuit altogether and test it separately, as shown in diagram D:

to measure resistance, the component must be removed from the circuit

altogether
ohmmeters work by passing a current through the component being tested
Ohmmeters work by passing a small current through the component and
measuring the voltage produced. If you try this with the component connected
into a circuit with a power supply, the most likely result is that the meter will
be damaged. Most multimeters have a fuse to help protect against misuse.
Up

Go to Checkpoint

.
Digital multimeters
Multimeters are designed and mass produced for electronics engineers. Even
the simplest and cheapest types may include features which you are not likely
to use. Digital meters give an output in numbers, usually on a liquid crystal
display.
The diagram below shows a switched range multimeter:

Switched range multimeter

The central knob has lots of positions and you must choose which one is
appropriate for the measurement you want to make. If the meter is switched
to 20 V DC, for example, then 20 V is the maximum voltage which can be
measured, This is sometimes called 20 V fsd, where fsd is short for full scale
deflection.
For circuits with power supplies of up to 20 V, which includes all the circuits
you are likely to build, the 20 V DC voltage range is the most useful. DC
ranges are indicated by
on the meter. Sometimes, you will want to
measure smaller voltages, and in this case, the 2 V or 200 mV ranges are used.
What does DC mean? DC means direct current. In any circuit which operates
from a steady voltage source, such as a battery, current flow is always in the
same direction. Every constructional project descirbed in Design
Electronics works in this way.
AC means alternating current. In an electric lamp connected to the domestic
mains electricity, current flows first one way, then the other. That is, the

current reverses, or alternates, in direction. With UK mains, the current

reverses 50 times per second.
For safety reasons, you must NEVER connect a multimeter to the mains
supply.
You are not at all likely to use the AC ranges, indicated by
, on your
multimeter.
An alternative style of multimeter is the autoranging multimeter:

Autoranging multimeter
The central knob has fewer positions and all you need to do is to switch it to
the quantity you want to measure. Once switched to V, the meter automatically
adjusts its range to give a meaningful reading, and the display includes the
unit of measurement, V or mV. This type of meter is more expensive, but
obviously much easier to use.

Where are the two meter probes connected? The black lead is always
connected into the socket marked COM, short for COMMON. The red lead is
connected into the socket labelled V mA. The 10A socket is very rarely used.
Up
.
Analogue multimeters
An analogue meter moves a needle along a scale. Switched range analogue
multimeters are very cheap but are difficult for beginners to read accurately,
especially on resistance scales. The meter movement is delicate and dropping
the meter is likely to damage it!
Each type of meter has its advantages. Used as a voltmeter, a digital meter is
usually better because its resistance is much higher, 1 M or 10 M ,
compared to 200
for a analogue multimeter on a similar range. On the
other hand, it is easier to follow a slowly changing voltage by watching the
needle on an anlaogue display.
Used as an ammeter, an analogue multimeter has a very low resistance and is
very sensitive, with scales down to 50 A. More expensive digital multimeters
can equal or better this performance.
Most modern multimeters are digital and traditional analogue types are
destined to become obsolete.
Up
.
Making measurements
1. Voltage measurements:
Build the circuit shown below using prototype board and four 10

resistors:

Using the multimeter as a voltmeter, measure the power supply voltage and
then measure the voltages at points A, B and C.
What do you notice about your results?
The four resistors are connected in series, making a chain known as
a potential divider, or voltage divider. The total voltage is shared between the
four resistors and, allowing for tolerance, each resistor receives an equal
share. (You will find out a lot more about potential dividers in the next
Chapter.)
Modify the circuit, replacing one or more of the 10
resistors with 1
or
100
values. Are the results as you expect?
The diagram below shows a light sensor circuit built in a similar way:

Up to previous stage
The circuit uses an LDR, or light dedpendent resistor. The resistance of the
LDR changes with illumination. In the dark, the resistance is high, up to 1 M
or more. When light shines on the LDR, the light energy increases the number
of charge carriers available to transfer current, and the resistance falls. In
bright light, the resistance can be as little as 100 .
What happens to the output voltage of the light sensor circuit when you cover
the LDR with you hand?
Is the output voltage HIGH or LOW in the dark?

2. Resistance measurements:
Remove the LDR from the circuit and measure its resistance, as follows:

Up to previous stage
To get the multimeter to function as an ohmmeter, you will need to select a
resistance range. With a switched range meter, the 200 k position is usually
suitable. You will see the resistance measurement change as the light level
changes. Covering the LDR with your hand increases the resistance of the
LDR.
If the meter reads
this means that the resistance is more than the
maximum which can be measured on this range and you may need to switch
to a new position, 2000 k, to take a reading. (How many megohms is 2000 k?)
You can check the value of any fixed value resistor in the same way, and
confirm that you have worked out the colour code correctly. Don't forget that
the colour code convertor program is available to help you.
3. Current measurements:
The diagram below shows a prototype board set up for the measurement of
current:

Up to previous stage
Note that the current must flow through the ammeter in order to reach the
circuit.
Take a reading of the current with the link wire to 0 V in position A. Write down
the current value you observe:
A:
Take new readings after moving the link to positions B, C and D:
B:

C:

D:

Don't forget to write in the measurement units of your answer.

As the resistance is reduced, current increases. Calculate the current
expected in each case using the formula:

Small variations, up to 5%, can be attributed to the tolerance of the resistors.

Measuring Stuff with a Multimeter

By Earl Boysen and Nancy C. Muir
A multimeter is an electronics testing device that, um, tests multiple things, including resistance, voltage, and current. Using certain
multimeter models, you can test to be sure that components such as diodes, capacitors, and transistors function properly. You can also
troubleshoot your circuit to see where current is failing and pinpoint the problem spots.

