Usnrc Tech Guide On Nde

Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes
Student Manual
Volume 1
Chapter 1.0
Introduction
NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Vol I
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOL I (CHAPTERS 1-5)
1.0
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1
Learning Objectives
1.1_
Overview of Course .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Human Factors .................................................................................................................. 2

1.2.1 Examiner Errors .................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1.1 Technique Errors ...................................................................................... 2
1.2.1.2 Inadvertent Errors ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.1.3 Procedural Errors ...................................................................................... 4
1.2.1.4 Conscious Errors....................................................................................... 4
1.2.2
Environmental 5
2.0 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION ...................................................... 1

Learning Objectives
2.1 Qualification vs. Certification ................................................................................................ 1
2.2 Employer-Based Certification vs. Centralized Certification .................................................. 1
2.3 Employer-Based Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3.1
SNT-TC-1A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3.1.1 Benefits of SNT-TC-1A ........................................................................... 3
2.3.1.2 Limitations of SNT-TC-1A ...................................................................... 4
USNRC Technical Training Center
Rev 0103
Table of Contents
2.3.1.3 Terminology ............................................................................................. 6

2.3.2 ASNT Certification Standard (ANSI/ASNT CP-189).......................................... 7
2.3.3 Qualification of Personnel for Visual Examination ............................................. 8
2.3.4 Qualification Requirements for Ultrasonic Examination Personnel .................... 9
2.4 ISO 9712 Central Certification ............................................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Term of Certification .......................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Renewal
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.4.3 Recertification 11
2.5 ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP) ..................................................................... 11
2.6 AWS Certification of Welding Inspectors (CWI) ................................................................ 11
2.7 Supplemental Qualification Requirements ........................................................................... 12
3.0 CLASSIFICATION AND INTERPRETATION OF INDICATIONS ........................................ 1
Learning Objectives
3.1 Indications
........................................................................................................... 1
3.2 False Indications ..................................................................................................................... 1

3.2.1
Penetrant Examination .......................................................................................... 1
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3.2.2
Magnetic Particle Examination ............................................................................ 2
3.2.3
Radiographic Examination ................................................................................... 2
3.2.4
Ultrasonic/Eddy Current Examination ................................................................. 2
3.2.5
Summary of False Indications .............................................................................. 2
3.3 Nonrelevant Indications .......................................................................................................... 2

3.3.1
Penetrant Examination .......................................................................................... 3
3.3.2
Magnetic Particle Examination ............................................................................ 3
3.3.3
Radiographic Examination ................................................................................... 4
3.3.4 Ultrasonic Examination ........................................................................................ 4

3.3.5
Eddy Current Examination ................................................................................... 4
3.3.6
Summary of Nonrelevant Indications ................................................................... 5
3.4 True Discontinuities ............................................................................................................... 5

3.4.1
3.4.2
Inherent Discontinuities ...................................................................................... 5

3.4.1.1
Inclusions .......................................................................................... 5
3.4.1.2
Laminations ...................................................................................... 5
3.4.1.3
Pipe ................................................................................................... 5
3.4.1.4
Seams ................................................................................................ 5
Primary Processing Discontinuities .................................................................... 5

3.4.2.1
Casting .............................................................................................. 6
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3.4.2.1.1
Casting Processes ............................................................................. 6
3.4.2.1.2
Casting Discontinuities ..................................................................... 7
3.4.2.2
Forging.............................................................................................. 9
3.4.2.2.1
Forging Processes ............................................................................. 9
3.4.2.2.2
Forging Discontinuities .................................................................... 9
3.4.2.3
Rolling ............................................................................................ 10
3.4.2.3.1
Rolling Process .............................................................................. 10
3.4.2.3.2
Rolling Discontinuities .................................................................. 10
3.4.2.4
Extruding ........................................................................................ 10
3.4.3 Secondary Processing Discontinuities .............................................................. 10

3.4.3.1
Tears (Machining) .......................................................................... 11
3.4.3.2
Heat Treating Cracks ...................................................................... 11
3.4.3.3
Grinding Cracks .............................................................................. 11
3.4.3.4
Forming Cracks .............................................................................. 11
3.4.4 Service Discontinuities ..................................................................................... 11
3.4.5
3.4.4.1
Corrosion ........................................................................................ 11
3.4.4.2
Stress Corrosion .............................................................................. 11
3.4.4.3
Microbiological Corrosion ............................................................. 12
3.4.4.4
Intergranular Corrosion .................................................................. 12
3.4.4.5
Fatigue ............................................................................................ 12
3.4.4.6
Wear................................................................................................ 12
Weld Discontinuities ........................................................................................ 13

3.4.5.1
Cracks ............................................................................................. 13
3.4.5.2
Longitudinal Cracks ....................................................................... 13
3.4.5.3
Transverse Cracks........................................................................... 14
3.4.5.4
Crater Cracks .................................................................................. 14
3.4.5.5
Porosity ........................................................................................... 14
3.4.5.6
Inclusions ........................................................................................ 14
3.4.5.7
Undercut ......................................................................................... 15
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3.4.5.8
Burn Through ................................................................................. 15
3.4.5.9
Concavity ........................................................................................ 15
3.5 Summary of True Discontinuities....................................................................................... 15

3.5.1 Defects
3.5.2
........................................................................................................ 15
Repair Considerations....................................................................................... 15
3.6 Interpretation Summary ...................................................................................................... 16

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL EXAMINATION................................................................... 1
Learning Objectives
4.1 History
.......................................................................................................... 1
4.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ............................................................................ 1

4.2.1
Visual Acuity ...................................................................................................... 2
4.2.2
Equipment 2
4.2.3 Experience and Training ..................................................................................... 2

4.2.4 Procedures... ................................................................................................... 3
4.2.5
Certification
.................................................................................................... 3
4.3 Principles of Visual Testing ................................................................................................. 4

4.3.1
Applications
.................................................................................................... 4
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4.3.2 Visual Factors..5

4.3.3
4.3.4
Human Eye ......................................................................................................... 5

4.3.3.1
Refractivity ....................................................................................... 6
4.3.3.2
Distance Judgment ............................................................................ 6
4.3.3.3
Mechanism of Vision........................................................................ 7
4.3.3.4
Light Receptors................................................................................. 7
Color and Color Vision....................................................................................... 7

4.3.4.1
Color Characteristics ........................................................................ 7
4.3.4.2
Brightness Characteristics ................................................................ 8
4.3.4.3
Spectrum Limits of Visibility ........................................................... 8
4.3.4.4
Color Changes .................................................................................. 8
4.3.5 Observer Differences .......................................................................................... 9

4.3.6
Lighting
.......................................................................................................... 9
4.3.7 Specific Lighting Devices ................................................................................ 10

4.4 Imaging Equipment
4.4.1 Mirrors
........................................................................................................ 10
........................................................................................................ 10
4.4.2 Magnification.................................................................................................... 10
4.4.2.1
Focal Length ................................................................................... 11
4.4.2.2
Magnifying Devices ....................................................................... 11
4.4.3 Borescopes and Fiberscopes ............................................................................. 12

4.4.3.1
Borescopes ...................................................................................... 12
4.4.3.2
Fiberscopes ..................................................................................... 13
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4.4.4 Electronic Imaging ........................................................................................... 13

4.4.4.1
Closed Circuit Television ............................................................... 13
4.4.4.2
Cathode-ray Tube (Viewing) .......................................................... 13
4.4.4.3
Digital Imaging ............................................................................... 14
4.4.5 Photographic Techniques ................................................................................. 15

4.4.5.1
Depth of Field ................................................................................. 15
4.4.5.2
Lighting .......................................................................................... 16
4.4.5.3
Film ................................................................................................. 16
4.5 Measuring Equipment 16

4.5.1 Linear Scales..................................................................................................... 17
4.5.2
Steel Rules ........................................................................................................ 16
4.5.3 The Vernier Scale ............................................................................................. 17

4.5.4 Vernier Calipers ................................................................................................ 17
4.5.5
Dial Calipers ..................................................................................................... 18
4.5.6 Micrometer ....................................................................................................... 18

4.5.7 Micrometer Depth Gages.................................................................................. 18
4.5.8 Dial Indicator .................................................................................................... 18
4.5.9 Balanced Dials .................................................................................................. 18
4.5.10 Combination Square Set ................................................................................... 19
4.5.11 Thread Pitch Gages ........................................................................................... 19
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4.5.12 Thickness Gages ............................................................................................... 19

4.5.13 Levels
........................................................................................................ 19
4.6 Visual Examination of Welds ............................................................................................. 19

4.6.1
Prior to Welding ............................................................................................... 19
4.6.2
During Welding ................................................................................................ 20
4.6.3 After Welding ................................................................................................... 20

4.6.4
Weld Examination Gages ................................................................................. 20

4.6.4.1
Fillet Weld Gage ............................................................................. 20
4.6.4.2
Multipurpose Gage ......................................................................... 21
4.6.4.3
Taper Gage ..................................................................................... 21
4.6.4.4
Hi-Lo Gage ..................................................................................... 21
4.6.4.5
Ferrite Gages................................................................................... 21
4.7 Remote Visual Inspection (RVI) ........................................................................................ 21

4.7.1 Fiberoptic Borescopes, Fiberscopes, and Videoimagescopes .......................... 21
4.7.2
Liquid Penetrant Examinations Combined with RVI ....................................... 22
4.7.3 Magnetic Particle Examinations Combined with RVI ..................................... 23

4.7.4
Ultrasonic Examinations Combined with RVI ................................................. 23
4.7.5
Eddy Current Examinations Combined with RVI ............................................ 23
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4.8 Specific Applications for Power Generation ...................................................................... 24

4.8.1
Steam Turbines ................................................................................................. 24
4.8.2 Surface Condensers and Heat Exchangers ....................................................... 24

4.9 Visual Examination Code Requirements ............................................................................ 25
4.9.1
ASME-Section V .............................................................................................. 25
4.9.2
ASME-Section XI............................................................................................. 25
4.9.2.1
Supplemental Qualifications of
Examination Personnel ................................................................... 26
4.9.3
AWS Certified Welding Inspector ................................................................... 27
4.10
Records . . . . . . . . .27
4.11
Advantages and Limitations of Visual Testing ............................................................ 27

4.11.1 Advantages ....................................................................................................... 27
4.11.2 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 28
5.0 INTRODUCTION TO RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION ................................................... 1

Learning Objectives
5.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................................................................................... 1
5.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ............................................................................ 2
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5.3 Principles . . . . . . . . . .......................................................................................................... 3

5.3.1 Characteristics of Matter .................................................................................... 4
5.3.2
5.3.1.1
Atomic Weight ................................................................................. 4
5.3.1.2
Atomic Number ................................................................................ 5
5.3.1.3
Electron Configuration ..................................................................... 5
Radiation Theory ................................................................................................ 5

5.3.2.1
Radiation Characteristics .................................................................. 5
5.3.2.2
Interaction with Matter ..................................................................... 6
5.3.2.3
Radiation Measurement .................................................................... 9
5.3.3 Radioactive Isotopes ......................................................................................... 10

5.3.3.1
Characteristics of an Isotope........................................................... 10
5.3.3.2
Production of Radioactive Isotopes ................................................ 11
5.3.3.3
Radioactive Decay .......................................................................... 11
5.3.4 Generation of X-rays ........................................................................................ 12

5.3.4.1
Theory of Generation...................................................................... 12
5.3.4.2
X-ray Spectrum............................................................................... 12
5.3.4.3
Milliampere-Time or Exposure ...................................................... 13
5.3.4.4
Effective vs. Actual Focal Spot Size .............................................. 13
5.3.5 Geometric Factors............................................................................................. 13

5.3.5.1
Definition ........................................................................................ 14
5.3.5.2
Contrast ........................................................................................... 15
5.3.6 Exposure Considerations .................................................................................. 16

5.3.6.1
Inverse Square Law ........................................................................ 17
5.3.6.2
Reciprocity Law ............................................................................. 18
5.3.6.3
Film Density ................................................................................... 18
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Table of Contents
5.3.6.4
Film Characteristic Curves ............................................................. 18
5.3.6.5
Exposure vs. Density ...................................................................... 19
5.3.6.6
Gamma Ray Exposure .................................................................... 19
5.4 Equipment. . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................ 19

5.4.1 X-ray Machines ................................................................................................ 19
5.4.2 Isotope Exposure Devices ................................................................................ 20
5.4.3
5.4.4
Radiographic Film ............................................................................................ 21

5.4.3.1
Composition.................................................................................... 21
5.4.3.2
Lead Screens ................................................................................... 21
Film Processing ................................................................................................ 21

5.4.4.1
Manual System ............................................................................... 22
5.4.4.2
Automatic System........................................................................... 22
5.5 Techniques. . ... . . . . .. .......................................................................................................... 22

5.5.1
Single Wall Exposure/Single Wall Viewing ...................................................... 22
5.5.2 Double Wall Exposure/Double Wall Viewing ................................................... 23

5.5.3
Double Wall Exposure/Single Wall Viewing ..................................................... 23
5.5.4
Multiple Film Techniques .................................................................................. 23
5.5.5 Coverage .. .......................................................................................................... 23

5.5.6 Use of Blocks and Step Wedges ......................................................................... 23
5.5.7 Penetrameter Placement ..................................................................................... 23
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5.5.8
Table of Contents
Structural Welds ................................................................................................. 24
5.6 Radiographic Quality.
....................................................................................................... 24
5.6.1 Image Quality Indicators .................................................................................... 24

5.6.1.1 ...... Hole Type IQIs ................................................................................. 24
5.6.1.2 ...... Wire IQIs .......................................................................................... 24
5.6.1.3 ...... Penetrameter Requirements .............................................................. 24
5.6.2
Density ..... .......................................................................................................... 25
5.6.3 Improper Use of Penetrameters .......................................................................... 25

5.6.4
Radiographic Film Identification........................................................................ 25
5.7 Film Viewing Considerations ............................................................................................... 26

5.7.1
High Intensity Illuminators ................................................................................. 26

5.7.1.1 ...... Heat ................................................................................................... 27
5.7.1.2 ...... Diffusion ........................................................................................... 27
5.7.13 ....... Intensity Control ............................................................................... 27
5.7.1.4 ...... Masks ................................................................................................ 27
5.7.1.5 ...... Precautions........................................................................................ 27
5.7.1.6 ...... Magnifiers ......................................................................................... 28
5.7.1.7 ...... Other Viewing Accessories .............................................................. 28
5.8 Interpretation of Radiographs ............................................................................................... 28

5.8.1 False Indications (Artifacts) ............................................................................... 28
5.8.2 Radiographic Image of Discontinuities .............................................................. 30
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5.8.2.1 ...... Weld Discontinuities ........................................................................ 30

5.8.2.2 ...... Casting Discontinuities ..................................................................... 30
5.9 Code Considerations ..
....................................................................................................... 31
5.10
Safety Concerns ... .......................................................................................................... 32
5.11
Advantages and Limitations of Radiographic Examination ........................................... 32

5.11.1 Advantages ......................................................................................................... 32
5.11.2 Limitations .......................................................................................................... 33
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOL II (CHAPTERS 6-9)
6.0 INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Learning Objectives
6.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
6.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification .............................................................................. 1
6.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
6.3.1
Capillary Action ................................................................................................... 3
6.3.2
Contact Angle ....................................................................................................... 3
6.3.3
Contrast Ratio ....................................................................................................... 3
6.4 Prerequisites............................................................................................................................ 4
6.5 Penetrant Materials ................................................................................................................. 4
6.5.1 Precleaners ............................................................................................................ 4
6.5.1.1
Selection of Cleaning Technique ................................................... 4
6.5.1.2 ...... Typical Cleaning Techniques ............................................................. 4

6.5.1.3 ...... Cleaning Precautions .......................................................................... 5
6.5.1.4
6.5.2
Drying Process ............................................................................... 5
Penetrants.............................................................................................................. 6
6.5.2.1
Penetrant Family ........................................................................... 6
6.5.2.2
Technique Selection .................................................................... 6
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6.5.3 Developers ............................................................................................................ 6

6.5.3.1 ...... Properties ............................................................................................ 6
6.5.3.2
Developer Types............................................................................. 7
6.6 Penetrant Techniques ............................................................................................................ 7

6.6.1 Water Washable .................................................................................................... 7
6.6.2
6.6.3
6.6.4
6.6.1.1
Water Washable (Fluorescent) ..................................................... 8
6.6.1.2
Water Washable (Visible)............................................................. 8
Post Emulsifiable .................................................................................................. 9

6.6.2.1
Post Emulsifiable (Fluorescent) .................................................... 9
6.6.2.2
Post Emulsifiable (Visible) ........................................................... 9
Solvent Removable ............................................................................................. 10

6.6.3.1
Solvent Removable (Fluorescent)............................................... 10
6.6.3.2
Solvent Removable (Visible) ...................................................... 11
Compatibility ...................................................................................................... 11
6.7 Procedures 11
6.7.1
Penetrant Application ......................................................................................... 12
6.7.2
Penetrant Dwell Time ......................................................................................... 12
6.7.3 Removal of Excess Surface Penetrant ................................................................ 12

6.7.3.1
Method A (Water Washable) ...................................................... 12
6.7.3.2
Method B (Lipophilic Emulsifier) .............................................. 12
6.7.3.3
Method D (Hydrophilic Emulsifier) ........................................... 13
6.7.3.4
Method C (Solvents) ................................................................... 13
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6.7.4
Table of Contents
Drying ................................................................................................................. 14
6.7.5 Development ....................................................................................................... 14

6.7.5.1
Dry Developer ............................................................................ 14
6.7.5.2
Aqueous Wet Developer ............................................................. 14
6.7.5.3
Nonaqueous Wet Developer ....................................................... 14
6.7.6
Evaluation ...15
6.7.7
Post Cleaning ...................................................................................................... 15
6.8 Procedure Qualification ........................................................................................................ 15

6.9 Nonstandard Temperatures ................................................................................................... 15
6.10
Control Panels................................................................................................................. 16
6.10.1 Limitation of Test Panels .................................................................................... 16
6.11
Penetrant Systems ........................................................................................................... 16

6.11.1 Precleaning Station ............................................................................................. 16
6.11.2 Penetrant Application Station ............................................................................. 16
6.11.3 Penetrant Draining Station.................................................................................. 16
6.11.4 Emulsifier Application Station ........................................................................... 17
6.11.5 Washing or Rinsing Station ................................................................................ 17
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6.11.6 Developer Application Station ........................................................................... 17

6.11.7 Drying Station..................................................................................................... 17
6.11.8 Examination Station ........................................................................................... 17
6.11.9 Post-cleaning Station .......................................................................................... 17
6.12
Portable Systems.. .......................................................................................................... 17

6.12.1 Black Lights ........................................................................................................ 18
6.13
Examination Procedure................................................................................................... 18
6.13.1 Procedure Revision ............................................................................................. 18
6.14
Applications .................................................................................................................... 19
6.14.1 Welds ................................................................................................................ 19
6.14.2 Castings ... .......................................................................................................... 19
6.14.3 Through Leaks .................................................................................................... 19
6.15
Unacceptable Techniques ............................................................................................... 19
6.16
Variables ......................................................................................................................... 19
6.17
Evaluation ....................................................................................................................... 20
6.17.1 Indications. ......................................................................................................... 20
6.17.1.1
False Indications ............................................................................... 20
6.17.1.2
Nonrelevant Indications .................................................................... 20
6.17.1.3
True Indications ................................................................................ 20
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6.17.2 Interpretation ...................................................................................................... 21

6.17.2.1
Visible Daylight Dye Penetrants....................................................... 21
6.17.2.2
Fluorescent Penetrants .................................................................... 21
6.17.3 Specific Types of Discontinuities ....................................................................... 22

6.17.4 Discontinuity Indication Categories ................................................................... 22
6.18
Advantages and Limitations of Penetrant Examination ................................................. 23

6.18.1 Advantages ......................................................................................................... 23
6.18.2 Limitations .......................................................................................................... 23
7.0 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .1

Learning Objectives
7.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
7.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
7.3.1 Key Terms .3
7.3.2
Theory of Magnetism ........................................................................................... 4

7.3.2.1
Horseshoe Magnet .......................................................................... 4
7.3.2.2
Bar Magnet ..................................................................................... 5
7.3.2.3
Flux Line Characteristics................................................................ 5
7.3.2.4 ...... Classification of Materials .................................................................. 5

7.3.2.5 ...... Molecular Theory ............................................................................... 6
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7.3.2.6 ...... Leakage Fields .................................................................................... 6

7.3.2.7 ...... Hysteresis Loop .................................................................................. 6
7.4 Producing Magnetic Fields ..................................................................................................... 7
7.4.1 Induced Magnetic Fields ...................................................................................... 7
7.4.2
7.4.1.1
Permanent Magnets ........................................................................ 7
7.4.1.2
Electromagnets ............................................................................... 7
Circular Magnetization ......................................................................................... 7

7.4.2.1 Direct Magnetization ................................................................................ 8
7.4.2.2 Indirect Magnetization .............................................................................. 9
7.4.2.3 Equipment ................................................................................................. 9
7.4.2.4 Field Strength Calculations ...................................................................... 9
7.4.2.5 Code Requirements - Circular ................................................................ 10
7.4.3
7.4.2.5.1
Direct Contact Technique (Head Shot) .......................................... 10
7.4.2.5.2
Central Conductor............................................................................. 10
7.4.2.5.3
Prods ................................................................................................. 11
Longitudinal Magnetization ............................................................................... 11

7.4.3.1 Coil Shot ................................................................................................. 12
7.4.3.2 Cable Wrap ............................................................................................. 12
7.4.3.3 Quick Break Technique .......................................................................... 12
7.4.3.4 Equipment ............................................................................................... 13
7.4.3.5 Coil Field Strength Calculations............................................................. 13
7.4.3.6 Code Requirements - Longitudinal......................................................... 13
7.4.4 Field Direction .................................................................................................... 14

7.4.5
Multidirectional Magnetic Fields ....................................................................... 14
7.4.6
Magnetizing Current ........................................................................................... 14
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7.5 Techniques ............................................................................................................................ 16

7.5.1
Continuous
.................................................................................................... 16
7.5.2
Residual
.................................................................................................... 16
7.6 Magnetic Particles 16

7.6.1 Visible Particles - Wet ........................................................................................ 16
7.6.2 Fluorescent Particles - Wet ................................................................................. 16
7.6.3 Advantages of Wet Particles............................................................................... 17
7.6.4
Limitations of Wet Particles ............................................................................... 17
7.6.5 Dry Particles .................................................................................................... 17

7.6.6 Advantages of Dry Particles ............................................................................... 18
7.6.7
Limitations of Dry Particles ............................................................................... 18
7.6.8 Particle Characteristics ....................................................................................... 18

7.6.8.1 Wet Particle Concentration..................................................................... 18
7.6.8.2 Particle Size ............................................................................................ 18
7.6.8.3 Particles for Wet Suspension .................................................................. 18
7.6.8.4 Particle Shape ......................................................................................... 19
7.6.8.5 Magnetic Particle Properties ................................................................... 19
7.6.8.6 Particle Mobility ..................................................................................... 19
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7.7 Stationary Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

7.8 Portable Equipment .............................................................................................................. 21
7.8.1 Yokes
. . . ............................................................................................... 21
7.8.1.1 Electro-Magnet Yoke ............................................................................. 21

7.8.1.2 Permanent Magnet Yoke ........................................................................ 21
7.8.2
Prods
.................................................................................................... 21
7.8.2.1 Contact Prods .......................................................................................... 21

7.8.2.2 Contact Clamps....................................................................................... 22
7.8.3
Coils
.................................................................................................... 22
7.8.3.1 Hand-Held Coil....................................................................................... 22

7.8.3.2 Cable Wrap ............................................................................................. 22
7.9 Applications .......................................................................................................................... 22
7.10
7.9.1
Solid Cylindrical Parts ........................................................................................ 22
7.9.2
Hollow Cylindrical Parts .................................................................................... 22
7.9.3
Welds
.................................................................................................... 23
7.9.4
Castings
.................................................................................................... 23
Demagnetization ............................................................................................................. 23
7.10.1 Principles of Demagnetization............................................................................ 23
7.10.2 Measuring Residual Fields ................................................................................. 25
7.11
Procedure Requirements ................................................................................................. 25
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Table of Contents
Calibration..25
7.12.1 Frequency
.................................................................................................... 25
7.12.2 Tolerance
.................................................................................................... 25
7.12.3 Procedure
.................................................................................................... 25
7.12.4 Yoke Calibration................................................................................................. 26

7.13
Surface Preparation
.................................................................................................... 26
7.14
Magnetic Field Verification............................................................................................ 26
7.15
Evaluation ...26
7.15.1 Evaluation Terms ................................................................................................ 26
7.15.1.1
Indications ........................................................................................ 26
7.15.1.2
Nonrelevant Indications .................................................................... 27
7.15.1.3
Interpretation of Nonrelevant Indications......................................... 28
7.15.1.4
True Discontinuity Indications ......................................................... 28
7.15.2 Evaluation Guide ................................................................................................ 28

7.16
Recording........................................................................................................................ 29
7.17
Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing ............................................ 29

7.17.1 Advantages
.................................................................................................... 29
7.17.2 Limitations
.................................................................................................... 29
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8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION .......................................................... 1

Learning Objectives
8.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
8.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ................................................................................. 1
8.2.1
ASME Section V ..................................................................................................... 1
8.2.2
ASME Section XI .................................................................................................... 2
8.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
8.3.1
Frequency
......................................................................................................... 4
8.3.2
Velocity
......................................................................................................... 4
8.3.3
Wavelength
......................................................................................................... 5
8.3.4
Transmission/Reflection .......................................................................................... 5
8.3.5
Attenuation
8.3.6
Instrumentation and Control .................................................................................... 6
......................................................................................................... 6
8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation .................................................................................. 6

8.3.7.1 Acoustic Impedance .................................................................................... 7
8.3.7.2 Reflection at Interfaces ................................................................................ 8
8.3.7.3 Fresnel Zone ................................................................................................ 8
8.3.7.4 Fraunhofer Zone (Far Field) ........................................................................ 9
8.3.7.5 Dead Zone.................................................................................................... 9
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8.3.8 Refraction
Table of Contents
......................................................................................................... 9
8.3.8.1 Snells Law .................................................................................................. 9

8.3.8.2 First and Second Critical Angles ............................................................... 10
8.3.9 Ultrasonic Examination Variables ......................................................................... 11
8.3.9.1 Equipment .................................................................................................. 11
8.3.9.2 Transducers ................................................................................................ 12
8.3.9.3 Couplant..................................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.4 Scanning Techniques ................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.5 Part Structure ............................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.6 Surface Condition ...................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.7 Part Geometry and Size ............................................................................. 13
8.3.9.8 Discontinuity Type, Shape, and Orientation ............................................. 14
8.4 Equipment 14
8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers .......................................................................................... 14
8.4.1.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8.4.1.2 Care of Transducers ................................................................................... 14
8.4.2 Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation .......................................................................... 15
8.4.2.1 Time base ................................................................................................... 15
8.4.2.2 Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
8.4.2.3 Pulse Repetition Rate................................................................................. 16
8.4.2.4 Pulser-Receiver .......................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.5 Basic Controls............................................................................................ 16
8.4.2.6 Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
8.5 Procedures. .............................................................................................................................. 17
8.5.1 Application of the Various Wave Modes .............................................................. 18
8.5.1.1 Compressional Wave Applications ........................................................... 18
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8.5.1.2 Shear Waves .............................................................................................. 18

8.5.1.3 Surface Waves ........................................................................................... 18
8.5.1.4 Lamb Waves .............................................................................................. 18
8.5.2
Immersion Testing ................................................................................................. 18

8.5.2.1 Immersion Tanks and System Components .............................................. 18
8.5.2.2 Immersion Transducers ............................................................................. 19
8.5.3
Data Display ....................................................................................................... 20

8.5.3.1 A-Scan20
8.5.3.2 B-Scan. .............................................................................................. 20
8.5.3.3 C-Scan. ...................................................................................................... 20
8.5.4 Calibration Techniques .......................................................................................... 21

8.5.4.1 Linearity..................................................................................................... 21
8.5.4.2 Distance Amplitude ................................................................................... 22
8.5.4.3 Resolution .................................................................................................. 23
8.5.4.4 Beam Profile .............................................................................................. 23
8.5.4.5 Test Block Parameters ............................................................................... 23
8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques ...................................................................................... 23
8.5.5.1 Scanning Problems .................................................................................... 23
8.5.5.2 Interpretation Shortcomings ...................................................................... 23
8.5.5.3 Report Format Problems ............................................................................ 23
8.6
Interpretation and Code Requirements .............................................................................. 24

8.6.1
Weld Calibration Standards ................................................................................... 24
8.6.2
Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 25
8.6.2.1 False Indications ........................................................................................ 25
8.6.2.2 Nonrelevant Indications ............................................................................. 25
8.6.2.3 Relevant Discontinuity Indications ........................................................... 25
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8.6.3
Table of Contents
Recording............................................................................................................... 26
8.6.3.1 Use of Examination Forms ........................................................................ 26
8.6.3.2 Recording Techniques ............................................................................... 26
8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Examination......................................................... 26

8.7.1 Advantages ............................................................................................................ 26
8.7.2
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 26
9.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDDY CURRENT TESTING EXAMINATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Learning Objectives
9.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
9.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
9.3 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 3
9.3.1 Electromagnetic Induction ........................................................................................... 4
9.3.2 Eddy Current Characteristics ....................................................................................... 4
9.3.2.1
Material Properties ................................................................................... 5
9.3.2.1.1
Conductivity ............................................................................................. 5
9.3.2.1.2
Permeability .............................................................................................. 6
9.3.2.1.3
Test Display of Material Property Variations........................................... 6
9.3.2.2
Frequency ................................................................................................. 6
9.3.2.3
Test Specimen Geometry.......................................................................... 7
9.3.2.4
Coil Design ............................................................................................... 7
9.3.2.4.1
Coil Coupling (Lift-Off) ........................................................................... 7
9.3.2.4.2
Edge Effect ............................................................................................... 8
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9.4 Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9.4.1
System Components ............................................................................................. 8
9.4.2
Data/Displays .................................................................................................... 10
9.4.2.1 Lift-Off Curves ....................................................................................... 10
9.4.2.2 Conductivity Curve................................................................................. 10
9.4.2.3 Thickness Curves .................................................................................... 10
9.4.2.4 Discontinuity Signal Display .................................................................. 11
9.4.3
Basic Coils
.................................................................................................... 12
9.4.3.1 Surface Coils........................................................................................... 12

9.4.3.2 Encircling Coils ...................................................................................... 12
9.4.3.3 Internal Coils .......................................................................................... 13
9.5
Techniques
.................................................................................................... 13
9.5.1 Impedance Plane Fundamentals ......................................................................... 13

9.5.2 Impedance Plane Response to Conductivity Variations ..................................... 13
9.5.3
Sorting .14
9.5.4
Discontinuities .................................................................................................... 14
9.5.4.1 Discontinuity Location in Installed Nonferrous Steam Generator
Heat Exchanger Tubing .......................................................................... 14
9.5.4.2 Calibration Procedure ............................................................................. 15
9.5.4.3 Probe Speed ............................................................................................ 16
9.5.5
Thickness
.................................................................................................... 16
9.5.5.1 Location of Secondary Layer Corrosion or Cracking ............................ 16
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9.5.6
Coatings
Table of Contents
.................................................................................................... 17
9.5.6.1 Variations in Thickness of Plating or Cladding...................................... 17

9.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements ................................................................................. 17
9.6.1 Written Procedure ............................................................................................... 17
9.6.2 Description of Method ........................................................................................ 17
9.6.3 Reference Specimen ........................................................................................... 18
9.6.4
Equipment Qualification..................................................................................... 18
9.6.5 Procedure Requirements ..................................................................................... 18

9.7 Advantages and Limitations of ET Examinations ................................................................ 18
9.7.1 Advantages
.................................................................................................... 18
9.7.2
.................................................................................................... 18
Limitations
*Tables and figures are listed in separate Table of Contents that are available for each chapter.
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Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1
Learning Objectives
1.1
Overview of Course .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Human Factors .................................................................................................................. 2

1.2.1 Examiner Errors .................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1.1 Technique Errors ...................................................................................... 2
1.2.1.2 Inadvertent Errors ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.1.3 Procedural Errors ...................................................................................... 4
1.2.1.4 Conscious Errors....................................................................................... 4
1.2.2
Environmental ...5
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Student Manual
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives:
Chapter 1.0
Introduction
Electro-Technical Commission (IEC) for

electrical standards. In the United States, the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is
the official member of the ISO and IEC.
To enable the student to:

1. Understand the importance of nondestructive
examination (NDE).
2. Identify the international interest in NDE.
3. Identify sources of errors that can occur.
1.1 Overview of Course
In the United States, there are 29 National

Standards organizations and hundreds of organizations worldwide. In addition, there are thousands of ISO and IEC standards committees and
subcommittees.
There are also dozens of governmental agencies that are concerned with the institution of
national and international standards.
It is of great importance that both individual

components
and
complete
engineering
assemblies and structures are free from
damaging defects and other possible causes of
premature failure. A whole series of examination
instruments and techniques have evolved over
the years and new methods are still being
developed to assist in the process of assessing the
integrity and reliability of parts and assemblies.
Nondestructive examination methods are widely
used in industry for checking the quality of
It takes time to develop adequate procedures

and standards for new instruments and new
technology. It takes even more time to obtain
universal agreement on these standards.
This manual provides basic background

information needed by students, NDE personnel,
and managers who want to study the most
commonly used NDE methods.
For control of NDE applications and procedural quality, international standards are being
continuously evolved and developed through two
major nongovernmental bodies, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), for nonelectrical standards, and the International
The field of NDE is more dynamic today than

ever before. Many of the major technical
societies, such as the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), the American
Society for Metals (ASM), the American Society
for Quality (ASQ), the American Welding
Society (AWS), and the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) are deeply
involved in nondestructive examination and are
leading the drive for better understanding
Because of the continuing changes taking

place, the information in this manual is for
reference purposes only. The information herein
should not be taken as authoritative over any
formally
issued
specification,
standard,
procedure, technique, or instruction.
11
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Student Manual
through
information
standardization.
Chapter 1.0
Introduction
dissemination
and
performed properly unless the examiner has been

trained and properly evaluated by written and
practical examinations.
1.2 Human Factors

1.2.1 Examiner Errors
Other causes are physical, such as color

blindness; lack of skill due to lack of natural
aptitude; or lack of basic education.
While regulatory agencies can write the most

detailed regulations and companies can devise
the most sophisticated quality programs and
procedures, it still remains that the actions of
individual examiners will ultimately determine
the success or failure of those programs. It is
the human factor that contributes to examiner
errors. These errors can have varying causes:
A good internal audit system is necessary to

evaluate examiners and to assure that these errors
are identified before serious problems occur.
Management must provide the examiner with
feedback. Without this feedback there will be
no change in performance.
Technique errors,
Inadvertent errors,
Procedural errors, and
Conscious errors.
Management should look at the most

successful examiners and find what trait makes
them superior performers.
These methods
should then be transferred to all examiners
through additional training or technology.
The various causes of examiner errors when

taken collectively show an accuracy of about 80
percent. This means that the average group of
examiners will find about 80 percent of flaws
while missing 20 percent. Worldwide studies
have shown this to be an accurate measure of
examiner reliability.
Where an examiners performance is due to

lack of ability, additional training may yield little
results.
Management can evaluate the
examination procedures to see if the procedures
can be simplified, or they can reassign the
examiner to a job equal to the individuals
capacity.
1.2.1.1 Technique Errors
The most effective means to assure that

examiners can perform required tasks is a formal
certification program. A complete certification
program should include:
There can be several categories addressed

under this topic but the most important is job
knowledge. Have the examiners been properly
trained to perform the required job? In NDE
there can be no guarantee that an examination is
12
Formal training program,
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Student Manual
Detailed written and practical (demonstration

on controlled test samples) examinations,
Documentation attesting to the training and

examinations,
Periodic renewal of the certification, and
A strong internal audit program to assure

performance.
1.2.1.2 Inadvertent Errors

The majority of examiners want to give
superior performance, not make errors.
However, no matter how well trained or how
well intentioned the examiner is, there will be
inadvertent errors. The human factor does not
allow for perfection.
It is widely assumed and believed by many
that 100 percent examination means 100 percent
of the discontinuities will be found.
As
indicated in Section 1.2.1, studies show that
examiners only find about 80 percent of the
discontinuities.
One example that demonstrates examination
fallibility follows:
Federal fuses are the results of years of
scientific study combined with the
experience of years.
The sentence is flashed before an audience
for 30 seconds to a minute. Each member is
asked to count and record the number of times
the letter F appears. When the results are
tallied, only about 80 percent have been found.
The existence of such an extensive error rate has
Chapter 1.0
Introduction
stimulated many studies to determine why and

to reduce this error rate. To date there have not
been conclusive answers.
Since we do not know conclusively how to
prevent these errors, quality programs have
attempted to build in remedies. These remedies
include:
Automation - Much of the repetitive errors
can be eliminated by automation. Once an
instrument is set up and calibrated properly, it
will not produce inadvertent errors. Many of
the nondestructive examinations now performed,
particularly ultrasonics and eddy current, use
some type of computer for data acquisition
and/or evaluation.
Checklists - Detailed checklists can be used
to assure all examination steps are accomplished.
An example is the checklist used by a receipt
examiner to check an incoming shipment. The
checklist would identify all the steps to follow to
assure the order meets the requirements of the
purchase order.
Comparison Standards - Comparison standards are actual acceptable production pieces
used for comparison with other production parts.
Templates - Templates placed on a part
being examined will immediately call the
examiners attention to a missing part, hole, etc.
Overlays - These are visual aids in the form
of transparent sheets that can be marked and
placed over the item being examined.
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Student Manual
Templates are commonly used in radiography to

lay out discontinuities or possible surface
conditions. The examiner can then take the
overlay and place it on a weld or casting and
determine if an indication is surface or internal.
Product Design - Designers and engineers
must be aware of what kind of final examination
a product will require. If radiography is
required, the examiner must have access to both
sides of an object. If ultrasonic is required,
materials and geometry are factors.
Examination Aids - The use of optical
magnifiers and other devices that magnify and
enhance a part help eliminate errors.
Work Schedule - If an examiner is fatigued,
the individual will not be able to maintain
concentration for long periods. This can present
both an examination problem and a safety
problem. It may be useful to reorganize the
work, allow for rest periods, rotate examination
activities, or enlarge the job scope to give a wider
assortment of tasks.
1.2.1.3 Procedural Errors
Some errors affecting quality may be
inadvertent errors caused by persons other than
the examination group.
Parts may be
inadvertently put in the shipping area or a release
area before an examination is performed. This
error can be eliminated by assuring that all levels
of the organization are aware of the quality
program and that an adequate marking system
for parts is implemented and understood by all
Chapter 1.0
Introduction
personnel.
1.2.1.4 Conscious Errors
Errors of this type are consciously and
knowingly committed by an individual. Such
errors may be shortcuts or deciding certain
procedural steps are not required or add
nothing to the process. These errors may be by
a manager, examiner, or both. While errors of
this type are committed by examiners, they are
more commonly traceable to managers and
engineers.
Conflicting Management Policies Management may write an extensive quality
program and state they are committed to quality,
but their actions indicate that cost and delivery
schedule are the real priority. Most examiners
quickly learn the real priorities within a company
and act accordingly.
Failure to Enforce Quality Requirements If management consistently fails to enforce
quality requirements and accepts nonconforming
materials as accept-as-is, examiners will stop
reporting the conditions which could potentially
lead to more serious oversights.
Failure to Act - If management does not
respond to examiners suggestions or
complaints, they will stop raising issues and try
to do their best with potentially defective
equipment or deficient information.
Management Fraud - In some incidents a
manager may attempt to deceive customers or
14
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Student Manual
Chapter 1.0
Introduction
regulators with fictitious quality records. This

usually requires the manager and examiner to
work together.
have shown examiners tend to reject more good

products than accept bad products. Conscious
errors can be controlled with the following:
Examiner Fraud - For numerous reasons,

including undue supervisory coercion, financial
gain, relationships with production personnel
requesting a break, or just being lazy, many
examiners have been influenced to look the other
way. The solution is to use personnel of high
integrity and have decisive follow-up on internal
audit findings should this type of activity be
uncovered.
Strong management support for quality program,
Training,
Certification, and
An internal audit program.
Examiner Shortcuts - As discussed earlier,

the examiner may decide that a certain
procedural step can be skipped without causing a
problem. The examiner may not understand the
importance of the step to the overall process and
must not make such independent decisions.
Flinching - Examiners occasionally face
borderline examinations.
For example, an
indication or measurement may be just over or
under tolerance. An examiner may think a
measurement is close enough. However, an
examiner must only accept conditions within
drawing or specification tolerance. Acceptance
of out-of-tolerance condi-tions must be approved
by an engineer and the customer.
Measures of Examiner Accuracy - Because
of the collective effect of examiner errors, it is
critical to monitor examination activities.
Accepting rejected items or rejecting acceptable
items can be a costly and potentially hazardous
problem. It should be noted that many studies
1.2.2
Environmental
The environment in which an examiner must

work can have an impact on the accuracy of
examinations, particularly inadvertent examiner
errors. If the examiner becomes distracted with
concerns for personal safety, examination
accuracy will decrease.
Examples of
unsatisfactory environments are:
Confined spaces,
High temperatures,
Heights, and
Radiation areas.
The types and amounts of protective clothing

required affect the examiners attention.
Working in full protective clothing, including
supplied air, is a high stress and high fatigue
environment.
The effects of the environment on the
examiner and human attention cannot be
completely eliminated; therefore, the preferred
solution is to reduce dependence on the examiner
in these environments.
The unsatisfactory
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Student Manual
Chapter 1.0
Introduction
environmental condition should be engineered,

or remote examination techniques should be
employed. This is the joint responsibility of
management, engineering, and examination
personnel.
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Volume 1
Chapter 2.0
Personnel Qualification and Certification
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.0 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION ...................................................... 1

Learning Objectives
2.1 Qualification vs. Certification .......................................................................................... 1
2.2 Employer-Based Certification vs. Centralized Certification ............................................ 1
2.3 Employer-Based Certification .......................................................................................... 2
2.3.1
SNT-TC-1A .................................................................................................... 2
2.3.1.1 Benefits of SNT-TC-1A ..................................................................... 3
2.3.1.2 Limitations of SNT-TC-1A ................................................................ 4
2.3.1.3 Terminology ....................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 ASNT Certification Standard (ANSI/ASNT CP-189).................................... 6

2.3.3 Qualification of Personnel for Visual Examination ....................................... 8
2.3.4 Qualification Requirements for Ultrasonic Examination Personnel .............. 9
2.4 ISO 9712 Central Certification ......................................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Term of Certification .................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Renewal
2.4.3
.................................................................................................... 11
Recertification .............................................................................................. 11
2.5 ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP) ............................................................... 11

2.6 AWS Certification of Welding Inspectors (CWI) .......................................................... 11
2.7 Supplemental Qualification Requirements ..................................................................... 12
LIST OF TABLES
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2-1 Training Hours ............................................................................................................................... 13

2-2 Recommended Experience Time ...15
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2.0 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION

CERTIFICATION
Chapter 2.0
qualifications and meets some minimum standard

of education, training, and experience.
AND
A number of certification systems have been

developed for use by U.S. industries. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
has developed several systems for the certification
of NDE personnel. The American Welding
Society has also developed a system of certifying
individuals involved in the examination of welds.
Other organizations have developed certification
systems that are tailored to meet their specific
needs.
1. Understand the differences between centralized certification and employer-based certification.
2. Understand the requirements of various NDE
certification programs, including common U.S.
based systems and international systems.
Those certification systems have certain

common features. They include:
3. Identify the salient features of the Nuclear

Power Industry Performance Demonstration
Initiative.
Prescribed minimum levels of formal education,
2.1 Qualification vs. Certification
Prescribed minimum levels of formal training

for each of the NDE methods,
NDE is a discipline that requires formal

training and on-the-job experience to develop an
individual that is capable of properly performing
the examination and obtaining meaningful results.
Users of NDE services need assurance that the
individual performing NDE has the qualifications
necessary to detect the conditions of interest in a
predictable, consistent manner.
Prescribed minimum levels of experience, and
Some form of examination or demonstration of

proficiency.
2.2 Employer-Based Certification vs. Centralized Certification

There is some discord in industry regarding
employer-based certification versus centralized
certification.
ASNT has developed an
employer-based system for the certification of
NDE personnel. Each employer is responsible for
the certification of their NDE personnel in
accordance with their own procedure, which is
based on SNT-TC-1A or CP-189.
The certification system has been adopted by

industry to provide that assurance. Certification
is not to be confused with qualification.
Qualification is the ability of an individual
resulting from education, training, and experience
to perform an NDE correctly. Certification is
written testimony that the individual has the proper
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Chapter 2.0
The Europeans have a different philosophy and

have developed centralized certification programs
where the NDE technician is certified by a
National Certifying Body (NCB).
2.3.1 SNT-TC-1A
SNT-TC-1A is a document that provides
recommendations for the qualification and certification of NDE personnel. SNT-TC-1A was first
published in 1967 and has been revised over the
years to address the changing needs of industry.
This recommended practice provides a framework
for each employer to develop his own procedure or
Written Practice for the qualification and
certification of NDE personnel within his organization.
The employer-based certification system is

typically tailored to meet a companys specific
needs. That is, the certification can be job or
product specific. The certification is only valid as
long as the individual is employed by that company.
Each of the centralized certification systems
have standardized requirements for certification.
Compared to employer-based certification systems, the centralized certification systems may
require the candidate to have more formal training
and experience. The centralized certification
systems require the individual to have a thorough
understanding of the NDE method and broad based
experience. The benefit for the NDE technician is
that the certification is issued by a recognized body
or organization (e.g., NCB).
Centralized
certification allows the individual to carry the
certification to a new company when changing
employers.
The employer is permitted to modify the

recommendations of SNT-TC-1A.
The
employers Written Practice describes in detail
how the employer provides for the qualification
and certification of their NDE personnel. The
Written Practice is the key element to the
employer-based certification system.
Each company must have a Written Practice
that is unique to its organization; therefore, it is
important that the companys Written Practice be
reviewed in advance. Some companies that
provide NDE services have very sound
qualification and certification programs. A great
deal of effort is expended for training and
upgrading of its personnel. Other companies may
have limited resources and minimize the efforts
expended for the certification of their employees.
A thorough review of each companys Written
Practice is a primary way of determining the
strength of a companys commitment to providing
adequate training, qualification, and certification
for their NDE personnel.
2.3 Employer-Based Certification

Two ASNT certification systems are
employer-based and used by U.S. companies that
are involved with commercial nuclear reactors and
power plants. These systems are the ASNT
Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A and the
ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification
of Nondestructive Testing Personnel CP-189.
These documents are referenced in various ASME
Code sections.
SNT-TC-1A describes three categories of

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Chapter 2.0
and product technology to establish techniques and

to assist in establishing acceptance criteria when
none are otherwise available. The NDE Level III
should have a general familiarity with other
appropriate NDE methods, as demonstrated by the
ASNT Level III basic examination or other means.
The NDE Level III, in the methods in which
certified, should be capable of training and
examining NDE Level I and II personnel for
certification in those methods.
qualification for individuals engaged in NDE.

Level I - An NDE Level I individual has met
the minimum requirements (i.e., formal training
and experience) for Level I certification. A Level
I individual should be qualified to properly
perform specific calibrations, specific NDE, and
specific evaluations for acceptance or rejection
determinations according to written instructions
and to record the results. The Level I should
receive guidance from a certified Level II or III
individual.
It should be noted that the trainee is described as an individual who is in the process of
being trained, qualified, and certified.
Level II - An NDE Level II individual should

be qualified to set up and calibrate equipment and
to interpret and evaluate results with respect to
applicable codes, standards, and specifications.
The NDE Level II should be thoroughly familiar
with the scope and limitations of the methods for
which he/she is qualified and should exercise
assigned responsibility for on-the-job training and
guidance of trainees and NDE Level I personnel.
The NDE Level II should be able to organize and
report the results of NDE.
Level I, II and III personnel must be recertified

periodically depending on the code edition and
specification.
SNT-TC-1A 2001 or earlier
requires Level I and II technicians to recertify
every three years and level III technicians to
recertify every five years. The 2006 edition
allows for all to recertify at five year intervals.
SNT-TC-1A has served as the foundation for a
number of other certification schemes. CP-189,
NAS-410, MIL-STD-410, and others use the same
descriptors for levels of certifications.
Level III - An NDE Level III individual should

be capable of developing, qualifying, and
approving procedures, establishing and approving
techniques; interpreting codes, standards, specifications, and procedures; and designating the
particular NDE methods, techniques, and procedures to be used. The NDE Level III should be
responsible for the NDE operations for which
qualified and assigned and should be capable of
interpreting and evaluating results in terms of
existing codes, standards, and specifications. The
NDE Level III should have sufficient practical
background in applicable materials, fabrication,
2.3.1.1 Benefits of SNT-TC-1A

SNT-TC-1A offers industry a number of
benefits. The significant benefits include:
23
It requires employers to analyze their

position on certification and the
documentation of their program.
Through the Written Practice, the
employer has an implied responsibility
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Student Manual
Chapter 2.0
to train and formally examine NDE

personnel.
Since SNT-TC-1A is an employer-based

certification system, the individuals certifications
are terminated upon leaving the company.
It implies customer responsibility to

review and evaluate the Written
Practice to ensure its adequacy with
respect to the Terms and Conditions
It provides a basic certification

approach that can be referenced in
contracts or purchase orders.
It is the new employers responsibility to

recertify new personnel. This can be an expensive
undertaking for a small company that may employ
NDE personnel on a short-term contract basis.
If the qualification concept is followed,

it will result in significant training
activity and personnel development in
preparation for certification.
The certification process entails several key

steps. An outline of the certification process is as
follows:
It offers the employer the flexibility to

modify (i.e., by either increasing or
reducing) the certification requirements
to meet specific needs.
The employer must develop a Written Practice

for the qualification and certification of NDE
personnel.
The employer must verify that the candidate

has met the education, training, and experience
for the specific method for which certification
is sought.
The candidate must be tested to verify that the

knowledge and skills required for certification
exist. This is a multistep process consisting of
the following tests:
2.3.1.2 Limitations of SNT-TC-1A

SNT-TC-1A is a recommended practice. As
such, an employer can apply the recommendations
of SNT-TC-1A in its entirety, or increase/reduce
the recommendations to suit the companys
purpose.
- General knowledge of the examination

method,
- Specific knowledge of the method as applied
to the specific products,
- Practical application of the examination
method (e.g., hands-on demonstration),
- Vision test to verify that the candidate meets
the physical requirements of the job, this
includes an annual near vision test and color
vision tests every five years.
The result is that most companies have different Written Practices for the certification of their
NDE personnel. This can cause difficulties for
organizations that purchase NDE services and
requires careful evaluation by the purchaser.
The Written Practice is key in determining the
level of competency of the personnel performing
NDE. Unfortunately, many companies that require the services of an NDE provider do not
adequately review the Written Practice and personnel documentation to determine if the companys needs will be met.
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Chapter 2.0
A review of the definitions of each certified

level indicates that the Level III individual is
responsible for the administration of the NDE
program within a company. Therefore, the
strength of the companys NDE program is
greatly dependent on the competency of the
Level III.
certify their own NDE Level III personnel.

ASNT does not certify the individual under the
SNT-TC-1A system.
SNT-TC-1A permits a Level III to be

certified in one of the following ways:
SNT-TC-1A
recommends
certain
documentation be maintained for each certified
individual.
This documentation should be
available for review by their customers or
agencies. Therefore, it is essential that a
thorough customer review of the Written
Practice, certification records, and the supporting
qualification data be completed. SNT-TC-1A
recommends the maintenance of the following
for each certified employee:
Examination - An employer can develop

and administer the Level III tests.
The
questions must be approved by a qualified
person.
Outside agency - An employer can contract
with an independent outside agency that would
develop and administer the tests.
A complete review of the certification documentation for each individual to provide NDE
services is essential.
Name of the certified individual,
ASNT - The employer can accept the results

of ASNT administered tests as totally or partially
satisfying test requirements as defined on the
companys Written Practice.
Level of certification and NDE method,
Educational background and experience,
Grandfathering - For a six month period

from September 1976 to February 1977,
applications for Level III grandfathering were
accepted by ASNT. (Over 700 individuals were
granted an ASNT Level III certificate through
this process).
Statement of satisfactory completion of

training in accordance with the employers
Written Practice,
Results of vision tests,
Current test copies or evidence of successful

completion of examinations,
Other suitable evidence of satisfactory

qualifications,
Examination grades or a written statement

where tests were administered by an outside
agency or ASNT,
Dates of certification and/or recertification,

and dates of assignment to NDE, and
Signature of the employers certifying

authority.
The ASNT Level III certificate offers wider

recognition and a degree of portability. Still, it
must be understood that each employer must
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Student Manual
Chapter 2.0
Certification expiration date.

Signature of the Level III that verified
the qualification of the candidate for
certification.
The employer-based system of certification
has been in use for many years.
The
effectiveness of the certification is only as
good as the companys commitment to the NDE
program.
salary, fees, or other considerations.
Experience is the work activities

accomplished in a specific NDT method
under the direction of qualified supervision
including the performance of the NDT
method and related activities but not
including time spent in organized training
programs.
Limited Certification is the restriction of a

method to a technique or a subdivided
method that meets the employers use of a
limited scope of a particular NDE method.
Outside Agency is a company or individual

who provides NDE Level III services and
whose qualifications to provide these
services have been reviewed by the employer
engaging the company or individual.
Qualification is demonstrated skill, demonstrated knowledge, documented training, and

documented experience required for
personnel to properly perform a specific
NDE method.
Recommended Practice is a set of guidelines

to assist the employer in developing uniform
procedures for the qualification and
certification of NDE personnel to satisfy the
employers specific requirements.
Training is the organized program developed

to impart the knowledge and skills necessary
for qualification.
Written Practice is the document which provides guidelines for the establishment of a
qualification and certification program.
2.3.1.3 Terminology
SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition) includes a glossary of terms relating to the certification process
that has been adopted by the NDE industry.
Some of the common terminology is defined as
follows:
Certification is
qualification.
Certifying Authority is the person or persons

properly designated in the Written Practice to
sign certifications on behalf of the employer.
written
testimony
of
Certifying Agency is the employer of the

individual being certified.
Closed-book examination is an examination

administered without access to reference
material, except for materials supplied with
or in the examination.
Comparable is being at an equivalent or

similar level of NDT responsibility and
difficulty as determined by the employers
Level III.
Documented is the condition of being in

written form.
Employer is the corporate, private, or public

entity which employs personnel for wages,
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2.3.2 ASNT Standard for Qualification and

Certification of NDE Personnel
(ANSI/ASNT CP-189)
Since SNT-TC-1A is a recommended
practice or a set of guidelines, the variability in
companys written practices has been a major
problem. ANSI/ASNT CP-189 is a national
consensus standard that addresses the uniformity
missing in employer based certification
programs.
CP-189 is based on SNT-TC-1A, however
CP-189 stipulates the minimum requirements of
a certification Program. It establishes minimum
requirements for education, training, experience,
and examinations that must be met to be
considered for certification.
The employer is required to have a
certification procedure that must meet the
minimum requirements for training, experience,
documentation, tests etc. as prescribed in
CP-189. The employer cannot deviate from the
minimum certification requirements as was
permitted under SNT-TC-1A.
The standard describes five levels of
qualification instead of three. The five levels
are:
Trainee,
Level I,
Level II,
Level III, and
NDE Instructor.
Chapter 2.0
The descriptions and responsibilities of the

Trainee, Level I, Level II, and Level III are
similar to those contained in SNT-TC-1A.
NDE training must be provided by a
qualified instructor. One requirement for the
instructor includes a current ASNT Level III
certificate in the method being instructed. If the
instructor does not have an ASNT Level III
certificate, then a four year degree in
engineering, science, or technology, and an
adequate knowledge of the method being taught
is acceptable. If the instructor has a two year
degree in engineering, science, or technology
and five or more years of experience as a Level II
or equivalent is required. An individual with a
high school diploma must have at least ten years
NDE experience as a Level II or equivalent in the
method being taught.
The certification and supporting documentation requirements closely parallels those of
SNT-TC-1A.
Also, like SNT-TC-1A, an individuals
certification is terminated when employment is
terminated and may also be terminated for cause.
Level I, II and III NDE personnel must be
recertified every five years.
CP-189
offers
the
industry
an
employer-based certification standard that
addresses many of the perceived weaknesses of
SNT-TC-1A.
CP-189 requires each employer to have a
Level III that holds a valid ASNT Level III
certificate. The services of an outside agency
may be retained to provide Level III Services if
27
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the employer does not have an on-staff ASNT

Level III certificate holder.
Section V of the 2007 Edition with 2008
Addenda of the ASME Code requires that NDE
personnel be qualified in accordance with either
the 2006 Edition of SNT-TC-1A, or the 2006
Edition of ANSI/ASNT CP-189, or ASNT
ACCP. It further states that qualifications in
accordance with an earlier edition of
SNT-TC-1A, CP-189 or ACCP be considered
valid until the individual is recertified. The
recertification must be in compliance with SNT
-TC-1A (2006), CP-189 (2006) or ACCP.
Section XI of the 2007 Edition of the ASME
Code requires each employer to prepare a written
practice (or certification procedure) in
accordance with CP-189 1995. It also requires
that personnel performing NDE be qualified and
certified using that written practice, which is in
accordance with CP-189. It permits existing
certifications based on earlier editions of CP-189
to remain valid until recertification, which must
then be in accordance with the 1995 Edition of
CP-189.
Section XI amends two provisions in CP-189
as follows:
1. Levels I and II are required to be recertified
every five (5) years in lieu of the three (3)
years specified in CP-189. The Level III
recertification is at five (5) years intervals as
required in CP-189.
2. CP-189 requires the possession of a Level III
certificate issued by ASNT, as a prerequisite
to employer Level III recertification.
Chapter 2.0
Section XI waives this prerequisite, thereby

permitting Level III qualification to be
through the employer examination process or
by ASNT examination. Also, the employer
has the option of using an outside agency to
administer the examinations.
2.3.3
Qualification of Personnel for Visual

Examination
Section XI also requires compliance to

Appendix VI for the training, qualification, and
certification of visual examination personnel.
This mandatory appendix requires the
preparation of a written practice in accordance
with ANSI/ASNT CP-189 with the following
specific and/or additional requirements:
1. Experience as specifically defined for the
VT-1, VT-2, and VT-3 categories (reference
Appendix VI-4110 of Section XI).
2. Specific subjects must be included in the VT
training program (reference Appendix VI
Supplement 1 of Section XI).
3. Examinations for Level I, II, and III
personnel must be approved, administered,
and graded by a Level III.
4. A passing grade of 80% is required for each
examination rather than the minimum of 70%
permitted by CP-189.
5. If an examination is failed, the candidate
must receive additional training as
determined by the Level III.
The
examination questions to be used for the
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Chapter 2.0
reexamination must contain at least 30% new

or reworded questions.
The practical or Demonstration Examination
test specimens set must contain at least 50%
different flaws than those use on the
examination that was failed.
These additional or supplemental
requirements contained in Article VI must be
reflected in the employers written practice.
2.3.4
Qualification
Requirements
for
Ultrasonic Examination Personnel
Section XI contains a mandatory Appendix

(VII) for the qualification of Ultrasonic
Examination personnel. This appendix contains
additional or supplemental requirements to those
in CP-189 including:
1. Minimum hours of experience as defined in
Table VII-4110 are greater than those
required by CP-189, for all three levels.
2. Detailed experience records must be maintained by the employer and a Level III is
responsible for reviewing the documentation
to determine if it meets the employers
written practice requirements.
3. The NDE instructor must have completed a
40-hour course in training and teaching techniques, or have a current certificate for
teaching/instructing.
5. Table VII-4220-1 contains details regarding

initial training which includes:
Level
I
II
III
Laboratory
40 hrs
40 hrs
0
6. A grade of 70% is necessary to receive credit

for the training unless a qualification
examination is given at the conclusion of the
training.
7. If the course examination is failed, additional
training in those areas of weakness, as
identified in the examination, must be
administered.
8. There is also a ten (10) hour (minimum)
supplemental training requirement that must
be given annually.
9. Requirements for examination questions and
test specimens for the Practical Examination
are extensive and are detailed in VII-4310.
Level I and II qualification examinations are
described in VII-4320 and, Level III
Qualifications are contained in VII-4330.
Appendix VIII contains the requirements for
Ultrasonic Examination system performance
demonstration.
2.4
ISO 9712 Central Certification
An internationally recognized standard for

centralized certification is ISO 9712,
Nondestructive TestingQualification and
4. Specific training course subjects are

contained in Supplement 1 to appendix VII.
Classroom
40 hrs
40 hrs
40 rs
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Certification of Personnel. This international

standard establishes a system for the
qualification and certification of personnel that
are engaged in industrial NDE.
This
standard provides for the certification of
individuals through a central independent body
that is referred to as the Certification Body
(CB).
The system employs test centers to
administer tests for certification. This is in
contrast to employer-based certification where
each employer administers his own
certification tests. The concept of centralized
certification standardizes the requirements for
the qualification and certification of the NDE
personnel. It affords a greater degree of
transportability of an individuals NDE
credentials.
The CB is described as the agency that
complies with EN45013, and administers procedures for certification of NDE personnel in
accordance with the requirements of ISO 9712.
The requirements that are needed in order to be a
CB include the following:
It must be a non-profit organization.
It shall have no direct involvement in training

of NDE personnel.
It must be recognized by the NDT

community or the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) member body of
the country concerned.
It must initiate, maintain, and promote the

national certification scheme.
It will administer the procedures for

certification.
Chapter 2.0
It will have a stringent code of ethics.
It will be ultimately responsible for the

certification scheme, including technical and
administration requirements.
It will approve examination centers and

monitor them on a periodic basis.
It will be responsible for and maintain all

appropriate records.
Examination Centers
following requirements:
must
meet
the
Established by the CB;
Adequate qualified staff, facilities, and

equipment;
Use only examinations and documents

established and/or approved by the CB; and
Use only specimens prepared or approved by

the CB for the practical examinations.
The program does not require the employer

to have a written practice or procedures
describing the system of qualification and
certification. The fact that a company endorses
the ISO program includes all the requirements
stipulated by ISO 9712.
The training requirements included in ISO
9712 are somewhat different then those of
SNT-TC-1A and CP-189. Table 2-1 compares
the training stipulated in SNT-TC-1A, CP-189,
and ISO 9712 programs.
Likewise, the experience requirements of
ISO 9712 differ from those of either SNT-TC-1A
or CP-189. The experience requirements are
reduced if the candidate has earned a degree in
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NDE from a college or university. Table 2-2

compares the experience stipulated in the three
programs.
2.4.1 Terms of Certifications
All ISO 9712 certifications are valid for a
period of five years. The certifications are
terminated if:
The individual moves on to a different
industrial sector (e.g. shipbuilding to
petrochemical);
Unethical behavior is found
A physical disability occurs
A physical disability that prevents the

certified individual from performing
work activities
The individual fails to meet the visual

acuity requirements.
The individual experiences a significant

interruption in examination performance.
2.4.2 Renewal
Certification can be renewed for a second
five year term when there is evidence of:
Satisfactory vision test every twelve
months and;
Continued satisfactory work activity

without significant interruption.
2.4.3 Recertification
Recertification is required on the tenth
anniversary. Recertification is accomplished by
the satisfactory completion of a simplified
written test (Level III) or a practical test (Level
I and II.)
The examination consists of;
Chapter 2.0
2.5
ASNT Central Certification Program
(ACCP)
ACCP builds upon the existing ASNT Level
III certification program. In addition to passing
the ASNT administered written tests; the Level
III candidate also must pass a hands-on Level II
demonstration of proficiency and a written
procedure preparation examination.
The ACCP provides a transportable
certification and ultimately will provide central
certification for Level I, Level II, and Level III
NDE personnel.
Examination centers will be approved and
located to support the program geographically.
The certifications will be industry specific
and recertification will be required when
working in a different industry sector.
2.6 AWS Certification of Welding Inspectors
(CWI)
The American Welding Society has a central
certification program for the certification of
welding inspectors. The program is the QC-1,
Standard for AWS Certification of Welding
Inspectors.
The program requires the candidate to
provide documented evidence of visual welding
inspection or related work experience, and it
requires the successful completion of a three part
examination.
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Specificcode interpretation written and;

Practicalhands on demonstration of visual
inspection of test samples
There are three levels of certification
Certified Associate Welding Inspector

(CAWI)
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Senior Certified Welding Inspector (SCWI).
The QC-1 program offers a certification

scheme that is independent of the employer and
is, therefore, completely portable.
The certification must be renewed every
three years by providing documented evidence of
continued examination or related activities.
Every nine years, recertification is by testing.
Chapter 2.0
Visual examiners must also meet the supplement requirements of Appendix VI that describes
the supplemental requirements for the qualification and certification of Visual Examination
Personnel.
Note that the ASME differentiates between
inspection and examination. Inspections are
performed by Authorized Inspectors and
Owners Representatives. Examinations and
tests are performed by the manufacturer (e.g.,
fabricators, installers, etc).
Therefore, the
ASME refers to NDE rather than nondestructive
testing (NDT).
2.7 Supplemental Qualification Requirements

The power utility industry has adopted
supplemental programs for the qualification and
certification of Visual Examinations and
Ultrasonic Examination personnel.
The
requirements of these programs are contained in
Appendix VII (UT) and Appendix VI (VT) of
Section XI of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code.
As discussed in 2.3.3, Section XI requires
NDE personnel to be qualified and certified in
accordance with the requirements of CP-189.
Individuals engaged in ultrasonic examination
must also meet the requirements of Appendix
VII that describes the supplemental requirements
for the qualification and certification of
Ultrasonic NDE personnel.
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Chapter 2.0
Table 2-1 Training Hours1

SNT-TC-1A, 20062
CP-189-20063
ISO 97124
Eddy Current Examination

Level I
40
40
40
Level II
40
40
40
Penetrant Examination
Level I
16
Level II
24
Magnetic Particle Examination

Level I
12
12
16
Level II
24
Radiographic Examination
Level I
40
40
40
Level II
40
40
80
Ultrasonic Examination
Level I
40
40
40
Level II
40
40
80
NOTES:
1. Recommended for high school graduate.
2. Training for Level III personnel not specified in SNT-TC-IA.
3. CP-189 training for Level III personnel is considered satisfied by the possession of an
ASNT Level III certificate.
4. ISO 9712 does not specify training hours for a Level III.
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Chapter 2.0
Table 2-2. Recommended Experience Time

SNT-TC-1A, 2006
CP-189-2006
ISO 9712-92
Hours/Months
Hours
Months
Eddy Current Examination

Level I
210*/400**
210*/400**
Level II
630*/1200**
630*/1200**
Level III
***
***
***
Level I
70*/130**
70*/130**
Level II
140*/270**
140*/270**
Level III
***
***
***
Magnetic Particle Examination

Level I
70*/130**
70*/130**
Level II
210*/210**
210*/400**
Level III
***
***
***
Level I
210*/400**
210*/400**
Level II
630*/1200**
630*/1200**
Level III
***
***
***
Level I
210*/400**
200*/400**
Level II
840*/1200**
630*/1200**
Level III
***
***
***
*Minimum Hours in Method

**Total Hours in NDT
***The level III experience requirements vary significantly for the three documents. Refer
to the individual documents for specific requirements.
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Volume 1
Chapter 3.0
Classification and Interpretation of Indications
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.0 CLASSIFICATION AND INTERPRETATION OF INDICATIONS ........................................... 1

Learning Objectives
3.1 Indications 1
3.2 False Indications ........................................................................................................................ 1
3.2.1
Penetrant Examination ............................................................................................. 1
3.2.2
Magnetic Particle Examination ............................................................................... 2
3.2.3
Radiographic Examination ...................................................................................... 2
3.2.4
Ultrasonic/Eddy Current Examination .................................................................... 2
3.2.5
Summary of False Indications ................................................................................. 2
3.3 Nonrelevant Indications ............................................................................................................. 3

3.3.1
Penetrant Examination ............................................................................................. 3
3.3.2
Magnetic Particle Examination ............................................................................... 3
3.3.3
Radiographic Examination ...................................................................................... 4
3.3.4 Ultrasonic Examination ........................................................................................... 4

3.3.5
Eddy Current Examination ...................................................................................... 4
3.3.6
Summary of Nonrelevant Indications ...................................................................... 5
3.4 True Discontinuities .................................................................................................................. 5

3.4.1
Inherent Discontinuities ........................................................................................... 5
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Table of Contents
3.4.1.1 Inclusions ........................................................................................................... 5

3.4.1.2 Laminations ....................................................................................................... 5
3.4.1.3
Pipe .............................................................................................................. 5
3.4.1.4 Seams ................................................................................................................. 5
3.4.2 Primary Processing Discontinuities ......................................................................... 6
3.4.2.1 Casting ............................................................................................................... 6
3.4.2.1.1 Casting Processes ........................................................................................ 6
3.4.2.1.2 Casting Discontinuities ................................................................................ 7
3.4.2.2 Forging............................................................................................................... 9
3.4.2.2.1 Forging Processes ........................................................................................ 9
3.4.2.2.2 Forging Discontinuities ............................................................................... 9
3.4.2.3 Rolling ............................................................................................................. 10
3.4.2.3.1 Rolling Process .......................................................................................... 10
3.4.2.3.2 Rolling Discontinuities .............................................................................. 10
3.4.2.4
Extruding ................................................................................................... 10
3.4.3 Secondary Processing Discontinuities ................................................................... 10
3.4.3.1 Tears (Machining) ........................................................................................... 11
3.4.3.2 Heat Treating Cracks ....................................................................................... 11
3.4.3.3 Grinding Cracks ............................................................................................... 11
3.4.3.4 Forming Cracks ............................................................................................... 11
3.4.4 Service Discontinuities .......................................................................................... 11
3.4.4.1 Corrosion ......................................................................................................... 11
3.4.4.2 Stress Corrosion ............................................................................................... 12
3.4.4.3 Microbiological Corrosion .............................................................................. 12
3.4.4.4 Intergranular Corrosion ................................................................................... 12
3.4.4.5
Fatigue ....................................................................................................... 12
3.4.4.6 Wear................................................................................................................. 12
3.4.5 Weld Discontinuities ............................................................................................. 13
3.4.5.1 Cracks .............................................................................................................. 13
3.4.5.2
Longitudinal Cracks .................................................................................. 13
3.4.5.3 Transverse Cracks............................................................................................ 14
3.4.5.4 Crater Cracks ................................................................................................... 14
3.4.5.5
Porosity ...................................................................................................... 14
3.4.5.6 Inclusions ......................................................................................................... 14
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3.4.5.7 Undercut .......................................................................................................... 15

3.4.5.8 Burn Through .................................................................................................. 15
3.4.5.9 Concavity ......................................................................................................... 15
3.5 Summary of True Discontinuities............................................................................................ 15
3.5.1 Defects ................................................................................................................... 15
3.5.2
Repair Considerations............................................................................................ 18
3.6 Interpretation Summary ........................................................................................................... 16
LIST OF FIGURES
3-1 Inclusions in Ingot17
3-2
Stringers
...18
3-3 Laminations in Rolled Products .................................................................................................... 19
3-4 Piping
in
Ingot...20
3-5 Shrink Cracks and Hot Tears ......................................................................................................... 21
3-6 Forging
Bursts22
3-7
Forging
Burst
in
Head
of
Bolt.23
3-8 Machining
Tears.24
3-9 Quenching Cracks.................................................................................................................. 25
3-10 Grinding Crac.s ........................................................................................................................ 26
3-11 Longitudinal Crack .................................................................................................................. 27
3-12 Transverse Crack ..................................................................................................................... 28
3-13 Crater Cracks ......................................................................................................................... 29
3-14 Isolated Porosity ...................................................................................................................... 30
3-15 Uniform Scattered Porosity ..................................................................................................... 31
3-16 Clustered Porosity.................................................................................................................... 32
3-17 Linear or Aligned Porosity ...................................................................................................... 33
3-18 Piping Porosity ........................................................................................................................ 34
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3-19
3-20
3-21
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Table of Contents
Slag Inclusion ......................................................................................................................... 35

Undercut ............................................................................................................................... 36
Burn Through/Convexity......................................................................................................... 37
CLASSIFICATION AND
INTERPRETATION OF
INDICATIONS
A bleed out when performing a Penetrant

Examination (PT),
A particle buildup when performing a

Magnetic Particle Examination (MT),
A change in density on the radiographic

film - Radiographic Examination (RT),
A signal when performing Ultrasonic
Examination (UT), and
1. Understand and recognize common false

and nonrelevant indications found when
NDE is being performed.
A meter deflection, signal, or digital

change when performing Eddy Current
Examination (ET).
2. Understand the different classifications of

discontinuities.
Once the response is observed, the examiner

must interpret it, and then categorize it into one
of the following groups of indications:
3. Understand the origin and nature of

common discontinuities.
4. Recognize the appearance of common
discontinuities and the variables involved
with interpretation.
False,
Nonrelevant, or
Relevant or true discontinuity.
This section provides information that will

enable an examiner or observer to identify and
categorize indications.
3.1 Indications
The definition of the term indication as it
applies to NDE is: A response or evidence of a
response disclosed through NDE that requires
further evaluation to determine its true significance.
3.2 False Indications

False indications are usually caused by
conditions created by improper compliance
with the procedure or through the examiners
carelessness.
When a specific NDE is performed on a

part, and a response results, that response is an
indication. The term response is intended to
mean:
3.2.1 Penetrant Examination

A false indication in PT is usually caused
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of the solvent or air pressure may be substantial

enough to inadvertently remove these
indications.
by improper PT processing of the part. Most

common causes are improper or inadequate
precleaning of the test surface, inadequate removal of excess surface penetrant during the
penetrant-removal
step,
contaminated
developer
or
surface
roughness
or
contaminants such as scale and slag. Most of
the false indications encountered in PT can be
eliminated by proper test surface preparation
and careful precleaning. Also, exercising care
during removal of the excess surface penetrant
also affects the clarity and size of actual
discontinuity indications.
Magnetic Writing is the easiest false /

nonrelevant indications to create purposely or
accidently. Usually all that is required is that
two parts of differing magnetic fields come
into contact with each other. Local poles are
formed at the area of contact and upon the
application of particles; an indication appears
that follows the area or line of contact.
Indications caused by magnetic writing will
not reappear after demagnetization and
re-examination.
3.2.2 Magnetic Particle Examination

In MT, a false indication consists of
particle buildup produced by mechanical or
gravitational forces, rather than by magnetic
leakage field forces. Particles may become
lodged on the surface as a result of a
contaminant. These particles present an image
that may appear to be an indication caused by
magnetic leakage field attraction and therefore
interpreted incorrectly as a discontinuity
indication. A false indication can usually be
removed by applying a small amount of air
pressure or light blowing, since there is no
magnetic leakage field to hold it in place.
Another method of removing a false indication
involves a quick dip or rinse in a clean
solvent. Particles that are not held by the
residual magnetic force that normally holds
true indications will be readily washed away.
Neither of these methods is always effective
since
indications
from
subsurface
discontinuities usually are held by weak
residual magnetic fields. The washing action
3.2.3
Many false indications are encountered in

RT; these are sometimes referred to as
artifacts. Radiographic film is very sensitive
to pressure, chemicals, light, mechanical forces
such as bending, creasing, scratches, and other
forms of rough handling. These conditions
should be avoided and when present, many
codes require the associated radiograph to be
rejected if these indications interfere with or
cause confusion during interpretation.
3.2.4
Ultrasonic/Eddy
Examination
Current
False indications encountered in ET

typically result from stray electrical
interference. In UT, spurious signals may be
caused by the couplant interaction. In general,
false indications from UT and ET are easily
identified and corrected.
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examined.
3.2.5
Summary of False Indications

3.3.1
The best way to determine whether or not

an indication is false is to repeat the
examination while exercising the proper
precautions and following the procedure.
False indications are generally not predictable
and not repeatable.
The most common nonrelevant indication

encountered during PT is the result of surface
configuration variations. Excess penetrant
tends to remain in crevices such as thread roots,
or sharp changes in thickness, machined steps,
and radical dimensional changes. The bleedout
intensity is not as great as that encountered
with press fit, or force fit conditions. It has
been proven that surface openings as small as
13 micro-inches (250 x 13 micro-inches is
equivalent to the thickness of an average sheet
of paper) can be consistently detected with
standard penetrants. It is easy, therefore, to
understand how it is possible to obtain such a
definite response from a crevice between
closely mated surfaces. The most logical
approach to eliminating this type of bleedout is
to carefully mask the crevice without covering
the test surface. Nonrelevant indications
associated with surface configuration can be
minimized by employing special penetrant
removal techniques for the areas in question.
Small cotton swabs or other appropriate aids
used in these areas during the penetrant
removal step can be helpful.
3.3 Nonrelevant Indications

Nonrelevant indications are caused by
normal or known conditions in the part or
material. A response is expected, and the
examiner should be able to identify its cause. A
common type of non-relevant indication results
from a known change in the cross-section or
geometry. This condition, which is present as
a result of the design or configuration of the
part, causes a response to the probing medium
in a manner similar to a true discontinuity.
Generally, this type of indication can be easily
identified since it appears in the same areas in
similar parts and can be readily identified by
referring to the appropriate part drawing. An
example of this indication would be found in
parts containing pressed fit conditions or other
areas where two mating surfaces fit tightly
together without metallurgical fusion. Another
common nonrelevant indication can usually be
found at sharp fillets, abrupt changes in section
thickness and thread roots. In these cases, the
probing medium reacts to these configurations
in a manner similar to that of an actual
discontinuity. This response is usually
interpreted easily by reviewing the
configuration or design of the part being
3.3.2 Magnetic Particle Examination

During MT, high amperage can cause a
nonrelevant condition known as flow lines.
Flow lines are usually defined as the texture
revealed by etching a metal surface or section
showing the direction of metal flow. This metal
flow pattern results when high amperage is
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cause density differences in a radiograph,

which may be confused with or cause
confusion in the interpretation of actual
discontinuities. A qualified examiner viewing
the film can generally identify these
nonrelevant conditions. Reference to the
applicable drawing, re-examination using
angulations, or changing part alignment can
confirm the interpretation. Press fit conditions,
unfused zones in partial penetration welds, and
other such radical changes in the parts cross
section will also appear as density variations on
the radiograph. Their outlines closely resemble
the actual conditions; hence, interpretation
usually is quite simple based on knowledge of
the part.
induced into the part, especially in forgings.

The indication pattern is similar to the etched
surface of a specimen. This pattern is not
indicative of discontinuities in the part. In
some instances the pattern may help in
revealing the flow line structure when an
etching operation is not desirable.
Another nonrelevant indication that should
not be overlooked is the one that appears at the
junction of dissimilar materials. This type of
indication is the result of the difference of
permeability in the two materials. This
indication also appears when magnetic
materials are joined to nonmagnetic materials.
A magnetic pole is created at the end of the
magnetic material which is defined by particle
alignment. When two magnetic materials are
brazed together, the brazing material responds
like a discontinuity since it is generally
nonferrous material, and a very prominent
indication results. A similar pattern is present
in parts that have very tight joints, such as
those resulting from force fit assembly. No
matter how small the space between the mating
parts, there is still some magnetic flux leakage,
which causes particle attraction.
3.3.4 Ultrasonic Examination

The ultrasonic beam reflects from an
interface between two mating parts just as
readily as from a discontinuity. Therefore, it
should be expected that surfaces or interfaces
that do not have a metallurgical bond or are not
fused in the path of the ultrasonic beam will
cause reflections, resulting in indications. Part
geometry is once again the major cause of
nonrelevant indications because changes in
geometry result in beam reflection. Knowledge
of part dimension, ultrasonic beam geometry
and direction, and material characteristics will
aid in proper evaluation.
Nonrelevant indications are common at the

junction of abrupt section changes where some
of the flux lines actually leave the part
following the path of least resistance. If
permitted, re-examination at lower amperages
may eliminate this indication.
3.3.3
3.3.5 Eddy Current Examination

Edge or end effect is a good example of a
nonrelevant indication disclosed by ET. The
eddy current field sees the edge or end of a test
Variations in part and section thickness

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of inherent discontinuities exist: inclusions,

pipe, cracks and porosity.
part as an interruption, causing field imbalance

when the probe or coil is positioned closed to
the edge. Other nonrelevant conditions in a part
examined by ET can be caused by grain
structure variations, hardness changes, alloy
differences, mass changes, etc. For example, if
the part is being examined to determine
variations in alloy content, other variables
(although within the acceptable material
specification range) could cause interferences.
Current ET equipment can compensate for this
condition to some degree by proper use of
phase control. Use of appropriate standards can
also minimize such variables resulting from
nonrelevant conditions.
3.3.6 Summary
Indications
of
3.4.1.1 Inclusions
Inclusions are nonmetallic impurities such
as slag, oxides, and sulphides that are present
in the original ingot (Figure 3-1). During
rolling of billets into bar stock, impurities are
rolled in a lengthwise direction.
These
direction-oriented inclusions in the finished
product are generally referred to as nonmetallic
inclusions or stringers. These stringers may
be surface or subsurface and are usually short
in length and parallel to the grain flow. Figure
3-2 illustrates how stringers are formed.
Nonrelevant
3.4.1.2 Laminations
Laminations are thin, flat discontinuities
found in plate or sheet stock that is a result of
gas, inclusions, or pipe in the original ingot
(Figure 3-3).
Laminations are generally
considered to be internal discontinuities,
except where edges of the plate or sheet are cut
to expose the lamination. Laminations are
generally parallel to the outer plate surface and
are intergranular in nature if examined
microscopically. Figure 3-3 illustrates typical
laminations in rolled parts.
Nonrelevant indications are not difficult to

identify when the examiner is aware of their
existence, possible causes and characteristics.
Knowledge of the part being examined and
reference to configuration, fabrication
processes, material type, and characteristics
will enable accurate interpretation of these
indications.
Nonrelevant indications are
usually predictable and repeatable.
3.4 True Discontinuities
Discontinuities originate in various ways
and can be categorized by their origin or cause.
3.4.1.3 Pipe
Pipe is typically found in the center of
rolled bars. This condition is caused by a
shrinkage condition at the center of the ingot
formed during solidification in the ingot, which
becomes elongated in the rolling operations.
3.4.1 Inherent Discontinuities

Inherent discontinuities are formed during
the initial metal making process. Several types
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withstand the temperature of the molten metal

(i.e., sand, plaster of paris, ceramic, or metal).
Wood, metal, and wax are typically used for
patterns.
This condition is also illustrated in Figure 3-4.