You don't have to break into your piggy bank to buy a multimeter. You can find them for about if you want fancy features, you can spend over
$100. Find a model whose price you like and then splurge on the next higher-priced model. You will use a multimeter all the time. Trust us:
It's worth a few extra bucks for a better model.
How a multimeter works
A multimeter has a set of leads: a black one and a red one. You attach these leads to the component or portion of the circuit that you're
testing, and a digital readout provides the results. You adjust a knob to set the test you wish to perform such as resistance, voltage, or
current as well as the range to test. Note: Some multimeters have an auto-ranging feature that saves you the trouble of setting the range.
Test leads that typically come with multimeters use simple cone-shaped tips. You can buy test clips that slip onto the cone-shaped tips to
make it easier to clip them onto the leads of a component. This makes testing much easier, trust us.
The two things you'll probably test most often with a multimeter are resistance and voltage.
Reading resistance
The problem with resistors is that manufacturers seem to expect you to memorize the color code that identifies the resistance rating. Here is
an easier way:
1. Clip your test leads onto the resistor leads.
2. Dial your multimeter to the resistance range you think the resistor fits in.
3. Read the value.
If your multimeter reads 1, you guessed too low of a value. Move the dial to the next range up until you get a valid reading. If your multimeter
reads at close to 0 (zero), you guessed too high of a value. Dial to the next range down until you get a valid reading; if you get to the lowest
range and the value is still 0, whatever you're testing has zero resistance.
Testing switches or relays is another common use of the resistance-testing feature of your multimeter. You can clip your test leads onto the
lugs of an SPST switch to verify that it's working. (Hint: Occasionally, they don't work.) When the switch is open, you should get a value of 1,
meaning that the resistance is higher than your meter can measure. When the switch is closed, you should get a low resistance close to 0
(zero) ohms. You can also test SPDT or DPDT switches or relays to make sure which lugs are connected in which switch position.
Measuring voltage
To run a test to measure voltage, you connect the red multimeter lead to the positive side of the battery or circuit that you're testing and the
black lead to the negative or ground side and set the dial to the voltage range you expect.
Consider checking the voltage at the contacts of a battery pack. To do this, touch the red lead to one of the battery pack outputs and the
black test lead to the other. With a 4-battery pack loaded with fresh batteries, you should get a reading of about 6 volts. (If you get a reading
of -6 volts, don't worry: Just reverse which lead you are touching to which battery pack output.) When batteries get old, the voltage drops. If
you get less than 5 volts from a 4-battery pack, it's time to get new batteries.
When a circuit doesn't work, one of the first things to check is the voltage between the +V bus and the ground bus of the breadboard. Here's
how:
1. Strip both ends of a 3" piece of 22 gauge wire.
2. Clip one end of each wire to one of your test leads.
3. Slip the free end of the wire attached to your red test lead into any contact on the +V bus.
4. Slip the free end of the wire attached to your black test lead into any contact on the ground bus.
Although you might not get a reading of the full 6 volts because of drain on the battery from the circuit, you should get a reading above 3.5
volts.
If you get a reading close to 0 (zero) volts, check to make sure that your battery pack and the wires from the battery pack terminal block are
connected properly.

Read more: http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/measuring-stuff-with-a-multimeter.html#ixzz1FYNT4ppT

How to Test Electronic Components With a Multimeter

By GeorgeP, eHow Contributor
updated: May 5, 2010

Standard digital multimeter

If you need to find out whether electronic components or circuits work, you can easily test them in your home with a multimeter. Three
primary electronic components are used in circuits. The capacitor stores energy in an electrical field, the inductor stores energy in a magnetic
field, and a resistor increases the potential difference between two points.
Difficulty: Moderately Easy

Instructions

1.

Things You'll Need:

Multimeter
Red and black leads
Capacitor, resistor or inductor

1
Test a resistor by turning the multimeter switch to the resistor setting (indicated by the omega symbol). Place the dial to
the lowest setting above the resistance of the component (which you can check by reading the color bands). If the
component is unlabeled, set the dial to the lowest setting.

Place one probe on each side of the resistor, generally on an extended lead. If the measurement is not conclusive
(indicated by a zero or maxed-out value), adjust the dial up or down a magnitude as needed.

Resistors are electronic components that resist the flow of electric current to increase voltage. They are used to control the
voltage or current.
2.

2
Test a capacitor by turning the multimeter switch to the capacitor setting (indicated by the letter "C"). Place the dial to the
lowest setting above the capacitance of the component (which you can check by reading the color bands). If the
component is unlabeled, set the dial to the lowest setting.

Place one probe on each side of the capacitor, generally into recessed slots. If the measurement is not conclusive
(indicated by a zero or maxed-out value), adjust the dial up or down a magnitude as needed.

Capacitors hold energy in an electric field and are often used to store a charge for later, or to control current.
3.

3
Test an inductor by turning the multimeter switch to the inductor setting (indicated by the letter H). Place the dial to the
lowest setting above the inductance of the component (which you can check by reading the color bands). If the component
is unlabeled, set the dial to the lowest setting.

Place one probe on each side of the inductor, generally into extended leads. If the measurement is not conclusive
(indicated by a zero or maxed-out value), adjust the dial up or down a magnitude as needed.

Inductors store energy in a magnetic field that is generated by electric current passing through coils of wire. They can be
used to simply store energy or control electric current.

Tips & Warnings

Plug the red and black leads into their respective colored sockets on the multimeter.

Sufficiently small inductors and resistors with a resistance of less than 100 ohms will display as a short circuit.

Analog multimeters show the value for the unit you are measuring by moving a pointer across a printed scale, while the more
precise digital multimeters display results on an LCD or LED readout.

Discharge capacitors before testing them, as they will not always fully discharge on their own.

Never touch a closed circuit with your hands while it is in contact with a power supply.

Read more: How to Test Electronic Components With a Multimeter | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_6458543_test-electroniccomponents-multimeter.html#ixzz1FYQqEOVo

How to Check Electronics Parts Using a Multimeter

By an eHow Contributor

Digital multimeter in operation

To check electronic parts, use a multimeter. Multimeters are instruments that allow the user to test or measure electronic components.
Advanced ones check properties such as capacitance and transistor gain, but even the most basic ones are able to measure resistance,
voltage and current. Resistance measurements must be made with the current off. Voltage and current measurements are made with the
current on, but care must be taken to use DC or AC settings. Additionally, voltage measurements must be made with the multimeter added
parallel to the circuit, while current measurements must be made with the multimeter added in series with the circuit.
Difficulty: Moderately Challenging

Instructions

1.

Things You'll Need:

1K Resistor
LED
9-Volt Battery
Battery Holder
Breadboard
Jumper Wire
Alligator Clips
Digital Multimeter

Measure the resistance of the resistor. Do this by turning the multimeter on, and placing the knob on the resistance setting,
which is normally represented by the Greek letter omega. Place the red probe of the multimeter on one end of the resistor,
and place the black probe on the other. Record the value of the resistance, which will be approximately 1k. A representative
value is 982 ohms.
2.

2
Create an LED circuit by placing one in series with the resistor and the two batteries. Do this by connecting the red lead of
the battery holder to the circuit board. Insert the resistor, and wire one of its ends to the battery holder's red lead. Connect
the other end of the resistor to the positive terminal of the LED. Attach the negative end of the LED to the black lead of the
battery holder.

3.

3
Insert the batteries into the holder. The LED will light.

4.

4
Use the multimeter to measure the voltage across the resistor. First, make sure that the switch is on DC voltage, and not
AC. Turn the knob on its body to the voltage setting, which is indicated by the letter "V." It must be at least 4 volts. Place
the multimeter in parallel to the resistor by placing the red probe on one of its terminals, and the black probe on the other.
Record the voltage. If the reading is negative, reverse the probes. For a 9-volt battery, a representative reading is 6.42
volts.

5.

5
Measure the voltage across the LED by placing the red probe on the positive side and read the volts. For a 9-volt battery, a
representative reading is 2.88 volts.

6.

6
Turn the multimeter off, and place the knob on the multimeter on the current setting, which is usually indicated by the
letter "A." Remove the red probe from the voltmeter opening on the casing, and insert it into the one for current
measurements, which is also labeled with an "A."

7.

7
Find the current through the LED by placing the multimeter in series with the multimeter. Detach the wire that connects the
negative terminal of the LED to ground. Add a wire to the negative side of the LED. Use an alligator clip and attach the wire
to the red probe of the multimeter. Use another alligator clip to connect the black probe of the multimeter to the black lead
of the battery holder. Turn the multimeter on, and record the current. For a 9-volt battery, a representative reading is 6.45
mA or milliamps.
Read more: How to Check Electronics Parts Using a Multimeter | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_6316757_check-electronics-parts-usingmultimeter.html#ixzz1FYORGlM3

How to Check Electrical Parts

By James Stevens, eHow Contributor
updated: February 10, 2011

You can check practically any electrical part using a multimeter.

Electrical parts can be mechanical or electronic meaning it has moving or static parts, respectively. However, whether mechanical or
electronic, the common theme is they are powered by electrical energy so the easiest method to check either is to use a multimeter.
Multimeters enable you to check voltage, amperes, ohms and wattage, depending on the reason you're checking the electrical part.
Difficulty: Moderately Easy

Instructions

1.

Things You'll Need:

Multimeter

1
Find the terminals on the electrical part you want to check. All electrical parts must have positive and negative connections
so as to complete a circuit. If there's a fault in the electrical part, the circuit is not complete. For example, an electric motor
can only operate if it's wired to both a positive and negative power supply; if either fails the motor stops, but you can check
if it's the motor or the power supply by checking the connections.

2.

2
Choose if you're checking voltage, amperes, ohms or wattage then set your multimeter to the correct setting. For example,
if you need to check if the electrical part is getting a flow of electricity set it to volts, but if you want to check if the
electrical part is producing the correct current, set it to amperes.

3.

3
Put the metal tips on the end of the wires connected to the multimeter onto the positive and negative terminals of the
electrical part you are checking. The wires from the multimeter are colored red and black for positive and negative
respectively. The terminals on the electrical part are usually marked "+" and "-", but sometimes are colored red and black,
or maybe labeled "Pos" and "Neg."

4.

4
Look on the front of the multimeter to read the measurement. If there's a measurement, check it's what you expected. For
example, if you're checking that your electrical part is getting the correct voltage and the power source is a 12 volt battery,
expect the meter to measure between 10 and 12 volts. If you're checking the amperes output and the electrical part you're
checking is meant to produce 20 amperes, then expect the meter to measure the same or similar amperes. If the meter
doesn't produce a reading either the power supply is dead, or the electrical part is operating.

How to Take an Amp Reading on an Electrical Motor

By Colin Rowe, eHow Contributor

updated: November 27, 2010

The best way to check the amps on an electric motor is with a multimeter.

Electrical circuits can often develop problems. Parts of the wiring may have been broken, one of the components might have burned out or
the power source itself is no longer viable. If this happens to an electrical item with moving parts, the first place to check is the electrical
motor. This is the main component of the system and, if it's faulty, the most expensive and difficult to replace. The best way to check if
something electrical is not working is to check the amp reading, and the best way to check the amp reading is with a multimeter.
Difficulty: Moderately Easy

Instructions

Things You'll Need:

Multimeter
Screwdriver
Wrench
Allen key

1.

1
Purchase an analog or digital multimeter from your local hardware store. A good one can be purchased for about $15 to
$20.

2.

2
Remove the casing of the electric motor, if required, using the appropriate tools. These might include a screwdriver, a
wrench or an Allen key.

3.

3
Set the multimeter to the right reading, usually indicated by an "A" for amps, and the right range, which will depend on the
device being checked. Some multimeters will not need to have the range set.

4.