3.4.1.4 Seams
Seams are surface discontinuities found in
rolled bars and plate that are caused by
compressing and elongating cracks, tears, or
other indications on the surface of the ingot
during rolling. Seams are generally long, and
run along the length of the longitudinal axis.
Some of the different methods of casting are

categorized as follows:
Sand,
Centrifugal,
Investment,
Permanent, and
Die.
3.4.2 Primary Processing Discontinuities
Sand Casting - This process uses either moist

sand with clay or dry sand with a type of
binder. The pattern is usually in two halves; the
cope (top half) and the drag (bottom half).
Each pattern half is placed in a half of the flask.
Sand is packed or rammed around each half of
the pattern. The patterns are removed when
the sand is hard and the two halves of the flask
are joined. Holes called down sprues and
runners are provided through the flask and into
the mold cavity to introduce the molten metal
during pouring. Other holes, or risers, are
provided to act as reservoirs to feed metal into
the mold as the metal shrinks. Risers also allow
gases to escape.
Primary processing discontinuities are

caused by the primary shaping and forming
processes such as forging, casting, rolling and
drawing. During initial forming, or primary
shaping of metal into a desired configuration or
size, discontinuities may occur.
3.4.2.1 Casting
3.4.2.1.1 Casting Processes
Casting molten metals into molds is one of
the oldest methods of metal forming. Cast
ornaments and tools over 4,000 years old have
been found from ancient Egyptian, Assyrian,
and Chinese cultures. Molten metals such as
iron, steel, and aluminum are cast into ingot
molds and allowed to solidify before they are
further processed. Castings range from small
intricate precision parts to massive machinery
sections weighing many tons.
Centrifugal Casting - Centrifugal casting is a

process in which molten metal is poured into a
rapidly rotating mold. The liquid metal is
forced outward by centrifugal forces to the
mold cavity. Wheels, tubing, and pipe are
made by the centrifugal casting process. The
centrifugal process also permits two dissimilar
metals to be cast. For example, an outer surface
of hard alloy can be poured, followed by an
The casting process requires a pattern

(having the shape of the desired casting) and a
mold made from the pattern. The mold must
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from the permanent mold and sand casting

processes in that the metal is not poured into
the mold but is injected under high pressures
(from 1,000 to 100,000 psi). The two basic
methods of die casting are the hot-chamber and
the cold-chamber. Cold-chamber machines are
used for casting aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and other high melting
point alloys. Hot-chamber machines are used
for casting zinc, tin, lead, and other low
melting point alloys. Die-casting machines are
heavy, massive, generally hydraulically
operated, and capable of exerting the hundreds
of tons of force needed to hold the die halves
together. High pressure is necessary to keep the
injected molten metal from leaking at the
parting line. Small thin sections can be
produced and close tolerances maintained.
Surface finishes are usually so smooth that
subsequent finishing or machining processes
are not needed. The metal mold or die cools the
molten metal at a higher rate than sand casting,
thus producing a superior grain structure in the
metal. The die casting process is typically used
for small parts where high production is
desired.
inner layer of softer metal. This gives the

casting an outer wear surface while
maintaining the machinability and weldability
of the inner layer.
Investment Casting - The investment casting,
process is sometimes called the lost wax
process. Wax patterns, including their sprues
and risers, are usually cast in metal molds
(dies) or formed by injection molding. A
ceramic shell is formed around the wax pattern
by dipping repeatedly into a ceramic slurry.
After a sufficient shell thickness is achieved, it
is heated to above the melting temperature of
the wax pattern. The liquid wax is discharged
through a leakage passage, leaving the mold
cavity for the pouring of the metal. Molten
metal is poured into the ceramic mold and after
it solidifies, the ceramic shell is vibrated until it
separates, leaving the finished casting.
Permanent Mold Casting - Permanent molds
are usually made of gray cast iron or steel, with
graphite and other refractory materials usually
used for steel castings. The molds are
machined to a rough shape and hand finished,
after which a refractory wash is applied to the
mold. Molten metal is poured into the mold
from a ladle as in the sand casting process. The
mold must be heated and maintained at a
specified temperature in order to produce good
quality castings. The permanent mold process
is a step between sand-casting and die-casting
in that fairly high precision can be achieved,
thus eliminating considerable machining time
usually required for sand castings.
3.4.2.1.2
Discontinuities typically found in castings

include dross, porosity or gas, cold shuts
inclusions, shrinkage, and cold cracking.
Dross - Dross is a condition particularly
associated with aluminum castings. This
discontinuity results from poor casting
practices employed in the foundry. The molten
aluminum reacts with the atmosphere or
Die Casting - The die casting process differs

Casting Discontinuities
37
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that becomes entrapped during the casting

process.
moisture and forms an aluminum oxide or

nitride with some entrapment of gas. This type
of discontinuity is primarily internal.
Cold (or Stress) Cracking - This is a discontinuity which occurs due to the fracture of the
metal, after solidification. The crack is a result
of large contraction stresses and generally
occurs on large castings of complicated shape.
Shrinkage - Shrinkage is a condition that
results from insufficient metal being available
as the casting solidifies. Generally, shrinkage
occurs during liquid-to-solid contraction and
can be further classified as:
Porosity - Porosity is caused by the presence

of gas, which is dissolved in the melt and
precipitated at the grain boundaries as the
casting cools. The total amount of gas that
forms visible bubbles or pores depends upon
the amount of gas in solution and on the rate of
cooling. Porosity size and shape depends upon
the mechanism of solidification of the
particular alloy, shrinkage stresses, and
composition of the melt with respect to the
solubility of hydrogen; each contributes to the
final form and distribution of the pores.
Porosity is usually internal to the part and
occurs in two basic forms, round and
elongated. Gas porosity can be classified as
follows:
Porosity - small rounded cavities,
Gas Hole - larger cavities, or
Macro-Shrinkage. In a well-designed
mold this discontinuity will generally be found
in risers.
In appearance, this shrinkage
typically exhibits zones of irregular cavities
accompanied by branch-like indications.
Centerline Shrinkage (Filamentary). If
directional solidification is not promoted, a
coarse form of shrinkage, which can be quite
extensive, interconnected, and branching, may
occur.
The solidification range of the
material being cast will affect the type of
shrinkage cavity. With steel, which has a
narrow solidification range, the cavity should
occur on the centerline of the cast section.
However, with alloys, which have a broad
solidification range, the shrinkage will be
more dispersed than centerline.
Wormhole - tube-like gas cavities with

significant length, and as the name implies,
resembles wormholes.
Cold Shuts - These casting discontinuities are
caused by a momentary interruption of the
metal flow, resulting in partial solidification.
The associated cooling forms an oxide coating
on the surface which prevents fusion as other
incoming molten metal continues to fill the
mold. Cold shuts are usually very tight and
extend to the surface.
Micro Shrinkage. This type of shrinkage

is generally associated with equiaxial crystal
structures rather than columnar crystals. Micro
shrinkage is a very fine form of filamentary
shrinkage and occurs between the dendrite
Inclusions - Inclusions are various forms of

foreign matter, such as sand, slag, or oxides
38
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arms, known as interdendritic, and also at

grain boundaries, known as intercrystalline.
4. Unfused Chaplet--A chaplet is a thin

metallic support for a core and is
generally melted by, and absorbed
within, the molten metal. If this
material is not totally consumed, a
circular pattern representing the shape
of the chaplet results.
3.4.2.2 Forging
Sponge Shrinkage. As the name implies,

this shrinkage resembles a sponge. It consists
of shrinkage cavities and branchlike shrinkage.
Shrink Cracks or Hot Tears. These
discontinuities
are
developed
during
solidification of the metal since it contracts as
it cools. The tension stresses caused by this
contraction can result in ruptures in the metal.
Figure 3-5 illustrates how this may form
during casting.
3.4.2.2.1 Forging Processes

Forging is plastically deforming or shaping
metal into desired shapes with compressive
force, with or without dies. Forging dies are
usually made of steel or steel castings. General
forging classifications are opened die and
closed die. They are also classified in terms of
close-to-finish or amount of stock to be
removed by machining. The type of equipment
used provides further classifications (e.g.,
hammer, upset, ring, rolled, and multiple ram
press forgings). In general, the type of forging
that requires the least machining to satisfy
finished part requirements has the best
properties. If size and shape are the same,
forgings are stronger than castings because of
their inherent continuity of material flow lines.
Miscellaneous Shrinkage Mechanisms-Additional shrinkage mechanisms can produce

casting irregularities that can be detected by
NDE. For the casting process, these mechanisms include:
1. MisrunMisrun results from the failure of
the molten metal to completely fill the
mold cavity resulting in an absence of
metal or void.
2. Core Shiftif the core moves during the
pouring of the molten metal, it will lead
to variations in internal dimensions or
result in eccentric casting walls.
Cold Forging - Sizing or flattening of parts

through cold forging is usually the least severe
forging operation. Swaging or cold forging
involves squeezing the blank material to an
appreciably different shape and requires dies
backed up substantially with hardened steel
plates.
3. SegregationMost metals contain alloys

with their various constituents evenly
distributed throughout the metal.
Segregation occurs generally because
each of the alloy constituents has
different cooling temperatures, and this
may result in areas which have greater
concentrations of a given alloy.
39
Hot Forging - Hot forging (similar to cold

Rev 0409
forging) permits greater movement of metal.

Hot forging may be done with drop hammers,
percussion presses, power presses, or forging
machines. Hydraulic presses operate at pressure of 100 to 4,000 tons. Drop hammers
operate at to 120 tons pressure. Most
forgings are made by the hot forging process.
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squeezed out from between the drop forge dies

is not removed cleanly. The discontinuity is
on the surface and can usually be detected
visually.
3.4.2.3 Rolling
3.4.2.3.1
3.4.2.2.2
Rolling Process
Forging Discontinuities
The following are considered forging

discontinuities:
During rolling, the original cast ingot is

further processed into a slab, bloom, or billet.
In turn, further processing produces plate, pipe,
bar, and rod.
Forging Laps - Forging laps result from metal

being folded over and forced into the surface
but not fused together.
3.4.2.3.2
Bursts - Bursts originate in the forging process, generally from improper forging
techniques and a rapid cooling from the forging
temperatures. These may occur as large
fissures (Figure 3-6) or thin hairline cracks
such as those sometimes prevalent in the heads
of bolts and screws (Figure 3-7).
Flakes - Flakes are caused by improper cooling. They appear as small numerous
discontinuities that are internal to the material.
Inclusions - These are the result of impurities
in the original ingot; the impurities generally
run parallel to the grain flow after forging. Due
to improper forging techniques and subsequent
poor grain flow, oxides may be forced into the
material.
Inherent discontinuities from the cast ingot

will be stretched and lengthened in the
direction of rolling. Additionally, the rolling
process may introduce discontinuities into the
part. These are generally on the surface and
take the form of tears, seams, and other
mechanical deformities.
3.4.2.4 Extruding
Extrusion of metal is the most severe
forming process. The metal is forced to flow
rapidly through a defined orifice or die.
Forward extrusion of long tubes, rods, and
shapes is usually performed hot in hydraulic
presses.
3.4.3
Flash Line Tear - As the name indicates, this

discontinuity results when the excess metal
Rolling Discontinuities
Secondary
Discontinuities
Processing
Secondary processing discontinuities are

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associated with finishing operations of the part.

These discontinuities develop in the finishing
operations of bars, tubes, plates, forgings and
castings, and include machining, heat treating,
grinding, forming, and plating.
3.4.3.1 Tears (Machining)

Because of improperly set or dull tools, the
surface of the metal may be torn instead of cut.
These tears are generally short and jagged and,
in general, are at right angles to the direction of
machining (Figure 3-8).
3.4.3.2 Heat Treating Cracks
In this process the metal is heated and
cooled under controlled conditions for the
purpose of hardening or securing other
metallurgical characteristics. Cracking during
this process usually results from stresses set up
by unequal heating or cooling of certain
portions of the parts. These cracks may occur
either on the heating or cooling (quenching)
cycles and are usually deep, seldom follow a
definite pattern, and may be in any direction on
the part. In particular, quench cracks often start
at thin cross sections or where a sharp notch or
other stress riser affords a starting point for a
crack. Nonmetallic inclusions can also form a
starting point for a crack (Figure 3-9).
3.4.3.3 Grinding Cracks
Grinding of metal surfaces frequently
introduces cracks, which are the result of
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thermal stresses. Overheating occurs as a

result of the friction created by the grinding
wheel coming in contact with the surface, as
illustrated in Figure 3-10. These cracks may be
due to the wheel becoming glazed so that it
rubs instead of cuts the surface, too little
coolant, too heavy a cut, or too rapid a feed.
The cracks are generally at right angles to the
direction of grinding, although in severe cases
a complete network of cracks may result.
3.4.3.4 Forming Cracks
Forming cracks, which may be found in
almost any type of metal, are caused by
excessive stretching of the material in the
various forming processes. The excessive
stretching causes rupture of the material. These
cracks are normally on the tension side of the
formed area and parallel to the bend.
3.4.4
Service Discontinuities
Service discontinuities result from actual

service conditions such as fatigue, corrosion,
and erosion. Service discontinuities occur
when the part is subjected to severe conditions
after it is placed into service.
3.4.4.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is attack and loss of metal due to
an electrochemical process that involves an
anodic reaction and at least one cathodic
reaction. Iron ore is an oxide of iron in
chemical balance with the environment. When
this iron ore is converted to iron, the chemical
balance is changed and the iron becomes active
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(i.e. it corrodes on contact with the natural

environment and tries to revert back to its
natural state). The natural environment usually
contains moisture, which provides an
electrolyte for a corrosion cell to form.
The two major types of corrosion are
pitting and intergranular. Pitting is a localized
corrosion that extends into the metal surface.
Pitting corrosion appears as pin holes on the
surface in varying degrees.
The susceptibility to intergranular
corrosion (particularly in aluminum and some
types of corrosion resistant steels) is caused by
improper heat treating, or in-service use. The
part then corrodes intergranular from the
surface under certain conditions.
This
condition may appear as fine cracks.
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3.4.4.3 Microbiological Corrosion

Micro-organisms can grow in moisture
traps in a structure. Aluminum is particularly
susceptible. This type corrosion appears as
localized surface attack or fungi type deposits,
depending on the micro-organism involved.
3.4.4.4 Intergranular Corrosion
This type corrosion is caused by an
electrochemical reaction along the grain
boundaries in the material. It appears as craze
cracking on the surface that will propagate into
the material. An important consideration in
welding is that unstabilized stainless steels will
exhibit intergranular corrosion along the heat
affected zone.
3.4.4.5 Fatigue
3.4.4.2 Stress Corrosion

Stress corrosion cracking is a spontaneous
failure of metals under combined action of
corrosion and stress, residual or applied. The
presence of high tensile stresses on the surface
of certain materials in conjunction with surface
corrosion may result in large cracks along grain
boundaries. The level of stress that can cause
this cracking are typically below the yield point
of the material. Stress corrosion cracks are
surface breaking and are usually found at sharp
changes in section, notches or crevices,
especially in structures which have not been
stress relieved. Both ferrous and nonferrous
materials are susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking.
Cracks initiated by fatigue cycling almost

always start at a stress riser at the surface of the
material, where operating loads are highest,
and generally progress at right angles to the
direction of the principal cyclic stresses. Many
of the various discontinuities described in this
section might, under certain circumstances,
provide the starting point from which a fatigue
crack may propagate. Fatigue cracks propagate
at different rates depending upon material
characteristics and loads applied.
3.4.4.6 Wear
Wear is the loss of material from the
surface due to a mechanical action. Wear can
normally be recognized by visual examination
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of
the
surfaces
involved.
Specific
terminologies used to describe various types of
wear are:
Abrasive Wear - This occurs when two
surfaces move or slide against each other
producing an abrasive or mechanical cutting
action. Heat is usually generated during this
abrasive action.
Adhesive Wear - This occurs when two
surfaces move against each other and generate
sufficient heat to cause localized intermittent
welding or bonding and continued sliding
fractures one side of the bond. Scuffing,
galling, scoring, and seizing are all the results
of adhesive wear.
Fretting Wear - Fretting wear occurs when
two surfaces constantly impact each other
without significant sliding movement. It is
often seen on fasteners such as cotter pins,
bolts, rivets, and sometimes in bearings that are
static but subject to vibration. Fretting wear
may appear as numerous small indentations.
Gouging Wear - This occurs when large
fragments are removed from the surface by
high energy impact from large pieces of
material. The crushing of hard abrasive
products such as rock and ores produces rapid
surface damage.
Erosive Wear - Erosion occurs when particles
in a fluid rub against a surface at high velocities
and remove material from that surface.
Erosive wear occurs in nozzles, pumps,
impellers tubes, pipes, and valves.
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3.4.5
Weld Discontinuities
Weld discontinuities are formed as a result

of welding or joining of two metals by fusion
with or without the addition of filler metal.
Welding is similar in some respect to the
casting process in that the metal is melted and
allowed to solidify in place. Welding may be
defined as the permanent union of metallic
surfaces by establishing atom to atom bonds
between the surfaces. It is also used to repair
defective areas of castings, pipe or structures
and to build up an overlay, hardfacing, or
surfacing to provide a particular protective
surface.
Welding discontinuities occur as a result of
operator error, lack of skill, or noncompliance
with a qualified weld procedure.
3.4.5.1 Cracks
Cracks are defined as fracture-type
discontinuities characterized by sharp tips and
a high length to opening ratio. Cracks can be
classified as hot cracks (which occur at high
temperatures during solidification) or as cold
cracks (which occur after solidification is
complete). Both types can be further
categorized by their physical location within
the weldment.
3.4.5.2 Longitudinal Cracks
Longitudinal cracks are parallel to the axis
of the weld and are usually confined to the
center of the weld. A longitudinal crack may be
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an extension of a crack that started in the first

layer. A crack formed in the first layer, if not
removed, tends to propagate into the layer
above, and into each subsequent layer until it
reaches the surface. This condition may also be
termed a throat crack. Figure 3-11 illustrates a
longitudinal crack.
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individual pore, either rounded or elongated,

may be entrapped any place in the weld.
Figure 3-14 is an example of isolated porosity.
Uniformed Scattered Porosity - Generally
rounded in appearance, and as the name
implies, uniform porosity is scattered at regular
intervals throughout the weld (Figure 3-15).
3.4.5.3 Transverse Cracks

These cracks are perpendicular to the axis
of the weld and in some cases extend into the
base metal. They may often be found near or in
weld starts or stops. Figure 3-12 shows a
transverse crack.
3.4.5.4 Crater Cracks
These cracks occur in the concave area
(crater) at the termination of the weld bead,
where the arc is broken. Crater cracks may be
star shaped, longitudinal, or transverse (Figure
3-13). Crater cracks often serve as the
initiation point for other types of cracking; as a
result, they are considered serious by most
specifications.
Clustered Porosity - A group of pores in a

small area separated by zones of porosity free
weld metal is called clustered porosity, as
illustrated in Figure 3-16.
Linear Porosity - Also called aligned
porosity, linear porosity is characterized by a
number of rounded pores, which follow a line
parallel with the axis of the weld (Figure 3-17).
Piping Porosity - Piping porosity (or
wormhole porosity) occurs as nonspherical
pockets along grain boundaries or as elongated
tubular voids that extend within the weld width
or thickness. Figure 3-18 illustrates this type
of porosity.
3.4.5.6 Inclusions
3.4.5.5 Porosity
Porosity is entrapped gas pockets, or voids
free of any solid material, in the weld metal.
Porosity is generally characterized as a smooth
edged, rounded or elongated discontinuity. A
pore may also have a sharp tail that could be
the initiation point of a crack. Five types of
porosity may be present in a weld.
Isolated Porosity - As the name implies, this
Slag Inclusions - These inclusions are oxides

and other nonmetallic materials that are
trapped in the weld metal, usually between the
weld metal and base metal, or between weld
passes (generally irregular in shape). Slag
inclusions, however, may occur anywhere in
the weld (Figure 3-19). Slag is sometimes
trapped along the edges of a weld bead and
buried under the next weld pass. This condition
is sometimes referred to as wagon tracks
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because of its radiographic appearance.

Tungsten Inclusions - Tungsten inclusions,
which are associated with the Gas Tungsten
Arc
Welding/Tungsten
Inert
Gas
(GTAW/TIG) occur when the nonconsumable
tungsten electrode touches the work or the
molten weld metal and transfers particles of the
tungsten into the weld metal. These inclusions
may be scattered in very fine particles,
sometimes referred to as a tungsten cloud, or as
a distinct particle that may be of considerable
size.
3.4.5.7 Undercut
Undercut is a depression at the fusion zone
between the weld and the base metal. It may be
categorized as a structural condition since the
fatigue life of the weldment may be reduced as
a result of the undercut. Figure 3-20 illustrates
undercut.
3.4.5.8 Burn Through
Burn through is a void or opening
extending through the bottom of the weld joint
that is caused by localized overheating of the
first or second weld pass. When this localized
area becomes molten, the metal runs out of the
joint, leaving a void area. This molten metal
may merely sag and form icicles, or it may melt
completely to form a convex profile known as
convexity (Figure 3-21).
3.4.5.9 Concavity
When the root profile is less than even with
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the inside dimension of the parts being joined,

it is referred to as concavity. It results in a
reduction in weld thickness at the concave
area.
3.5 Summary of True Discontinuities
The severity of a discontinuity is dependent
upon its size, location, and type. Each
discontinuity should be analyzed with respect
to objective data in relationship to the fracture
mechanics considerations for the material and
the potential for failure based on the
discontinuity type location, size, and intended
service. Finally, the results of any failure in
terms of risk analysis should also be
considered.
3.5.1 Defects
The term defect implies a defective
condition that would render a part unsuitable
for its intended use. In some cases, the term
defect may be used to describe a true
discontinuity that is unacceptable to code
acceptance standards or specifications.
3.5.2
Repair Considerations
The proper interpretation and classification

of discontinuities is an integral part of NDE. It
requires extensive experience and skill to
consistently evaluate and correctly identify the
various discontinuities. A discontinuity that is
incorrectly interpreted or completely missed
can be critical to the function of the part. Being
overly critical can also create problems as a
result of requiring unnecessary repairs.
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Once a rejectable discontinuity is detected,

it is essential that every effort be taken to
assure that it has been completely removed.
This may require additional examinations
using the method originally used to detect the
condition or a different method. For example,
if the discontinuity was rejected as a result of
an RT examination, PT or MT may be used
during the excavation process to assure the
discontinuity was completely removed. Once
the repair is complete, the area should be
re-examined to assure acceptability using the
original NDE method.
3.6 Interpretation Summary
Effective interpretation can be achieved by
being familiar with the following:
The type of material;
The process(es) to which the material has

been subjected;
Any unusual incident occurring to the

material or part;
The configuration, size, and variables

associated with the object being examined;
Assurance that the examination was
performed properly;
Thorough understanding of the applicable
specifications and codes.
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Chapter 33.0 Classification and

Interprretation of Indications
F
Figure
3-1 Inclusions in Ingot
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Interpretattion of Indications
Figure 3-2 Stringers
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Figure 3-3
3 Laminations in Rolled Products
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F
Figure
3-4 Piping in Ingot
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Figure 3--5 Shrink Cracks and Hot Tears
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Figure 3-5
Shrink Cracks
and Hot Tears
F
Figure
3-6 Forging Bursts
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Figure 3-7 Forging

F
Burst in the Head of a Bolt
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Fig
gure 3-8 Machining Tears
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Fig
gure 3-9 Quenching Cracks
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Fig
gure 3-10 Grinding Cracks
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Figurre 3-11 Longitudinal Cracks
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Figu
ure 3-12 Transverse Cracks
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Fiigure 3-13 Crater Cracks
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Fig
gure 3-14 Isolated Porosity
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Figure 3-15
3
Uniform Scattered Porosity
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Figu
ure 3-16 Clustered Porosity
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Figure 3-17
3
Linear or Aligned Porosity
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Figure 3-18 Piping Porosity
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Figure 3-19 Slag Inclusion
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Figure 3-20 Undercut
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Figure 3-21 Burn Through/Convexity
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Student Manual
Volume 1
Chapter 4.0
Introduction to Visual Examination
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.0 INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL EXAMINATION..................................................................... 1

Learning Objectives
4.1 History
...................................................................................................... 1
4.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ........................................................................... 1

4.2.1
Visual Acuity ...................................................................................................... 2
4.2.2
Equipment
...2
4.2.3 Experience and Training ....................................................................................... 2

4.2.4 Procedures
------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
4.2.5
...................................................................................................... 3
Certification
4.3 Principles of Visual Testing ................................................................................................... 4

4.3.1
Applications
...................................................................................................... 4
4.3.2 Visual Factors ...5

4.3.3
Human Eye ...................................................................................................... 5

4.3.3.1 Refractivity ............................................................................................... 6
4.3.3.2 Distance Judgment .................................................................................... 6
4.3.3.3 Mechanism of Vision................................................................................ 7
4.3.3.4 Light Receptors......................................................................................... 7
4.3.4
Color and Color Vision......................................................................................... 7

4.3.4.1 Color Characteristics ................................................................................ 7
4.3.4.2 Brightness Characteristics ........................................................................ 8
4.3.4.3 Spectrum Limits of Visibility ................................................................... 8
4.3.4.4 Color Changes .................................................................................... 8
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4.3.5 Observer Differences ............................................................................................ 9

4.3.6
Lighting
...................................................................................................... 9
4.3.7 Specific Lighting Devices .................................................................................. 10

4.4.1 Mirrors
.................................................................................................... 10
.................................................................................................... 10
4.4.2 Magnification .................................................................................................... 10

4.4.2.1 Focal Length ........................................................................................... 11
4.4.2.2 Magnifying Devices ............................................................................... 11
4.4.3 Borescopes and Fiberscopes ............................................................................... 12
4.4.3.1 Borescopes .............................................................................................. 12
4.4.3.2 Fiberscopes ............................................................................................. 13
4.4.4 Electronic Imaging ............................................................................................. 13
4.4.4.1 Closed Circuit Television ....................................................................... 13
4.4.4.2 Cathode-ray Tube (Viewing) .................................................................. 13
4.4.4.3 Digital Imaging ....................................................................................... 14
4.4.5 Photographic Techniques ................................................................................... 15
4.4.5.1 Depth of Field ......................................................................................... 15
4.4.5.2 Lighting .................................................................................................. 16
4.4.5.3 Film .................................................................................................... 16
4.5 Measuring Equipment
.16
4.5.1 Linear Scales .................................................................................................... 16

4.5.2
Steel Rules
.................................................................................................... 17
4.5.3 The Vernier Scale ............................................................................................... 17

4.5.4 Vernier Calipers .................................................................................................. 17
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4.5.5
Table of Contents
Dial Calipers .................................................................................................... 18
4.5.6 Micrometer
.................................................................................................... 18
4.5.7 Micrometer Depth Gages.................................................................................... 18

4.5.8 Dial Indicator .................................................................................................... 18
4.5.9 Balanced Dials .................................................................................................... 18
4.5.10 Combination Square Set ..................................................................................... 19
4.5.11 Thread Pitch Gages ............................................................................................. 19
4.5.12 Thickness Gages ................................................................................................. 19
4.5.13 Levels
.................................................................................................... 19
4.6 Visual Examination of Welds ............................................................................................... 19

4.6.1
Prior to Welding ................................................................................................. 19
4.6.2
During Welding .................................................................................................. 20
4.6.3 After Welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.6.4
Weld Examination Gages ................................................................................... 20

4.6.4.1 Fillet Weld Gage ..................................................................................... 20
4.6.4.2 Multipurpose Gage ................................................................................. 21
4.6.4.3 Taper Gage ............................................................................................. 21
4.6.4.4 Hi-Lo Gage ............................................................................................. 21
4.6.4.5 Ferrite Gages........................................................................................... 21
4.7 Remote Visual Inspection (RVI) .......................................................................................... 21

4.7.1 Fiber-optic Borescopes, Fiberscopes, and Video image scopes ......................... 21
4.7.2
Liquid Penetrant Examinations Combined with RVI ......................................... 22
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4.7.3 Magnetic Particle Examinations Combined with RVI ....................................... 23

4.7.4
Ultrasonic Examinations Combined with RVI ................................................... 23
4.7.5
Eddy Current Examinations Combined with RVI .............................................. 23
4.8 Specific Applications for Power Generation ........................................................................ 24

4.8.1
Steam Turbines ................................................................................................... 24
4.8.2 Surface Condensers and Heat Exchangers ......................................................... 24

4.9 Visual Examination Code Requirements .............................................................................. 25
4.9.1
ASME-Section V ................................................................................................ 25
4.9.2
ASME-Section XI............................................................................................... 25
4.9.2.1 Supplemental Qualifications of
VT Examination Personnel............................................................... 27
4.9.3
AWS Certified Welding Inspector ..................................................................... 26
4.10
Records
.................................................................................................... 27
4.11
Advantages and Limitations of Visual Testing .............................................................. 27

4.11.1 Advantages
.................................................................................................... 27
4.11.2 Limitations
.................................................................................................... 28
LIST OF TABLES
4-1 Precision, Accuracy, and Reliability .......................................................................................... 29
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LIST OF FIGURES
4-1 Electromagnetic Spectrum .......................................................................................................... 30
4-2 Direction of View (DOV) ........................................................................................................... 31
4-3 Typical Borescope ...................................................................................................................... 32
4-4 Fiberscope ...33
4-5 Halitation ...34
4-6 Vernier Caliper ........................................................................................................................... 35
4-7 Dial Indicating Calipers .............................................................................................................. 36
4-8 Micrometer ................................................................................................................................. 37
4-9 Dial Indicator .............................................................................................................................. 38
4-10 Combination Square Set ....................................................................................................... 39
4-11 Thread Pitch Gages ............................................................................................................... 40
4-12 Measuring Convex Fillet Weld Size..................................................................................... 41
4-13 Measuring Concave Fillet Weld Size ................................................................................... 42
4-14 Palmgren Weld Gage ............................................................................................................ 43
4-15 Weld Gages........................................................................................................................... 44
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Chapter 4.0 Introduction to

Visual Examination
or destroying the object being examined.

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL EXAMINATION
1. Understand the basic concepts and use of
Visual Examination (VT) and the qualification/ certification of examiners.
2. Become familiar with general applications of
VT.
3. Recognize the equipment used for VT.
4. Understand the processes and techniques by
which VT is applied to the examination of
materials, components, and structures.
5. Know the importance of the qualification and
certification of personnel in VT.
6. Recognize the advantages and limitations of
VT.
4.1 History
The oldest and most commonly used NDE
method is Visual Examination (VT). It may
also be the least understood and least effectively
used of all methods. There is a difference
between just looking at an object and really
seeing it through a trained eye. VT may be
defined as an examination of an object using the
naked eye, alone or in conjunction with various
magnifying devices, without changing, altering,
In VT the most important tools are the eyes.

Visual acuity is of prime importance to the visual
examiner. According to recent statistics, at least
50 percent of the American population over
twenty years of age is required to wear some type
of corrective lenses. However, in the early
stages of eyesight failure, either many persons
are not aware that they need corrective lenses or
they just do not wear them.
As with any sensitive tool, the most
important tools in VT must be checked for
accuracy at regular intervals to ensure that they
remain accurate and sensitive. Most codes
require that VT examiners have annual eye tests
to check:
Near vision acuity,
Far vision acuity, and
Color perception.
Although the eyes are the most important

tool, in many situations they are not sensitive
enough, not accurate enough, or cannot get to the
area to be examined. In those cases, the use of
optical aids is necessary in order to complete the
visual examination.
4.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification
The training and qualification requirements
for VT were debated vigorously over many years
within the NDE community. Many argued that
SNT-TC-1A should not include VT, feeling it
was not necessary and was being pushed on
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industry by the utilities.

However, the
proponents of VT as an NDE Method prevailed,
and the recommendation for training and
experience were added to the 1988 edition of
SNT-TC-1A. Prior to 1988, and still within
many companies today, alternate programs are
used. In addition, the Electric Power Research
Institutes (EPRI) NDE Center developed extensive training programs to meet the VT examination requirements of ASME Section XI for
In-service Examination of Nuclear Power Plants.
Outside the power industry, the need for
experienced, well-trained weld examiners was
recognized. In the late 1970's, the American
Welding Society developed its Certified Welding
Inspector (CWI) program to meet this need.
Section 4.9.3 provides a brief overview for this
program.
4.2.1
Visual Acuity
One of the more obvious prerequisites is that

the VT examiner should have sufficient visual
acuity to perform an adequate examination.
Consideration should be given to sufficient near
and far vision with natural or corrected vision.
A documented periodic eye test is a requirement
of many codes and specifications and is
generally considered good practice. An eye test
by a qualified examiner is a prerequisite for
certification by AWS as a CWI or a Certified
Associate Welding Inspector (CAWI). Vision
tests are also required by ASME Sections V and
XI for VT Examiners.

Visual Examination
4.2.2
Equipment
A VT that requires the use of special tools or

equipment will depend upon the application and
possibly the degree of accuracy required for the
examination. Some tools may need special
qualifications prior to use, as in the example of
calibrations. Although this presents an outline
of VT examination aids, there are many different
concepts and other variations of equipment. As
a general rule, those tools which comply with a
particular code and specification, adequate for
measuring to the accuracy of the acceptance
criteria, or which satisfy the need of the examination, should be used.
4.2.3
Experience and Training
Another obvious prerequisite is that the VT

examiner should have sufficient knowledge and
skill to perform the examination successfully and
meaningfully. Knowledge and skill can be imparted or obtained through the educational and
training processes. Both processes can be
formal (classroom) or on the job. The variety of
methods and processes of imparting or obtaining
knowledge and skill is many, but the art of good
judgment does not always come easily or readily.
Sufficient time should be allowed for different
individuals to properly grasp key points
pertaining to: joint preparations, welding
preheat, interpass temperature, weldment
distortion, welding consumables, and other
materials. Additionally, sufficient exposure to
the many types of workmanship variances should
be allowed.
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4.2.4 Procedures
Development of standard procedures
covering examination methodology and
acceptance criteria is a consideration that may
add considerably to consistency and accuracy.
Such procedures are normally prepared by the
employer and typically consist of detailed
instructions which interrelate the various
fabrication processes, the customer's detailed
requirements, and baseline examination criteria.
Items such as who performs an examination,
when to perform an inspection, how to perform
an examination, and where to perform an
examination are typically included in the procedure. Detailed specific examination factors can
be included such as: workmanship, pictorials,
attribute checklists, equipment requirements, and
other items.
Article 9 of Section V stipulates that VT,
when required by the referencing Code sections,
must be done in accordance with a procedure.
Article 9 also contains specific items that must be
included in the procedure. Section XI also requires that VT be included in accordance with a
written procedure.
4.2.5 Certification
Article 9 of Section V does not specifically
address the certification of VT examiners. It
does state, however, the requirements of the
referencing code.
Qualifications in accordance with a prior
edition of either SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 are
considered
valid
until
recertification.

Visual Examination
Recertification must be in accordance with

SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition), ANSI/ASNT
CP-189 (2006 Edition), or ACCP.
Section XI requires that personnel
performing NDE be qualified and certified using
a written practice prepared in accordance with
ANSI/ANST CP-189 as amended by Section XI.
IWA 2314 states that the possession of an ASNT
Level III Certificate, which is required by
CP-189, is not required by Section XI. Section
XI also states that certifications to SNT-TC-1A
or earlier editions of CP-189 will remain valid
until recertification at which time CP-189 (1995
Edition) must be met.
A Level II VT examiner, who is a high school
graduate, must complete one of following for
Section V and only the CP-189 requirements for
Section XI.
The SNT-TC-1A requirements are:
Training
Experience
Level I
8 hours
70* hrs/130 hrs**
Level
II
16 hours
140* hrs/270 hrs**
NOTES:
*Time in Method
**Total time required in NDT
1. To certify to Level II directly with no
time at Level I, the training and
experience for Levels I and II are
combined.
2. Training hours may be reduced with
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Visual Examination
additional engineering or science study

beyond high school. Refer to Chapter 2
and SNT-TC-1A.
3. Refer to Chapter 2 for details regarding
Level III requirements.
The CP-189 requirements are:
Training
Experience
Level I
8 hours
65*/130**
Level II
16 hours
135*/270**
*Hours in VT
** Total Hours in NDE
NOTES:
1. Experience is based on the actual hours
worked in the specific method.
2. A person may be qualified directly to
NDT Level II with no time as certified
Level, providing the required training
and experience consists of the sum of the
hours required for NDT Level I and NDT
Level II.
3. The required minimum experience must
be documented by method and by hour
with supervisor or NDT Level III
approval.
4. While fulfilling total NDT experience
requirement, experience may be gained
in more than one (1) method.
Minimum experience hours must be met
for each method.
4.3 Principles of Visual Testing

VT is the observation, either directly or
indirectly, of a specimen by an examiner in such
a fashion as to determine the presence or absence
of surface discontinuities or irregularities. VT
should be the first NDE method to be applied to a
specimen. Other NDE methods may or may not
be required after VT. The procedure is usually
quite simple.
VT was probably the first method of NDE
employed by man. Today, VT remains foremost
for detecting and evaluating discontinuities. It
has developed into a multitude of difficult and
elaborate optical investigation techniques.
Some optical examinations are based upon
simple laws of geometrical optics. Others depend
upon rather complicated properties of light, such
as wave characteristics. The unique advantage of
many optical examinations is that they often
yield quantitative data (in addition to qualitative
information) more readily than many other forms
of NDEs.
4.3.1
Applications
Luminous-energy NDEs are used primarily

for examining exposed or accessible surfaces of
opaque materials and test objects (such as the
majority of partially or entirely assembled and
finished products) and also for examining the
interior of transparent test objects (such as glass,
quartz, some plastics, liquids, and gases). For
all types of objects, VT serves to determine the
number, size, shape, surface finish, reflectivity,
brightness,
hue
and
other
color
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characteristics,
discontinuities,
characteristics.
4.3.2
exposed
and fit

Visual Examination
cracks
and
and functional
Visual Factors
Vision involves a number of factors such as

perception of light, form, color, depth, and distance. A perception of form is possible because
light from an object is focused in the eye and an
image is formed. This visual image is affected by
the lens system of the eye in almost the same way
that any lens will bring rays of light to a focus
and form an image. The focus of the lens
system in the eye can be changed like that of a
camera. A diaphragm, the sight hole or iris,
regulates the quantity of light admitted through
the pupil. The retina is a light-sensitive plane
upon which the image is formed. Adjustments
of the focus are made by changing the thickness
and curvature (i.e., the focusing power, of the
lens). Increasing the lens thickness is called
accommodation. This is done by the action of
tiny muscles attached to the lens.
4.3.3
Human Eye
About 38 percent of all nerve fibers entering

or leaving the central nervous system affect
vision. The eye contains 128 million primary
visual receptors that connect to more than one
million neurons in each optic nerve.
The eye can sense a flash of light of only 10
photons of energy. This is equivalent to
detecting the light of a candle from 16 miles
away. Astronauts have been able to see the
smoke of a train from 100 miles above the earth.
If the eyes have become adapted for night

vision, a test image can just be seen against a
dark background if only one cell out of every
6,000 rod cells receives one quantum of light per
second. This is called threshold vision. Bright
moonlight is 20,000 times brighter than the light
needed for threshold vision and that is why a
newspaper can be read in bright moonlight. A
severe deficiency in vitamin A may totally
abolish night vision.
To appreciate the range of brightness to
which the human eye can adjust, consider that a
sunny day at high noon is one billion times
brighter than a starlit night. Human eyes
normally work in tandem. Shine a light into one
eye and both pupils become smaller. Look to
the right and both eyes will look in that direction.
In the center of the retina is a small area
called the fovea which is packed with about six
million cone cells. These cone cells are only
about 1.5 microns in diameter and each connects
directly to a neuron providing resolution
sharpness and color perception provided
sufficient illumination exists. But under dim
light, the cone cells are practically blind and the
human eye must rely upon the 115 million rod
cells, which comprise the balance of the retinal
sensors in each eye. Unlike the cone cells, rod
cells work in groups to feed impulses to a neuron.
A larger the group of rod cells working together
for more sensitivity when the light is low. These
peripheral parts of the retina are nearly one
million times more sensitive to light than the
central fovea.
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When stepping from the bright sunlight into a

dark theater, nothing can be seen at first, as the
dark adaption process begins. Initially, there is
a rapid rise in sensitivity for about 30 seconds
followed by a slower increase until, after 5 to 9
minutes, sensitivity increases over 100 times.
For the next 20 to 30 minutes, sensitivity
continues to increase by a factor of 1,000 to as
much as 10,000 as the pigments in the rod cells
regenerate.
In addition to the 10,000 increase in
sensitivity by the retinal rod cells, other changes
in the eye, including the dilation of the pupil to
allow more light to enter the eye, add to the effect
so that the final result is to make the increase in
light sensitivity equal to 100,000 times. It is
interesting that the adaptation required when
coming from the dark into the light is
accomplished within only a few minutes.
The human eye can resolve detail far beyond
what would appear to be its theoretical limits.
Visual acuity, often called sharpness or
resolution by some, is measured in terms of the
angle subtended at the so-called nodal point of
the eye by the smallest object that can be
distinguished from its background. The light
path passes through a single point near the inner
surface of the lens which is the nodal point, and
then the light spreads out again to form an image
on the retina of the eye. In dim light, the angle
amounts to half a degree and the image produced
on the retina covers thousands of rod cells, but in
bright daylight, much smaller objects subtending
only half a minute of arc can be resolved. The
half minute of arc at the nodal point produces an
image on the retina of only one and one-half

Visual Examination
microns in size, which is the same as the

diameter of one cone cell. So to distinguish one
small object from another, there must be at least
one unstimulated cone cell between them. In
other words, the two images must be at least 1.5
microns apart on the fovea.
Under certain circumstances, such as a single
line against a uniform background, precise
testing shows that the eye can actually resolve
between 0.5 and 4 seconds of arc, which is about
60 times greater than the theoretical limit.
4.3.3.1 Refractivity
In the normal eye the length of the eyeball
and the refractive power of the cornea and lens
are such that images of objects at a distance of 20
feet or more are sharply focused on the retina
when the muscles of accommodation are relaxed.
Defects in these relationships require correction
by glasses. In a farsighted individual for
instance, the situation can be corrected by glasses
made of convex lenses. These bring light from
distant objects to a focus without contracting the
accommodation muscles which make the lens
more convex. In the nearsighted person, light
rays from distant objects focus in front of the
retina. This causes a blurring of the image of all
objects located beyond a critical distance from
the eye. By use of concave lenses, thicker at the
edge than in the center, distant object can be seen
clearly.
4.3.3.2 Distance Judgment
Binocular vision is an important aid in
accurate judgment of distance.
Distance
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Visual Examination
judgment is the basis for depth perception, or

stereoscopic vision.
Stereoscopic vision
depends, at least in part, upon the fact that each
eye gets a slightly different view of close objects.
The right eye sees a little more of the right-hand
surface of the object. The left eye sees a little less
of this surface but more of the left surface.
When the images on the two retinas differ in this
regard, the object is seen as three dimensional,
possessing depth.
peripheral regions of the retina.
4.3.3.3 Mechanism of Vision
4.3.4
The photographic plate used in the camera is

represented in the eye by the retina, which
contains the end plates of the optic nerve. These
receptors are extremely complicated structures
called rods and cones. Nerve impulses arise
here and are conducted along the visual
pathways to the occipital region of the brain.
The mechanism of converting light energy into
nervous impulses is a photochemical process in
the retina.
Color vision is one of the most interesting

aspects of the human eye. It is a function of the
light-adapted eye and is dependent upon the
acuity of the cones. Light, of course, is the
specific stimulus for the eye, but the eye is
sensitive only to rays of certain wavelengths.
Within those wavelengths the stimulus must
have a certain minimum intensity. The sensation
of color varies according to the intensity of the
light, the wavelength of the different radiations,
and the combinations of different wavelengths.
In daylight vision, yellow is the brightest color.
4.3.3.4 Light Receptors

The two kinds of light receptors in the retina,
the rods and the cones, differ in shape as well as
in function. At the point where the optic nerve
enters the retina, there are no rods and cones.
This portion of the retina, called the blind spot, is
insensitive to light. On the other hand, the
maximum visual acuity at high brightness levels
exists only for that small portion of the image
formed upon the center of the retina. This is the
fovea centralis, or spot of clear vision. Here the
layer of blood vessels, nerve fibers, and cells
above the rods and cones is far thinner than in
Daylight vision, which gives color and detail,

is performed by the cones, mainly in the fovea
centralis. These have special nerve paths. At
least three different kinds of cones are present,
each of which is in some way activated by one of
the three fundamental colors.
Color and Color Vision
4.3.4.1 Color Characteristics

Every
color
has
three
physical
characteristics: tone or hue, saturation or purity,
and brightness or luminosity. Hue is that
characteristic of color associated with the color
name, such as green or blue. It may be described
by the wavelength of a hue in the spectrum which
visually matches the dominant hue. Purples do
not exist in the spectrum, but the spectrum
furnishes a hue complementary to that of any
purple. This is true whether the hue is lavender,
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magenta, or any other variation of the family of

purple. Although an estimated seven million or
more distinguishable colors exist, only a few
main colors are distinguished for practical
reasons. Their wavelengths are as follows, in
nanometers (nm): violet, 380 to 450; indigo, 425
to 455; blue, 450 to 480; green, 510 to 550;
yellow 570 to 590; orange, 590 to 630; red, 630
to 730. Light from a limited portion of the
spectrum is called monochromatic.
Another color characteristic is saturation.
For example, if one adds more and more pure
white paint to a pure blue paint, the dominant hue
may remain fairly constant while a series of tints
is produced. Beginning with 100 percent
saturation, the blue becomes less and less
saturated.
A tone or hue also varies in brightness
according to the intensity of radiation. If pure
black paint is mixed with pure blue paint, the
brightness or reflection factor is changed by
adding more and more black, darker and darker
shades are produced. In fact, a series of shades
is produced, beginning with the original color
and ending in black.
4.3.4.2 Brightness Characteristics
The brightness contrast is generally the most
important factor in seeing. The brightness of a
diffusely reflecting colored surface depends
upon its reflection factor and the quantity of
incident light (foot-candles of illumination).
Excessive brightness (or brightness within the
field of view varying by more than 10 to 1)
causes an unpleasant sensation called glare.