4
Attach the clamp clip lead for the multimeter to the "COM" plug and the red wire lead to the "VmA" plug. The other plug,
labeled "10A," is not used for this.

5.

5
Attach the clamp clip lead to the input cable on the motor and in turn test the output cables with the red lead to see if the
current is flowing. If the amp reading shows the motor is faulty, replace it. If the motor is still working, the problem is with
another component.
Read more: How to Take an Amp Reading on an Electrical Motor | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_7408109_amp-reading-electricalmotor.html#ixzz1FYOqBzpM

How to Check a Transistor With a Digital MultiMeter

By MarkStansberry, eHow Contributor
updated: December 10, 2010

The transistor has three leads: the emitter, the base and the collector.

Electronics repair technicians often use a digital multimeter to test whether a transistor is working properly or not. Simple tests with a digital
multimeter will allow the technician to find out quickly if the transistor's internal components, two back-to-back diodes, are working correctly.
Savvy technicians, however, don't rely on multimeter tests as the sole basis for determining if a transistor is faulty. A digital multimeter will
only tell you whether or not the transistor is functional, that is, will turn on and off.
Difficulty: Moderate

Instructions

Things You'll Need:

Digital multimeter
NPN silicon transistor

1.

1
Obtain a working NPN transistor. Order one online or buy one from an electronics store. Select a common type of silicon
NPN transistor, such as a small signal NPN transistor like the 2N3904. Use the transistor's data sheet to determine the
location of the transistor's base, emitter and collector leads.

2.

2
Set your digital multimeter to "Diode Test." Look for the diode symbol on your multimeter and move the function select
switch to point to that symbol. Consult the multimeter's user's manual if you can't locate the diode test function.

3.

3
Connect the digital multimeter to the base and collector leads of the 2N3904 NPN transistor. Connect the multimeter's
positive probe to the transistor's base lead. Connect the multimeter's negative probe to the transistor's emitter lead.

4.

4
Read the measurement on the meter's display. Check to see if the voltage reading is between the minimum and maximum
values of the base to emitter saturation voltage given in the manufacturer's data sheet. For the 2N3904, reject the
transistor if the meter displays a voltage that is less than 0.5 volts or greater than 0.95 volts.

Tips & Warnings

A NPN transistor can be modeled as two back-to-back diodes. There is a diode between the transistor's base and emitter leads
and a diode between the transistor's base and collector leads. Each of these diodes' anodes is connected directly to the base of the
transistor.

The voltage measured in the diode test is the forward on voltage, also called the turn-on voltage or the base-to-emitter voltage.
Most silicon diodes have forward voltage drops in the order of 0.5 and 0.7 volts. Germanium diodes have forward voltage drops between 0.2
and 0.3 volts. The 2N3904 transistor is a silicon transistor, so you can expect a forward voltage drop in the range of 0.5 to 0.7 volts.

If the transistor you are testing is in a circuit, you will need to remove the transistor from the circuit board. Use a solder gun to melt
the solder and a solder sucker to remove the heated solder. Melt the three solder joints that connect the transistor to the board, and then
remove the melted solder with the solder sucker. Pull the transistor out gently with some pliers.

How to Test Electronics Components

By an eHow Contributor

A digital multimeter for testing electronics components

Electronic components are used to create circuits that allow us to have devices such as stereos, laptops and cell phones. Common
components include resistors, capacitors and transistors. Resistors are used to limit current in circuits, capacitors are used to store charge
and transistors are used to amplify electrical signals.

A popular device used to test electronic components is a multimeter. Multimeters can do tests such as resistance and voltage
measurements. They can test in and out of circuit for devices powered by either AC or DC voltages.

Digital multimeters are common testing devices. They have a display that makes them easy to read, and have many measuring functions.
Handheld ones can be bought that are both inexpensive and accurate.
Difficulty: Moderately Challenging

Instructions

1.

Things You'll Need:

Digital multimeter
Digital multimeter manual
Resistor, 220-ohm
Capacitor, diode or photocell
Battery, AA or C

1
Turn the multimeter on, and turn the knob to the resistance setting, usually marked by the Greek letter omega, which is the
symbol for resistance. The knob should be on an appropriate setting, for example, It should be at least 220-ohms if such a
resistor is being measured. If the resistor's value is unknown, put the knob on the lowest setting and increase it by
increments as you are testing.

2.

2
Place a multimeter probe on each lead of the resistor. Record the resistance. Switch the probes around, and record the
resistance again.

3.

3
Place the multimeter probes on the leads of other components such as diodes, capacitors and photocells. Record the
resistance, switch the probes and then measure the resistance again. Diodes should have a small resistance when the
probes are placed one way but not the other. For a capacitor, the resistance should be nearly infinite, or else it is damaged.
Photocells should be tested twice: both close to and some distance from a light source.

4.

4
Turn the multimeter to a DC voltage setting. Switch the knob so that it can measure a maximum voltage of at least 2 volts.

5.

5
Put the red probe of the multimeter on the plus side of the battery, and hold the black probe against the minus side. Record
the voltage.

Tips & Warnings

Resistance measurements may be made for many components, but you may need to switch the meter to read thousands of
megaohms. A resistance that large is approximated as infinite.

How to Test Varistor & Diode Generators

By Thomas Bourdin, eHow Contributor
updated: March 1, 2011

It is important to test diode and varistor generators to determine generator functionality.

Diodes and varistors are similar electronic components which only allow a current to flow in a single direction. Diodes and varistors are
important components of generators, as they convert AC signals to DC signals, which can then be used by the generator. Testing generators
with these components is important for determining the specifications of the generator, especially on vehicles. Testing diode and varistor
generators is a straightforward process with enough knowledge of electronics and automobiles.
Difficulty: Moderate

Instructions

1.

Things You'll Need:

Digital multimeter

1
Connect the digital multimeter to both battery terminals and start the engine.

2.

2
Turn on all electronic components in the vehicle, including high beams, high blower, air conditioning, windshield wipers and
radio, with the engine running at around 1,500 revolutions per minute. This creates a current load on the generator, which

will be displayed on the digital multimeter. A voltage higher than 13.5 volts indicates a strong generator, while a voltage
below this amount indicates a weak charging generator.
3.

3
Turn off all electronic components and increase the engine rpm to 2,000. A voltage above 15.1 volts indicates overcharging,
which could be caused by a defective voltage regulator or a poor connection between the battery and the generator.

Tips & Warnings

If the generator voltage is below 13.5 volts, look for a loose or worn generator belt, and check the connection voltage drops for
corrosion, which may explain the weak charging generator.

Different makes of vehicles may have different optimal generator voltages. These values can be learned by testing various
generators.

Take all necessary precautions when working with electronic equipment, as vehicle motors can produce high voltages and
currents.

We'll show you how to use this monster of a tool for troubleshooting almost any type of electrical wiring or appliance. Once you understand how it works, you can
use it to test your batteries (including tool batteries), dead electrical circuits and even your automatic sprinkler system. This article explains everything you need to
know.
By the DIY experts of The Family Handyman Magazine:April 2000

Using your multimeter

Using VOMs
Using good techniques

Using your multimeter

Photo 1: How to test batteries

Test battery life using a multimeter or volt-ohm meter (VOM). Analog-type multimeters use a needle and printed scales to display results from a variety of electrical
tests.
Function setting: Direct current (DC) voltage
Scale setting: 12 volts
Test probes: Match the polarity (+ to + and - to -) of the test probes and the battery.
Good reading: 6 volts (this battery's original rating)
Bad reading: Batteries with voltage readings 20 percent below their original rating should be replaced.

A multimeter is a black box of electronic circuitry that allows you to troubleshoot just about any type of electrical wiring or device. You simply dial the proper
function and scale, touch the two test leads to the wiring or device in question and check the meter reading. Depending on the setting, the multimeter will tell if you
have a broken connection, no power, poor connections, faulty parts and more.

With all its numbers, dials and switches, a multimeter (also known as a volt-ohm meter, or VOM) can be pretty intimidating. Yet it's well worth learning, is relatively
inexpensive and should be in the toolbox of anyone seeking to do wiring diagnostics and appliance repair. Here, we'll walk you through the basics and show you
six quick, down-to-earth tests you can safely use today.

Your VOM can pay for itself quickly by simply analyzing whether the dozens of batteries devoured by toys and electronic devices are still good (Photo 1). But only
using these instruments to check batteries is like harnessing a draft horse to pull a roller skate. Explore a sampling of other possible uses, as shown in Photos 2
6.

A multimeter gives you a variety of readings,

depending on the setting.

Multimeter Terms

It's hard to visualize electricity, so I've always thought of it like a river. In a river, there's a certain volume of water (similar to electrical amperage, or amps) flowing
with a certain potential force (like voltage) that encounters obstructions as it flows (resistance measured in ohms). Hold that big picture in your mind, then add
these key concepts about both electricity and VOMs:
Alternating current (AC) voltage: The type of electricity that powers your house.
Direct current (DC) voltage: The type found in auto and household batteries.
Resistance (measured in ohms): The lower the reading, the easier electrical current (measured in amps) flows through circuit material.
An open circuit equals trouble: There is high resistance from a broken connection, a faulty part or a switch that's been turned off. There isn't a complete circuit
path and no current will flow.
A closed circuit is good: It means a minimum of resistance is present because a connection or part is working. Note: Check the pathways in the wiring or device
being tested for any random loose wiring that's touching the circuit you're testing. Sometimes a broken connection (short circuit) can look like a closed circuit.
Short circuits can harm you, destroy equipment and start fires.
Continuity testing determines if an open, shorted or closed circuit exists in an appliance, electrical or electronic device and is a common use for multimeters.
On a VOM, infinity signifies an open circuit. On an analog multimeter, infinity shows up as an unwavering needle that won't move off the far left side on the
display. On a digital multimeter, infinity reads 0.L.
On a VOM, zero means a closed circuit has been detected. The display needle moves to the far right side of an analog scale; zero reads 0.00 on a digital
VOM.
Selecting the proper range is very important and refers to setting the function switch on your multimeter to a voltage or amperage value that's higher than the
top value you anticipate testing. Digital multimeters have a nifty feature, auto-ranging, that automatically selects the widest possible range once you set the

function switch for ohms, current and voltage (AC or DC). Auto-ranging gives you the safest testing capacity each time you change back and forth from, say,
measuring resistance to voltage readings.
Safety Above All

VOMs are tools that an impulsive and foolish person should avoid. When it comes to electricity, a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

When I got my first multimeter, I was so excited to start using it, I gave a quick glance at the owner's manual and then proceeded to stick the multimeter's probes
into the closest appliances and wall outlets to see what the tester could do. I fried that VOM. I was more studious and careful with the next multimeter. Even now,
there are still some repairs I let the electricians and repair technicians handlewith their VOMs

Using VOMs

1 of 2
Photo 2: Testing a broken extension cord

Check for a broken wire or bad plug connection in an extension cord by bending the cord along its length.
Function setting: Ohms.
Scale setting: Auto-ranging.
Test probes: Connect the prongs together at one end of the cord with a jumper wire, creating a closed circuit. Insert the testing probes in the other end to complete
the circuit, and then turn on the multimeter. Don't forget a second test to check along the safety ground wire too.
Good reading: A 0.00 reading would indicate zeroa closed circuit.
Bad reading: This 0.L. reading indicates infinityan open circuit. This cord has a broken wire or loose connection.
Previous Photo
Next Photo

Both types of multimeters (digital and analog VOMs) require you to decide which to test for first: ohms, voltage or current. Next, select the range you'll be testing.
For example: On an analog multimeter, if you were to test AC voltage in a 120-volt wall outlet, but only set the function switch to 30 AC volts, you'd overload and
damage the multimeter. Instead, select a setting greater than 120 AC volts.