Visual Examination
Glare interferes with the ability of clear vision

and critical observation and judgment. Glare
can be avoided by using polarized light or other
polarizing devices.
4.3.4.3 Spectrum Limits of Visibility
The eye perceives all the colors in the solar
spectrum between violet (380 nm) and red (770
nm). Compared with the entire electromagnetic
spectrum, only a rather minute portion is visible,
as shown in Figure 4-1. The response of the
human eye varies considerably at the different
wavelengths throughout this visible range. It
peaks in brightness response at a frequency near
550 to 560 nm in daylight. Its acuity and
contrast sensitivity decrease rapidly as the
energy level of illumination is lowered. The
tendency toward ocular fatigue is accelerated
either by the presence of glare or by efforts to see
at low levels of illumination or in light outside
the optimum frequency range (470 to 610 nm).
4.3.4.4 Color Changes
The critical evaluation of colors and color
changes represents one of the basic principles of
almost all kinds of visual inspection. Corrosion,
oxidation, rusting of metals and alloys, or
deterioration of organic materials is often
accompanied by a change in color. For example,
minute color changes on the surface of fresh
meat, not yet detectable by the human eye, are
detected by photoelectric devices designed for
the automatic inspection of meat before canning.
This is a form of nondestructive testing.
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4.3.5 Observer Differences

It should be recognized that the visibility of
an object is never independent of the human observer. Human beings differ inherently in the
speed, accuracy, and certainty of seeing, even
though they may possess average normal vision.
Human beings vary particularly in threshold
measurements and in their interpretations of
visual sensations. Their psychological feelings,
tensions, and emotions influence their appraisals
of the visibility of objects and influence their
performance of visual tasks under many
conditions.
In other words, they differ
considerably because they are human.
4.3.6
Lighting
Very few indoor areas offer sufficient light to

perform a proper visual examination. Sunlit
areas are excellent for general examination, but
may not be sufficient for examining internal
areas such as bores and deep crevices. High
density fluorescent ceiling lighting offers good
general inspection lighting. For more specific
overall lighting, there are often options. One is a
portable stand with an incandescent flood or
spotlight bulb and reflector similar to those used
by photographers. This gives a high-intensity
source of light for a fairly large area. The stands
are adjustable up and down, and the head swivels
in all directions. This is a good light source for
photographic recording. A word of caution on
this type of light: bulb life is usually short (6
hours), and considerable heat is generated.

Visual Examination
for are heavy-duty swivel adjustments on the

light head and adequate cooling for the lamp
base. Although these heavy-duty lights are
available, they are not as easy to find as the more
common light-duty types. Heavy-duty lights are
considerably more expensive, but easily worth
the price.
The two other general lighting devices are
swivel-arm incandescent and swivel-arm
fluorescents.
These come in a variety of
shapes, sizes, intensities, and swivel-arm types.
They provide less intensity and illuminate a
smaller area than the flood or spotlight type
previously described. They are good for smaller
areas and have longer lives. The fluorescent
type has less intensity, but produces fewer
shadows and is cooler operating. Many of the
incandescent types have variable intensity
controls. These lights can also be used in
conjunction with magnifying devices.
The examiner should have adequate
illumination, either natural or artificial, while
performing VT. This may be determined using
a fine line, approximately 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) in
width, drawn on a 18 percent neutral gray card.
The card should be placed near the area under
examination; if this fine line is distinctly visible,
the illumination is adequate. Generally, a
flashlight will provide sufficient lighting. Some
codes specify minimum foot candles of
illumination that are required while performing
visual inspection; for example, 15 foot candles
(fc) for general examination, and a minimum of
50 fc for the detection of small discontinuities.
When considering such equipment, sturdy

construction is important. Two things to look
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As with any type of examination, once completed, any rejectable area should be identified in
some manner to assure that it will be located and
repaired properly. Many methods are available,
so specific conditions may dictate which
marking system would be most effective. One
method commonly used is to record type, size,
and location of the discontinuities so that they
can be located, identified, and repaired. Perhaps
more effective, however, is the identification of
the rejectable area by marking directly on the
part.
Some conditions may require utilization of both
methods. Whatever method is used, it is all part
of a very important function.
4.3.7 Specific Lighting Devices
Specific lighting devices are of high intensity
and permit light to be concentrated on a small
spot. Incandescent lighting devices are most
common. They typically utilize an adjustable
transformer, one or more diaphragms, adjustable
heads, and are most commonly sold as
microscope lights.
The disadvantage of
microscope lights is that they burn out and
overheat easily, do not have sufficient intensity,
and produce an image of the light bulb filament
on the subject being illuminated.
Several other devices for high-intensity,
highly localized lighting also exist. Two of these
are like the microscope lights previously
described. One uses a halogen source of very
high intensity; the other uses a carbon arc light
source. The latter offer the brightest light
available, but requires adjustments and arc

Visual Examination
replacement. A third device is a fiber optic unit.

This allows highly specific, high intensity light
to be brought very close to an object, even in
confined quarters. It is excellent for high
magnification viewing and extreme close-up
photography.
4.4.1 Mirrors
Mirrors are invaluable because they allow the
examiner to look inside pipes, threaded and
bored holes, castings, and around corners. The
dental mirror is a common tool in most
examiners tool kits. It is usually a small,
circular mirror set on a 6-inch-long handle at
about a 45 angle. It allows the examiner to
view areas not available for direct viewing. The
movable-end mirror uses a pivoting control arm
that allows the examiner to view the inside of the
object, see around corners, and allows the
examiner to move the mirror to scan the entire
area of interest.
4.4.2
Magnification
An object appears to increase in size as it is

brought closer to the eye. In determining
magnifying power, the true size of the object is
seen when the object is 10 inches from the eye.
The 10-inch distance is used as a standard
because this is the typical distance an object is
held from the eye during examination. Linear
magnification is expressed in diameters. The
letter X is normally used to designate the
magnifying power of a lens (e.g., 10X).
Magnification can thus be defined as the ratio of
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the apparent size of an object seen through a

magnifier (known as the virtual image) to the
size of the object as it appears to the unaided eye
at 10 inches.
4.4.2.1 Focal Length
The focal length is the distance from the lens
to the point at which parallel rays of light striking
one side of a lens is brought into focus on the
opposite side. For lenses of short focal length,
light from a source 30 to 40 feet away can be
considered parallel. The focal length can be
determined by holding a lens such that light
coming through a window, for example, will
allow the image of the window or other object to
focus sharply on a sheet of paper held behind the
lens. The distance from lens to paper is then the
focal length. Once the focal length is known, the
magnification of the lens can be determined, and
vice versa. The shorter the focal length, the
greater the magnifying power. The distance of
the eye from the lens must be the same as the
focal length. A lens with a one-inch focal
length, for example, will have a magnifying
power of 10 (10X). This is true if the lens is
held one inch from an object, and the eye is
placed one inch from the lens. In summary, the
following formula determines magnifying power
for a positive lens.
Magnifying Power = 10 / Focal Length
(4-1)
With a simple method of determining focal
length, it is easy to determine magnification.

Visual Examination
4.4.2.2 Magnifying Devices

Various types of magnitude devices exist.
These devices are commonly categorized as
follows:
Hand-held lenses, single and multiple;
Pocket microscopes;
Self-supporting magnifiers;
Magnifying devices that can be worn

attached to the head; and
Magnifying devices with built-in light

sources.
The categories of magnifying devices are

further described below:
Hand-Held Lenses - These are available as a
lens by itself, a lens with a frame and handle, or a
lens that folds out or slides out of its own case.
The fold-out type may include one to four lenses
that can be used alone or in conjunction with one
another. The size generally varies from inch
to 6 inches in diameter. They are available with
either glass or plastic lenses.
Pocket Microscopes - Another variety of the
hand-held magnifier are pocket microscopes.
These are generally small diameter tubes, about
inch in diameter and 6 inches in length,
although they are also available in larger
diameters. The smaller varieties are usually
offered with magnification ranges of 25X to
60X. The subject end is cut at an angle or is
somehow opened to allow maximum available
light along with support.
At these
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magnifications, the field of view and focal length

are extremely limited, as is the available light.
Auxiliary light is often a necessity. The
larger-diameter units have lower magnifying
power.
Self-Supporting
Magnifiers
Self-supporting magnifiers are much like the
hand-held magnifiers, except they free the hands
to manipulate the object being observed. They
are generally low-power magnifying devices like
the hand-held lenses.
Self-supporting
magnifiers are available as lenses with heavy
bases and movable viewers, and lenses that hang
around the neck.
Magnifying
Attachments
These
magnifying devices are of two types. The visor
type has an adjustable band that fits over the
head. This band supports a lens holder that tilts
up and down for use when needed. The lens
system may be two separate lenses or a
continuous strip lens. It is also available with a
loupe accessory for additional magnification.
These visors may be worn with or without
eyeglasses. Magnification offered is generally
low (1.5X to 3X), but can be as high as 10X to
15X. They make excellent visual examination
devices because they can be comfortably worn
for long periods of time and can be quickly tilted
in place for use when needed. Loupes used
without glasses can be held either in the eye
socket by eye muscles, like a monocle, or on the
forehead with a spring clip that wraps around the
head. Loupes are also available that attach to
eyeglasses as single or multiple lenses. These
can be tilted in or out of use easily. The
magnification range for such loupes is 2X to

Visual Examination
18X.
Illuminated Magnifiers - Most magnifying
devices are also available with built-in light
sources. To see details, good lighting is important. This is particularly true at the higher
magnifications since the lens-to-subject distance
is so short. Most light sources are either battery
powered with flashlight batteries or equipped to
plug into a standard wall outlet. The lights are
usually incandescent, but are also available with
fluorescent and ultraviolet light sources.
4.4.3 Borescopes and Fiberscopes
Borescopes and fiberscopes are widely used
for examining tubes, deep holes, long bores, and
pipe bends, which have internal surfaces not
accessible to direct viewing. They allow close
and evenly magnified examination of internal
surfaces for discontinuities. They can be used
to view straight on or at various angles (Figure
4-2).
4.4.3.1 Borescopes
Borescopes come in many sizes, as
illustrated in Figure 4-3.
The smallest
borescopes are tiny needle-like instruments used
to look through very small drilled holes. The
largest borescopes are 7 inches in diameter, 100
feet long, and are used for the examination of
heat exchanger tubes and long runs of pipe.
Most borescopes are equipped with light
sources located near the tip to illuminate the area
being examined. They also have lenses offering
different angles of view or mirror systems to
allow viewing of specific areas of interest.
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Borescopes are manufactured much like a

telescope, and use a system of lenses to view the
area of interest. The lenses serve to magnify the
image as well as provide a way to get to an
inaccessible area. Borescopes are manufactured
for a variety of viewing conditions.
4.4.3.2 Fiberscopes
Fiberscopes (Figure 4-4) are used when the
examination must be performed around curves
and corners. They allow clear viewing at distances up to 300 feet and range in diameter from
1/10-inch up to 3/4-inch. The length and
diameter depend on materials from which the
fiberscope is manufactured. The fiberscope is
made up of a multitude of very small glass fibers,
which are manufactured so that light will
transmit through them and not exit through the
walls of the fiber. By forming a large number of
fibers into a coherent bundle, the examiner is
able to form a complete picture of the area he
wishes to view. Fiberscopes also have a light
source at the tip to illuminate the area of interest.
The tip articulates up to 120o up and down.
Some fiberscopes also articulate, or move, from
left and right. The light-guide jack is used to
bring cold light from the light source out to the
light tip. Most of the light sources have an
illumination level control.
4.4.4

Visual Examination
Therefore, it is important to understand some of

the basics of the closed circuit television system
in order to appreciate its use and limitations.
The TV camera tube is a critical component
of the closed circuit TV system in that it converts
what it sees into electrical impulses and thus
determines the frames and quality of the final
image reproduced at the receiver. For high
resolution at the receiver, the camera tube must
separate the object being televised into as many
picture elements as possible. The higher the
number of elements produced, the greater the
detail resolution capability at the receiver.
TV camera tubes are divided into two
classifications based on how they produce the
electrical image within the tube. The first
method is by a process called photoemission, in
which electrons are emitted by a photosensitive
surface when light reflected from the object is
focused onto the surface. Television tubes that
utilize the photo emission method are called
image orthicon tubes. The second method is by
photoconduction.
In this process, the
conductivity of the photosensitive surface
changes in relation to the intensity of the
reflected light from the scene being focused onto
the
surface.
Tubes
utilizing
the
photoconduction process are called vidicon tubes
and are the primary tubes used in industry.
Electronic Imaging
4.4.4.2 Cathode-ray Tube (Viewing)
4.4.4.1 Closed Circuit Television

Examination of vessels and component
internals are frequently performed with remote
closed circuit television camera equipment.
The two most important aspects of a

cathode-ray tube related to visual interpretation
are brightness and contrast. As the electron
beam scans the back side of the fluorescent
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screen, not all of the light emitted is useful. For

example, 50 percent of the light travels back into
the tube, 20 percent are lost in the glass of the
tube by internal refraction, leaving only 30
percent to reach the observer.
Image contrast is reduced by light returned to
the screen after being reflected from some other
point. The four main sources of this type of
interference are described below:
Halitation - If the electron scanning beam
were held in one spot, the visible spot on the
screen would be surrounded by rings of light.
These rings are caused by a phenomenon termed
halitation (Figure 4-5). Light rays leaving the
fluorescent crystals at the inner surface of the
glass are refracted. Rays that form an angle
greater than 45 are reflected back into the glass
by the outside surface of the glass. Where these
reflected rays strike the fluorescent crystals, they
produce visible rings on the screen, causing a
hazy glow surrounding the beam spot. The end
result of this phenomenon is to reduce the
maximum possible detail contrast.
Reflections Due to Screen Curvature Reflection caused by curvature of the screen also
results in a loss of contrast. Contrast increases
as the surface becomes flatter.
Reflections at the Surface of the Screen
Face - A portion of light is also reflected when it
reaches the outside surface of the glass (the
glass-air surface). These light rays are reflected
back and forth between the inner and outer
surface of the glass, with some of the light being
emitted and the balance being absorbed.

Visual Examination
Reflections from Inside the Tube - Reflections from the inside surfaces of the tube can
decrease the field contrast of the image. By
adding an extremely thin film of aluminum to the
back of the fluorescent screen, this condition can
be almost eliminated.
Resolution - The resolution of the television
system is the number of lines in the picture. The
electron beam produces the picture by repeatedly
drawing lines of varying brightness across the
tube. There is a 525-line signal in the visual
broadcast picture, with approximately 480 lines
actually forming the picture and the rest being
used in the return of the beam from the bottom to
the top of the picture. There is also a resolution
in terms of lines in the horizontal direction, even
though there are no actual lines on the screen.
TV monitors are designed to have equivalent
horizontal and vertical resolution. The closed
circuit television systems used for industrial
examinations have a much higher resolution than
a broadcast system, usually about 1,000 lines.
4.4.4.3 Digital Imaging
Digital imaging can provide significant improvement in the interpretation of visual and
radiographic images. Frequently, these images
contain more information than the human eye
can see because the human eye is biologically
limited in distinguishing gray level differences
and detecting edges.
For example, while
radiographic film contains sufficient sensitivity
to detect density differences of 0.05 to 0.1
percent (approximately 1,000 to 2,000 gray
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levels), the human eye can only resolve gray

levels which differ by at least 2 percent
(approximately 32 to 64 gray levels). A
boundary or edge condition can be distinguished
only when two adjoining areas of an image differ
by 12 percent in density.
Enhancement systems utilize digitization to
provide information in a format acceptable to
standard computers. Initial picture information
can be generated from a variety of analytical
probes, such as X-rays, gamma-rays, ultrasonics,
visible light, or scanning electron microscope.
After the image information is transferred by the
appropriate use of mathematical models, the
resulting image enhancement can then be displayed for further visual analysis by the user.
Existing enhancement techniques are
applicable to both old information, videotapes,
and new data produced from various analytical
probes.
4.4.5
Photographic Techniques
The purpose of this section is to provide

some useful techniques that will yield better
results when trying to photograph various plant
components in conjunction with visual
examination.
4.4.5.1 Depth of Field
Depth of field can be defined as the overall
sharpness of focus apparent in a photograph.
When trying to photograph a subject, only a
single plane through the subject is actually in
focus. This plane is called the principal plane of

Visual Examination
focus. When working at higher magnifications,

this effect becomes even more significant. In a
typical 35mm camera, the lens diaphragm is used
to provide a degree of control over the thickness
of the principal plane of focus or depth of field.
Focusing should normally be done with the
lens diaphragm all the way open for best
accuracy and image brightness. This step
establishes the principal plane of focus. If the
lens diaphragm opening is now reduced, portions
of the subject both in front and in back of the
principal plane of focus now appear sharper.
Closing the lens diaphragm increases this effect.
By adjusting the lens diaphragm, the examiner
can effectively control the depth of field and
thereby predetermine what will and will not be in
focus (sharply defined) in the final picture.
Using a standard 35 mm camera and lens, the
best control over depth of field can usually be
obtained by focusing one-third into the region or
area of the discontinuity of interest. This is
because the depth of field or area of sharpness
(using a 55 mm lens) extends farther behind the
principal plane of focus than in front of it. As
magnification is increased (90 mm and 120 mm
lenses), the reverse is true.
A good general principle is that depth of field
is only affected by two main factors: lens diaphragm opening and the image or subject
magnification.
Since
most
discontinuities
being
photographed will be three dimensional, there is
another factor to consider. The magnification
will be exact only at the principal plane of focus.
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Where measurements of overall size of a

discontinuity are to be made directly from the
final print, the principal plane of focus must be at
the widest part of the subject.
4.4.5.2 Lighting
In general, when photographing power plant
components or discontinuities, the light should
be correctly oriented to the subject. Where
possible, the lighting should be provided from
the top in relation to the subject being
photographed.
Lighting should also be
provided from one direction on most three
dimensional objects to avoid ambiguity in relief.
If supplementary lighting is required, it should be
slightly weaker and more diffused than the main
lighting source.
A common problem in trying to photograph
plant components (for example piping welds) is
high spots caused by unwanted reflections of the
flash unit on the subject itself. Such reflections
can usually be eliminated by moving the flash
unit to direct the secularly reflected light away
from the lens. Another effective method of
eliminating subject reflections is to bounce the
flash off a piece of white cardboard.
4.4.5.3 Film
The actual size of the negative directly
affects the quality of any enlargements. The
larger the size of the negative, the better quality
any enlargement will be. Selecting the speed of
the film is another important decision. Several
factors influence this decision. Among them is
the amount of light available on the subject and

Visual Examination
the size of the print to be made from the negative.

High speed film requires less light but produces
grainy prints. Graininess increases as the size
of the enlargement increases. Slow speed films
are used where very fine detail is required. The
drawback of slow speed film is that it requires
more light on the subject being photographed.
4.5 Measuring Equipment
Drawings and specifications provide the
dimensions and allowable tolerances. The type
of measuring device to be used is largely dictated
by the design tolerances and the accessibility of
the dimension to be measured. Generally,
dimensions with tolerances given in fractions
may be measured using steel rules while
dimensions with tolerances given in decimals
require greater precision.
Numerous types of measuring devices with
varying degrees of precision are available.
Precision refers to the ability of an instrument
to reproduce its own measurements. Precision
should not be confused with the term accuracy,
which is the degree of conformance of a
measurement to the actual value. Reliability is
the probability of achieving desired results.
More specific definitions of the terms: precision,
accuracy, and reliability are given in Table 4-1.
4.5.1 Linear Scales
Linear
measurements
are
those
measurements that involve only a single
straight-line dimension.
Since all linear
measurement gages (or rules) are designed on the
basis of the international inch and are scaled
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from the basic linear scale, it is necessary to

know how to read and use a rule before
proceeding on to other measuring tools.
A scale is graduated in proportion to a unit of
length. The divisions of a rule are increments of
a unit of measurement. The draftsman uses an
architects scale whose divisions represent feet
and inches or an engineers scale whose graduations are in decimal divisions of the foot.
4.5.2 Steel Rules
Rules are essential and so frequently used on
a variety of work that they are supplied in a
number of different styles. The most common
rules are steel and are graduated in fractions of an
inch or decimal part of an inch. The better
quality rules meet the accuracy standards of the
NIST.
4.5.3 The Vernier Scale
The steel rule previously discussed is classified as a non-precision measuring instrument and
basically is used when fractional measurements
are adequate.
Many precision measuring
instruments available today are capable of
measuring in decimal units to a precision factor
of 0.0001 inch. This precision is made possible
by the simple method of amplifying the
discrimination of the basic linear scale.
One of the simplest ways to amplify
discrimination is the vernier scale. The vernier
scale system is used on various precision
measuring instruments such as the vernier
caliper, vernier micrometer, vernier height and

Visual Examination
depth gages, gear tooth verniers, and vernier

protractors. In addition, many industrial
machines use the vernier scale system, such as
the handwheel scale of a jig borer.
4.5.4 Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers are highly accurate
measuring instruments capable of measuring in
thousandths of an inch and are similar to ordinary
slide calipers but are more accurate (Figure 4-6).
The vernier caliper is made up of an L-shaped
frame with a fixed jaw as one of the legs of the
frame. Graduations are accurately engraved on
the long leg of the frame. These graduations are
called the main scale. The length of the main
scale determines the size of the calipers. Sizes
range through standard lengths of 6, 12, 24, 36,
or 48 inches. The most commonly used sizes
are 6 and 12 inches in length. A sliding bar or
sliding jaw has a vernier scale attached to each
side. The two jaws of the vernier calipers are
made of hardened steel.
Vernier caliper beams have two sets of
graduations; one for inside and one for outside
measurements. These graduations may be on
the same side of the beam, with one set along the
upper edge and the other near the bottom of the
beam, or the outside graduations may be on the
front side of the beam and the inside graduations
on the back. If graduations are on both sides,
the outside readings on the front are read from
left to right, and the inside readings on the back
are read from right to left. The reason that two
sets of graduations are required is that outside
readings are made between the caliper jaws and
inside readings are made between them. When
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the jaws are closed, the zero line on the inside

vernier scale falls on a number of graduations
beyond the zero line on the beam. The distance is
the thickness of both nibs, since this width must
be included in all inside measurements.
4.5.5 Dial Calipers
The dial caliper (Figure 4-7) is considerably
more expensive than the vernier caliper. The
dial mechanism is more subject to malfunction
than the simple vernier scale. The accuracy of the
reading mechanism of the dial caliper is a
function of length of travel. Accuracy to 0.001
inch per 6 inches of travel is usually claimed. In
contrast, the accuracy of the vernier reading is
the same any place along the scale. In either
case, the accuracy of the main scale must also be
considered. The dial caliper is used by less
skilled personnel or for quick checking of
dimensions with relatively wide tolerances.
Therefore, the vernier caliper remains the
instrument of choice for skilled people doing
precision work.
4.5.6 Micrometer
A micrometer (Figure 4-8) in the hands of a
skilled operator can be used to reliably measure
within 0.001 inch. The instrument's inherent
precision is usually between 0.0005 and 0.001
inch. The micrometer operates on the principle
that a screw accurately made with a pitch of 40
threads per inch will advance 1/40th (.025) of an
inch with each complete turn. This screw thread
is on the spindle and revolves in a fixed nut concealed by a sleeve. The sleeve on a 1-inch micrometer is marked longitudinally with four lines

Visual Examination
per inch corresponding with the number of

threads on the spindle. Each fourth line is
numbered with the digits from 0 through 9 to
indicate the .000 through .900 readings. The
beveled edge of the thimble is marked into 25
divisions around the circumference and is
numbered from 0 to 24. When the micrometer
is closed, only the 0 line of the thimble should be
aligned with the horizontal or axial line of the
sleeve. If the 0 line of the thimble is not aligned
with the horizontal or axial line on the sleeve, the
sleeve may be adjusted to 0, using a spanner tool
generally provided with each instrument.
4.5.7 Micrometer Depth Gages
Micrometer depth gages are used in a manner
similar to the application of calipers for
measuring depth, except that the reading is
obtained from a micrometer sleeve and thimble.
4.5.8
Dial Indicator
The dial indicator (Figure 4-9) is one of the

mostly widely used measuring instruments
today. It consists of a graduated dial with an
indicating hand, a contact point attached to a
spindle, and a gear or level-amplifying
mechanism.
4.5.9
Balanced Dials
Most gages have a balanced dial that have

consecutively numbered graduations on both
sides of zero. Dimensional comparisons are
indicated as plus or minus variations from the
nominal zero point. These dials are suited to
bilateral tolerances. It is also possible to have a
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continuous dial reading

clockwise position.

Visual Examination
typically
in
the
used at a time.
4.5.11 Thread Pitch Gages
The single greatest advantage of dial indicators over fixed gages is their ability to visually
display not only whether the test piece meets
dimensional limits of the specifications
(GO-NO-GO), but by how much it varies from
the nominal dimensions. Many operations
require the variation factor to be gaged rather
than indicating the limits.
Combined with various accessories, dial
indicators provide a wide range of gaging
applications such as:
Internal, external and height measurements;
Concentricity and alignment of shafts;
Close tolerance adjustments of equipment;
Bore and hole diameter and depth, taper, bell

mouth, and barrel;
Surface flatness and finish;
Pipe flange alignment; and
Mounting on production machines for truing

work, checking run out, concentricity, and
alignment.
4.5.10
Combination Square Set
The combination square set (Figure 4-10)

consists of a blade and a set of three heads: square, center, and protractor. The combination
square set is used universally in mechanical work
for assembly, layout, and work-in-progress
examinations. Although the three heads combine
the function of several tools and serves a wide
variety of purposes; normally only one head is
Thread Pitch Gages are used to determine the

number of threads per inch and the thread pitch
on screws, bolts, nuts, pipe, and other threaded
parts. (See Figure 4-11) The teeth on the
various leaves of the thread pitch gage, which
correspond to the standard thread forms, are used
like a profile gage.
4.5.12
Thickness Gages / Feeler Gages
Thickness gages such as bevel protractors are

used for gaging clearance between objects such
as bearing clearance, gear play, pipe-pipe flange
clearance, or gaging narrow slots. Commonly
called feeler gages, they are available in sets that
contain leaves ranging in thickness from 0.0015
to 0.200 inch.
4.5.13
Levels
Levels are tools designed for use in

determining whether a plane or surface is truly
horizontal or vertical.
Some levels are
calibrated to indicate the angle on inclination in
degrees in relation to a horizontal or vertical
surface.
4.6 Visual Examination of Welds
4.6.1
Prior to Welding
Prior to welding, some typical action items

requiring attention by the VT examiner include:
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Review drawings and specifications.
Check qualification of procedures and

personnel to be utilized.
Establish check points.
Prepare a plan for recording results.
Review materials to be utilized.
Check for base metal discontinuities,
Check fit-up and alignment of weld joints.
Check preheat, if required.
4.6.2
During Welding
During welding, a number of items require

control so that the resulting weld will be
satisfactory. Visual examination is the primary
method for controlling this aspect of the
fabrication. It can prove to be a valuable
process control tool. Some of the aspects of
fabrication that can be checked include:

Visual Examination
welding has been completed. However, if all of

the previously discussed steps have been taken
before and during welding, this final phase of VT
will be accomplished easily. It simply provides
a check to ensure that the steps taken have
resulted in a satisfactory weld. Some of the
various items which require attention after
welding has been completed are:
Final weld appearance,
Final weld size,
Weld length,
Dimensional accuracy,
Amount of distortion, and
Post-weld heat treatment.
Quality of weld root bead,
The purpose of final examination is to ensure

the weld's quality. Most codes and specifications
describe the extent of the discontinuities that are
acceptable, and many of these can occur on the
surface of the completed weld.
Joint root preparation prior to welding the

second side,
4.6.4
Preheat and interpass temperatures,
Sequence of weld passes,
Subsequent layers for apparent weld quality,
Cleaning between passes, and
Conformance with the applicable procedure

(i.e., voltage, amperage, heat input, speed).
Any of these factors, if ignored, could result

in discontinuities that could cause serious quality
degradation.
4.6.3
After Welding
Many feel that VT commences once the

Weld Examination Gages
4.6.4.1 Fillet Weld Gage

The fillet weld gage offers a quick means of
measuring most fillet welds of 1/8 inch (3.2 mm)
through 1 inch (25 mm) in size. It measures
both convex and concave fillet welds. To
measure a convex fillet weld (Figure 4-12), the
blade representing the specified fillet weld size
with the concave curve should be selected. The
lower edge of the blade is placed on the base
plate with the tip of the blade moved to the
upright member. To measure a concave fillet
weld (Figure 4-13), the blade representing the
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specified fillet weld size with the double concave

curve should be selected. After placing the lower
edge of the blade on the base plate with the tip
touching the upright member, the projection
formed by the double curve should just touch the
center of the weld face. This will measure
throat size for the specified weld size.
However, if the center portion of the gage does
not touch the weld, the weld has insufficient
throat size.
4.6.4.2 Multipurpose Gage
Several multipurpose welding gages are
available on the market today. A multipurpose
gage is capable of performing many measurements, such as measuring convex and concave
fillet welds, weld reinforcement, and root
opening. The numerous and various gages
available cannot all be detailed in the manual;
therefore, the instructions with each gage should
be followed carefully.
An example of a
multipurpose weld gage is the Palmgren gage
(Figure 4-14).
4.6.4.3 Taper Gage
The taper gage is inserted into the opening of
a joint to measure root opening (gap). The root
opening measurement is taken from the gage at
the point where the gage becomes snug in the
joint.
4.6.4.4 Hi-Lo Gage
The Hi-Lo gage (Figure 4-15) also called a
mismatch gage, is used to measure the internal
alignment of a pipe joint. After the gage has

Visual Examination
been inserted and adjusted, the thumb screw is

tightened, and the tool is removed for
measurement of misalignment.
4.6.4.5 Ferrite Gages
The presence of a small fraction of the magnetic delta ferrite phase in an otherwise austenitic
(nonmagnetic) weld metal has a pronounced
influence in the prevention of both centerline
cracking and fissuring. The amount of delta
ferrite in as-welded weld metal is largely, but not
completely, controlled by a balance in the weld
metal composition between the ferrite-promoting
elements and the austenite-promoting elements.
An austenitic stainless steel weld will have a
tendency to develop small cracks or fissures if
there is insufficient delta ferrite structure.
These small fissures tend to be located transverse
to the weld interface in weld beads and base
metal that were reheated to near the melting
point.
4.7 Remote Visual Inspection (RVI)
4.7.1 Fiber-optic Borescopes, Fiberscopes,
and Video Image Scopes
Fiber-optic borescopes, fiberscopes, and
video image scopes enable an examiner to see
inside equipment, components, or structures that
have closed or hidden areas that would not ordinarily be accessible to visual examination. The
images brought back from inaccessible work
sites can be electronically captured, enhanced,
analyzed, and a hard copy made for future
reference.
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Rigid Borescopes vs. Flexible Fiberscopes

- The difference between rigid borescopes and
flexible fiberscopes is that the former have a
series of lenses to relay the image. The lenses
are encased in a stainless steel sheath or working
length in diameters that range from 6 mm to
16 mm. The smaller sized borescopes, 1.2 mm to
4 mm, do not have relay lenses. Instead they
have a special rigid image-relaying solid rod or a
quartz fiber bundle in a steel tube. Also encased
within the steel tube is a fiber-optic bundle that
conveys light from the light source to the
worksite. Unlike the flexible fiberscope, the
borescope requires straight line access to the
examination area, since it cannot bend.
Straight line access is not necessarily
difficult to attain, if the examiner studies the
equipment under inspection, refers to blueprints,
and plans the work.
Many modern
manufacturers provide access ports for
borescopes in their machinery.
Flexible fiberscopes, on the other hand, have
separate fiber-optic optical bundles, which are
image and illumination systems encased in a
flexible sheath or insertion tube. The flexible
tube can be worked around corners and into
places that do not have straight line access. The
image formed by the objective lens in the tip or
distal end is relayed back to the eyepiece, not by
a series of lenses, but by a special bundle of
fibers called the image bundle. The image is an
array of pixels or small dots of color that form an
image in the way that a mosaic forms a picture.
An electronic variation of the optical

Visual Examination
fiberscope is the video image scope. Instead of

only an objective lens at the distal end of the
flexible insertion tube and an image bundle to
convey the image, the video image scope has a
very small video camera and a lens in the distal
end. The camera, which is based on charge
coupled device (CCD) compact chip technology,
sends back a color video image to the unit, where
it is displayed on a video monitor.
4.7.2
Liquid Penetrant Examinations Combined with RVI
Black light techniques are being developed

with fiber-optic equipment.
One flexible
fiberscope has an integral light guide cable
especially designed to transmit ultraviolet (UV)
light and an extra working channel for the
transmission of fluids and special tools.
Borescopes are available with integral quartz
light guides for the transmission of UV light.
Current limitations of this technique include the
necessity of cleaning the surface before
developer is applied and the requirement of
cleaning the remaining developer and dye from
the surface after examination to avoid corrosion
or residue. These requirements have generally
limited UV inspection with fiberscopes to shop
locations, where the equipment is wholly or
partially disassembled and capable of being
thoroughly cleaned after inspection.
A working channel fiberscope and newly
designed working tools that address cleaning and
residue and UV light sources enable the
examiner using penetrants to reach locations that
are difficult or impossible to see with the unaided
eye, even in the disassembled condition.
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Equally important, fiberscopes and borescopes

afford magnification of the image that allows the
examiner using penetrants to magnify the
smallest discontinuities and to document them.
In addition, these instruments make possible
accurate documentation through photography or
video recording and precise measurement.
4.7.3 Magnetic Particle Examinations Combined with RVI
Like PT, fiberscopes and borescopes are
growing in use with MT as VT aids for areas that
are inaccessible to the unaided human eye.
These areas include internal surfaces, threaded
holes, keyways, etc. Another advantage of these
instruments is the ability to magnify small
discontinuities and to document them with
photography or by video, then measure them
with great accuracy. A growing technique makes
use of a working channel in a fiberscope to blow
or pump the MT medium to the remote
examination area.
4.7.4
Ultrasonic Examinations Combined

with RVI
Ultrasonic scanners for fiberscopes have

been developed for industrial use based on
previous medical use. They are capable of
penetrating very small access openings. The
scope has an ultrasonic transducer that rotates
360 in a balloon attachment filled with water as
transmission medium. The balloon fits snugly
against the wall of the component under study
and transmits the sound waves to it. The
transducer detects the reflected sound waves, and
their signals are displayed. The ability to make

Visual Examination
examinations with an industrial fiberscope

equipped with an ultrasonic transducer and
transmitting device presents an opportunity for
expanding remote internal examination in
dramatically new areas.
4.7.5 Eddy
Current
Combined with RVI
Examinations
Fiberscopes have been used in experiments

and actual industrial use to provide ET of components. In one such application, a system has
been developed that uses a fiberscope with two
working channels. One channel carries the eddy
current probe and the other carries a marking
device to indicate the location of the
discontinuity. A video camera is adapted to the
fiberscope and the process is watched on a TV
monitor and recorded on video tape. The
system is used to examine turbine blades. In
use, the probe, which protrudes about 10 mm in
front of the distal tip so that it is in the field of
view, is manipulated by the fiberscope to the
location of the suspected area. A discontinuity
can be measured for depth and length by ET
instrumentation. In many cases it is desirable to
mark the location with the marking device. In
this application, the marking device consists of a
probe on a wire contained in the second working
channel. The probe has a high voltage transformer connected to it and grounded to the turbine. The marking probe is manipulated by the
scope and located at the end of the discontinuity.
Then, a spark is induced between the probe and
the blade; the spark leaves a small trace. Future
examinations will reveal if the discontinuity has
grown in length.
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4.8
Specific
Generation
Applications

Visual Examination
for
Power
A rapidly growing area of fiberscope and

borescope development lies in instruments
developed for specific applications. Thus a
scope can be designed to solve a single problem
or a special combination of problems. For
example, there are custom-made scopes to
withstand high pressures and temperatures and
scopes designed to work in high and ultrahigh
vacuums. Other scopes can be designed to
convey color images to a spectrometer for
measurement; others, to measure high temperatures or to work in a highly corrosive environment.
Power generation plants use borescopes and
fiberscopes extensively to reduce maintenance
and avoid unscheduled outages (a shut down of
the plant and a loss of output of electricity during
the shut down).
Among the equipment
examined in power plants are steam and gas
turbines.
4.8.1
Steam Turbines
Steam turbines are also extensively

examined with fiberscopes and borescopes.
Steam is supplied to the turbine at superheated
temperatures and high speeds. The turbine is
driven by the force of the steam passing over the
turbine blades. The turbine in turn drives the
electric generator, producing electricity. The
turbine blades range in size from small to large
and are examined closely with fiber-optic scopes
for corrosion, erosion, cracking, tip clearances,
etc. It is important to monitor discontinuities

because of the potential loss of efficiency or even
catastrophic failure.
4.8.2
Surface
Condensers
Exchangers
and
Heat
In power plants, the steam that drives the

turbine is cooled and condensed in a special heat
exchanger called a surface condenser. This
condenser consists of a large chamber containing
thousands of feet of tubes that carry cooling
water. A vacuum is maintained in the chamber
to extract additional energy from the expanding
steam. As the exhaust steam cools in the
condenser, condensate is collected at the bottom
of the chamber and returned to the boilers for
another cycle. It is important that the cooling
water tubes maintain their integrity so that the
cooling water does not leak into the condensate
and contaminate its purity.
Maintaining
condensation purity is especially important in
nuclear plants.
It is also important to minimize mineral
deposits or scale on the inner walls of the
tubing. Deposit buildup on the tube wall reduces
the cooling effect by inhibiting thermal exchange
between the steam and the cooling water.
Inefficient cooling means less efficient turbine
operation. This adds to the cost of producing
electricity. Borescope examination of the tube
interior will detect mineral deposit buildup.
Cooling water tubes are made of various
materials such as copper, nickel, stainless steel,
and titanium. To examine these tubes, long
fiber-optic devices are needed. Many other
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smaller auxiliary heat exchangers in the power

plant also require borescopes, fiberscopes, or
video-image scopes to examine in the same way
that the surface condenser is inspected for
deposits and corrosion.

Visual Examination
Direct Visual Examination is defined as a VT

where the eye can be placed within the 24" of
the surface to be examined and at an angle
not less than 30 to the surface.
Minimum light intensity of 100 foot candles

at the examination surface.
Additionally, other power plant equipment

that can be examined by a borescope includes
piping, valves, boilers, motors, and drives.
Boilers are extensively examined with
borescopes, fiberscopes, and video image
scopes. Checks include boiler fittings for
security; boiler feet for cracks and distortion;
tube inner walls for corrosion, erosion, pitting,
blockage and weld integrity; tube externals for
corrosion, combustion buildup and fretting
against tube supports; and boiler drums for
scaling and buildup of chemicals.
Remote Visual Examination is an acceptable

substitute for Direct Visual Examination
where accessibility is a problem.
Translucent Visual Examination is a

supplement of Direct Visual Examination
and uses artificial lighting as an illumination
to view a translucent object or material.
4.9 Visual Examination Code Requirements
The VT-1 visual examination is conducted to

detect discontinuities and imperfections on
the surfaces of components, including such
conditions as cracks, wear, corrosion, or
erosion.
Direct VT-1 visual examination may be conducted when access is sufficient to place the
eye within 24 inches of the surface to be
4.9.2
A summary of ASME IWA-2211 VT-1 requirements follows:
A brief summary of VT sections is taken

from the following:
ASME:
AWS:
American Society of Mechanical Engineers

American
National
Standards
Institute
American Welding Society
4.9.1
ASME-Section V
ANSI:
examined and at an angle not less than 30 to

the surface.
Mirrors may be used to
improve the angle of vision. Lighting,
natural or artificial, shall be a minimum of 50
foot-candles (fc) and / or the ability to resolve
a character of 0.044.
A brief summary of the requirements for VT

examination as contained in Article 9 follows:
A report of the demonstration that the

procedure was adequate is required.
An annual vision test is required (J-1 letters).
ASME Section XI
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examination may use aids, such as

telescopes, borescopes, fiber optics, cameras,
or other suitable instruments, provided such
systems have a resolution capability at least
equivalent to that attainable by direct visual
examination.
The VT-2 visual examination is conducted to

detect evidence of leakage from pressure
retaining components, with or without leakage collection systems, as required during the
conduct of system pressure test.

Visual Examination
snubbers, and constant load and spring type

supports.
Lighting shall be a minimum of 50 fc and
/ or the ability to resolve a character of 0.105
4.9.2.1 Supplemental Qualifications of VT
Examination Personnel
Section XI, IWA-2300 includes additional
requirements for VT examiners that should be
addressed in the CP-189 Written Practice:
Training, qualification, and certification of

VT examiners must comply with the
requirements of Appendix VI.
This
Appendix specifies the qualification
requirements for VT examination personnel
who will be performing VT-1, VT-2, and
VT-3 examinations.
It also contains
Supplement 1, which describes the subjects
to be included in the VT training course.
IWA-2316
provides
for
Alternative
Qualifications of VT-2 examination personnel:
- 40-hour plant walk down experience, and
- at least 40-hours of training in the Section
XI
requirements and plant-specific VT-2
procedures.
IWA-2317
provides
for
Alterative
Qualifications of VT-3 examination
personnel:
- at least 40-hours of plant experience, and
- at least 8-hours of training in the Section XI
requirements and plant-specific VT-3
procedures.
VT-2 visual examinations are conducted in

accordance with IWA-5000, System
Pressure Tests.
The VT-3 visual examination shall be conducted to determine the general mechanical
and structural condition of components and
their supports, by verifying parameters of
clearances, settings, physical displacements,
and
to
detect
discontinuities
and
imperfections such as loss of integrity at
bolted or welded connections, loose or
missing parts, debris, corrosion, wear, or
erosion.
VT-3
examinations
also
include
examinations for conditions that could affect
operability or functional adequacy of
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4.9.3
Basic Body of Knowledge,

-
practical on-the-job situations and a specific

code (selected by the examinee). The test is
administered at test sites around the country,
and
AWS Certified Welding Inspector
As in all format certification programs, the

goal is to assure uniformity of a basic block of
knowledge. To assure this uniformity and to set
minimum standards for Welding Inspectors the
American Welding Society (AWS) created its
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) program in
1976. The program consists of:

Visual Examination
The Welding Inspector,

Documents
Governing
Welding
Inspection and Control of Materials,
Weld Joint Geometry and Welding
Terminology,
Welding and Nondestructive Testing
Symbols,
Mechanical and Chemical Properties of
Metals,
Destructive Testing,
Welding Metallurgy for the Welding
Inspector,
Welding
Procedure
and
Welder
Qualification,
Welding, Brazing and Cutting Processes,
Weld and Base Metal Discontinuities,
Nondestructive Testing, and
Visual Inspection as an Effective Quality
Control Tool.
Vision Test.
Once the potential candidate meets the above

requirements, he will be issued a certification
from AWS. The certification is valid for three
years. To renew the certification, the CWI must
submit documentation showing continued work
in the welding discipline or be re-examined.
4.10
An examiner should be able to maintain

adequate records, including writing clear and
concise reports. Reports should include
comments on the general character of the work,
how well it stayed within prescribed tolerances,
difficulties that occurred, and any discontinuities
or rejectable conditions. Any repairs should be
explained. Copies of these records should go to
all persons entitled to receive them, and a copy
should be kept for the examiners own files. It
should be remembered that facts well known at
the time of the writing may not be recalled so
clearly, completely, or accurately later.
Checklists are helpful and can be used to
document examination points during fabrication.
4.11
Records
Minimum of five (5) years relevant work

experience,
Advantage and Limitations of

Visual Testing
4.11.1 Advantages
Three part test covering fundamentals,

The advantages of VT are:
427
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Simplicity,
Speed,
Low cost (usually),
Extensive training usually not necessary,
Minimal equipment needed, and
Can be performed while specimen is in use.

Visual Examination
4.11.2 Limitations
The limitations of VT are:
Only surface conditions can be detected or

measured,
Poor or variable resolution of eye,
Fatigue,
Distractions, and
Some equipment is expensive.
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Visual Examination
Table 4-1. Precision, Accuracy, and Reliability

PRECISION
ACCURACY
RELIABILITY
General Meaning
Exactness
Degree of exactitude
Desirability
Probability of achieving desired results
Measures
Fineness of readings
Ratio of correct to
incorrect readings
Probability of correct
readings
Method of Stating
Within a 3-inch circle,

plus or minus 0.001
inch
5 out of 10
50% of full scale
90% reliable
Specific Meaning
The lower the standard

deviation of measurement, the higher
the precision
The number of measurements within a

specified standard as
compared to those
outside
The probability of
performing without a
specific function under
given conditions for a
specified period of
time
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Viisual Examination
Figuree 4-1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Viisual Examination
Figuree 4-2 Direction of View (DOV)
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Viisual Examination
Fig
gure 4-3 Typical Borescope
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Viisual Examination
Figure 4-4 Fiberscope
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Viisual Examination
Figure 4-5 Halitation
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Viisual Examination
Fiigure 4-6 Vernier Caliper
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Viisual Examination
Figuree 4-7 Dial Indicating Calipers
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Viisual Examination
Figure 4-8 Micrometer
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Viisual Examination
F
Figure
4-9 Dial Indicator
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Viisual Examination
Figure 4-10 Combination Square Set
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Viisual Examination
Figu
ure 4-11 Thread Pitch Gages
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Viisual Examination
Figure 4-12 Measuring Convex Fillet Weld Size
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Viisual Examination
Figure 4-13 Measuring

M
Concave Fillet Weld Size
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Viisual Examination
Figurre 4-14 Palmgren Weld Gage
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Viisual Examination
F
Figure
4-15 Weld Gages
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Nondestructive Examination (NDE) and Technology Codes

Student Manual
Volume 2
Chapter 7.0
Introduction to Magnetic Particle Examination
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.0 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...1

Learning Objectives
7.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
7.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
7.3.1 Key Terms.3
7.3.2
Theory of Magnetism ........................................................................................... 4

7.3.2.1 Horseshoe Magnet .................................................................................... 4
7.3.2.2 Bar Magnet ............................................................................................... 5
7.3.2.3 Flux Line Characteristics .......................................................................... 5
7.3.2.4 Classification of Materials ........................................................................ 5
7.3.2.5 Molecular Theory ..................................................................................... 6
7.3.2.6 Leakage Fields .......................................................................................... 6
7.3.2.7 Hysteresis Loop ........................................................................................ 6
7.4 Producing Magnetic Fields ..................................................................................................... 6

7.4.1 Induced Magnetic Fields ...................................................................................... 7
7.4.1.1 Permanent Magnets .................................................................................. 7
7.4.1.2 Electromagnets ......................................................................................... 7
7.4.2
Circular Magnetization ......................................................................................... 7

7.4.2.1 Direct Magnetization ................................................................................ 8
7.4.2.2 Indirect Magnetization .............................................................................. 9
7.4.2.3 Equipment ................................................................................................. 9
7.4.2.4 Field Strength Calculations ...................................................................... 9
7.4.2.5 Code Requirements - Circular ................................................................ 10
7.4.2.5.1
Direct Contact Technique (Head Shot) .......................................... 10
7.4.2.5.2
Central Conductor ....................................................................... 10
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7.4.2.5.3
7.4.3
Table of Contents
Prods ........................................................................................... 11
Longitudinal Magnetization ............................................................................... 11

7.4.3.1 Coil Shot ................................................................................................. 12
7.4.3.2 Cable Wrap ............................................................................................. 12
7.4.3.3 Quick Break Technique .......................................................................... 12
7.4.3.4 Equipment ............................................................................................... 13
7.4.3.5 Coil Field Strength Calculations............................................................. 13
7.4.3.6 Code Requirements - Longitudinal......................................................... 13
7.4.4 Field Direction .................................................................................................... 14

7.4.5
Multidirectional Magnetic Fields ....................................................................... 14
7.4.6
Magnetizing Current ........................................................................................... 14
7.5 Techniques ............................................................................................................................ 15

7.5.1
Continuous
.................................................................................................... 16
7.5.2
Residual
.................................................................................................... 16
7.6 Magnetic Particles..16

7.6.1 Visible Particles - Wet ........................................................................................ 16
7.6.2 Fluorescent Particles - Wet ................................................................................. 16
7.6.3 Advantages of Wet Particles............................................................................... 17
7.6.4
Limitations of Wet Particles ............................................................................... 17
7.6.5 Dry Particles .................................................................................................... 17

7.6.6 Advantages of Dry Particles ............................................................................... 17
7.6.7
Limitations of Dry Particles ............................................................................... 18
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7.6.8 Particle Characteristics ....................................................................................... 18

7.6.8.1 Wet Particle Concentration..................................................................... 18
7.6.8.2 Particle Size ............................................................................................ 18
7.6.8.3 Particles for Wet Suspension .................................................................. 18
7.6.8.4 Particle Shape ......................................................................................... 19
7.6.8.5 Magnetic Particle Properties ................................................................... 19
7.6.8.6 Particle Mobility ..................................................................................... 19
7.7 Stationary Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.8 Portable Equipment .............................................................................................................. 21
7.8.1
Yokes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
7.8.1.1 Electro-Magnet Yoke ............................................................................. 21
7.8.1.2 Permanent Magnet Yoke ........................................................................ 21
7.8.2
Prods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.8.2.1 Contact Prods .......................................................................................... 21
7.8.2.2 Contact Clamps....................................................................................... 22
7.8.3
Coils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
7.8.3.1 Hand-Held Coil....................................................................................... 22
7.8.3.2 Cable Wrap ............................................................................................. 22
7.9 Applications .......................................................................................................................... 22
7.10
7.9.1
Solid Cylindrical Parts ........................................................................................ 22
7.9.2
Hollow Cylindrical Parts .................................................................................... 22
7.9.3
Welds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
7.9.4
Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Demagnetization ............................................................................................................. 23
7.10.1 Principles of Demagnetization............................................................................ 23
7.10.2 Measuring Residual Fields ................................................................................. 25
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7.11
Procedure Requirements ................................................................................................. 25
7.12
Calibration...25
7.12.1 Frequency
.................................................................................................... 25
7.12.2 Tolerance
.................................................................................................... 25
7.12.3 Procedure
.................................................................................................... 25
7.12.4 Yoke Calibration................................................................................................. 26

7.13
Surface Preparation
.................................................................................................... 26
7.14
Magnetic Field Verification............................................................................................ 26
7.15
Evaluation. .......................................................................................................... 26
7.15.1 Evaluation Terms ................................................................................................ 26
7.15.1.1 Indications ........................................................................................ 26
7.15.1.2 Nonrelevant Indications .................................................................... 27
7.15.1.3 Interpretation of Nonrelevant Indications......................................... 28
7.15.1.4 True Discontinuity Indications ......................................................... 28
7.15.2 Evaluation Guide ................................................................................................ 28
7.16
Recording........................................................................................................................ 29
7.17
Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing ............................................ 29

7.17.1 Advantages
7.17.2 Limitations
.................................................................................................... 29
.................................................................................................... 29
LIST OF TABLES
7-1 Typical Coil Shot Currents (amperes) for a Five Turn Coil ....................................................... 30
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LIST OF FIGURES
7-1a Horseshoe Magnet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
7-1b Horseshoe Magnet with Poles Closed Together ................................................................... 31
7-1c Horseshoe Magnet Fused into Ring...................................................................................... 31
7-2 Crack in Fused Horseshoe Magnet ............................................................................................. 32
7-3 Horseshoe Magnet Straightened To Form Bar Magnet .............................................................. 33
7-4a Slot in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles................................................................ 34
7-4b Crack in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles ............................................................ 34
7-5 The Hysteresis Loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 35
7-6 Magnetic Field in a Part...36
7-7 Direct Magnetization - Head Shot .............................................................................................. 37
7-8 Magnetic Field Distribution for a Solid Nonmagnetic Conductor Carrying
Direct Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7-9 Magnetic Field Distribution for a Hollow Nonmagnetic Conductor Carrying
Direct Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7-10 Magnetic Field Distribution for a Solid Magnetic Conductor Carrying Direct Current ...... 40
7-11 Magnetic Field Distribution for a Hollow Magnetic Conductor Carrying Direct Current ... 41
7-12 Central Conductor Technique ............................................................................................... 42
7-13 Longitudinal Magnetization - Coil Shot ............................................................................... 43
7-14 Cable Wrap Technique . . ............................................................................................... 44
7-15 Single Phase Alternating Current Wave Forms .................................................................... 45
7-16 Rectification of Alternating Current to Half Wave Direct Current ...................................... 46
7-17 Full Wave Direct Current .................................................................................................... 47
7-18a Three Phase Alternating Current .......................................................................................... 47
7-18b Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Direct Current ................................................................. 47
7-19 Settling Test Setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
7-20 Wet Horizontal Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7-21 Yoke Magnetization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7-22 Circular Magnetization Using Contact Prods ....................................................................... 51
7-23 Coil Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7-24a Part in Demagnetization Coil ............................................................................................... 53
7-24b Part Withdrawn from Coil .................................................................................................... 53
7-25 Demagnetization Curves Showing the Effect of a Reversing and Decreasing Current ....... 54
7-26 Pie Gage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
7-27 Central Conductor Coverage.56
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Chapter 7.0 Introduction to Magnetic

Particle Examination
7.0 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC

PARTICLE EXAMINATION
rough ground while held on a magnetic chuck

often formed patterns on the face of parts which
corresponded to cracks in that surface. This
observation was not fully appreciated or applied
until 1928, when Mr. A.V. deForest did his initial
work in this area, realizing that if cracks in any
direction were to be located reliably, the direction
of the magnetic field in the part could not be left to
chance. His continued work in this area resulted
in the development of workable methods and
systems for MT, which permitted the detection of
surface cracks regardless of their orientation. At
the start of World War II, reliable examination
methods were needed to assure the government
that it was purchasing quality products for defense.
MT was one method which offered this capability.
Subsequent developments perfected methods and
equipment to the stage where it is used in various
industries and is recognized as a valuable tool for
assuring the quality of material and products.
1. Understand the common applications of
magnetic particle testing (MT).
2. Recognize related personnel qualification and
certification requirements for this method.
3. Identify different equipment used for this
method.
4. Identify and understand common techniques
used in the application of MT.
5. Know the relevant indications, how they are
produced, interpreted, and evaluated.
6. Understand common interpretation and code
requirements.

Even though Magnetic Particle Examinations
are not performed as frequently as PT for nuclear
power plants, it is still an essential and important
NDE method. MT requires a slightly higher
degree of expertise, more hours of formalized
training and more months of experience than PT
for qualification.
MT examiners must be
qualified if MT is to be effective.
7. Recognize the advantages and limitations.

7.1 History
The principle of using magnetic fields and
ferromagnetism to locate surface cracks in
magnetic materials was first noted by the alert
observation of an employee of the Bureau of
Standards, Mr. William E. Hoke, shortly after
the end of World War I. He noticed that metallic
grindings from hard steel parts that were being
The 2007 Edition with 2008 Addenda of the

ASME Code Section V requires that NDE
personnel be qualified in accordance with either:
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SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition), or

ANSI/ASNT CP-189 (2006 Edition)
ACCP
Level I and II shall be combined.

2. Training hours may be reduced with additional engineering or science study beyond
high school. Refer to Chapter 2.
3. There are no additional training requirements for Level III. Refer to Chapter 2 of
this manual for Level III requirements.
Qualification in accordance with a prior edition

of either SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 is considered
valid until recertification. Recertification must be
in accordance with SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition) or
CP-189 (2006 Edition).
Section XI requires that personnel performing

NDE be qualified and certified using a written
practice prepared in accordance with ANSI/ANST
CP-189 as amended by Section XI. IWA 2314
states that the possession of an ASNT Level III
Certificate, which is required by CP-189, is not
required by Section XI. Section XI also states that
certifications to SNT-TC-1A or earlier editions of
CP-189 will remain valid until recertification at
which time CP-189 (1995 Edition) must be met.
Level I
12 hours
70* hrs/130**hrs
Level II
8 hours
210* hrs/400**hrs
12 hours
65*/130**
Level II
8 hours
200*/400**

2. A person may be qualified directly to NDT
Level II with no time as certified Level I
providing the required training and
experience consists of the sum of the hours
required for NDT Levels I and II.
3. The required minimum experience must be
documented by method and by hour with
supervisor or NDT Level III approval.
requirement, experience may be gained in
more than one (1) method. Minimum
experience hours must be met for each
method.
*Hours in Magnetic Particle

**Total hours in NDE
NOTES:
1. To certify to Level II directly with no time
at Level I, the training and experience for
Level I
NOTES:

Experience
Experience
*Hours in MT/** Total Hours in NDE
A Level II Magnetic Particle Examiner, who is

a high school graduate, must complete one of the
following for Section V and only the CP-189
requirements for Section XI.
Training
Training
7.3 Principles
To accomplish the magnetic particle examina72
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around a current-carrying conductor or permanent

magnet, which contains magnetic lines of force.
tions, the test object is magnetized either by

passing electric current through the part that
creates a magnetic field in the part (direct magnetization), or by placing the part near a strong
magnetic field, thereby inducing a magnetic field
in the part (indirect magnetization).
Magnetic Flux Lines - These are imaginary

lines used as a means of explaining the behavior of
magnetic (lines of force) fields. This is demonstrated by the pattern of lines produced when iron
filings are sprinkled over a piece of paper or glass
laid over a permanent magnet. The unit of a
single flux line is called the Maxwell, usually
indicated by the Greek letter Phi .
A discontinuity present in the part disrupts the

flow of magnetic flux through the part, and causes
the magnetic flux to travel out of the part creating a
flux leakage field in the vicinity of the discontinuity. Fine ferromagnetic particles applied to the
surface of the part are attracted to the flux leakage
and align themselves with the discontinuity.
Magnetic Force - In MT the magnetizing force

is considered to be the total force usually
designated by letter H, and the unit is the Oersted.
The accumulation of particles, referred to as an

indication, must be interpreted to determine its
cause and its relevancy, and if caused by a
discontinuity, evaluated in accordance with the
applicable predetermined acceptance criteria.
7.3.1
Flux Density - Flux density is the number of

flux lines per unit of area, taken at right angles to
the direction of the flux. It is the measure of
magnetic field strength and is expressed in Gauss
and is indicated by the letter B.
Key Terms
Gauss - Gauss is the unit of flux density. The

strength of the magnetic field induced in a ferromagnetic body is described as being so many
Gauss. Numerically, one Gauss is one line of flux
per square centimeter of area.
Before proceeding with the principles of

magnetism it is necessary to consider some of the
key terms relating to magnetism and magnetic
fields. It is important to understand and be able to
define the following terms.
Magnet - A magnet is a bar or ring made from
a ferromagnetic material. It may occur naturally
(e.g., a lodestone) or be created by inducing a
magnetic force in ferromagnetic materials.
Saturation - Saturation is the point of the

magnetization of a magnetizable part at which an
increase in the magnetizing force produces no
increase in the magnetic field within that part.
Ferromagnetic - These are materials with

permeability greater than unity. Ferromagnetic
materials are strongly attracted by a magnet.
Pole - Pole is the area on a magnetized article

from which the magnetic field is leaving or
returning.
Magnetic Field - Magnetic field is the space

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Hysteresis - This is a graphical plot of magnetizing force (H) against the induced magnetism of
flux density (B).
Flux Leakage - Flux leakage are lines of force

that leave and enter a part at poles on the surface.
Leakage Field - This is the field forced out
into the air by the distortion of the field within a
part caused by the presence of a discontinuity.
7.3.2 Theory of Magnetism

In order to understand MT it is necessary to
understand the theory of magnetism.
Permeability (Magnetic) - Permeability is a

measure of the ease with which a magnetic field or
flux can be set up in a magnetic circuit. It is not a
constant value for a given material but is a ratio.
At any given value of magnetizing force,
permeability is the ratio of flux density (B/H).
7.3.2.1 Horseshoe Magnet

One of the most familiar types of magnet is the
horseshoe magnet shown in Figure 7-1a. It attracts
magnetic materials to its ends where a leakage
field occurs. These ends are commonly called
north' and south poles, indicated by N and S on
the diagram. There will be no attraction except at
these poles. Magnetic flux lines or lines of force
flow from the north to the south pole as long as
they are external to the magnet. Since these lines
of force always form a complete circuit, they also
pass through the iron or steel of which the magnet
is made. Note that within the magnet the lines are
directed from the south to the north pole.
Reluctance - Reluctance refers to the opposition of a magnetic material to the establishment of

magnetic flux. The reluctance of the material
determines the magnitude of the flux produced by
a given magnetic force. Reluctance is analogous
to the resistance in an electric circuit.
Retentivity--Retentivity is the ability of a
material to retain a portion of the magnetic force
induced in it after the magnetizing force has been
removed.
If the ends of the horseshoe magnet are bent so

that they are close together, as shown in Figure
7-1b, the ends will still attract magnetic materials.
However, if the ends of the magnet are bent closer
together, and the two poles are completely fused or
welded into a ring as shown in Figure 7-1c, the
magnet will no longer attract or hold magnetic
materials because there is no longer a leakage field.
The magnetic field remains internally as shown by
the magnet, but without poles there is no attraction.
Such a part is said to have a circular field, or to be
circularly magnetized, because the magnetic lines
of force are circular.
Residual Magnetism - This is the term applied

to the amount of magnetism remaining in a part
after the magnetizing force is removed (remnant
magnetism).
Coercive Force - Corrosive force is the reverse
magnetizing force to bring the retained flux density
to zero.
Demagnetization - Demagnetization is the
process of reducing the residual magnetism to an
acceptable level.
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7.3.2.3 Flux Line Characteristics

Any crack in the fused magnet or circularly
magnetized part which crosses the magnetic flux
lines immediately creates north and south poles on
either side of the crack (Figure 7-2). This forces
some of the magnetic flux (lines of force) out of the
metal path and is referred to as flux leakage.
Magnetic materials or particles are attracted by the
poles created by the crack, which forms an indication of the discontinuity on the surface. This is
the principle whereby magnetic particle indications are formed by means of circular magnetization.
Magnetic lines of force (flux lines) may be

described by several characteristics:
7.3.2.2 Bar Magnet
They are closed loops.
They can be distorted.
They return upon themselves.
They are parallel and never cross.
They seek the path of least resistance.
They are most densely concentrated at the

poles.
They flow from north to south outside the

magnet, and from south to north in the magnet.
7.3.2.4 Classification of Materials
If a horseshoe magnet is straightened, a bar

magnet is created as shown in Figure 7-3. The bar
magnet has poles at either end and magnetic lines
of force flowing through the length of it. Magnetic
particles are attracted only to the poles. Such a
piece is said to have a longitudinal field, or to be
longitudinally magnetized.
All materials react to a magnetic field in one of

three ways. They are, therefore, classified as
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic.
When made into a rod, a diamagnetic material is
repelled by a magnetic field and will align itself at
right angles to the field. When a paramagnetic or
a ferromagnetic material is made into a rod, it will
be attracted by a magnetic field and will align itself
parallel to the field.
A slot in the bar magnet that crosses the

magnetic flux lines creates north and south poles
on either side of the slot (Figure 7-4a). These
poles attract magnetic particles. In a similar
manner, if the discontinuity is a crack, it will still
create magnetic poles as indicated in Figure 7-4b.
These poles also attract magnetic particles. The
strength of these poles is a function of the number
of flux lines, the depth of the crack, and the width
of the gap at the surface. The will be an increased
particle attraction with an increased flux leakage.
Diamagnetic materials have a permeability

slightly less than unity. Bismuth has the lowest
permeability known (.9998). Other diamagnetic
materials are phosphorus, antimony, flint glass,
and mercury. Such materials are usually considered to be nonmagnetic.
Paramagnetic materials have permeability
greater than unity. Those whose permeability is
only slightly greater than unity, such as platinum
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at right angles to the surface. When a piece of soft

iron is placed in a magnetic field, it is drawn
toward the magnetic source. As it approaches
closer to the source, more flux lines flow through
it. This concentrates the lines of flux into the easily
traversed iron path rather than the high reluctance
air path.
(1.00002), are called paramagnetic and are usually

considered to be nonmagnetic.
Ferromagnetic materials have a permeability
greater than unity and are usually considered to be
magnetic. Ferromagnetic materials are iron, nickel,
cobalt, and many alloys such as Permalloy, alnico,
permivar, etc. Usually materials with a
permeability of 1.1000 or greater are referred to as
ferromagnetic.
An example of this magnetic attraction is the

attraction of a nail to a horseshoe magnet. This
action causes magnetic particles to concentrate at
leakage fields at discontinuities. The leakage
field is jumping across a relativity high reluctance
air gap at the discontinuity. Since the magnetic
particles offer a lower reluctance path to the flux
lines, they are drawn to the discontinuity and
bridge the air gap.
7.3.2.5 Molecular Theory

Before a part is magnetized it is said to be in its
virgin state. The atoms have a very random
arrangement or orientation. When a magnetizing
force is applied to low carbon content steel, the
atoms align easily in a distinct arrangement or
orientation. More magnetizing force is required
to align the atoms of high carbon steel into
magnetic domains. When the magnetizing force
is removed from low carbon content steel, most of
the atoms return to their normal orientation leaving
little retained magnetism. High carbon content
steel is much harder to align the atoms. When the
magnetizing force is removed, many atoms stay
aligned and the material retains a greater amount of
magnetism.
7.3.2.7 Hysteresis Loop

The magnetic properties of ferromagnetic
materials can be illustrated by considering the
hysteresis curve (loop) for a ferromagnetic material. The hysteresis curve plots the flux density (B
- in units of Gauss) against the Magnetizing Force
(H - in units of Oersteds) as shown in Figure 7-5.
7.4 Producing Magnetic Fields
7.3.2.6 Leakage Fields
7.4.1
The basic law of magnetic attraction states that

unlike magnetic poles will attract one another and
like magnetic poles will repel one another.
Magnetism may be induced into a material by

placing the material in an already existing magnetic field. This can be illustrated by making a
screwdriver magnetic by rubbing it against a
permanent magnet. An easier method is through
the use of electrical current. If a wire is wrapped
around a screwdriver and electric current passes
The concept of flux lines includes flow,

distribution, direction, and attraction-repulsion
properties. The flux lines always leave a magnet
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through the wire, the screwdriver will become

magnetized.
direction of the magnetizing current.

It is
important to know how to use electric currents to
induce the magnetic lines of force so that they
intercept and are, as near as possible, at right
angles to the discontinuity. Either circular or
longitudinal magnetic fields can easily be created
in a test specimen.
7.4.1.1 Permanent Magnets

Permanent magnets are sometimes used to
induce magnetic fields within a test specimen.
The use of permanent magnets for magnetization
has many limitations; therefore, they are only used
when these limitations do not interfere or prevent
the formation of adequate leakage fields at the
discontinuity.
Limitations of using permanent magnets
include:
Basically two types of electric current are used

as a magnetizing force. These are alternating
current and direct current. The alternating current
reverses direction of flow at regular intervals.
Direct current, as the name implies, refers to an
electric current flowing continually in one
direction through a conductor.
The field strength cannot be varied.
7.4.2 Circular Magnetization
Large areas or masses cannot be magnetized

with sufficient strength to form adequate
leakage fields at discontinuities to form indications.
There may be an excessive accumulation of

magnetic particles at the pole of the magnet
such that and indication of a discontinuity
might be masked over.
A very strong magnet may be difficult to

remove from contact with the test specimen
surface.
Circular magnetization derives its name from

the fact that a circular magnetic field always
surrounds a conductor such as a wire or a bar
carrying an electric current (Figure 7-6). The
direction of the magnetic lines of force (magnetic
field) is always at right angles to the direction of
the magnetizing current. An easy way to remember the direction of magnetic lines of force around
a conductor is to imagine that you are grasping the
conductor with your right hand so that the extended thumb points parallel to the electric current
flow. The fingers then point in the direction of the
magnetic lines of force. Conversely, if the fingers
point in the direction of current flow, the extended
thumb points in the direction of the magnetic lines
of force (right-hand rule).
7.4.1.2 Electromagnets
Electromagnets can be created by inducing
magnetic fields in ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic lines of force are always at right angles
(90o) to the direction of the current flow (Figure
7-6). Therefore, the direction of the magnetic
field can be altered and is controlled by the
In circular magnetization, the lines of force,

which represent the direction of the magnetic field,
are circular within the part. The strength of the
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discontinuity.
magnetic field is dependent upon the current

passing through the conductor.
When direct current flows through a nonmagnetic conductor, the magnetic field (F) increases
from zero at the center to a maximum at the surface
of the conductor (Figure 7-8).
Circular magnetization is used for the detection

of longitudinal discontinuities that lie in the same
direction as the current flow either in a part or in a
part through which a central conductor passes. It
is also used for the detection of radial
discontinuities around edges of openings in parts.
When direct current flows through a hollow

nonmagnetic conductor, a different condition
exists than for the solid, nonmagnetic conductor.
The field strength gradient from inside to the
outside surface is the same as for a solid conductor
of the same diameter and same amount of current.
However, there is no current flowing between a
point on the inside surface and center of the hollow
conductor as shown in Figure 7-9. The field
strength outside the hollow, nonmagnetic
conductor is the same as for the solid nonmagnetic
conductor.
Two techniques are used to obtain circular

magnetization: direct magnetization caused by
passage of electric current through the parts
themselves, or indirect magnetization caused by
passage of the current through a conductor that
passes through an opening in the part.
7.4.2.1 Direct Magnetization
Direct contact to parts is generally made by
clamping them between the contact heads (Figure
7-7). This is sometimes called the direct contact
or head shot method. Lead face plates and/or
copper braid pads must be used to prevent arcing
and overheating of the parts. Contact surfaces
must be clean and free of paint or similar coatings
and have adequate pressure applied so as to
achieve good electrical contact over a sufficient
area of the contacts surfaces.
If the conductor is a solid magnetic material

carrying the direct current, the same field distribution exists inside the material as for the nonmagnetic conductor; however, the field strength at the
surface is greater. For a solid magnetic material,
as illustrated in Figure 7-10, the field strength is
zero at the center but at the surface it is x F, with
being the material permeability factor. Outside
the surface of the magnetic material the field
strength decreases significantly. The maximum
field strength at the surface of the magnetic
conductor is approximately 1,000 to 2,000 times
the field strength in a nonmagnetic material.
To create or induce a circular field in a part

with stationary equipment, the part is clamped
between the contact plates, and current is passed
through the part. This sets up a circular magnetic
field in the part that creates poles on either side of
any crack or discontinuity which runs parallel to
the length of the part. The poles attract magnetic
particles, which form an indication of the
If the conductor is hollow magnetic material

carrying direct current, the field strength will be
zero on the inside surface, the same as for the
nonmagnetic conductor. The field strength is
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maximum at the surface, again x F.
conductor. See Figure 7-27.
This condition, as shown in Figure 7-11,

illustrates that a circular field created by a head
shot does not magnetize the inside diameter (ID) of
the part. In order to perform an MT on the ID of a
tubular part it is necessary to use the central
conductor method.
When direct current passes through a

nonmagnetic conductor placed inside a hollow
magnetic tube, the field strength decreases along
the same curve through the air space between the
current carrying conductor and the ID of the
magnetic tube. At this point the field strength is
multiplied by , and then continues to decrease on
a curve to the outside surface of the tube. At the
outside surface the field strength then drops to
follow the same curve it was following inside the
tube.
7.4.2.2 Indirect Magnetization

A part can be circularly magnetized by passing
electric current through a central conductor positioned through a hole or opening in the part (Figure
7-12). This is sometimes called the central
conductor method. A magnetizing field exists
outside a conductor carrying current so the tubing
surrounding the central conductor becomes
magnetized. Since the circular field is at right
angles to the axis of the conductor, it is very useful
for the detection of discontinuities that lie in a
direction generally parallel with the conductor.
The central conductor method must be used if
longitudinal discontinuities on the inside of tubular
or cylindrically shaped parts are to be detected.
The central conductor method is also very useful
for detecting discontinuities, usually cracks, which
emanate radially out of holes in castings and other
parts. On very large parts having large openings,
the central conductor may be located close to the
inside surface and several examinations made
around the inside periphery.
Placing the
conductor close to the inside surface reduces the
current requirements since the strength of the
circular field decreases as the distance from the
conductor increases. When this is done, only an
area of 2D each side of the central conductor may
be examined. D is the diameter of the central
7.4.2.3 Equipment
The equipment listed below is commonly used
for circular magnetization:
Head shot,
Central conductors,
Multidirectional swinging field system,
Prods, and
Clamps or leeches.
7.4.2.4 Field Strength Calculations

In all cases the examiner must refer to the
applicable code, procedure, or examination instruction sheet to determine the proper amperage to
use for a given application. However, in the event
the amperage is not specified, a number of factors
must be considered when determining what current
amperage to use for circular magnetization.
Some of the more important factors are:
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7.4.2.5 Code Requirements-Circular
The type of discontinuity to be detected;
The part's size, shape, and cross-sectional area

through which the current will flow.
Over the years some rule of thumb values for

suitable current testing have been used. They
have been based on experience rather than on
technical reasoning. They do not consider the
varying shapes and magnetic properties of parts
that will be magnetized. For example, the permeability of steel varies and a soft steel of high
permeability requires a far lower magnetizing
force to produce a suitable field than does a high
carbon or alloy steel, which typically has very low
permeability.
The formation of magnetic particle indications
at discontinuities depends upon the strength of the
leakage fields at the discontinuities. Since the
leakage fields are a part of the field generated by
the magnetizing current, the greater the magnetizing current the greater will be the strength of the
leakage fields. Therefore, the sensitivity of an
MT is directly related to the current amperage.
Too low of an amperage may produce leakage
fields too weak to form readily discernible
indications. Too high of an amperage creates a
heavy background accumulation of particles that
may mask an indication.
In circular
magnetization, too high of an amperage may arc or
burn a part.
In actual practice, amperage
requirements are normally calculated based upon
the requirements of the applicable code or
specification. In some case, the amperage may be
established by experimentation.
7.4.2.5.1 Direct Contact Technique (Head

Shot)
Direct or rectified current is used with this
technique. Current requirements specified in
Article 7, Section V of the 2007 ASME Code with
2008 Addenda are:
300 amperes (amp) per inch to 800 amps per

inch of outer diameter:
Parts with geometric shapes other than round

with the greatest cross-section diagonal in a
plane at right angles to the direction of current
flow shall determine the dimension to be used
with the above amperage range.
If the current as described above cannot be

obtained, the maximum current obtainable
must be used and the field adequacy
demonstrated.
For non-cylindrical and large parts, the magnetic field indicator (pie gage), a Hall Effect
Meter or a QQI may be used to determine the
feed adequacy.
7.4.2.5.2 Central Conductor

In accordance with Article 7, Section V, of the
ASME Code, when using a single central conductor or a single turn central conductor (cable), the
amperage is based on the same requirements as
described in section 7.4.2.5. When using cables
as the central conductor, the magnetic field
strength increases in proportion to the number of
times the central conductor cable passes through
the part; therefore, the amperage is adjusted
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accordingly. For example, if 6,000 amp was

required to examine a part with a single turn
conductor, then 3,000 amp would be used if the
central conductor cable passes through the part
twice, and 2,000 amp would be used if the central
conductor cable passes through the part three
times. The magnetic field adequacy should be
verified by using the magnetic field indicator (pie
gage).
7.4.2.5.3 Prods
When circular magnetization is accomplished
using the contact prods, the amperage is based on
the spacing of the prods and the thickness of the
part. Typical requirements are 90 to 110 amp per
inch of prod spacing for part thicknesses inch or
less, and 100 to 125 amp per inch of prod spacing
for part thicknesses greater than inch. Typical
code specification requirements specify a prod
spacing of 6 to 8 inches unless part size or
configuration limits the spacing to less than 6
inches. In such cases, prods may be spaced as close
as 2 inches.
The strength, direction, and distribution of
magnetic fields are greatly affected by the type of
current employed for magnetization. Therefore, a
general understanding of the magnetizing
characteristics of the current is important.
The magnetic fields created by alternating
current and by direct current differ in many
respects. The most important difference is that
the magnetic field created by alternating current is
confined near the surface of the part, while the
magnetic field created by direct current penetrates
the surface of the part to a limited extent.
This phenomenon whereby alternating current

tends to flow along the surface layers of a metal
conductor is referred to as the skin effect.
Although this effect is not very noticeable in
nonmagnetic materials until frequencies much
greater than 60 Hz are reached, it is very noticeable
in ferromagnetic materials even at frequencies
below 60 Hz. As a result of this skin effect,
magnetic fields created by alternating current also
are confined to the surface layers of the material;
therefore, alternating current is used primarily in
surface discontinuities. Many applications, such
as in-service examinations, only require detection
of surface discontinuities such as fatigue cracks;
therefore, magnetic fields confined to the surface
of the material are more desirable than those that
penetrate into the material.
7.4.3
Longitudinal Magnetization
Longitudinal magnetization is used for the

detection of discontinuities that lie in the same
direction as the coil orientation axis. Circumferential discontinuities around a cylinder, for example, are detected by magnetizing the cylinder
longitudinally in a direction parallel with its axis.
A portion of the longitudinal field crosses the
discontinuities creating leakage fields that hold
magnetic particles forming indications.
Longitudinal magnetization is accomplished in
a number of ways; magnetization in a coil is the
most widely used method. Parts can be magnetized longitudinally by placing them between a pair
of electromagnets with the fields in the same
direction through the part. Still another method is
the magnetizing of parts between the legs of a
yoke, either the electromagnetic or permanent
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magnet type.
7.4.3.1 Coil Shot
The usual way to longitudinally magnetize a
part is by the part in a rigid coil on a stationary
magnetic particle inspection unit. Application of
the rule of the thumb to the conductor at any point
in the coil illustrated in Figure 7-13 shows that the
field within the coil is longitudinal as indicated.
The part can be positioned on the bottom surface of
the coil where the field is strongest, or the part may
be supported. In the coil by the contact heads of
the unit, special supports are provided on some
inspection units for long heavy parts permitting
rotation of parts for examination. Coils are usually
mounted on rails permitting movement along a
long part for multiple examinations (multiple coil
shots). Because the effective magnetic field
extends only 6 to 9 inches on either side of a coil,
multiple examinations are needed for long parts.
When a part made of magnetic material is
placed inside a coil, the magnetic lines of force
created by the magnetizing current concentrate
themselves in the part and induce a longitudinal
magnetic field.
If there is a transverse
discontinuity, it will attract magnetic particles,
forming an indication. The strength of the
magnetic field within a coil is dependent upon the
current flowing through the coil, the number of
turns in the coil, and the diameter (or opening) of
the coil. See Table 7-1.
7.4.3.2 Cable Wrap
Wrapping a cable (Figure 7-14) around large or
heavy parts is a common practice. A
cable-wrapped coil is connected to the contact

heads of the stationary unit. The type of power
source to use depends
upon the
kind of
current and amperage needed to accomplish the
particular examination. The number of turns used
is kept low (from three to five turns) to minimize
cable resistance.
Multiple examinations spaced approximately
15 to 18 inches along the length of a long part are
preferable to one examination using one long coil
of many turns.
When longitudinal magnetization is accomplished using a hand-held coil or by wrapping
cables around the part to fashion a coil, the required field strength is determined in the same
manner as that described in section 7.4.3.6.
7.4.3.3 Quick Break Technique
A characteristic of longitudinal magnetization
when using a coil is the difficulty in producing
good indications near the ends of the part. This
difficulty is caused by the leakage field that
emanates from the part ends. The leakage field
from these poles reduces the flux within the part,
and because this leakage is at right angles to the
surface, it reduces particle mobility. This holds
particles in the form of background instead of
permitting migration to form indications. Examination at the ends of cylindrically shaped parts is
improved when the parts are magnetized using a
very rapid decay of the coil field. The rapid decay
of the field generates a pulse of induced current
which in turn produces a strong field over most of
the length of a part. This is referred to as the
Quick Break Technique.
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7.4.3.4 Equipment
The equipment listed below is commonly used
for longitudinal magnetization:
In all cases the examiner must refer to the

applicable code, procedure, or examination instructions in order to determine the proper amperage for any given application.
7.4.3.6 Code Requirements - Longitudinal
Fixed rigid coil,
Flexible coil,
Hand portable coil,
Electromagnetic yokes, and
Rigid and flexible permanent magnet yokes.
In accordance with Article 7, Section V, of the