VOMs come with two colored testing probes that connect to jacks in the meter. The probes have electrically insulated handles with metal tips. Generally, the red
probe plugs into the + meter jack and the black probe plugs into the - jack. When the test probes contact a circuit, the findings are displayed on the LCD
readout or analog meter scale.

A test for voltage and amps uses the electricity present in a live circuit to power the meter. For resistance (ohms) and continuity tests, batteries inside the VOM
send a weak current through the circuit being tested to get the reading. We suggest you stay away from live circuit tests until you've mastered using the VOM on
the resistance and continuity tests we show.

Digital Verses Analog VOMs

For appliance and electronic repairs, buy a digital, not analog, multimeter. This type is much simpler to read and you can change the functions on it more easily.
Digital multimeters (Photo 2) have LCD readouts and do continuity testing. Some digital multimeters also feature auto-ranging and overload protection and other
advantages analog multimeters lack.

Analog multimeters have multiple scales on the dial (Photo 1), a moving needle and many manual settings on the function switch. It's tricky spotting the correct
scale to read on the dial, plus you sometimes have to multiply the reading by 10 or 100 to get your final value. Depending on features (make sure it can do
continuity testing).

For easier, hands-free viewing, choose a multimeter with a stand that will prop it up or hang it on a wall. If a multimeter doesn't come equipped with either jumper
wires or alligator clips, buy them.

Alligator clips are often used to firmly grip wiring or contacts for hands-free safe and accurate readings. Both types of multimeters and these accessories can be
purchased at electronics stores, home centers and hardware stores.

CAUTION!
Before running a resistance test, avoid possible injury to yourself and damage to the multimeter by disconnecting power to appliances and shutting off circuits.

Using good techniques

1 of 3
Photo 4: Check household appliances

Troubleshoot a food blender that isn't running or is running sluggishly by testing the blender's switch block. UNPLUG the blender, set up the VOM and probes, and
push each of the blender's speed switches.
Function setting: Ohms (resistance).
Scale setting: Auto-ranging.
Test probes: Attach alligator clips (a must-have accessory) to the testing probes, connect the clips to the power plug, and turn on the VOM.
Good reading: This low reading (28.4 ohms) indicates a good switch. Check the manufacturer's specification for the good reading on your blender.
Bad reading: A 0.L. reading (infinity) indicates a switch that's dirty or defective.

When testing DC voltage or amps, match the polarity of the probes to the + and - terminals of the DC source being measured. Matching polarity
isn't necessary for testing either AC voltage or amps, or for continuity or resistance readings.

For the most accurate readings, hold the probe tip points (not the sides) tightly to a contact. Avoid touching the metal tips with your fingers. Your body
could act as a circuit and influence a reading (and get you zapped!).

Each time you do an ohms test using an analog multimeter, touch the two probes together and use the calibration dial to zero it out. For a digital
multimeter, touch the probes together and it automatically calibrates itself.

Ensure accurate readings by periodically cleaning oxides off the metal probes and keeping the tip points sharp with fine-grit sandpaper or emery cloth.

Using a multimeter
This guide starts off with the basics of a meter, proceeds to give a thorough
specification for our example meter, then explains how to make
measurements, and finishes up with some hints and notes.

The example meter that we are demonstrating is typical of many economical digital
multimeters that you can purchase, hopefully these instructions will be of some use
to you no matter what brand or type of meter you use. Recently Aldi started selling
the ECS820b, which looks identical to this meter except for the dark grey case. The
price of $9.99 and accessibility of the supplier makes the meter a must have. Also,
the same meter (again, in dark grey) is now available from Futurlec as DM-ECS820D
for $9.90 (US)
The Basics

Powered by 9V battery

Black probe in COM, Red in VOmA (COM and

10ADC only used for high current)

Dial measurement required, connect probes to

circuit, read value

DC voltage: 0.2V - 600V in x10 steps

AC voltage: 200V, 600V ranges only

DC current: 0.0002A - 0.2A in x10

DC current (high range): 10A

Resistance: 200 - 2,000,000ohms in x10 steps

hfe test (NPN/PNP transistor)

Continuity buzzer (Except on Aldi ECS820b)

Price: Standard $26.95 + $5.50 post (Aust)

Price: $9.99 AUD from Aldi (while stocks last...?)

Price: $9.90 US from Futurlec

Warnings
Do not rotate the dial while the meter is connected to a circuit - you may
rotate it through a current range, short circuiting the probes and damaging either
the meter or the circuit.
Respect the circuitry you are working on - If you touch exposed metal, or
cause a short circuit, or connect to high voltage, you may expose yourself to hazard
- or damage the circuit or your meter.

Measuring the short circuit current of a battery or power supply is usually

not safe - it is likely to damage the meter or battery and possibly cause the battery
to overheat so much that it may be dangerous.
You can read all the other important warnings in the instructions that come with
your meter, including, perhaps, my favourite comical warning:
"Do not run the equipment under water or in water shower for fun or any other
reason".
Quick facts for the experts
(Please skip reading this section if it doesn't make sense to you!)

Voltage Measurement: Input impedance 1M

Current Measurement: Voltage drop 200mV max

10A Current Measurement: Voltage drop 100mV

20k,200k,2M resistance measurement: 0.35V 22uA (note this means that 20k
and above ranges will not falsely read diode drops as resistance)

200 ohm, 2k resistance measurement: 2.7V 0.6mA (note this is sufficient to

dimly light a good quality Red/Yellow/Green/Orange LED on test)

AC Voltage Measurement: Averaging only, not RMS (however responds

somewhat to change from square to sine, but small 2.0VAC reads as 1.7V)

Diode test (2k range): Not good, value shown is 2x actual fwd voltage drop

Hold switch: Holds the last measured value, as you would expect

Backlight: Illuminates the display for 5 seconds (But is anyone mad enough
to try and use the meter on a live circuit in the dark?!)