ASME Code, the magnetizing current shall be
within 10 percent of the ampere-turns value as
determined by the following:
7.4.3.5 Coil Field Strength Calculations

A number of factors must be considered when
determining current amperage for longitudinal
magnetization of parts. Some of the more important factors are:
The coil diameter and the number of turns;
The length to diameter (L/D) ratio of the part;
The size, shape, and composition of the part;
The orientation or position of the part within

the coil; and
The type of discontinuities to be detected.
Ampere-turns= 35,000/(L/D)+2
(7-1)
Parts with L/D ratios less than four but not less
than two:
Ampere-turns=45,000/(L/D)
The magnetizing field strength (H), in the

magnetizing coil increases or decreases with either
the current or number of turns. Also, the field
strength decreases as the coil radius increases and
vice-versa. The field is theoretically zero in the coil
center and increases to a maximum value at the
inside surface of the coil. Therefore, a part placed
against the inside of a coil experiences a greater
magnetizing field than when it is centered in the
coil.
Parts with L/D ratios equal to or greater than

four:
(7-2)
NOTE: In both of the above L = the part length

and D = the part diameter. When it is not
practical to use the above because of the size or
shape of the part, adequate magnetizing
amperage can be determined by using the
magnetic field indicator (pie gage).
Long parts must be examined in sections not to
exceed 18 inches and that length (18 inches) would
then be used as L in the L/D ratio for calculating
the current to be used.
If the need arises to examine parts having L/D
ratios of twp or less, the effective L/D ratio can be
increased by placing the part between two
ferromagnetic pole pieces while it is being
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magnetized. The length dimension for the L/D

ratio then becomes the length of the two pole
pieces plus the part length. Such pole pieces must
make good contact on each side of the part and
must be made of ferromagnetic material.
There is no given method for field strength
calculation for an alternating current or direct
current yoke or permanent magnets. However, in
an effort to obtain some verification of field
strength and as a function check, it is required that
the yoke be capable of lifting a minimum of 10
pounds (lb) for AC and 40 pounds for DC or
permanent magnets before it can be used for
examination.
imposed upon a part sequentially in rapid succession. When this is done, magnetic particle
indications are formed as long as the rapid
alternations of field direction continue. This, in
effect, acts as two or more fields in different
directions at the same time, and enables the
detection of discontinuities oriented in any
direction in one operation.
7.4.6 Magnetizing Current
Although different types of magnetizing
current can be used in MT, one type is generally
best suited for a given application:
Direct current or half-wave direct current

(HWDC) is used for detection of either surface
or slightly subsurface discontinuities, and
Alternating current is only qualified for the

detection of surface discontinuities.
7.4.4 Field Direction

The magnetic field must be in a favorable
direction to produce indications. When the flux
lines are oriented in a direction parallel to a
discontinuity, the indication is weak or nonexistent. The best results are obtained when the flux
lines are in a direction at right angles to the discontinuity. If a discontinuity is to produce a
leakage field and a resultant indication, the discontinuity must intercept the flux lines at some
angle. When magnetizing current is used, the best
indications are produced when the path of the
magnetizing current is flowing parallel to the
discontinuity, because the magnetic flux lines are
always at an angle of 90 to the flow of the current.
7.4.5 Multidirectional Magnetic Fields
Two separate fields, having different directions, cannot exist in a part at the same time. But
two or more fields in different directions can be
Alternating current used for magnetizing

purposes is taken from commercially available
power lines and is usually 60 Hz frequency (Figure
7-15). When used for magnetizing purposes, the
line voltage of 115, 220, or 440 volts (V) is stepped
down by means of transformers to the 10 to 30 V
required for the magnetizing unit.
Rectification - Rectified alternating current is
by far the most satisfactory source of direct current. Both single phase and three phase alternating current are commercially available. Through
the use of rectifiers, the constantly reversing
alternating current can be converted to a unidirectional current. When three phase alternating
current is rectified for magnetic particle purposes,
the unidirectional direct current is almost
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equivalent to straight direct current; the difference

is a slight ripple in the value of the rectified
current.
Rectification is achieved by single rectifier
circuits may take the character of:
Half wave rectified direct current (HWDC),
Full wave rectified direct current (FWDC), or
Three phase full wave rectified alternating

current.
HWDC - When single phase alternating

current is passed through a simple rectifier, current
is permitted to flow in one direction only (Figure
7-16).
The reverse half of each cycle is
completely blocked out. The result is unidirectional current that pulsates. That is, it rises from
zero to a maximum value and drops back to zero.
During the blocked out reverse cycle, no current
flows. Then the half cycle forward pulse is
repeated, at the frequency of the alternating current
being rectified.
FWDC - This source of pulsating unidirectional current is used for MT for certain special
purpose applications (Figure 7-17). In general,
FWDC possesses no advantage over half-wave and
is not as satisfactory as three phase rectified
current when straight direct current is required,
because of its extreme ripple. Additionally, it
draws a higher current from the alternating current
line than does half-wave for a given magnetizing
effect, which is a distinct disadvantage.
Three Phase - By far the most useful and most
widely used source of direct current for MT is
rectified three phase alternating current (Figures

7-18a and 7-18b). Three phase alternating current
is generally used for power equipment in most
plants and is preferred over single phase current
because of more favorable power transmission and
line load characteristics. From the MT point of
view, it is also preferred because MT delivers,
when rectified, current that for all practical purposes is direct current and produces all the effects
which are required when direct current magnetization is indicated.
7.5 Techniques
Two major techniques of processing are used
in magnetic particle examination - continuous and
residual. The use of these techniques depends
upon the retentivity of the parts being examined
and the sensitivity of the examination to be
achieved.
7.5.1
Continuous
In the continuous technique, which is required

by the Code, magnetic particles are applied to a
part while the part is being magnetized. Of the
two techniques, continuous and residual, the
continuous technique produces the greatest sensitivity for both surface and subsurface discontinuities for a given current. The magnetic field is
always stronger while current is flowing as compared to after it stops.
7.5.2
Residual
In the residual technique, magnetic particles

are applied to parts after they have been magnetized. Highly retentive parts can be effectively
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examined using the residual technique. To use this

technique parts must have sufficient retention.
Because residual fields left in a part are always
weaker than the applied fields which produce
them, the residual technique is limited to the
detection of surface discontinuities.
The residual technique can be used with both
circular and longitudinal magnetization, direct or
indirect methods.
Detection of subsurface
discontinuities is unreliable using the residual
techniques. The residual technique permits the
magnetizing of numerous parts at one time and the
application of magnetic particles and examination
at some subsequent convenient time. When the
central conductor is used, holes or bores can be
examined after removal of the central conductor.
As mentioned earlier, the ASME Code requires
MT by the continuous technique.
7.6.2 Fluorescent Particles - Wet

When exposed to near ultraviolet light (black
light) fluorescent dye coated magnetic particles
glow with a highly visible yellow-green color.
Indications produced are easily seen and the
fluorescent particles give more seeable indications of small discontinuities than do the ordinary
visible magnetic particles. Examinations are
faster and more reliable than with the visible
particles.
Fluorescent particles have one major advantage over the visible particles. They give off a
brilliant glow under black light, which serves three
principle purposes:
In a darkened room even very minute amounts

of the fluorescent particles are easily seen,
having the effect of increasing the apparent
sensitivity of the process even though magnetically, the fluorescent particles are not superior
to the visible particles.
Even for discontinuities large enough to give

good visible indications, fluorescent indications are much more easily seen and the chance
of the examiner missing an indication is greatly
reduced even when the speed of examination is
increased.
Inside drilled holes or cavities, or in sharp

corners such as threads or keyways, the
fluorescent indications are clearly and readily
seen, while visible indications may be easily
obscured.
7.6 Magnetic Particles

7.6.1 Visible Particles - Wet
In the past, the most common form of the
particle concentrate was a paste. Today, the
pastes have been almost exclusively reformulated
and produced as dry powder concentrates. These
powders incorporate the needed materials for
dispersion, wetting, rust inhibiting, etc. The
powders are much easier to use, as they need
merely to be measured out and added directly to
the agitated bath. The agitation system of the
modern magnetic particle units pick up the powder
and quickly disperse it in the bath in the ordinary
process of circulation and agitation.
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particles in suspension.
7.6.3 Advantages of Wet Particles
The advantages of wet particles are summarized below:
It sometimes presents a post-examination

cleaning problem.
7.6.5 Dry Particles
It is most sensitive for very fine surface cracks.
It is the most sensitive method for very shallow

surface cracks.
It quickly and thoroughly covers all surfaces of

irregularly-shaped parts, large or small, with
magnetic particles.
It is the fastest and most thorough method for

the examination of large numbers of small
parts.
The magnetic particles have excellent mobility

in liquid suspension.
It is easy to measure and control the

concentration of particles in the suspension,
which makes for uniformity and accurate
reproducibility of results.
It is well adapted to the short, timed shot

technique of magnetization for the continuous
method.
It is readily
examination.
adaptable
to
automated
Dry particles are primarily used for the

examination of welds and castings where the
detection of discontinuities lying slightly below
the surface is considered important. Dry particles
are provided in powder form. They are available
in red, black, yellow, and gray colors. The magnetic properties, particle size and shape, and
coating method are similar in all colors making the
particles equally efficient. The choice of powder
is then determined primarily by which powder will
give the best contrast and visibility on the parts
being examined and the degree of sensitivity
desired.
7.6.6 Advantages of Dry Particles
The advantages of dry particles are summarized below:
Excellent for locating discontinuities which are

slightly below the surface,
Easy to use for large objects with portable

equipment,
Easy to use for field examinations with portable equipment,
Usually wet particles are as reliable of finding

discontinuities lying below the surface as dry
particles.
Good mobility when used with alternating

current or HWDC,
Not as messy as the wet particles, and
It is messy to work with, especially when used

in the field testing.
Equipment usually less expensive.
A recirculation system is required to keep the
7.6.4 Limitations of Wet Particles

The limitations
summarized below:
of
wet
particles
are
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7-19).
7.6.7 Limitations of Dry Particles
Code required concentrations are as follows:
The limitations of dry particles are summarized
below:
Not as sensitive as the wet method for very fine

and shallow cracks;
Visible Particles-1.2
(ml)/100ml of solution
to
2.4
milliliter
Fluorescent Particles - 0.1 to 0.5ml/100ml of

solution
Not easy to cover all surfaces properly, especially of irregularly-shaped or large parts;
Slower than the wet particles for large numbers

of small parts; and
7.6.8.2 Particle Size
Difficult to adapt to an automated test system.
Size plays an important part in the behavior of

magnetic particles when in a magnetic field. A
large, heavy particle is not likely to be attracted to
and held by a weak field when the particles are
flowing over the surface of a part. Fine powders
are held by very weak fields, since their mass is
small. Extremely fine particles may adhere to the
surface where there are no discontinuities, especially if the surface is rough, and form confusing
backgrounds.
7.6.8 Particle Characteristics

The particles used in MT are made of finely
divided ferromagnetic materials, usually combinations of iron and iron oxides, having a high permeability and low retentivity. Other properties of
importance that affect the sensitivity of the MT are
the size, shape, density, mobility, and visibility or
contrast of the particles.
7.6.8.1 Wet Particle Concentration
The strength or concentration of the particle
suspension is a major factor in determining the
reliability of the examination. Too heavy a concentration of particles in the suspension gives a
confusing background and excessive adherence of
particles at external poles, which might mask the
indications of fine discontinuities. If the concentration of particles in the suspension is too low,
then indications may not be formed at all. Many
codes and specifications require a daily check of
the concentration using a settling test (Figure
7.6.8.3 Particles for Wet Suspensions

When the ferromagnetic particles are applied
as a suspension in a liquid medium, much finer
particles can be used. The upper limit of particle
size in most wet method visible materials used for
magnetic particle testing purposes is in the range of
20 to 25 microns (about 0.0008 to 0.0010 inch).
Particles larger than this are difficult to hold in
suspension, and even the 20 to 25 micron sizes
settle out of suspension rather rapidly and are
stranded as the suspension drains off. Such
stranded particles often line up in what are called
drainage lines to form a high water mark of
particles that could be confused with indications of
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discontinuities. With the finer particles, the

stranding due to the draining away of the liquid
occurs much later, giving the particles mobility
long enough to reach the influence of leakage
fields and accumulate to form the indications. The
minimum size limit for particles to be used in
liquid suspensions is indeterminate. Ferromagnetic
materials commonly used include some
exceedingly fine particles.
In actual use,
however, particles of this size never act as
individuals because they are magnetized in use and
actually become tiny magnets.
7.6.8.4 Particle Shape
The shape of the magnetic particles used for
MT has a strong effect upon their behavior in
locating discontinuities. In a magnetic field, the
particles tend to align themselves along the lines of
force, as illustrated in a magnetograph. This
tendency is much stronger with elongated, rod-like
particles than with more compact or globular
shapes because the longer shapes develop stronger
polarity. Because of the attraction exhibited by
opposite poles, the pronounced north and south
poles of these tiny magnets arrange themselves
into strings much more readily than do globular
shapes. The result is the formation of stronger
patterns in weak leakage fields, as these magnetically formed strings of a particle bridge at the
discontinuity.
The superior effectiveness of the elongated
shapes over the globular shapes is particularly
noticeable in the detection of wide, shallow
discontinuities, or discontinuities that lie wholly
below the surface. The leakage fields at such
discontinuities are more diffuse, and the formation
of strings because of the stronger polarity of the

elongated shaped magnetic particles produces
stronger patterns.
7.6.8.5 Magnetic Particle Properties
Magnetic particles should have as high a
permeability as possible; they must be readily
magnetized by the low-level leakage fields that
occur in the vicinity of discontinuities.
Permeability is a desirable property for magnetic particles, but unless all other properties are in
the proper range for the particular application, high
permeability alone is of little value.
Low retentivity is a desirable property of
magnetic particles. If the retentivity were high,
the particles would become magnetized during
manufacture or at first use, and become permanent
magnets. Once magnetized, their tendency to be
controlled by the weak fields at discontinuities
would be overshadowed by their tendency to stick
to the test surface. This would reduce mobility
and form a high background that reduces contrast
and makes indications more difficult to
distinguish.
7.6.8.6 Particle Mobility
When the magnetic particles are applied to the
surface of a magnetized part, they must move
under the influence of the leakage field and gather
at a discontinuity to form a readable indication.
Any factor that interferes with the movement of the
particles has a direct effect on the sensitivity of the
powder and the test. Conditions promoting or
interfering with mobility are different for dry and
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wet method materials.
7.7 Stationary Equipment
Dry powders should be applied in such a way

that they reach the magnetized surface in a uniform
cloud with a minimum of motion. When the
particles are applied to a horizontal or sloping
surface, they settle directly to the surface and do
not have the same degree of mobility. Mobility
can be achieved in this case, however, by tapping
or vibrating the part. This jars the powder loose
from the surface and permits it to move toward the
leakage fields.
A typical stationary wet horizontal unit of

intermediate size is illustrated in Figure 7-20. The
unit has two contact heads for either direct contact
or use of a central conductor. This unit also
contains a coil used for longitudinal magnetization.
The coil and one contact head are movable on the
rails. The other contact head is fixed; the contact
plate on it, being air cylinder operated, provides a
means for clamping the part. The unit has a
self-contained power supply with all the necessary
electrical controls. Magnetizing currents are
usually three phase full-wave direct current or
alternating current depending upon usage
requirements. The units are made in several
different sizes to accommodate different length
parts and with various maximum output current. A
full length tank with pump, agitation, and
circulating system for wet suspension is located
beneath the head and coil mounting rails. A hand
hose with nozzle is provided for applying the
suspension. On special units, automatic bath
application facilities are provided.
When alternating current, HWDC, or pulsating

direct current is used for magnetization, the rapid
variation in field strength, while the current is on,
imparts motion to the surface of the part. The
vibration of the particles gives them excellent
mobility for the formation of indications. The
coatings applied to some of the dry method powders to give color to the indications serve a double
purpose in that they also reduce friction between
particles and the surface of the part and contribute
to mobility.
The suspension of particles in a liquid allows
mobility for the particles in two dimensions when
the suspension flows over the surface of the part;
and in three dimensions, when the magnetized part
is immersed in the suspension. Wet particles have
a tendency to settle out of suspension, either in the
tanks of the unit or somewhere on the test surface
short of the discontinuity. To be effective, the
magnetic particles must move along with the liquid
and reach every surface that the liquid covers.
This unit is used for the wet method with either

the visible or the fluorescent magnetic particles.
The unit is equipped with a black light seen
mounted on the back rail, and a hood and curtains
that may be drawn to exclude white light when
fluorescent particles are used.
Direct current, derived from full wave rectified
three phase alternating current, is delivered to the
adjustable contact heads for circular magnetization. The coil is provided for longitudinal
magnetization. This unit is equipped with the
infinitely variable current control by means of a
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saturable core reactor, and also with the

self-regulating current control.
7.8 Portable Equipment
The alternating current polarity reversal at the

60 Hz rate produces a vibratory action at the
surface of the test part which increases particle
mobility. Alternating current yokes also can be
used for demagnetization.
7.8.1 Yokes
7.8.1.2 Permanent Magnet Yokes
Magnetic yokes are small and portable. They

are very easy to use and are adequate when examining small parts and welds. They induce a strong
magnetic field into that portion that lies between
the poles or legs of the yoke. The induced field
flows from one leg of the yoke to the other in an
orientation as shown in Figure 7-21. Yokes are
available with either fixed or articulated legs.
Yokes are available for operation from a 115 V,
60 Hz alternating current outlet, and some are
equipped with a rectifier so HWDC can be used.
Permanent magnetic yokes are also available,
which permit examinations to be performed
without the need for electric current.
Permanent magnets are sometimes used to

produce a distorted longitudinal field in the part
being examined. The strong fields at the poles of
the permanent magnet can create confusion due to
the adherence of particles at the poles.
7.8.1.1 Electro-Magnet Yokes
Circular magnetization can be accomplished

by using mobile or portable units equipped with
cables and contact prods.
Electro-magnetic yokes, sometimes referred to

as AC yokes, are U-shaped cores of soft iron with a
coil wound around the base of the U. When
alternating current or rectified alternating current is
passing through the coil the two ends of the core
are magnetized with opposite polarity, the
combination is an electromagnetic yoke with a
magnetic field similar to that of a permanent
horseshoe magnet. A yoke induces a longitudinal
field in a part. Electrical current does not pass
through the part.
When the legs of a permanent magnet yoke are

placed on the surface of the part, the field travels
through the object from one pole to the other.
Along a straight line drawn between the poles, the
flux is relatively straight and is strongest near the
poles of the yoke.
7.8.2
Prods
7.8.2.1 Contact Prods

The contact prods (Figure 7-22) are placed in
position on the surface to be examined. The
magnetizing current passing through and between
the two prods creates a circular field suitable for
detecting discontinuities oriented along a line
between the prods. Great care must be used to
prevent local overheating, arcing, or burning the
surface being examined, particularly on
high-carbon or alloy materials where hard spots or
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the cable creates a longitudinal magnetic field in

the part.
cracks could be produced.

7.8.2.2 Contact Clamps
7.9 Applications
Contact clamps can be used with cables instead
of contact prods, particularly when the parts are
relatively small in diameter. Parts like tubular
structures can be examined by positioning the
clamps so that current passes through the area
under examination. Care must be used to avoid
burning of the part under the contact pads. Burning and heating may be caused by dirty contacts,
insufficient contact clamp pressure, or excessive
currents.
7.8.3
7.8.3.1 Hand-Held Coil

For longitudinal magnetization of shafts
(Figure 7-23), spindles, axles, and similar small
parts, the hand-held coil offers a simple, convenient approach wherever a coil can be applied
around the part. Parts may be magnetized and
demagnetized with the same coil. Either dry
powder or a wet particle suspension can be used.
7.8.3.2 Cable Wrap
Cable wrapping a coil around large or heavy
parts is a common practice (refer to Figure 7-14).
Flexible, insulated copper cables used with mobile
or portable units are wrapped around the part to
fashion a coil. One end of the flexile cable is
connected to the common connector on the magnetizing unit, and the other end is connected to
either the alternating current or the direct current
connector. The electric current passing through
Solid Cylindrical Parts
For this technique, magnetization is accomplished by passing current through the part to be
examined. This produces a circular magnetic
field that is approximately perpendicular to the
direction of current flow in the part. Direct or
rectified (half-wave rectified or full-wave
rectified) magnetizing current should be used.
7.9.2
Coils
7.9.1
Hollow Cylindrical Parts
For this technique, a central conductor is used

to examine the internal surfaces of ring or cylindrically shaped parts. The central conductor
technique may also be used for examining the
outside surfaces of these shapes. Where large
diameter cylinders are to be examined, the conductor should be positioned close to the internal
surface of the cylinder. When the conductor is not
centered, the circumference of the cylinder should
be examined in increments, and a magnetic particle
field indicator should be used to determine the
extent of the arc that may be examined for each
conductor position. Bars or cables passed through
the bore of a cylinder may be used to induce
circular magnetization.
The magnetizing current to be used should be
as described in section 7.4.2.5. The magnetic
field increases in proportion to the number of times
a central conductor cable passes through a hollow
part. For example, if 6,000 amp are required to
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examine a part using a single central conductor,

3,000 amp are required when two turns of the
through cable are used; and 1,200 amp are required
if five turns are used. When the central conductor
technique is used, magnetic field adequacy should
be verified using a magnetic particle field
indicator.
7.9.3 Welds
For the prod technique, magnetization is
accomplished with the prods in contact with the
surface in the area to be examined. To avoid
arcing, a remote control switch, which may be built
into the prod handles, should be provided to permit
the current to be turned on only after the prods
have been properly positioned and shut off before
prod removal. Direct or rectified magnetizing
current should be used. The current should be 100
amp (minimum) per inch to 125 amp (maximum)
per inch of prod spacing for sections -inch thick
or greater. For sections less than -inch thick, the
current should be 90 to 110 amp/inch of prod
spacing.
Prod spacing should not exceed 8 inches.
Shorter spacing may be used to accommodate the
geometric limitations of the area being examined
or to increase the sensitivity, but prod spacing of
less than 3 inches are usually not practical due to
banding of the particles around the prods. The
prod tips should be kept clean and dressed. If the
open circuit voltage of the magnetizing current
source is greater than 25V, lead, steel, or aluminum
(rather than copper) tipped prods are recommended
to avoid copper deposits on the part being
examined. Alternating current yokes would be
used in the same manner assuring complete
coverage through overlaps.

7.9.4
Castings
The current and prod spacing should be as

specified for welds. In order to assure complete
coverage for large castings, it is recommended that
a grid pattern be established. Alternating current
yokes are also effective for the examination of
castings.
7.10
Demagnetization
Any ferromagnetic material subjected to MT

examination may require demagnetization, and the
examiner should understand the reasons for this
step, as well as the problems that may be encountered and how they may be solved.
The earth's field can effect the demagnetizing
of parts. A long part to be demagnetized should
be placed so that the axis of its longest member is
in an east and west direction. A long part lying in
a north and south direction can be difficult to
demagnetize below the level of the earth's field.
Rotating the part or structure on its east-west axis
while demagnetizing often helps reduce the field in
transverse members that are not lying east and
west. Total removal of all residual magnetic
fields is virtually impossible.
7.10.1 Principles of Demagnetization

Demagnetization may be accomplished in a
number of different ways. One of the most
common is to subject the magnetized part to a
magnetizing force that continually reverses its
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direction while it is gradually decreasing in

strength. As the decreasing magnetizing force is
applied, first in one direction and then in the
opposite direction, the residual magnetization of
the part is decreased. Generally, a high intensity
demagnetizer is used as depicted in Figure 7-24a
and 7-24b. AC demagnetization is most common
but does not demagnetize as deep or complete as a
DC step down unit.
This decreasing magnetization is accomplished
by smaller and smaller hysteresis loops created by
the application of decreasing current as shown in
Figure 7-25. A smaller and narrower hysteresis
loop is indicative of lower residual magnetism.
All steels have a certain amount of coercive force,
making it extremely difficult if not totally impossible to demagnetize them completely. In fact, the
only way to completely demagnetize some materials is to heat them to their Curie point or above.
Under normal conditions a part is considered to be
satisfactorily demagnetized if, when checked with
a field indicator, the magnetic field is below
minimum limits.
cases where residual magnetism:
May interfere with electric arc welding operations. Residual magnetic fields may deflect
the arc away from the point at which it should
be applied.
May interfere with the functioning of the part

itself, after it is placed into service. Magnetized
tools, such as milling cutters, hobs, etc., may
hold chips and cause rough surfaces, and may
even be broken by adherent chips at the cutting
edge.
Moving parts, especially those running in oil,

may hold particles; for instance, on balls or
races of ball bearings, or on gear teeth causing
wear.
May hold particles that interfere with later

applied coatings such as plating or paint.
Demagnetization may not be required where:
Part material is a low carbon steel and has low

retentivity.
The material consists of structural parts such as

weldments, large castings, boilers, etc., where
the presence of a residual field would have
little or no effect on the proper performance of
the part.
The part is to be subsequently processed or

heat-treated and in the process will become
The Code (Section V) requires demagnetization when the residual field in the part:
Could interfere with subsequent processing or

usage such as machining operations where
chips will adhere to the surface of the part or
the tip of a tool may become magnetized from
contact with the magnetized part. Such chips
can interfere with smooth cutting by the tool
adversely affecting both finish and tool life.
heated above its Curie point, or about 770 C

(1390F) for steel.
Other reasons to demagnetize would be in

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A part is to be subsequently re-magnetized in

another direction to the same or higher level at
which it was originally magnetized as, for
example, between the steps of circular and
longitudinal magnetizing, for MT purposes.
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The magnetic field contained in a finished part

is such that there are no external leakage fields
measurable by ordinary means (i.e., circular
magnetization).
Type of ferromagnetic particles to be used:

manufacturer, color, wet or dry, etc.;
Magnetization currents (type and amperage);

and
7.10.2 Measuring Residual Fields

The field indicator, a pocket instrument, is used
to determine the relative intensity of residual fields
in a part.
Demagnetization
Examinations are most commonly done by the
continuous method; that is, the magnetizing
current is on while the particles are being applied
and while the excess particles are being removed.
7.12
When this field indicator is placed near a part

that has been demagnetized, it indicates the
relative field strength of the residual magnetism.
A Gauss meter or a compass can also be used
sometimes to measure the presence of residual
magnetic fields.
7.11 Procedure Requirements
Maximum sensitivity is achieved when discontinuities are oriented perpendicular to the lines
of flux. For optimum effectiveness in detecting
discontinuities, each area should be examined at
least twice, with the lines of flux during one
examination approximately perpendicular to the
lines of flux during the other.
Examination procedures are commonly based
on the following information:
Calibration
7.12.1 Frequency
Each piece of magnetizing equipment with an
ammeter must be calibrated at least once a year, or
whenever the equipment has been subjected to
major repair, periodic overhaul, or damage. If
equipment has not been in use for a year or more,
calibration should be done prior to first use.
7.12.2 Tolerance
The unit's meter reading should not deviate by
more than 10 percent of full scale, relative to the
actual current value as shown by the test meter.
NOTE:
When measuring half-wave rectified current with a direct current test meter,
readings shall be multiplied by two.
The materials, shapes, or sizes to be examined,

and the extent of the examination;
7.12.3 Procedure
Magnetization techniques to be used;
Equipment to be used for magnetization;
Surface preparation (finishing and cleaning);
The accuracy of the unit's meter should be

verified annually by equipment traceable to a
national standard. Comparative readings should
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be taken for at least three different current output

levels encompassing the usable range.
7.12.4 Yoke Calibration
The Code requires yokes to be checked at least
once a year or whenever a yoke has been damaged.
Each AC yoke must be capable of lifting at

least 10 pounds at the maximum pole spacing
that will be used.
Each direct current yoke or permanent magnet

yoke must be capable of lifting at least 40
pounds at the maximum pole spacing that will
be used.
7.13 Surface Preparation

Satisfactory results are usually obtained when
the surfaces are in the as-welded, as-rolled, as-cast,
or as-forged conditions.
However, surface
preparation by grinding or machining may be
necessary where surface irregularities could mask
indications due to discontinuities.
examined, it must be demonstrated that indications

can be detected through the maximum coating
thickness applied. ASME Section V Article 7
Appendix I should be referred to for the MT
examination of water surfaces.
7.14
When it is necessary to verify the adequacy or

direction of the magnetizing field, a magnetic field
indicator, commonly referred to as the pie gage,
shown in Figure 7-26 may be used. The indicator
is positioned on the surface of the part being
examined with the copper side up. Using the
continuous method, the magnetic particles are
applied to the copper face of the indicator. Formation of clearly defined indications across the
copper face is evidence that the flux density, or
field strength, is adequate and also indicates the
direction of the magnetic field. A Hall Effect
meter may be used and a minimum of 30 gauss to a
maximum of 60 gauss is required. QQIs are also
permitted to be used to verify the field adequacy.
7.15
Prior to MT examination, the surface to be

examined and all adjacent areas within at least one
inch, should be dry and free of all dirt, grease,
lint, scale, welding flux and spatter, oil,
or other extraneous matter that could interfere with
the examination.
Magnetic Field Verification
Evaluation
7.15.1 Evaluation Terms

Several key terms relating to the evaluation of
results are discussed in the following sections:
7.15.1.1 Indications
Cleaning may be accomplished using detergents, organic solvents, descaling solutions, paint
removers, vapor degreasing, sand or grit blasting,
or ultrasonic cleaning methods.
If coatings are left on the part in the area being
In MT examinations an indication is an accumulation of magnetic particles on the surface of a

part. The indication may be caused by a discontinuity, by some other condition that produces a
leakage field, by a surface contaminant, or they
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may be held by gravity. As described in Chapter

3, false indications are held by mechanical forces
and nonrelevant indications caused by part configuration.
A discontinuity indication is particle buildup,
which is caused by an interruption in the normal
physical structure or configuration of a part.
7.15.1.2 Nonrelevant Indications
Magnetic Writing - This is a condition caused
by a piece of steel rubbing against another piece of
steel that has been magnetized. Since either or
both pieces contain some residual magnetism, the
rubbing or touching creates magnetic poles at the
points of contact. These local magnetic poles are
usually in the form of a line or scrawl and for this
reason the effect is referred to as magnetic writing.
Cold Working - Cold working consists of
changing the size or shape of a metal part without
raising its temperature before working. When a
bent nail is straightened with a hammer, the nail is
being cold worked. Cold working usually causes
a change in the permeability of the metal where the
working occurs. The boundary of the area of
changed permeability may attract magnetic particles when the part is magnetized.
Hard or Soft Spots - If there are areas of the
part which have a different degree of hardness than
the remainder of the part, these areas will also
exhibit a different permeability. When a part with
such areas of different permeability is examined,
the boundaries of the areas may create local
leakage fields and attract magnetic particles.
Boundaries of Heat Treated Sections - Heat
treating consists of heating a part to a high temperature and then cooling it under controlled
conditions. The rate of cooling may be relatively
rapid or slow, depending upon the desired characteristics of the material. Both hardness and grain
size of a material can be changed by varying the
temperature and the rate of cooling. On a cold
chisel, the point is hardened to cut better and to
hold an edge. The head of the chisel, which is the
end struck by the hammer, is kept softer than the
cutting edge so that it does not shatter and break.
The edge of the hardened zone frequently creates
a permeability change resulting in a magnetic
particle indication.
Abrupt Change of Section - Where there are
abrupt changes in section thickness of a magnetized part, the magnetic field may be said to expand
from the smaller section to the larger. Frequently
this creates local poles due to magnetic field
leakage or distortion. If there is a crack or
discontinuity in that area of change, it will usually
produce an indication which is sharper and it
probably will not extend the entire length of the
abrupt change.
On parts with keyways, a circular magnetic
field can also create nonrelevant indications. The
magnetic field is forced out of the part by the
thinner section at the keyway.
A gear with a spline magnetized circularly by
passing current through a central conductor, as a
result of the reduced cross section created by the
spline, constricts the magnetic lines of force and
some of them break the outer surface. Particles
gather where the magnetic lines of force break
through the surface thereby creating indications.
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7.15.1.3 Interpretation of Nonrelevant

It may at first appear that some types of
non-relevant indications discussed and illustrated
in the preceding material would be difficult to
recognize and interpret. However, there are several
characteristics of nonrelevant indications that
enable the operator to recognize them in the
example cited and under most other conditions.
These characteristics of nonrelevant indications
are:
On all similar parts, given the same magnetizing technique, the indications occur in the same
location and have identical patterns.
The indications are usually uniform in direction and size.
The indications are usually fuzzy rather than

sharp and well defined.
Nonrelevant indications can always be related

to some feature of configuration or cross
section; this accounts for the leakage field
creating the indication.
because the leakage field is weaker.

Indications
The various referencing Code sections specify
evaluation of indications based on whether they are
linear or rounded and their dimensions.
7.15.2 Evaluation Guide
As a guide, the following basic considerations
may be used in the evaluation of indications:
A discontinuity of any kind lying at the surface

is more likely to be harmful than a discontinuity of the same size and shape that lies
below the surface.
Any discontinuity having a principal dimension or a principal plane that lies at right angles
or at a considerable angle to the direction of
principal stress, whether the discontinuity is
surface or sub-surface is more likely to be
harmful than a discontinuity of the same size,
location, and shape lying parallel to the stress.
Any discontinuity that occurs in an area of high

stress must be more carefully considered than a
discontinuity of the same size and shape in an
area where the stress is low.
Discontinuities that are sharp, such as cracks,

are severe stress-risers and are more harmful in
any location than rounded discontinuities such
as porosity.
Any discontinuity which occurs in a location

close to a keyway or fillet must be considered
to be more harmful than a discontinuity of the
same size and shape that occurs away from
such a location.
7.15.1.4 True Discontinuity Indications

If the indication is caused by a discontinuity at
the surface of the part, the particles are usually
tightly held to the surface by a relatively strong
magnetic leakage field and are sharp and well
defined.
If the indication is caused by a discontinuity
below the surface, it will be a broad and fuzzy
accumulation of particles. The particles in such
an indication are less tightly held to the surface
7.16
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Direct indications are produced.
A technique sketch is normally prepared for

each different part examined, showing the part
geometry; MT equipment, arrangement, and
connections; magnetizing current; and the areas of
examination. Other examination data in addition
to the technique sketch should also be recorded
including:
Minimum post cleaning is necessary.
MT can only be used effectively on ferromagnetic material.
Equipment used,
Techniques,
Detection sensitivity decreases rapidly with

discontinuity depth.
Current,
Type of particles,
Good electrical contact is necessary for some

techniques.
Surface conditions,
Results of examinations,
Orientation of magnetic field in relation to

discontinuity is important.
Demagnetization results, and
Other pertinent information.
High electrical currents are required for some

applications.
Improper technique may result in overheating

of parts and arc strikes on the part surface.
Demagnetization may be required.
MT is not reliable for detection of fine porosity.
7.17 Advantages and

Examination
Limitations
of
7.17.2 Limitations
The limitations of MT are summarized below:
MT
7.17.1 Advantages
The advantages of MT are summarized below:
MT can detect surface and near surface discontinuities not detectable visually.
Surface preparation usually is not as critical as

for Penetrant Examinations.
Surfaces that have thin coatings can usually be

examined.
Size and configuration of the part is usually not

a limiting factor.
MT is a fast and simple examination.
MT can be automated to some extent.
Some equipment is portable and can be used in

remote locations.
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Tablle of Contents
Table 7-1 Typical Coil Sh

hot Currents (amperes) for a Five Turn Coil

0409
730
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Fiigure 7-1a Horseshoe Magnet
Figure 7-1b Horrseshoe Magnet with Poles Close Together
Figure -1cc Horseshoe Magnet Fused into Ring

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Particlee Examination
Figure 7-2 Crack

C
in Fused Horseshoe Magnet
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Parrticle Examination
Figure 7-3 Horseshoe Magnet Straightened To Form Bar Magnett
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Figure 7-4a Slot in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles
Figure 7-4b Crack in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles

0409
734
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Fig
gure 7-5 The Hysteresis Loop
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Figure 7-6
7 Magnetic Field in a Part
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7--7 Direct Magnetization - Head Shot
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Figure 7-8 Magnetic Field

F
Distribution for a Solid Nonmagnetic
Conducttor Carrying Direct Current
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7-9 Magneticc Field Distribution for a Hollow Nonmagneticc

Cond
ductor Carrying Direct Current
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d Distribution for a Solid Magnetic Conductorr
Ca
arrying Direct Current
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic

F
Distribution for a Hollow Magnetic Cond
ductor
Carrying Direct Current
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Figure 7-12
2 Central Conductor Technique
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7-13 Longitudinal

L
Magnetization - Coil Shot
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Figure 7--14 Cable Wrap Technique
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7-15 Sing

gle Phase Alternating Current Wave Forms
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Figure 7-16 Rectification of Alternating

A
Current to Half Wave Direct Curreent
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7-17 Full Wave Direct Current
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7-1
18a Three Phase Alternating Current
Figure 7-18b Threee Phase Full Wave Rectified Direct Current
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Figuree 7-19 Settling Test Setup
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Fig
gure 7-20 Wet Horizontal Unit
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Figuree 7-21 Yoke Magnetization
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7-22 Cirrcular Magnetization Using Contact Prods
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Figure 7-22 Circula

ar Magnetization Using Contact Prods
Figure 7-23 Coil Technique
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figuree 7-24a Part in Demagnetized Coil
Figure 7-24b Part Withdrawn from Coil
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Figure 7-25 Demag

gnetization Curves Showing the Effect
of a Reverrsing and Decreasing Current
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Chapter 7.0 Introdu

uction to Magnetic
Figure 7-26 Pie Gage
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Figure 7-27 Central Conductor Coverage
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Student Manual
Volume 2
Chapter 8.0
Introduction to Ultrasonic Examination
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION ............................................................. 1

Learning Objectives
8.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8.2.1
ASME Section V ..................................................................................................... 1
8.2.2
ASME Section XI .................................................................................................... 2
8.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
8.3.1
Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
8.3.2 Velocity4
8.3.3
Wavelength
......................................................................................................... 5
8.3.4
Transmission/Reflection .......................................................................................... 5
8.3.5
Attenuation...6
8.3.6
Instrumentation and Control .................................................................................... 6
8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation .................................................................................. 6

8.3.7.1
Acoustic Impedance .............................................................................. 7
8.3.7.2
Reflection at Interfaces .......................................................................... 8
8.3.7.3
Fresnel Zone .......................................................................................... 8
8.3.7.4
Fraunhofer Zone (Far Field) .................................................................. 9
8.3.7.5
Dead Zone.............................................................................................. 9
8.3.8 Refraction
......................................................................................................... 9
8.3.8.1
Snells Law ............................................................................................ 9
8.3.8.2
First and Second Critical Angles ......................................................... 10
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Table of Contents
8.3.9 Ultrasonic Examination Variables ......................................................................... 11

8.3.9.1 Equipment .................................................................................................. 11
8.3.9.2 Transducers ................................................................................................ 12
8.3.9.3 Couplant..................................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.4 Scanning Techniques ................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.5 Part Structure ............................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.6 Surface Condition ...................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.7 Part Geometry and Size ............................................................................. 13
8.3.9.8 Discontinuity Type, Shape, and Orientation ............................................. 14
8.4 Equipment.. .......................................................................................................................... 14
8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers .......................................................................................... 14
8.4.1.1
Types ................................................................................................... 14
8.4.1.2
Care of Transducers ............................................................................. 14
8.4.2 Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation .......................................................................... 15
8.4.2.1
Time base ............................................................................................. 15
8.4.2.2
Clock .................................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.3
Pulse Repetition Rate........................................................................... 16
8.4.2.4
Pulser-Receiver .................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.5
Basic Controls...................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.6
Gates .................................................................................................... 17
8.5 Procedures. .............................................................................................................................. 17
8.5.1 Application of the Various Wave Modes .............................................................. 18
8.5.1.1
Compressional Wave Applications ..................................................... 18
8.5.1.2
Shear Waves ........................................................................................ 18
8.5.1.3
Surface Waves ..................................................................................... 18
8.5.1.4
Lamb Waves ........................................................................................ 18
8.5.2
Immersion Testing ................................................................................................. 18

8.5.2.1
Immersion Tanks and System Components ........................................ 18
8.5.2.2
Immersion Transducers ....................................................................... 19
8.5.3
Data Display ....................................................................................................... 20
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8.5.3.1
8.5.3.2
8.5.3.3
Table of Contents
A-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
B-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
C-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
8.5.4 Calibration Techniques .......................................................................................... 21

8.5.4.1
Linearity............................................................................................... 21
8.5.4.2
Distance Amplitude ............................................................................. 22
8.5.4.3
Resolution ............................................................................................ 23
8.5.4.4
Beam Profile ........................................................................................ 23
8.5.4.5
Test Block Parameters ......................................................................... 23
8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques ...................................................................................... 23
8.5.5.1
Scanning Problems .............................................................................. 23
8.5.5.2
Interpretation Shortcomings ................................................................ 23
8.5.5.3
Report Format Problems ...................................................................... 23
8.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements .................................................................................... 24
8.6.1
Weld Calibration Standards ................................................................................... 24
8.6.2
Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 25
8.6.2.1
False Indications .................................................................................. 25
8.6.2.2
Nonrelevant Indications ....................................................................... 25
8.6.2.3
Relevant Discontinuity Indications ..................................................... 25
8.6.3
Recording............................................................................................................... 26
8.6.3.1
Use of Examination Forms .................................................................. 26
8.6.3.2
Recording Techniques ......................................................................... 26
8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Examination......................................................... 26

8.7.1 Advantages ............................................................................................................ 26
8.7.2
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 26
LIST OF TABLES
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Table of Contents
8-1 Acoustic Properties of Materials ................................................................................................... 28
LIST OF FIGURES
8-1 Wavelength29
8-2 Reflection, Transmission at an Interface ....................................................................................... 30
8-3 Block Diagram of a Typical Ultrasonic Instrument ...................................................................... 31
8-4 Particle Displacement by Longitudinal Waves ............................................................................. 32
8-5 Particle Displacement by Transverse Waves................................................................................. 33
8-6 Surface or Rayleigh Wave Modes ................................................................................................. 34
8-7 Plate or Lamb Wave Modes .......................................................................................................... 35
8-8 Constructive and Destructive Interference .................................................................................... 36
8-9 Near and Far Fields........................................................................................................................ 37
8-10 Near-to-Surface Reflector Within Dead Zone ......................................................................... 38
8-11 Dead Zone Check .................................................................................................................... 39
8-12 Angle Beam in Weld ............................................................................................................... 40
8-13 Angle Beam Transducer Assembly ......................................................................................... 41
8-14 Refraction and Reflection of Incident Compressional Wave at an Interface .......................... 42
8-15 Increasing Incident Angle in Probe Shoes (Wedges) With Second Medium of
Higher Velocity ....................................................................................................................... 43
8-16 Transducer Coupled to Test Piece ........................................................................................... 44
8-17 Immersion Test ........................................................................................................................ 45
8-18 Normal Compressional Wave Probe ....................................................................................... 46
8-19 Delay Line Probe ..................................................................................................................... 47
8-20 Calibration of Timebase for Delay Line Probe ....................................................................... 48
8-21 Dual Element Probe (Pitch-Catch) .......................................................................................... 49
8-22 Use of Reject ........................................................................................................................... 50
8-23 Typical Ultrasonic Tank and Bridge/Manipulator................................................................... 51
8-24 Bridge/Manipulator ................................................................................................................. 52
8-25 Flat and Contour-Corrected Transducers ................................................................................ 53
8-26 Focused-Beam Shortening in Metal ........................................................................................ 54
8-27 B-Scan Presentation ................................................................................................................. 55
8-28 C-Scan Presentation ................................................................................................................. 56
8-29 Typical C-Scan Recording....................................................................................................... 57
8-30 Basic Calibration Block ........................................................................................................... 58
8-31 Distance Calibration ................................................................................................................ 59
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8-33
8-34
8-35
8-36
8-37
8-38
8-39
8-40
8-41
Table of Contents
Distance Amplitude Calibration .............................................................................................. 60

Linear Reflector ....................................................................................................................... 61
Distance Amplitude Correction Curves ................................................................................... 62
Block A2 (IIW Block) ............................................................................................................. 63
Block A7 ............................................................................................................................... 64
Checking Beam Index Point .................................................................................................... 65
Checking Beam Angle ............................................................................................................. 66
Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A4 Block ............................................... 67
Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2 Block Modified with Slots .............. 68
Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2 Block Modified with 25 mm
Radius ..69
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8.0 INTRODUCTION
EXAMINATION

TO
Development of more advanced equipment in

the 1940's expanded the use of pulse-echo ultrasound, which derives information from the sound
making round trips, and required access to only
one side of the material. Another technique,
resonance testing, depends on the resonant frequency of the material being examined.
ULTRASONIC
1. Understand the basic principles of the generation, transmission, and reflection of
ultra-sound.

Of all the NDE methods, UT is the most
subjective and therefore depends greatly on the
qualifications and expertise of the examiner.
2. Know the personnel qualification and certification requirements.

3. Become familiar with the various techniques
used in ultrasonic examination (UT).
8.2.1 ASME Section V

ASME Code Section V requires that NDE personnel be qualified in accordance with either:
4. Understand the steps involved with calibration.

5. Become familiar with the variables affecting
UT.
SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition), or

ANSI/ASNT CP-189 (2006 Edition)
ACCP
6. Understand the common interpretation and

code requirements.
Qualification in accordance with a prior edition

of either SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 is considered
valid until recertification. Recertification must be
in accordance with SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition),
CP-189 (2006 Edition) or ACCP .
7. Identify the advantages and limitation of UT.

8.1 History
Practical use of ultrasound for NDE began in
the 1920's. Sokolov was a major pioneer, using
the through-transmission technique whereby sound
is transmitted through the material, to a receiver.
Reduction in the received signal amplitude
indicated the possibility of discontinuities in the
path of the sound beam.
A Level II Ultrasonic Examiner, who is a high

school graduate, must complete one of following
for Section V and only the CP-189 requirements
for Section XI.
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experience consists of the sum of the hours

required for NDT Levels I and II.
3. The required minimum experience must be
requirement, experience may be gained in
more than one (1) method.
Minimum
method.

Training
Experience
Level I
40 hours
210* hrs /400**hrs
Level II
40 hours
630* hrs /1200 **hrs
NOTES:
1. To certify to Level II directly with no time
at Level I, the training and experience for
Level I and II shall be combined.
2. Training hours may be reduced with additional engineering or science study beyond
high school. Refer to Chapter 2 and
SNT-TC-1A.
3. There are no additional training requirements for Level III. Refer to Chapter 2 of
this manual for Level III requirements.
8.2.2 ASME Section XI

Ultrasonic examination is the most widely used
method for the detection and evaluation of piping
systems flaws during In-service Inspection (ISI)
of nuclear power plants. However, due to the
complexity of the method and the factors affecting
the examination, such as pipe geometry and
material type, the training and qualification of
examiners have been problematic and under
constant evaluation since the early 1980's.

Training
Experience
Level I
40 hours
200*/400**
Level II
40 hours
600*/1200**
During the mid-seventies, boiling water

reactors (BWRs) were found to contain extensive
intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) in
certain stainless steel piping. The NRC called for
increased examinations and for plant owners to
improve the effectiveness of ultrasonic examinations. The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI), NRC, and plant owners conducted a
number of studies on the effectiveness of ISI
ultrasonic examiners and their ability to detect
IGSCC. The results showed qualified examiners
were missing critical discontinuities.
The
industry instituted special training and certification
examinations given through EPRI to better qualify
examiners to find IGSCC. It is critical to remem-
*Hours in UT/** Total Hours in NDE

NOTES:
2. A person may be qualified directly to NDT
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ber that the requirements of CP-189 (1995 Editions) are minimum for Section XI. The specific
and practical examinations must be directed at the
specific techniques an examiner will use in the
field. To have examiners spend 80 percent of
their time doing erosion/corrosion (straight beam)
examinations and then administer a simple angle
beam practical examination is not adequate for the
performance of ISI weld examinations.
The requirements of Appendix VII are:

Classroo
m
Section XI requires that personnel performing

NDE be qualified and certified using a written
practice prepared in accordance with ANSI/ASNT
CP-189 as amended by Section XI. IWA 2314
states that the possession of an ASNT Level III
Certificate, which is required by CP-189, is not
required by Section XI. Section XI also states that
certifications to SNT-TC-1A or earlier editions of
CP-189 will remain valid until recertification at
which time CP-189 (1995 Edition) must be met.
Experience
Level I
40
40
250 hours
Level II
40
40
800 hours
Level III
40
Options
-see below
Option I - Graduate of a 4 year accredited

engineering or science college or university with a
degree in engineering or science, plus 2 years
experience in NDE in an assignment comparable to
that of an NDE Level II in the ultrasonic examination method. At least 1 year of this experience
shall be in nuclear applications and shall include
the actual performance of examinations and
evaluation of examination results. Also, it requires 4,200 hours of total experience with 2,100
hours in nuclear applications.
To assure that an examiner performing ISI

ultrasonic examinations is properly qualified,
ASME Section XI has added extensive requirements above the minimums as outlined in CP-189.
Specifically, Appendix VII was added to Section
XI. The following section outlines basic requirements for ASME Section XI. (Refer to ASME
Section XI, Appendix VII for detailed information.)
Option 2 - Completion with a passing grade of

at least the equivalent of 2 full years of engineering or science study at a university, college, or
technical school, plus 3 years experience in an
assignment comparable to that of a Level II in the
ultrasonic examination method. At least 2 years
of this experience shall be in nuclear applications
and shall include the actual performance of
examinations and evaluation of examination
results.
Also, it requires 6,300 hours of
experience with 4,200 hours in nuclear
applications.
The 2007 edition with 2008 addenda of Section

XI, requires certification to CP-189 - 1995 as
modified in ASME Section XI Mandatory
Appendix VII article VII 4000.
Laboratory
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"hertz" units as follows:
Option 3 - High school graduate, or equivalent, plus 4 years experience in an assignment

comparable to that of a Level II in the ultrasonic
examination method. Also, it requires 8,400
hours of experience with 4,200 hours in nuclear
applications.
Appendix VII also addresses NDE Instructor

Qualification, Annual Training (minimum of 10
hours per year), Examinations (with much emphasis on performance demonstration), and
Qualification Records.
The audible range, which is the range of human

hearing, is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. Ultrasound
encompasses all frequencies higher than 20 KHz.
UT utilizes only a portion of the ultrasonic range.
Most commercial UT is performed within the
range of 100 KHz to 25 MHz; a few applications
are performed both above and below this
frequency band. Actual examination frequency
depends on the frequency of the transducer
selected.
Appendix VII Supplement 1 contains the

minimum content for initial training courses.
8.3 Principles
Sound is the transmission of mechanical
energy, in the form of vibrations, through a material. Although sound can be propagated in all
three states of matter; solids, liquids, and gases,
factors such as type of sound wave, material
composition, and wavelength can make propagation difficult or impossible in a given situation.
8.3.1
8.3.2 Velocity
Velocity is the speed at which sound travels.
It is expressed as distance traveled per unit time.
The most common units of time in UT are the
second and microsecond (sec). A microsecond
is one millionth of a second.
Frequency
The velocity of sound depends upon:
Frequency is the rate of vibration or the number of vibrations per second. Because sound
waves are in motion, frequency can also be viewed
as the number of complete waves which pass a
given point during 1 second. One complete unit
of vibration is called a cycle. A cycle is
graphically represented by a sine curve and
consists of two opposing motions, such as forward
and backward, or up and down. The rate of
vibration, or cycles per second, is expressed in
Hertz (Hz) = cycles per second,

Kilohertz (KHz) = one thousand cycles per
second, and
Megahertz (MHz) = one million cycles per
second.
Density and elasticity of the material through

which sound is traveling,
Wave mode (the manner in which material

particles vibrate as sound travels through the
material), and
Material temperature, which has a minor effect

on sound velocity for temperatures greater than
150F.
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material offers to the passage of sound. It is the

product of the material's velocity and density. As
the impedance ratio increases between the
interfaces of two materials the greater the sound
reflection at this interface boundary and hence less
sound is transmitted into the second material. The
percentage of sound reflected from an interface,
where Z1 is the acoustic impedance of the medium
through which the sound is initially traveling, and
Z2 is the acoustic impedance of the medium that
the sound meets at the interface and is reflected, is
calculated as follows:
Several formulas used in UT employ material

velocity as a variable. The most convenient unit
for calculating these formulas is kilometers per
second (km/sec), although inches per second and
centimeters per microsecond are sometimes
encountered.
8.3.3 Wavelength
A vibration in motion is often called a sound
wave. A series of sound waves sent into an object
is often called a pulse.
(8-2)
% Sound reflected = (Z1-Z2)2/(Z1 +Z2)2 x 100
Wavelength is an important variable in UT and

is defined as the distance from one point on an
ultrasonic wave train to the next identical point
(e.g., from trough to trough or peak to peak)
(Figure 8-1).
Material discontinuities reflect sound because

they have an acoustic impedance different from the
material being examined (Figure 8-2). In addition
to acoustic impedance, a number of other factors
reduce the amplitude of the echo that the
transducer receives from a discontinuity. The
size, shape, and orientation of the reflector all
affect its echo response. Position of a reflector is
particularly important due to the effects of sound
beam geometry and material properties. The
more the sound beam has spread at the point of
reflector interception, the less will be the reflected
sound pressure per unit area. In addition, as
sound travels through test material, increased
scattering and absorption of the sound by the
material's own structure is experienced. When
examining thick sections, some type of
distance/amplitude correction (DAC) must be
considered to compensate for amplitude losses
caused by the sound beam and test material.
It is also defined as the distance sound travels

within the duration of one complete cycle.
Wavelength (represented by , the Greek letter
lambda) is calculated by dividing velocity (V) by
frequency (f), as follows:
(8-1)
(mm)
(km/sec)/f
8.3.4
Transmission/Reflection
(MHz)
Sound reflects when it strikes a surface called

an acoustic interface. An echo is therefore
defined as a reflection from an acoustic interface.
An acoustic interface is the boundary between two
materials with different acoustic impedances.
Acoustic impedance is defined as the opposition a
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8.3.5 Attenuation
8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation
Sound amplitude decreases (as it propagates in

the material) are called sound attenuation. Attenuation is due to several factors:
Sound waves travel through materials by

displacing tiny particles of the material, generally
at the molecular level. Depending on the manner
in which vibrations are introduced, the particle
displacements exhibit certain behaviors, called
wave modes, as the vibrations travel.
Absorption - Sound is absorbed by the braking

effect on the particle motion. Lost energy is
converted to heat.
There are two basic wave modes, which differ

from each other depending on how material
particles move relative to the direction of
transmitted energy. Longitudinal waves (also
known as compressional waves) are characterized
by the particle motion being parallel to the
direction of wave travel (Figure 8-4). Transverse
waves (also known as shear waves), are defined by
particle motion perpendicular to wave travel
(Figure 8-5). The difference in wave motion causes
these wave modes to also differ from each other in
their relative velocity as well as in their ability to
propagate in the various states of matter.
Scatter - Grain boundaries of the material

cause the sound to scatter.
The amount of sound attenuation within a
material is governed by the density, elasticity,
grain size, and grain structure of the material.
These factors are affected by alloying, heat
treatment, working, etc.
8.3.6
Instrumentation and Control
Figure 8-3 shows a block diagram of a typical

ultrasonic flaw detection instrument. The pulse
generator (trigger, clock) transmits an electrical
pulse simultaneously to the transducer (search
unit) and the time base of the cathode ray tube
(CRT). The transducer converts the electrical pulse
into sound which is transmitted into the material.
The time base (sweep generator) generates the X
sweep across the CRT. When the sound pulse is
reflected back to the transducer, it is converted
back into an electrical pulse and is amplified
before being fed to the Y axis of the CRT. This
pulse deflects the time base vertically and produces
a peak.
Ultrasonic energy propagates through

materials in several different ways depending upon
the manner in which the particles within the
carrying medium move relative to the direction of
wave propagation.
There are four forms of wave propagation
through materials:
86
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Shear (or transverse),
Surface (or Rayleigh), and
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Compression - The term compression is

used to describe the wave propagation where the
particle motion is parallel to the direction of
propagation. The particles compress together, then
rarify (Figure 8-4). This motion passes the sound
energy along the material in the form of a wave. In
this case there is a change in volume of the
material, as particle motion takes place, within the
elastic limit.
Surface - Under certain conditions, surface or

Rayleigh waves only penetrate the surface of
material to a depth of one wavelength (Figure 8-6).
Surface waves travel at 88 to 95 percent the
velocity of shear waves and travel along the
surface in an elliptical wave motion.
Plate - For very thin plates, various plate or
Lamb waves are created (Figure 8-7). In this case
the plate acts as a wave guide, through which
symmetrical and asymmetrical modes can
simultaneously pass. The results obtained by the
use of plate waves are extremely complex, due to
the dispersive velocities of the waves that may
exist within the material being tested. Their
application in flaw detection is limited to
examination of plate, which will cause a change in
the complex screen display, frequency and phase,
and amplitude of signals.
Compression or longitudinal waves are

characterized by alternating zones of compression
(high particle density) and rarefaction (low particle
density) (Figure 8-4).
Longitudinal waves
develop particle motion in solids, liquids, and
gases, and their acoustic velocity is higher in any
given material than other types of waves as is their
wavelength for a given frequency.
The velocity of compressional waves depends
on the density and elasticity of the material.
8.3.7.1 Acoustic Impedance

Shear - The term shear is used to indicate
that the particle motion is at right angles to the
direction of propagation. In this case distortion is
caused by particle movement, with no change in
volume. Figure 8-5 illustrates the shear wave
particle motion. Shear waves have a velocity
approximately one-half that of compression waves
and a shorter wavelength than compression waves.
When sound is incident at an angle normal to

an interface of two media, some of the sound is
reflected and some of it is transmitted. The
amount of sound reflected and transmitted will
depend upon the characteristic acoustic impedance
of the two media.
Characteristic acoustic impedance (Z) of a
material is the product of the velocity of sound
through a material (V), and the density () of the
material as follows:
Shear or transverse waves are characterized by

alternating zones of peaks (upward particle
displacement) and troughs (downward particle
displacement) (Figure 8-5). Transverse waves
require rigidity and can travel in solids only, and
their acoustic velocity is approximately half the
velocity of longitudinal waves.
Z=Vx
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8.3.7.2 Reflection at Interfaces
8.3.7.3 Fresnel Zone (Near Field)
As mentioned in Section 8.3.4, the amount of

sound reflected at an interface may be calculated
by the formula:
The sound beam radiated close to the transducer consists of a tapering near field or Fresnel
zone beginning at the crystal surface, followed by a
spreading far field or Fraunhofer zone.
(8-4)
% Sound reflected = (Z 1- Z2)2/(Z1 + Z2)2 x 100
Sound originates on the crystal surface as a

number of individual point sources radiating
spherical waves. As the waves progress outward,
they interfere with each other (Figure 8-8).
Where;
Z1 and Z2 are the characteristic impedances of
Constructive interference occurs where waves

arriving at a point in phase reinforce each other.
Destructive interference occurs where waves
arriving at a point out of phase cancel each other.
The varying phase relationships cause varying
wave amplitudes. Because of these amplitude
variations, it is difficult to approximate reflector
size in the near field. Eventually, the waves
combine into a single spherical wave front. This
occurs at the so-called Yo point, which is the end of
the near field and the beginning of the far field
(Figure 8-9).
the two media. Table 8-1 lists the acoustic

impedance for various materials.
Applying the formula to a water/steel interface
it can be seen that 88 percent of the sound is
reflected while 12 percent is transmitted (Figure
8-2). At a metal/air interface there is virtually 100
percent reflection. This formula applies only when
the two media are in intimate contact. In practice
even two apparently smooth metal surfaces, in
close contact, will have an air gap caused by
minute surface irregularities and almost total
reflection occurs.
The length of the near field can be approximated by the following formula where N is near
field length, D is transducer crystal diameter, f is
test frequency, and V is velocity:
(8-5)
Near Field = D2 (mm) x f (MHz)/(4V (km/sec))
The basis of ultrasonic flaw detection is that

there is a difference in characteristic impedance
between the base material and any discontinuity,
whether it be a fatigue crack, a stress corrosion
crack, or a metallic inclusion. If there is no change
in characteristic impedance, there is no reflection
of the sound wave.
As near field length varies, the position of a

reflector relative to the Yo point likewise varies.
Sensitivity is optimized when the reflector is
positioned near the beginning of the far field.
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The near field contains areas of maximum and

minimum effects. This can be demonstrated if a
series of small reflectors of the same area, but at
varying depths, are scanned and a graph of signal
amplitude against distance is plotted. The end of
the near field is the point where the amplitude is
greatest.
ducer diameter, frequency, and material velocity.
8.3.7.4 Fraunhofer Zone (Far Field)
As beam spread is decreased, there is more

sound pressure per unit area, thereby increasing
echo amplitude. Beam spread is decreased by
increasing transducer diameter and/or increasing
frequency.
As the formulas indicate an increase in

diameter and/or frequency increases near field
length and reduces beam spread. Transducer
diameter and test frequency, therefore, have a
major effect on examination performance.
Beyond the near field is the Fraunhofer zone

(far field) (Figure 8-9). Here the beam diverges
and is referred to as beam spread. Through the far
field the sound behaves similar to a beam of light,
in that the sound pressure disperses according to
the Inverse Square Law (i.e., the intensity is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance) and travels in straight lines.
8.3.7.5 Dead Zone

The initial pulse is a technical necessity. It
limits the detectability of near-surface discontinuities. Reflectors in the dead zone, the non-resolvable area immediately beneath the surface, cannot
be detected (Figure 8-10). The dead zone is a
function of the width of the initial pulse which is
influenced by the probe type, test instrument
discontinuities and quality of the interface.
The spreading far field is characterized by a

predictable decrease in sound pressure per unit
area as distance from the transducer increases.
Because the near field contains numerous variations in sound pressure while the far field produces
predictable sound pressure, it is preferable to make
sound amplitude measurements in the far field for
the purpose of discontinuity severity evaluation.
The angle of beam spread in the far field can be
approximated by the following formula:
The dead zone can be verified with an International Institute of Welding (IIW) calibration block.
With the time base calibrated to 50 mm, and the
transducer on position A (Figure 8-11), the extent
of the dead zone can be inferred to be either less
than or greater than 5 mm. With the probe at
position B, the dead zone can be said to be either
less than or greater than 10 mm. This is done by
ensuring that the peak from the perspex insert
appears beyond the trailing edge of the initial pulse
start.
Excessive dead zones are generally
attributable to a probe with excessive ringing in the
crystal.
(8-6)
BSArc sin=1.22xV(km/sec)/D(mm) x f(MHz))
BS Arc sin is the angle of beam spread
V is the velocity of the material
D is the diameter of the transducer
F is the frequency of the transducer
Note that both the near field and beam spread
formulas are based on the same variables: transUSNRC Technical Training Center
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8.3.8 Refraction
In order for the maximum amplitude from a
reflector to be displayed, the axis of the sound
beam must be perpendicular to the reflector.
Straight beam transducers are not effective for
many reflectors that are angular to the examination
surface. When the largest face of the discontinuity is expected to be at an angular orientation to
the surface, angle beam transducers are best suited
to detect such discontinuities (Figure 8-12).
There are different ways of introducing angle
beams into the material, depending on the coupling
technique used. In order for angle beams to be
produced, the transducer's beam must be at an
angle to the surface. For contact testing,
transducers are affixed to angle wedges (Figure
8-13); immersion testing permits continuously
variable angulations of the transducer by means of
an adjustable manipulator assembly.
Angle beams are produced using the principle
of refraction. Refraction is the changing in the
angular direction of a sound beam when it passes
through an interface between two materials of
different acoustic velocity.
Consider a sound beam aimed perpendicular to
an interface. The sound beam approaching the
interface is called the incident beam and is therefore identified as being incident to the interface.
The angle of incidence (or incident angle) is the
angle between the axis of the incident beam and a
line drawn perpendicular to the interface.
The sound beam reflected from the interface is

called the reflected beam (Figure 8-14). The
angle of reflection (or reflected angle) is the angle
between the axis of the reflected beam and a line
drawn perpendicular to the interface at the point of
sonic impact. The angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence.
When a sound beam is incident to an interface
at an angle other than 90, a phenomenon called
mode conversion occurs. That is, in addition to
the simple reflection described in the previous
paragraph, a portion of the incident beam's energy
converts at the interface to a beam of a different
wave mode and refracts at an angle other than the
angle of incidence. The angle at which the mode
converted beam refracts depends on the material
and is related by Snell's Law.
At certain incident angles, there may be two
refracted sound beams (Figure 8-14); one is a
refracted compressional wave, and another is a
refracted shear wave (mode conversion).
8.3.8.1 Snells Law
Relationship among incident, reflected, and
refracted angles depend upon the velocity
relationships of the various angles and are determined by Snells Law:
Sin (Incident) =
Sin (Refracted)
V1 (Material 1) (8-7)
V2 (Material 2)
Where;
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V1
V2
=
=
=
=
Incident angle
Refracted angle
Velocity in material 1
Velocity in material 2

8.3.9
Ultrasonic Examination Variables
The angle of refraction depends upon both

the incident angle and the ratio of velocities for
the materials through which the sound is
traveling. As the incident angle increases, the
refracted angles also increase (Figure 8-15). The
first critical angle is the incident angle that
causes the compression wave to be refracted at
UT is versatile in application. For pulse echo

examinations, indications are obtained when
sound pulses transmitted into the test object
reflect from surfaces such as discontinuities or
the back surface of the material. Assuming that
proper distance/amplitude correction has been
employed, higher amplitude signals indicate
reflections from larger reflectors. Pulse-echo is
clearly the preferred technique because access to
only one side of the object is required and
specific information is available from individual
reflectors.
90. The second critical angle is the incident

angle that causes the shear wave to be refracted
8.3.9.1 Equipment
8.3.8.2 First and Second Critical Angles
90. For example, a plastic wedge will produce

angle beams in carbon steel with the first critical
angle at 27.2 and the second critical angle at
55.8.
If the incident angle is between 0 and the
first critical angle, there will be two wave modes
in the material, compressional and shear. If the
incident angle is between the first and second
critical angles, there will be only one wave mode
in the material, a shear wave.
If the incident angle is above the second
critical angle, there will not be any refracted
beams in the material. Surface waves, however,
attain maximum amplitude in the material at an
incident angle in the range of the second critical
angle.
UT instruments are basically devices for

comparing conditions in the material to a reference standard. Consequently, an ultrasonic
instrument must be calibrated prior to use.
Calibration is the process of adjusting the
instrument to a reference standard.
Most UT instruments have A-Scan (time
versus amplitude) displays. Pulse echo equipment includes hand-held thickness gages with
digital display to multi-channel immersion
system installations with both CRT display and
recording output. Standard instruments are
suitable for a wide range of detection and
thickness measurement applications. These
instruments display time and amplitude
information on a CRT display.
Optional
accessory circuits include electronic distance
amplitude
correction,
monitor
gates,
digital
distance/thickness
readouts,
and
mathematical calculation circuitry for use in
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angle beam tests.

Ultrasonic thickness gages are similar in
concept to flaw detectors except that the CRT is
replaced by a digital display for thickness
readout only. Data recorders are often available
as accessories. However, the inability to verify
echoes on a CRT is sometimes considered a
limitation of digital only instruments. Some
gages now have an A-scan display to verify
digital data with signals.
Ultrasonic flaw detectors are considerably
more versatile than thickness gages.
To
estimate discontinuity size, the instrument is
adjusted so that a specific gain setting results in a
signal amplitude produced by a known size
reflector in a reference standard. To determine
the difference in echo amplitude between a
discontinuity signal and the reference signal, the
examiner adjusts the peak of the discontinuity
signal, using a calibrated gain control, to produce
the same amplitude as the reference signal. The
gain difference between the two signals is then
noted after corrections for factors such as
differences in distance and surface condition are
made.
The formula for converting decibels to

amplitude ratios is:
Amplitude Ratio = antilog (dB)/(20)
(8-9)
As indicated by the formulas, decibel values
are logarithmic and are added to perform multiplication and subtracted to perform division.
That is, to add decibels multiply ratios; to
subtract decibels divide ratios.
8.3.9.2 Transducers
In UT, the ear of the system is the transducer.
After transmitting sound, the transducer hears
echoes that result from the condition of the
material and relays the information back to the
instrument where it is visually displayed on the
CRT. The capabilities of a transducer, and for the
entire UT system, are for the most part described
by two terms: sensitivity and resolution.
Ultrasonic instruments typically have gain

controls calibrated in decibels, a logarithmic
unit. Because sound amplitudes can vary over a
wide range, decibels are used to compress this
range for convenient measurement of differences
in amplitude. The formula for converting an
amplitude ratio to decibels is:
Sensitivity - The sensitivity of a transducer is

its ability to detect reflections from small
discontinuities.
Transducer sensitivity is
measured by the amplitude of its response from a
reflection in a standard reference block. Precise
transducer sensitivity is unique to a specific
transducer. Even transducers of the same size,
frequency, and material by the same
manufacturer do not always produce identical
indications. Transducer sensitivity is rated by its
ability to detect a given size reflector, at a
specific depth, in a standard reference block.
dB=20log10(A1/A2)
(8-8)
Resolution - The resolution of a transducer

refers to its ability to display two signals from
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two reflectors close together in the sound path.

For example, a near-surface reflector and the
initial pulse - the ability to resolve the
near-surface reflector is a measure of resolution.
If a small discontinuity just beneath the surface is
masked by the initial pulse, it is not resolved.
8.3.9.3 Couplant
A liquid couplant is necessary to exclude the
air and serve as a medium for transmitting ultrasonic vibrations from the transducer to the object
being examined. There are two ways to accomplish this: 1) couplant is applied only to the test
surface between the contact transducer (Figure
8-16) and test material, and, 2) immersion
testing, where both the transducer and part or all
of the test object are immersed in water (Figure
8-17).
The primary advantage of contact testing is
portability. Contact testing also allows the transducer to be moved by hand over complex part
geometries and requires a lower initial
investment in equipment.
A variety of
couplants are available for contact testing.
Generally, the rougher the test surface, the more
viscous the couplant should be.
Immersion testing can be automated
facilitating high speed examination and
recording of results. Moreover, immersion tests
provide uniform coupling, are virtually immune
to transducer wear, and allow use of the higher
frequency transducers. In general, immersion
testing offers excellent control over test variables
and provides results of the highest quality.

8.3.9.4 Scanning Techniques

Scanning technique is a motor skill of the
examiner requiring practice and experience.
Probe manipulation is related to the signals being
analyzed and correlated with the unseen beam
emanating from the transducer. An experienced
examiner almost has a sixth sense with the
transducer being his eyes and the CRT screen
being his vision. A minimum of 10% overlap
between scan passes is required.
8.3.9.5 Part Structure
Part structural changes can obscure areas to
be examined preventing access to a particular
examination area and in some cases preventing
the use of UT completely. Laminations may also
prevent the transmission of sound into regions of
a weld. Weld exams typically require a
compression wave exam of the base material that
the sound will pass through to locate such
laminar flaws.
8.3.9.6 Surface Condition
The rougher the surface the more viscous the
couplant required and the greater the scatter of
sound at the interface surface. Therefore, surface
condition has a considerable bearing on sensitivity, signal-to-noise ratios, and sound
transmission.
8.3.9.7 Part Geometry and Size
Part geometry can create internal mode conversion, spurious echoes, and complex CRT
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nuities but inevitably making interpretation

much more difficult. The size of the part also
effects attenuation due to increased beam range,
divergence, scatter, and absorption. The use of
larger, lower frequency transducers can provide
better sound transmission but at a sacrifice of
sensitivity and resolution.
8.3.9.8 Discontinuity Type, Shape, and Orientation
The type of discontinuity, its shape, and
orientation affect the amplitude of the reflected
signal. Sizing is therefore a very inexact science.
A discontinuity the size of the beam could result
in almost no response if it were of a certain
character, type, or orientation.
8.4 Equipment
8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers
Ultrasonic
transducers
behave
like
loudspeakers in that they convert electrical
energy to mechanical energy and they behave
like microphones in that they convert mechanical
energy back into electrical energy.
8.4.1.1 Types
Compression - A normal incident
compression probe is one which transmits a
pulse of compressional sound into the specimen
at right angles (normal) to its surface. Figure
8-18 shows a typical example of this type of
probe.
Delay Line - In order to facilitate the comUSNRC Technical Training Center

plete examination of thin sections, it is necessary

to eliminate the effect of the dead zone. A normal
compressional probe is mounted on a perspex
block so that the dead zone and part of the near
field are within the perspex (Figure 8-19). A
signal and multiple echoes from the perspex
interface, which, by use of the delay and range
controls, may be expanded on the time base so
that the echoes from the material being examined
appear between the first and second echoes from
the delay line (Figure 8-20). These probes may
be used for thickness measurement. The delay
line is normally made from plastic and ordered in
microseconds (S) delay dependent upon the
thickness of materials to be examined.
Dual Element (Pitch-Catch) - These probes
may be either compressional or shear wave. One
crystal is used as the transmitter and the other as
the receiver. With compressional probes the
crystals are mounted on perspex so that the dead
zone and some of the near field do not exist in the
material being examined, similar to the delay line
probe (Figure 8-21). This increases the
detect-ability of near-surface discontinuities.
Dual element probes may suffer from cross-noise
caused by sound interference between the two
crystals since couplant can seep into the sound
barrier cork material, and may result in an indication similar to a discontinuity.
8.4.1.2 Care of Transducers
Care of transducers is necessary to reduce
possibilities of impact damage, excessive wear,
stray electrical pulses, excessive heat, and
chemical contamination. Coaxial cables are
particularly vulnerable to damage and should not
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be unduly bent, knotted, or twisted. Petroleum

based couplants should not be used because they
can deteriorate rubber components.
display.
8.4.2
The function of the time base, also called

"sweep generator" in analog-display instruments,
is to establish a display of sound travel time on
the horizontal scale of the display.
The
horizontal scale can then be used for distance
readout. The range (coarse range, test range)
control adjusts the scale for the range of distance
to be displayed.
Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation
The UT system includes: the instrument,

transducers, calibration standards, and the object
being examined. These elements function
together to form a chain of events during a
typical UT that can be summarized as follows:
The instrument's time base initiates readout

of time/distance information on the
horizontal scale of the display.
The instruments pulser electrically activates

the transducer, causing it to send sound
pulses into the test object. The activation
signal, called the initial pulse, is displayed as
a vertical signal on the CRT.
As sound travels through the test object, it

reflects from boundaries as well as from
discontinuities within the material.
A
reflection from the surface opposite the entry
surface is called a back reflection.
These reflections reach the transducer, which

converts them into electrical signals that are
displayed on the CRT.
Understanding the operation of UT

equipment may be simplified by referring to a
sample block diagram of an analog instrument
(Figure 8-3). A basic instrument contains
several circuits: power supply, clock (also called
synchronizer or timer), time base (called sweep
generator), pulser (also called transmitter),
receiver (also called receiver-amplifier), and the
8.4.2.1 Time base
For digital flaw detection instruments, there

is no sweep generator in the analog sense.
Instead, the horizontal axis of the display is
comprised of a series of divisions (usually about
200 dots are used in the horizontal direction of
the display).
Each division represents an
increment of time.
The amount of time
represented by each division is controlled by a
complex combination of software and hardware.
In order to establish a calibrated range for a
particular test, the sound velocity of the material
must be known or measured and entered into the
instrument. Then when the appropriate zero
offset has been entered, range settings are in
absolute units of metal path distance. As the
range is increased, the time interval represented
by each of the horizontal dots becomes larger.
For very large ranges, one division may represent
an entire echo waveform. For smaller ranges,
the same echo waveform is represented by
several divisions and the shape of the echo
waveform then becomes apparent. The important
thing to remember is that in a digital instrument
where the waveform has been converted from an
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analog signal to a digital waveform, the number

of points across the horizontal remains fixed and
the time interval represented by each division
changes as the range is adjusted.
8.4.2.2 Clock
The clock circuit initiates a chain of events
that results in one complete cycle of a UT
examination. The clock sends a trigger signal, at
a regular interval, to both the time base and to the
pulser. As the name clock' implies, this
trigger signal is repeated at a given frequency,
called the pulse repetition rate. On some
instruments pulse repetition rate is adjustable by
the examiner; other instruments do it
automatically.
8.4.2.3 Pulse Repetition Rate
The pulse repetition rate establishes the
number of times per second that a complete test
cycle will occur. In instruments with adjustable
pulse repetition rate, adjustment is made by a
pulse repetition rate control, sometimes labeled
REP RATE. Greater sound travel time requires
a longer test cycle and a lower pulse repetition
rate to provide the longer test cycle or interval.
8.4.2.4 Pulser-Receiver
The pulser emits the electrical signal that
activates the transducer. This signal, known as
the initial pulse, is quite brief, usually lasting
only several nanoseconds (billionths of a
second). The output of the initial pulse is in the
order of hundreds of volts; the brief duration
provides a fast rise time to the full voltage. The

pulser is connected via output connectors on the

instrument front panel to the transducer cable.
The pulser is also connected, internally, through
the receiver circuit, to the display, thus making
available (depending upon the delay setting) a
displayed initial pulse signal. This signal is, of
course, present whether or not a transducer is
connected to the instrument.
When a transducer is connected, it is in the
signal path between the pulser and the receiver
and its output is displayed.
8.4.2.5 Basic Controls
The amplifier multiplies the voltage of
signals passing through it in order to provide
adequate signal amplitude. The amount of
voltage multiplication, or amplification, is
controlled by gain controls. Calibrated gain
controls are adjustable in discrete units of
decibels (dB), the unit of measure for gain
multiplication. Calibrated gain controls are
intended for making decibel amplitude comparisons between reference standard amplitudes
and the amplitudes of signals returning from the
test material.
The REJECT control is intended for
preventing the display of undesired low
amplitude signals, called grass or hash, caused
by metal noise such as echoes from material
grain boundaries or inherent fine porosity
(Figure 8-22). There are two types of REJECT
controls installed on UT instruments: nonlinear
REJECT and the more recently linear REJECT
controls. Linear REJECT controls offer the
advantage in that they do not affect vertical
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linearity of the display.

Controls marked DELAY and RANGE are
used to adjust the instruments time base for
proper display of distances. The delay control
shifts the vertical signals to the left and right
without altering the spacing between them. The
RANGE control expands or contracts the spacing
between vertical signals, corresponding to the
Range of the sound travel to be displayed.
The sound amplitudes of individual reflectors
returning to the transducer determine the relative
heights of the corresponding vertical signals on
the CRT. The GAIN control adjusts vertical
display sensitivity and therefore determines the
actual amplitude at which signals are displayed.
If the signal height of different size flat
bottomed holes located at the same distance from
the test surface are compared, the signal heights
will be proportional to the reflecting areas of the
holes. However, if a flat bottomed hole of an
identical reflecting area is located at a different
depth from the test surface, it will produce a
lower amplitude signal.
8.4.2.6 Gates
Most UT equipment is equipped with gates
that can be superimposed on the time base so that
a rapid response from a particular reflector can
be obtained when they reach a certain
predetermined amplitude. This can be adapted as
a go/no-go monitoring device for some
examinations. Gates can be set for an alarm to be
triggered at a pre-determined amplitude
(positive) with an increasing signal or (negative)

with a decreasing signal amplitude. Gates are

essential for some types of recording systems
where they also serve to provide information to
the recording devices or storage systems.
8.5 Procedure
UT is performed in accordance with an
approved procedure. Each procedure should
include at least the following information and
any information listed in the Essential and
Nonessential variables in section V:
Weld types and configurations to be examined, including thickness dimensions,

materials, or product form (casting, forging,
plate, etc.);
The surface or surfaces from which the

examination should be performed;
Surface condition;
Couplant;
Technique (straight beam, angle beam,

contact and/or immersion);
Angles and mode(s) of wave propagation in

the material;
Search unit type, frequency, and transducer

size(s);
Special search units, wedges, shoes, or saddles, if used, and type and length of search
unit cable;
Ultrasonic instrument type(s);
Description of calibration blocks;
Directions and extent of scanning;
Data to be recorded and method of recording

(manual or automatic);
Automatic alarm and recording equipment,

or both, if used;
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Rotating,
revolving,
mechanisms, if used;
Personnel qualification requirements; and
Review or qualification of the procedure as

required by the referencing Code section.
or
scanning
and grain structural.