Voltage/Current reference: Internal to main AME7106Y IC

Voltage/Current calibration: Internal 200 ohm cermet preset (VR1)

Resistance: Resistance measurements are ratiometric

Battery consumption: 1.57mA typ (But 4.4mA continuity, 40mA backlight)

Battery life at 1.57mA: Standard 100-150hr typ, Alkaline 200-300hr typ

Low battery indication: 7V typ, with voltage/current accuracy lost at 6.3V

Manufacturer: Mastech MAS830L, Full meter schematic

Transistor test: 9V Vce, 220k base resistor (approx 40ua IBE), 10 Ohm load

Note 10 Amp current range is Unfused (as in most economical DVMs)

Current range protection Fuse: 200mA (20mm) no spare provided :-(

Voltage range protection: Inherent high impedance

Resistance/continuity range protection: PTC resistor

Continuity: Standard - buzzer sounds for less than 1500ohm or diode :-(

Continuity if R29=22k - sounds for less than 100 ohms, but not diodes :-)

Construction: 'Transistor radio style', Gold flashed PCB switch contacts (Note:
Open switch construction - this means keep away from moisture!)

Active circuitry: LM358, AME7106Y chip-on-board, 1N4007, 4 transistors

Probes: 18AWG 70cm long, right angle banana, one red, one black

ECS820b (Aldi meter) Differences from the above

Continuity setting missing - a pity as very useful

2k resistance measurement is 0.3V 22ua

Diode test is much improved, quite usable

Backlight is missing, (except for ECS820BL version), probably no great loss

Battery consumption is improved, 0.93ma (But still 3.76ma on 200R + diode)

Manufacturer: Suns ECS820

Transistor test: 3V Vce, 180k base resistor (approx 10ua IBE), 40 Ohm load

Construction : Primarily surface mount, but using nearly identical case

moulding

So all in all there are some technical differences, but aside from the missing
continuity feature there is little to tell the meters apart - the rest of the
information here can really be read as applying to both the MAS830L /
QM1522 or the ECS820B

Measurements for Managers

Just because you have an MBA doesn't mean you have to hire an EE to check a
battery voltage! Yep, we have collected all the relevant tricky bits together here, so
you can probe and buzz to your hearts content!

As we state above - Have the Black probe in COM, Red probe in VOmA, and dial the
measurement you want before you probe the circuit.
Voltage Measurements - DC - definitely the easiest of the lot, Black probe on
Ground, Red on the voltage to measure - done. If the value reads negative, the
voltage is negative with respect to ground. If the value reads '1.' the voltage is
higher than the range setting that you have selected.
Continuity Measurement - definitely the most used setting. Dial the
position,
and put the probes across the two points to be tested, with the circuit unpowered.
The value displayed is the resistance in ohms. If no connection is present, the value
reads '1.' More usefully, the buzzer sounds on low resistance, so that you can
quickly probe for continuity without looking over at the meter each time. (This
feature is missing on the ECS820B)
Resistance Measurement - as for continuity, again, '1.' means no connection or a
resistance larger than the range setting that you have selected.
Voltage Measurement - AC - as for DC voltage, however AC
voltage does not have a distinct polarity. Be very careful when
measuring high voltages. Just because you are holding a meter does
not mean you are now immune to electric shock. Exercise caution.
Current Measurement - DC - to measure the current flowing through a circuit you
must insert the meter in series with the circuit. This means you must disconnect a
wire, and insert the meter in its place. Normally you would connect the Red VOmA
probe in the positive direction, and the Black COM probe in the negative direction.
Remove the power from the circuit before doing this. When you have the wires
secure and are sure they will not drop off and short circuit, reattach the power. If the
value reads negative, the current flow is negative (that is, the VOmA probe has
been connected in the more negative direction). If the value reads '1.' the current is
higher than the range setting that you have selected. For currents higher than 0.2A
use the 10A range.
Current Measurement - 10A DC - as for Current Measurement DC, but using the
COM and 10ADC terminals. Exercise caution - the 10A DC range is unfused, if the
current exceeds 10A damage to the meter will result. Make the measurement
quickly - the connecting leads will get warm at 10A current!
The first rule of intelligent tinkering is to save all the parts -- Paul Ralph Erlich
Real world Measurements
hfe Measurement - Insert the transistor in the test socket with the leads matching
the E C B postions. The display will show the approximate gain of the transistor. This
function is, frankly, pretty rarely used.

Diode Measurement - On the MAS830L Select the 2k (Or, the

position). On the
ECS820B use the setting marked with the diode symbol. Connect the Red VOmA
lead to the anode (unmarked) end of the diode, and the Black COM lead to the
cathode (Bar or stripe marked) end of the diode. If the diode is good, a value
representing the forward voltage drop in millivolts will be displayed.
The ECS820B does a good job of this, the MAS830L is not very good at it, as R12
PTC is not well selected for the design. MAS830 value displayed is approx 2x the
actual voltage drop of the diode. In any case, diodes rarely fail by exhibiting a
higher forward voltage than they should, they most usually fail by going close to
short circuit. Even though the measured value is very inaccurate, the meter is still
okay for such a Go / No-Go diode test.
LEDs - Red VOmA probe to anode or longer lead, Black COM probe to cathode or

flat-marked side of package. On 200ohm and continuity settings 0.7ma

flows through a Red/Green/Yellow/Orange LED - just enough to dimly light a good
quality LED. White and blue LEDs generally will not light - they require more than
the 2.7V or so supplied by the meter.
1.5V Batteries - A Fresh battery reads 1.56V, A battery is perhaps half used at
1.35V, and is pretty dead by the time it reaches 1.1V. (Matching figures for 9V: Full
= 9.36V, Half = 8.1V, Dead = 6.6V). However, not every item is the same, and
some equipment needs a battery with low internal impedance. The amount of
current a battery can deliver is not reliably reflected by its open circuit terminal
voltage. The best way to check, if in doubt, is to measure battery voltage while the
equipment is running.
Lead acid batteries - A 12V lead acid battery generally measures 13.4 to 14V
while on charge. When off charge, a full battery will be up at about 12.8V, a
discharged battery at about 11V. If a lead acid battery is in the range of 6-8V it is
probably in pretty bad shape, and over discharged, or with a shorted cell. A shorted
cell makes a 12V battery pretty much useless.
Elements/Heaters - The resistance of a heater can be calculated by first finding its
rated current, and then finding its resistance using ohms law.
The heaters current is:
Power / Voltage = Current e.g. A 1200W 240V heater uses 5 Amps.
Then the heaters resistance is:
Voltage / Current = Resistance e.g. A 240V 5A heater is 48 ohms.
Knowing an expected resistance, if the heater was measured and found to be wildly
different from these values, you would guess that it was faulty. However, the ohms
law calculations are not useful for lights or transformers. The 'cold' resistance of a
light bulb is frequently as little as a tenth of its running resistance - so a 120W 240V

incandescent light bulb, which you would calculate to have a resistance of about
480 ohms, actually has a 'cold' resistance that measures closer to 48 ohms.
Power supplies - please note our warning at the start of this document - it is
usually quite dangerous to measure the short circuit current of a battery or power
supply - don't try it! If a power supply is unregulated, frequently the output voltage
will be up to a third higher than its rated voltage when there is no load connected.
'12V' regulated supplies for equipment that would normally be battery operated are
usually 13.4 - 13.8V, not really 12V at all! Power supplies for digital logic are
normally regulated to +/-5% or better, so you would expect a 5V power supply to be
4.75 to 5.25V without exception.
Components in circuit - Normally you have to remove a component from a circuit
in order to reliably measure its value. For instance, if a 400 ohm relay coil had a
1N4002 diode across it, it would be quite difficult to reliably measure either the
resistance of the relay coil, or the foward voltage of the diode - any measurement of
one is likely to have the other components interfere with the reading. Almost all
circuits are like this to some degree. Most components cannot be measured in
circuit. The only thing that can be reliably be said is that you will not measure a
resistance greater than a resistor value - the circuit can only lower the resistance
reading. Contacts, because they generally read as a dead short: '0.0' are not much
affected by being in circuit. To some extent it is safe to test contacts in
circuit. Ofcourse there is an exception: If there are two or more contacts in parallel,
and they read as continuous, you know that atleast one is closed but you cannot be
sure which (if any) of them is open.
Fast changes - If a measurement is not stable
for a second or so, it is difficult to get a reliable
reading with a meter. An oscilloscope is needed
for this.
Cables - Cables are easily tested with a meter on
continuity setting. Usually cable faults will either
be an open circuit or short circuit. It is a rare
though possible fault to have a conductor show a
significant resistance. Most often, the continuity
test on a meter is used to check if the cable pins
are going to the expected place on a connector, by buzzing each circuit in turn.
Voltage drop - A meter is the ideal tool for diagnosing voltage drop. Generally,
cabling should not drop a significant portion of supply voltage. If a nominal 12V
power supply is feeding a device through a long cable, with say 13.6V at the power
supply, you would expect to still have atleast 90% of the power (or 12.2V) available
at the powered device.

Low voltage - Teamed up with Voltage drop is the droop in supply voltage that can
occur when a power supply is overloaded. Again, if a power supply is significantly
lower than the expected value (90% is a good starting point) then it is likely that the
load is drawing too much current. The only way to find this out is to use a meter.
Monitored circuits - Most alarm systems use monitored circuits - basically
contacts in series and parallel with resistors. While two wires may come back to the
alarm panel, instead of being just a closed circuit or open circuit to indicate the
condition, the wires will have two values of resistance for the two states. During
installation, this is easily checked with a meter on resistance setting, but it relies on
disconnecting the wires from the panel first so that the panel circuitry does not
interfere with the measured value.
Transistor test - The hfe test on a multimeter is rarely used. However, each
bipolar transistor has the circuit equivalent of two diodes within it, and testing these
is often done. The common terminal of the two diodes is the base of the transistor for an NPN transistor, the two anodes are at the base. For a PNP transistor the two
cathodes are at the base. Many transistor failures will be accomanied by one or both
of the diode equivalents within the transistor failing.
Jumper leads / Crocodile clips / Test leads - Called different names in
different places, basically a 30cm length of insulated wire with a clip on each end.
Two (or more) of these make connecting a meter into a circuit a lot easier.
Low battery voltage in a multimeter - The low battery indication in the example
multimeter comes on when the battery voltage falls below 7V. It pays to replace the
battery quickly. If the voltage falls below (about) 6.3V, then voltage and current
measurements are no longer accurate. Typically, the meter will indicate that the
voltage or current is higher than it is in reality. Interestingly, resistance
measurements stay accurate to far lower supply voltages, as the resistance
measurements are made ratiometrically and so compensate for the lowered battery
voltage in the meter.
Autoranging meters - Many multimeters are available with autoranging functions.
Instead of selecting the required voltage range, just DC voltage is selected, and the
meter selects the best range itself. Also meters are available that will connect to a
PC to download readings, or with functions such as capacitance, inductance and
frequency measurement, all of which are quite useful. There is also temperature,
light, sound level and humidity measurement - really the sky is the limit if you want
to get a meter with extra features! Multimeters are sometimes also referred to as
DVMs, multitesters, or that-thing-in-the-toolbox-that-I-don't-know-how-to-use
A second meter - Perhaps the most useful hint of the lot is to have a second
meter. I personally swear by it - I am constantly measuring voltage and current at
the same time, or using one meter for buzzing out a circuit board when the power is

off, while the other is set up to monitor voltages in the same board when the power
gets turned on.