Forgings - Grain-orientated discontinuities,
bursts, and flake are readily detected.
8.5.1.2 Shear Waves
8.5.1
Application of the Various Wave

Modes
To obtain maximum reflection amplitude in a

pulse echo examination, the sound beam must be
perpendicular to the discontinuity detected.
When this discontinuity is parallel to the sound
entry surface, a compressional wave transducer
provides the best response.
When the
discontinuity is obliquely oriented to the surface,
the sound beam must enter the material at an
angle that orients the beam perpendicular to the
discontinuity.
8.5.1.1 Compressional Wave Applications
Plate - Straight beam approach is best for
detection of laminations.
Thickness - A wide range of materials and
thickness, as well as corrosion/erosion can be
measured very accurately.
Pipe and Tubing - Radial longitudinal or

circumferential discontinuities caused by stress
corrosion and fatigue can be detected.
Welds - The more serious planar type
discontinuities including lack of fusion,
incomplete penetration, and cracks are best
detected with shear wave techniques.
8.5.1.3 Surface Waves
Surface waves can propagate around corners
and radii of holes to successfully detect
otherwise inaccessible discontinuities at the
surface.
8.5.1.4 Lamb Waves
Lamb waves are best for detecting lamination
and other discontinuities in a thin sheet.
8.5.2
Immersion Testing
Bar - Central axial inclusions, piping and

other discontinuities can be detected with a
simple compressional wave technique.
8.5.2.1 Immersion
Components
Castings - Porosity, gas holes, inclusions,

shrinkage,
and
other
typical
casting
discontinuities can be detected. Major limiting
variables include surface finish, configuration,
Immersion systems consist of a bridge and

manipulator, mounted on a water tank, a pulse
echo instrument and a recorder as shown in
Figure 8-23. Drive units move the bridge along
the tank side rails, while transversing units move
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the manipulator from side to side along the

bridge. Most of these units are automated,
although some early units are manually operated.
The ultrasonic tank may be of any size or
shape required to accommodate the test
specimen. Coverage of the specimen by a foot
or more of water is usually sufficient.
Adjustable brackets and lazy-susan turntables are
provided on the tank bottom for support of the
test specimen. The water in the tank is clean,
de-aerated water containing a wetting agent.
The water temperature is usually maintained at
ambient temperature.
Manipulators - The manipulator is primarily
intended to provide a means of scanning the test
specimen with an immersed transducer (Figure
8-24). The manipulator is mounted on a
traversing mechanism, which allows movement
of the manipulator from side to side. The
traversing mechanism is an integral component
of the bridge assembly. A search tube is usually
held rigid at right angles to the surface of the test
specimen. Locking knobs are provided on the
manipulator to allow positioning of the search
tube in two planes for angle-beam testing.
Bridges - When the manipulator is
automated, electric motors are added to power
the bridge carriage, the traversing mechanism,
and the up and down movement of the search
tube. The pulse-echo unit and the recording unit
are also mounted on the bridge, with all power
cords secured overhead to allow movement of
the bridge along the full length of the tank.
Wands - The support tube for the immersion

probe is sometimes called a wand. Its vertical

height can be adjusted to vary water path
distance and the adjuster which can manipulate
probe angle of incidence at the tip of the wand.
8.5.2.2 Immersion Transducers
Flat - The flat transducer operates under the
same considerations as regular compressional
transducers, except it does not have a protective
face, and it is waterproof. Near fields for these
probes are, of course, often four times greater
due to the slow water velocity compared to steel.
Focused - An acoustical lens is fitted to the
front of the transducer. Focused probes can be
manufactured to produce any focal length. Often
focused single axis, focused transducers allow
high resolution examination of immersed shafts
(converging parallel focus) or tubing from the
inside (diverging parallel focus).
Frontal units shaped to direct the sound
energy perpendicular to the surface at all points
on curved surfaces and radii are known as
contour-correction lenses. These cylindrical
lenses sharpen the front-surface indication by
evening out the sound-travel distance between
the transducer and the test surface.
A
comparison of flat and contoured transducers is
shown in Figure 8-25.
Other acoustic lenses focus the sound beam
from the transducer, much as light beams are
focused. Focused transducers concentrate the
sound energy into a long, narrow, blunt-pointed
beam of increased intensity, which is capable of
detecting very small discontinuities in a
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relatively small area. Focusing the sound beam

moves its point of maximum intensity toward the
transducer, but shortens its usable range. The
test specimen has the effect of a second lens; in
this case, the beam is defocused, as shown in
Figure 8-26. Defocusing increases intensity
which produces increased sensitivity; also,
moving the point of maximum intensity closer to
the transducer (which is also closer to the test
surface) improves the near-surface resolution.
The disturbing effects of rough surface and metal
noise are also reduced by concentrating the
sound energy into a smaller beam. This is true
simply because a smaller area is being looked at.
In a smaller area, the true discontinuity
indications are relatively large compared to the
combined noise of other nonrelevant indications.
The useful thickness range of focused
transducers is approximately 0.010 to 2 inches.
8.5.3
Data Display
UT instruments present examination data in

various ways. Display media include CRTs,
paper chart recorders, digital readouts, and
audible/visual alarms. Three basic types of
displays are designated: A-Scan, B-Scan, and
C-Scan.
8.5.3.1 A-Scan
A-Scan shows distance/time information as
the points where signals deflect vertically from
the horizontal baseline.
Size/amplitude
information is displayed as the height of the
vertical deflections.
Sound travels at different speeds in different

materials. However, the speed of sound is

constant in a uniform medium. This means that
sound will complete a round trip through a
specific distance in a specific amount of time. It
is therefore possible to measure distance by
measuring sound travel time.
8.5.3.2 B-Scan
B-Scan is a pictorial presentation (Figure
8-27). The display screen shows a side view of
the test object, displaying the profile of interfaces
reflecting the sound beam. B-Scan can show
the distance of a discontinuity from the
transducer, as well as discontinuity length along
the direction of transducer travel.
8.5.3.3 C-Scan
C-scan equipment is intended to provide a
permanent record of the examination when
high-speed automatic scanning is used. C-scan
equipment displays the discontinuities in a plan
view, but provides no depth or orientation
information.
The most commonly used recorders use a
chemically treated paper that is passed between a
printing bar and a helix equipped drum as shown
in Figure 8-28. The printing bar has a narrow
edge and is connected electrically to one of the
output terminals of the amplifier in the ultrasonic
test unit. The other terminal of the amplifier is
connected to the helix mounted on the drum. As
the drum turns, the contact point between the bar
and the helix moves back and forth across the
paper. Variations in electric current at the
contact point determine the amount of print-out
produced on the paper. One revolution of the
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drum produces one line of scan. The forward

movement of the paper is synchronized with the
forward movement of the transducer along the
test surface. The amplifier is also connected to
the oscilloscope so that, whenever a signal of
predetermined amplitude is displayed, a change
of current occurs in the printing bar contact. In
this manner, a record of the discontinuities is
produced as the transducer scans the test surface.
The C-scan recording indicates the projected
length and width of the discontinuity and the
outline of the test specimen as if viewed from
directly above the specimen. The C-scan recording does not indicate the depth of the
discontinuity in the test specimen.
Some
recorders produce a shaded scan line to indicate
the outline of the discontinuity. On others, the
discontinuity outline may be indicated by the
absence of the scan lines (Figure 8-29), where
the white (no line) areas represent the
discontinuities.
8.5.4
Calibration Techniques
Calibration should include the complete

ultrasonic examination system. The original
calibration should be performed on the basic
calibration block (Figure 8-30). Checks should
be made to verify the sweep range/distance calibration (Figure 8-31).
In all calibrations, it is important that maximum indications be obtained with the sound
beam oriented perpendicular to the axis of the
side-drilled holes and notches. The center line
of the search unit should be at least 1 inches
from the nearest side of the block (rotation of the

beam into the corner formed by the hole and the

side of the block may produce a higher amplitude
at a longer beam path; this beam path should not
be used for calibration).
For contact
examination, the temperature of the examination
and basic calibration blocks should be within 25o
F. For immersion examination, the couplant
temperature for calibration should be within 25o
F of the couplant temperature used in actual
scanning or appropriate compensations for angle
and sensitivity change should be made.
8.5.4.1 Linearity
Screen Height Linearity - The ultrasonic
instrument should provide linear vertical
presentation within 5 percent of the full screen
height for at least 80 percent of the calibrated
screen height (base line to maximum calibrated
screen point(s)). The procedure for evaluating
screen height linearity is normally provided and
should be performed at the beginning of each
period of extended use (or every 3 months,
whichever is less) for analog units and every 12
months for digital units.
Amplitude Control Linearity - The ultrasonic instrument should utilize an amplitude
control, accurate over its useful range to 20
percent of the nominal amplitude ratio, to allow
measurement of indications beyond the linear
range of the vertical display on the screen. The
procedure for evaluating amplitude control
linearity is normally provided. The calibration
time limits are the same as for Screen Height
Linearity.
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8.5.4.2 Distance Amplitude

By comparing reflectors in the far field with
reference reflectors, and by applying distance
laws and correcting for material loss attenuation,
the reflecting area of reflectors in the far field can
be estimated. The narrowness of the sound beam
at the beginning of the far field applies more
sound pressure per unit area to reflectors, thus
optimizing sensitivity. Using laws of distance,
loss of echo amplitude can be calculated as same
size reflectors are moved outward along the
sound beam axis in the far field (Figure 8-32).
There are two rules of distance; one rule for
infinite reflectors and one for small reflectors.
An infinite reflector intercepts the entire
sound beam. The echo amplitude of an infinite
reflector is inversely proportional to distance.
As the distance to an infinite reflector is doubled,
echo amplitude decreases six decibels.
A small reflector intercepts only a portion of
the sound beam. The echo amplitude of a small
reflector is inversely proportional to the square
of distance. As the distance to the small
reflector is doubled, echo amplitude decreases 12
dB.
When the amplitude of a small disk-shaped
reflector at 3 inches of depth is compared to an
echo from the same size reflector at 6 inches of
depth (Figure 8-33), the echo returning from 6
inches of depth will be 12 dB lower. That is, the
echo from 6 inches of depth will have 25 percent
of the echo height of the echo from 3 inches of
depth.

In addition to amplitude losses resulting from

beam spread, there are also amplitude losses
caused by the structure of the test material. This
form of attenuation results from scattering of
sound by coarse grain structure or fine porosity
or from conversion of sound into heat by
absorption. Material loss attenuation tends to
occur at a linear rate. That is, material losses
occur at a rate of a certain number of decibels per
linear unit of measure; for example, a rate of 1
dB per inch.
Thus, if there are two small disk-shaped
reflectors of the same size, one at 3 inches of
depth, the other at 6 inches of depth, and the rate
of material loss is 1 dB per inch, the echo from 6
inches of depth will be 15 dB weaker than the
echo from 3 inches of depth. Of the 15 dB of
sound loss, 12 dB are lost because of beam
spread and 3 dB are lost because of material
losses.
In order to estimate reflector severity, some
correction must be made for echo amplitude
variations caused by distance factors. One
method is to construct a DAC curve on the
display screen (Figure 8-34). This is done by
marking on the display the echo peaks from a
given size reflector at a series of depths. The
reflector used for this procedure is normally one
that represents the critical discontinuity size,
the maximum acceptable reflector amplitude. A
more convenient solution is to use electronic
distance amplitude compensation, whereby the
test instrument can be adjusted to correct echo
amplitudes for distance variations.
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8.5.4.3 Resolution
calibration block.
Resolution can be established using either the

IIW block (Figure 8-35) or other blocks
manufactured specifically for that purpose. The
resolution
capability
of
a
particular
probe/instrument combination can also be
objectively determined with a step wedge. The
resolution can be determined by locating the
thinnest step that can be resolved.
8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques
8.5.4.4 Beam Profile

The beam width can be plotted by scanning
across a suitable small reflector (transverse hole)
at the depth required. The signal is maximized
from the reflector and set to approximately
mid-screen height (50 percent full screen height
(FSH)) and the signal amplitude increased by 20
dB then scanned away from the reflector until the
signal returns to pre-set amplitude. The surface
is marked at the probe index (probe center for
compressional probes), then scanned in the
opposite direction and marked on the surface
again. The distance marked is the 20 dB beam
width at the depth checked. Both shear wave
and compressional wave transducer widths can
be plotted by this approach.
8.5.4.5 Test Block Parameters
The basic calibration block(s) containing
basic calibration reflectors to establish
a
primary reference response of the equipment and
to construct a distance-amplitude correction
curve is typically as shown in Figure 8-34. The
basic calibration reflectors should be located
either in the component material or in a basic
8.5.5.1 Scanning Problems

An unacceptable scanning problem prevents
discontinuities from being located with high
reliability. Generally, the use of a calibration
specimen with an artificial reflector matching the
object under examination, proves the scanning
efficiency. An unacceptable example of this
would be a curved surface of a tube being
examined with a flat probe. Scanning would
be difficult since signal transmission is
intermittent and probe handling very critical.
8.5.5.2 Interpretation Shortcomings
Interpretation shortcomings are frequent.
Most originate from mode conversion signals
interfering with actual discontinuity signals, or
from incorrectly calibrated time base.
Inexperience is always identified in this area as
demands can be quite complex.
8.5.5.3 Report Format Problems
Non-standardized reports give rise to missing
information. Comprehensive information on
reports is essential to prevent plant down times
until the missing information is found. Another
problem relates to ambiguities in drawings in
text that can also result in incorrect decisions or
extended down times.
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8.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements
equally spaced along the time base.
8.6.1
Resolution - Compression Transducers.

This check can be conducted on the A2 block as
Weld Calibration Stanards
To maintain the integrity of any UT

examination it is necessary to regularly verify the
performance of the equipment. This section
describes the methods used to calibrate and
check the performance of UT instruments and
probes.
Calibration Blocks - Figures 8-35 and 8-36
show calibration blocks recommended by
common standards/specifications.
These are
normally manufactured from steel but can also
be made from other materials to suit specific
examination requirements.
NOTE: English unit blocks are dimensional
in inches but are not precisely the same as metric
blocks. For each 25 mm read 1 inch (actual
25 mm = 0.98425 inches.)
Sensitivity - A broad definition for ultrasonic
sensitivity is the ability of the system to be able
to detect and display a response from the smallest
reflector. Sensitivity is primarily influenced by
the wavelength, the transducer, and the
characteristics of the material being examined.
As frequency increases, wavelength decreases,
which results in an increase in sensitivity.
Time base Linearity - This UT instrument
check is carried out to ensure that there is a linear
relationship between the time base position of
signals and distance. The check is carried out
using a compressional probe to obtain a bottom
echo with multiples and ensuring that they are
Shear Wave Probes - This check is done by

resolving the steps of the A7 block (Figure 8-36).
Beam Exit Point - To check the beam exit
point (probe index) of a shear wave probe, it is
placed on the A2 block and aimed at the 100 mm
radius. When the signal is maximized, the exit
point should align with the center of the scale,
which is the center of the 100 mm radius (Figure
8-37).
Refraction Angle - The refraction angle
(beam angle) of a shear wave probe is checked
on the A2 block as shown in Figure 8-38 a, b, and
c. The angle is measured by noting the angle
that aligns with the probe index when the signal
is maximized. The actual refracted angle should
fall within the designated probe angle 2.
Compression Probes - To calibrate the time
base to 100 mm of steel, the probe should be
placed on the 25 mm thick portion of the A2
block and the bottom echo positioned at 2.5 on
the time base with repeats at 5.0, 7.5, and 10.
The length of the time base now represents 100
mm of steel. Similarly the time base can be
calibrated to any suitable distance by obtaining a
back echo and repeats from any of the
dimensions of the calibration blocks.
Shear Wave Probes - Figures 8-39, 8-40,

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and 8-41 show methods of calibrating the time

base for shear wave probes. That part of the
ultrasonic beam that is within the wedge is
delayed off the CRT to set the transmission point
to zero.
8.6.2
Evaluation
8.6.2.1 False Indications

the finger at the reflection point on the specimen

is a good way to confirm their non-relevance.
Intergranular Reflectors - Intergranular
reflectors are only found on coarser grained
materials.
Reflector sizes are even and
distributed throughout the materials. Reduced
gain settings or cautious use of the REJECT
control should be considered.
Couplant - Couplant can cause false

indications during buildup on the front of shear
wave probes, particularly those probes of high
angles 70o to 90o. When working in thin
materials, typically weldments of to inches
or less, false indications may become apparent
from couplant.
8.6.2.3 Relevant Discontinuity Indications
Spurious Electrical - Electrical interference

is normally easily interpreted. Ghost signals
moving across the CRT screen or standing
signals are fairly common. These are easily
identified because they have no correlation with
probe motion.
Length - Length must be plotted using some

objective measuring system. Commonly 6 dB or
20 dB drop methods are utilized to achieve some
degree of accuracy in sizing.
8.6.2.2 Nonrelevant Indications

Part Geometry - Part geometry creates the
majority of nonrelevant indications. These
indications come from the reflections boundaries
and other built-in reflectors.
Surface
Irregularities
Surface
irregularities can also cause signals that are
nonrelevant. Weld crowns and roots are
particularly a common source of reflected signals
that could be misinterpreted. Provided access is
available, dampening of these signals by placing
Amplitude - Amplitude of relevant discontinuity indications has to be carefully monitored.

Often some careful probe manipulation and extra
use of couplant increase the amplitude, so care
must be taken.
Signal Shape - Shape helps to determine the

type of discontinuity. For example, a fatigue
crack gives a sharp single peak, whereas
wormhole porosity gives a broader and much
more varying attenuated signal in comparison.
Orientation - Orientation must be
determined by angulating the probe, maximizing
the signal and plotting reflector position from
maximum signal response positions along its
length. To avoid missing signals, angulations
should be constantly adjusted in a sweep motion
of the beam during scanning. This allows for
differing discontinuity orientation.
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Location - Range calibration must be

accurate to correctly locate the discontinuity in
the beam path. Plotters and scale cross sectional
drawings help to locate a discontinuity.
8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultra

sonic Examination
8.7.1
Advantages
UT has the following advantages:
8.6.3 Recording
8.6.3.1 Use of Examination Forms
Penetration is relatively deep in a given

material.
Examination forms are generally designed to

meet the requirements of the code or
specification. In all cases, however, examination
forms are necessary.
Much of the equipment is portable, lightweight, and battery powered.
Access to only one side of the material is

required in most cases.
Measuring
thickness
and
discontinuities is highly accurate.
It has the capability for volumetric examination.
It is suitable for go/no-go conditions.
There is no danger from radiation or other

such hazards.
8.6.3.2 Recording Techniques

The following techniques are or have been in
use for recording UT signals:
Cross sectional and plan drawings with

plotted discontinuity locations,
Computer recorded ultrasound signals with

XY plot positions,
C-scan recordings,
Zip scan recordings,
Delta scan recordings,
P-scan weldment recordings, and
Plotting directly
components.
8.7.2
locating
Limitations
UT also has several limitations:
on
specimens
The test object must be able to support the

propagation of sound without excessive
losses.
A liquid couplant is required to conduct

sound between the ultrasonic transducer and
specimen.
The interpretation requires a highly trained

and experienced examiner.
Discontinuities just beneath the surface (dead

zone) may not be detectable.
Discontinuity orientation is a factor that requires careful technique development.
or
In all cases, however, it is the code or

specification that determines the techniques of
recording.
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Surface conditions must be considered.
Part shape/configuration can be a limitation.

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Introduction to
Student Manual
Chapter 8.0
Ultrasonicc Examination
Table 8-1 Acoustic

A
Properties of Materials
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Chapter 8.0
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Chapter 8.0 Inttroduction to

Figure 8-1 Wavelength
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Figure 8-2 Refflection, Transmission at an Interface

(Immersion Testing
T
with Pulse/Echo Technique)
Figure 8-3 Block Diiagram of a Typical Ultrasonic Instrument

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Figure 8-4 Particcle Displacement by Longitudinal Waves

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Figure 8-5 Partiicle Displacement by Transverse Waves
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Figure 8-6 Surface or Rayleigh Wave Modes
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Figure 8-7
8 Plate or Lamb Wave Modes
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Figure 8-8 Con

nstructive and Destructive Interference
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Figu
ure 8-9 Near and Far Fields
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Figure 8-10 Nearr-to-Surface Reflector Within Dead Zone
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Figure 8-11 Dead Zone Check
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Figurre 8-12 Angle Beam in Weld
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Figure 13 Angle
A
Beam Transducer Assembly
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Figure 8-14 Refraction

R
and Reflection of Incident
Comprressional Wave at an Interface
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Figure 8-15 Increasiing Incident Angle in Probe Shoes (Wedges)

With Seccond Medium of Higher Velocity
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Figure 8-16 Transducer Coupled to Test Piece
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Fig
gure 8-17 Immersion Test
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Figure 8-18 Normal

N
Compressional Wave Probe
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Fig
gure 8-19 Delay Line Probe
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Figure 8-20 Calib

bration of Timebase for Delay Line Probe
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Figure 8-21 Dual Element Probe (Pitch-Catch)
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F
Figure
8-22 Use of Reject
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Figure 8-23 Typicall Ultrasonic Tank and Bridge/Manipulator
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Figure 8-24 Bridge/Manipulator
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Figure 8-25 Fla

at and Contour-Corrected Transducers
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Figure 8-26 Focused-Beam Shortening in Metal
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Figure 8-27 B-Scan Presentation
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Figurre 8-28 C-Scan Presentation
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Figure 8-29
8
Typical C-Scan Recording
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Figuree 8-30 Basic Calibration Block
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Figurre 8-31 Distance Calibration
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Figure 8-32
2 Distance Amplitude Calibration
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Fig
gure 8-33 Linear Reflector
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Figure 8-34 Diistance Amplitude Correction Curves
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Figurre 8-35 Block A2 (IIW Block)
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Figure 8-36 Block A7
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Figure 8-37 Checking Beam Index Point
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Figurre 8-38 Checking Beam Angle
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alibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A4 Blocck

Figure 8-39 Timebase Ca
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Figure 8-40 Time Ba

ase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using
A2 Block Modified with Slots
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Figure 8-41 Time Basee Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2
Block Modified with 25mm Radius
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Chapter 9.0
Volume 2
Introduction to Eddy Current Testing Examination
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDDY CURRENT TESTING EXAMINATION ...................................... 1

Learning Objectives
9.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
9.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
9.3.1
Electromagnetic Induction ....................................................................................... 4
9.3.2 Eddy Current Characteristics ................................................................................... 4

9.3.2.1 Material Properties ...................................................................................... 5
9.3.2.1.1 Conductivity .......................................................................................... 5
9.3.2.1.2 Permeability ........................................................................................... 6
9.3.2.1.3 Test Display of Material Property Variations........................................ 6
9.3.2.2 Frequency .................................................................................................... 6
9.3.2.3 Test Specimen Geometry............................................................................. 7
9.3.2.4 Coil Design .................................................................................................. 7
9.3.2.4.1 Coil Coupling (Lift-Off) ........................................................................ 7
9.3.2.4.2 Edge Effect ............................................................................................ 8
9.4 Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
9.4.1
System Components ................................................................................................ 8
9.4.2
Data/Displays......................................................................................................... 10
9.4.2.1 Lift-Off Curves .......................................................................................... 10
9.4.2.2 Conductivity Curve.................................................................................... 10
9.4.2.3 Thickness Curves ....................................................................................... 10
9.4.2.4 Discontinuity Signal Display ..................................................................... 11
9.4.3
Basic Coils ............................................................................................................. 12

9.4.3.1 Surface Coils.............................................................................................. 12
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9.4.3.2 Encircling Coils ......................................................................................... 12

9.4.3.3 Internal Coils ............................................................................................. 13
9.5 Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9.5.1 Impedance Plane Fundamentals ............................................................................ 13
9.5.2 Impedance Plane Response to Conductivity Variations ........................................ 13
9.5.3
Sorting. . . ............................................................................................................. 14
9.5.4
Discontinuities ....................................................................................................... 14
9.5.4.1 Discontinuity Location in Installed Nonferrous Steam Generator
Heat Exchanger Tubing ....................................................................... 14
9.5.4.2 Calibration Procedure ................................................................................ 15
9.5.4.3 Probe Speed ............................................................................................... 16
9.5.5
Thickness ............................................................................................................. 16
9.5.5.1 Location of Secondary Layer Corrosion or Cracking ............................... 16
9.5.6
Coatings ............................................................................................................. 17
9.5.6.1 Variations in Thickness of Plating or Cladding......................................... 17
9.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements .................................................................................... 17

9.6.1 Written Procedure .................................................................................................. 17
9.6.2 Description of Method ........................................................................................... 17
9.6.3 Reference Specimen .............................................................................................. 18
9.6.4
Equipment Qualification........................................................................................ 18
9.6.5 Procedure Requirements ........................................................................................ 18

9.7 Advantages and Limitations of ET Examinations ................................................................... 18
9.7.1 Advantages ............................................................................................................ 19
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9.7.2
Table of Contents
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 19
LIST OF FIGURES
9-1 Alternating Current Flowing Through Test Coil ........................................................................... 20
9-2 Primary Magnetic Field Develops ................................................................................................. 21
9-3 Inductive Reactance Occurs .......................................................................................................... 22
9-4 Eddy Currents Develop..23
9-5 Secondary Field Develops ............................................................................................................. 24
9-6 Eddy Currents Develop Parallel to the Coils Turns ..................................................................... 25
9-7 Effect of Variation in Discontinuity Orientation on Eddy Current Flow Paths ............................ 26
9-8 Compression of Eddy Current Flow Paths by Material Edge ....................................................... 27
9-9 Attenuation and Phase Lag of Eddy Currents Penetrating into a Conductive Material ................ 28
9-10 Reduction in Eddy Current Strength with Lift-Off Results in Positive Meter
Movement Unless Lift-Off is Compensated ............................................................................ 29
9-11 Block Diagram of Eddy Current Instrument ........................................................................... 30
9-12 Typical Eddy Current Instrument with Storage Monitor......................................................... 31
9-13 Conductivity Curve ............................................................................................................. 32
9-14a Low Frequency (20 kHz) ......................................................................................................... 33
9-14b Medium Frequency (100 kHz) ................................................................................................ 33
9-14c High Frequency (1 MHZ) ........................................................................................................ 33
9-15 Direction of Surface and Subsurface Cracks in Aluminum on the Impedance Plane ............. 34
9-16 Various High Frequency Surface Probes................................................................................. 35
9-17 Typical Low Frequency Probes ............................................................................................... 36
9-18 Encircling Coil 37
9-19 Internal Coil (Bobbin Probe) ................................................................................................... 38
9-20 Internal (Insertion, Bobbin) Differential Probe ....................................................................... 39
9-21 Eddy Current Test System ....................................................................................................... 40
9-22 Impedance Plane
............................................................................................................. 41
9-23 Conductivity Measurement...................................................................................................... 42
9-24 Frequency Selection for Crack Resolution .............................................................................. 43
9-25 Tube Calibration Standards ..................................................................................................... 44
9-26 Internal Bobbin Probe. ............................................................................................................. 45
9-27 Typical Signal Response from a Properly Calibrated Differential Bobbin Coil Probe
System. ............................................................................................................ 46
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9-28
9-29
9-30
9-31
9-32
9-33
Table of Contents
Typical Signal Response from a Properly Calibrated Absolute Bobbin Coil Probe
System ..47
Changes in Thickness (Example 1) ......................................................................................... 48
Changes in Thickness (Example 2) ......................................................................................... 49
Changing Signal Phase and Signal Amplitude with Depth ..................................................... 50
Changes in Conductivity, Lift-off, Probe and Thickness ........................................................ 51
Coating Thickness Measurement............................................................................................. 52
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Introduction to ET Examination
9.0
INTRODUCTION TO EDDY CURRENT TESTING EXAMINATION
1. Understand the theory and principles upon
which eddy current testing (ET) examination
is based.
2. Recognize the variables associated with ET.
3. Become familiar with basic instrument types
used.
4. Understand the principles of the presentation
of ET data on impedance plane displays.
5. Become familiar with the basics of heat
exchanger tubing examination using ET.
6. Understand typical reference standards used.
7. Become familiar with code requirements.
8. Recognize the advantages and limitations of
ET.
9.1
History
Evolution of the ET method resulted from

various discoveries about the relationship
between electricity and magnetism. In 1820
Hans Oerstead discovered electromagnetism
resulting from electrical current flow through a
conductor creating a magnetic field around that
conductor.
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
In 1823 Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction (Faradays Law), the basic
principle of eddy currents: relative motion between a magnetic field and conductor causes a
voltage to be induced in that conductor. During
an ET examination, alternating magnetic fields
indirectly develop circulating electrical currents
in an electrically conductive object. The manner
in which these currents flow provides data that
can be displayed and interpreted.
Eddy currents were identified by James
Maxwell in 1864. The term eddy currents
resulted from the similarity in movement of these
circulating electrical currents to the whirlpool
activity of so-called eddies in liquids. Eddy
currents are defined as circulating electrical
currents indirectly induced in an isolated
conductor by an alternating magnetic field. The
alternating magnetic field is developed through
and around a coil connected to the AC generator
output of an eddy current instrument. When the
alternating magnetic field is brought near a
metallic material, its flux lines affect the atoms
of the material in such a way that electrons are
passed from one atom to the next. However, in
contrast to electricity conducted along the length
of a wire, the electricity generated by the test
coils lines of force has a circular eddy-like
pattern.
The extensive use of ET results from the
methods sensitivity to the following variables:
Conductivity variations,
Presence of surface
discontinuities,
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Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
Spacing between coil and specimen (lift-off

distance),
Material thickness,
Thickness of plating or cladding on a base

metal,
Spacing between conductive layers, and
Permeability variations.
Major
following:
application
areas
include
the
In-service examination of tubing at nuclear

and fossil fuel power utilities, at petrochemical plants, on nuclear submarines, and in air
conditioning systems;
Aircraft structures and engines;
Production examination of tubing, pipe, wire,

rod and bar stock; and
Rapid sorting for a wide range of parts.
9.2
ET is an essential and important NDE

method and requires a high degree of expertise,
formalized training and significant experience.
ET examiners must be highly qualified if ET is to
be effective for nuclear power plant
examinations.
ASME Code Section V requires that NDE
personnel be qualified in accordance with either:
Qualification in accordance with a prior

edition of either SNT-TC1A or CP-189 is considered valid until recertification. Recertification must be in accordance with SNT-TC-1A
(2006 Edition), CP-189 (2006 Edition), or
ACCP.
Section XI requires that personnel
performing NDE be qualified and certified using
a written practice prepared in accordance with
ANSI/ANST CP-189 as amended by Section XI.
IWA 2314 states that the possession of an ASNT
Level III Certificate, which is required by
CP-189, is not required by Section XI. Section
XI also states that certifications to SNT-TC-1A
or earlier editions of CP-189 will remain valid
until recertification at which time CP-189 (1995
Edition) must be met.
A Level II Eddy Current examiner, who is a high
school graduate, must complete one of the
following for Section V and only the CP-189
requirements for Section XI.
Training
Experience
Level I
40 hrs
210* hrs / 400**hrs
Level II
40 hours
630* hrs / 1200**hrs
NOTES:
1. To certify to Level II directly with no
time at Level I, the training and
experience for Level I and II shall be
combined.
SNT-TC1A (2006)
ANSI/ASNT CP-189 (2006 Edition), or
ACCP
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Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
2. Training hours may be reduced with

additional engineering or science study
beyond high school. Refer to Chapter 2
and SNT-TC-1A.
3. There are no additional training requirements for Level III. Refer to Chapter 2
of this manual for Level III requirements.
Training
Experience
Level I
40 hours
200*/400**
Level II
40 hours
600*/1200**
* Hours in ET/** Total Hours in NDE

NOTES:
Experience is based on the actual hours
A person may be qualified directly to NDT
experience consists of the sum of the
hours required for NDT Level I and NDT
Level II.
The required minimum experience must be
While fulfilling total NDT experience
requirement, experience may be gained
in more than one (1) method. Minimum
method.
In addition, Section XI Appendix IV
specifies
performance
demonstration
requirements for ET examination procedures,

equipment, and personnel used to detect and size
flaws in piping and components not including
steam generator heat exchanger tubing
examination. Appendix IV specifically applies
to the acquisition process and not to personnel
involved in the acquisition process. Such
personnel are covered under the employers
program.
This appendix includes Scope, General System, and Personnel Requirements, Qualification
Requirements, Essential Variable Tolerances and
Record of Qualification.
There is also a supplement to Appendix IV
that addresses the essential variables associated
with ET data acquisition instrumentation and
establishes a methodology for variable measurements.
9.3
Principles
In ET examination, the instrument and coil

assembly function together. The instruments
AC generator applies an alternating voltage of a
certain frequency to the coil (illustrated in Figure
9-1), which causes an alternating current to flow
through the coil.
9.3.1
Electromagnetic Induction
The current in the coil develops a magnetic

field, called the primary field, around the coil as
illustrated in Figure 9-2. This field becomes the
source of two induction processes induced by the
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coils flux: (1) back voltage into the coil that

causes inductive reactance (Indicated by XL on
Figure 9-3) and (2) voltage into the specimen that
causes eddy currents to circulate (Figure 9-4).
The eddy currents cause friction when they
circulate, resulting in generation of heat in the
test material. Thus, there is a conversion of
electrical energy into thermal energy causing an
effective resistive load on the test coil. Both
types of induction show on the display.
The eddy currents generate a magnetic field
of their own, called the secondary field, which
reacts with the primary field that the coil is
generating (Figure 9-5).
9.3.2 Eddy Current Characteristics
Various material conditions such as the presence of discontinuities, changes in material
properties, or changes in material thickness,
affect the flow of eddy currents in the material.
Changes in the flow of eddy currents cause
changes in the magnetic field that the eddy
currents return to the test coil. Changes in this
magnetic field cause changes in the inductive
reactance and effective resistance of the coil that
result in changes in the flow of electrical current
through the coil. Changes in electrical current
flowing through the coil produce a change in the
impedance indication on the instruments
display.
Eddy currents flow in closed loops
(concentric circular paths) parallel to the turns of
the coil and perpendicular to the coils flux, as
illustrated in Figure 9-6. Therefore, the
orientation of eddy current flow in the specimen
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
depends upon the orientation of coil flux to the

specimen, which in turn depends on the
orientation of the turns of the coil to the
specimen. Orientation of the coils turns and,
thus eddy current distribution, are determined by
the coils configuration. Basic configurations
include surface coils, encircling coils, and
internal coils.
Eddy current flow is virtually undisturbed by
discontinuities oriented parallel to their flow
paths (see Figure 9-7a) and greatly disturbed by
discontinuities oriented perpendicular to their
flow paths (Figure 9-7b). Since eddy currents
attempt to flow in unbroken loops, they follow
the path of least resistance around
non-conducting obstacles, thereby increasing
their resistive path and reducing their amplitude.
The flow of eddy currents is analogous to the
flow of compressible fluids. While the flow paths
are circular when eddy currents are undisturbed
by non-conducting material boundaries and
discontinuities (Figure 9-8a), the flow paths
distort and compress to accommodate intrusion
of their flow, as shown in (Figure 9-8b),
illustrating edge effect.
The direction of eddy current travel continually alternates between clockwise and
counter-clockwise movement and in the
direction opposite to the flow of the primary
current.
ET performance is generally described by
three criteria:
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Sensitivity - This is the minimum size of

discontinuity that can be displayed from a given
depth distance in the material,
Penetration - Penetration is the maximum
depth from which a useful signal can be
displayed for a particular application, and
Resolution - Resolution is the degree to
which separation between signals can be
displayed.
ET performance depends primarily on test
material properties, test frequency, and coil
design. Because only frequency and coil design
are selectable, they are the primary controls over
performance. The following sections discuss in
more detail the important variables and their
effect on ET performance.
9.3.2.1
9.3.2.1.1
Material Properties
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
material. In high conductivity materials, a

considerable eddy current flow (and thus a strong
secondary flux field) is developed at the surface.
This results in a substantial cancellation of
primary flux. Because the primary flux has been
greatly weakened, less primary flux is available
to develop eddy currents at greater depth.
The following factors can cause changes in
conductivity within a material:
Material Hardness - Variations in material
hardness affect conductivity. As hardness increases, conductivity decreases and penetration
increases. As a matter of interest, greatest
conductivity is apparent in the annealed state of
nonferrous alloys.
Chemical Composition - Variations in
chemical composition within an alloy affect
conductivity.
Conductivity
Conductivity is a material characteristic that

describes the ease with which electrons pass
through a given material.
Each metal is
assigned a conductivity value on a scale called
the International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS). According to the IACS, conductivity
values are rated in percent, with the conductivity
of pure copper being 100 percent.
An increase in conductivity of the test
material causes an increase in sensitivity to
discontinuities, but a decrease in penetration of
eddy currents into the material. As the coils
flux field expands, voltage is induced first on the
surface and then at increasing depths in the
Mechanical
Processing
Material
processing, such as cold working, affects lattice
structure, which causes minor conductivity
changes.
Thermal Processing - Thermal processing,
such as heat treatment, causes hardness changes
that are detectable as conductivity changes.
Residual Stresses - Residual stress in a
material causes unpredictable conductivity
changes. This is an undesirable condition.
Temperature - Variations in material
temperature causes conductivity to change. As
material temperature increases, conductivity
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decreases. This is an undesirable condition. As

a result, care must be taken that material
temperature does not vary during an examination
and that reference standards are the same
temperature as the test specimen.
9.3.2.1.2
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
material variable is displayed. However, with

impedance plane display cathode ray tube (CRT)
instruments, each type of material condition
presents data in a characteristic manner, which
results in the separation of variables and
facilitates the interpretation of signals.
Permeability
9.3.2.2
Permeability is the relative ability of a material to become magnetized when subjected to a

magnetizing force, that is, when placed in a
magnetic field. Ferromagnetic metals (including
iron, carbon steels, 400-series stainless steel,
nickel, and cobalt) have high permeability. The
alternating magnetic field of an eddy current coil
becomes highly concentrated in such materials
and overpowers the eddy current response, causing the system to display permeability rather than
conductivity variations. However, since essentially the same factors that influence conductivity
also influence permeability, the permeability
signals can provide useful information.
As material permeability increases, signals
resulting
from
permeability
variations
increasingly mask eddy current signal variations.
This effect becomes more pronounced with
increased depth. Permeability thus limits the
effective penetration of eddy currents.
9.3.2.1.3 Test Display of Material Property
Variations
Care must be taken during examination to
ensure separation of variables on the display.
Since meter instruments can display only
up-scale or down-scale deflections, the
instruments must be operated so that only one
Frequency
As test frequency is increased, the density of

eddy currents on the surface increases and sensitivity to surface discontinuities also increases,
permitting increasingly smaller surface discontinuities to be detected. As frequency is decreased,
material penetration depth increases, and the
eddy current density decreases on the surface.
Eddy currents are subject to skin effect, in
which current density is maximum at the
material surface and decreases rapidly
(exponentially) with depth. The material depth at
which current density decreases to 36.8 percent
of surface current density is called the standard
depth of penetration.
In addition, eddy currents experience a linear
phase lag with depth. As depth increases, eddy
current activity is progressively delayed. Phase
lag in the specimen proceeds at the rate of one
radian (57.3 percent) per standard depth of
penetration. However, phase lag is displayed at
approximately twice that amount (Figure 9-9).
This is discussed in more detail in Section 9.5.5.
9.3.2.3
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Test Specimen Geometry
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Test specimen geometry restricts eddy

current flow due to physical differences such as
size or thickness.
Material Thickness - Thickness can be
measured because changes in thickness affect
eddy current flow in the test material. As the
material becomes thinner, eddy current flow
becomes restricted.
Material
Discontinuities
These
discontinuities cause indications relative to the
extent that the size and depth of the
discontinuities disturb eddy current flow. Thus,
discontinuities whose major dimensions are
perpendicular to eddy current flow paths and
which are located near the test surface provide
the strongest indications. Additionally, since
eddy
currents
attain
peak
amplitude
progressively later as depth increases, display of
this phase lag information can indicate
discontinuity depth.
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
penetration is limited to coil diameter. However,

since a small surface discontinuity causes a
proportionally greater disturbance in the field of
a smaller coil, smaller coils are preferred for
detection and localization of small surface
discontinuities.
9.3.2.4.1
Coil Coupling (Lift-Off)
When distance between the coil and

specimen varies, the intensity of the induced flux
field likewise varies. The spacing between a
surface coil and the specimen is called lift-off
(Figure 9-10).
The spacing between either an internal coil or
encircling coil and concentrically positioned
specimen is called fill factor. Sensitivity to
lift-off and fill factor depends on flux density and
thus decreases as distance between coil and
specimen increases.
Material Boundaries - Restriction of eddy

current flow called edge effect occurs when a
surface coil approaches the edge of a plate, as
shown in Figure 9-8. Similarly, a current flow
restriction called end effect occurs when an
encircling or internal coil approaches the end of a
tube or pipe. Both conditions produce strong
signals. The effects are intensified by the wider
eddy current fields developed by large diameter
coils and lower test frequencies.
The decrease in sensitivity is nonlinear due to

the decrease in flux density according to the
Inverse Square Law. Lift-off is useful for
measuring the thickness of paint or other
nonconductive coatings on the surface of a metal.
It can also be used to measure the thickness of
nonconductive materials, as long as such
materials are placed on a conductive object. Fill
factor deflections can indicate material variations
such as wall thickness changes or ovality
conditions.
9.3.2.4
9.3.2.4.2 Edge Effect
Coil Design
Penetration and sensitivity are affected by

coil geometry. As a rule of thumb, eddy current
Restriction of current flow called edge

effect occurs when an eddy current surface coil
97
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approaches the edge of a geometric change

(Figure 9-8). Similarly, as mentioned above, a
current flow restriction called end effect
occurs when an encircling or internal coil
approaches the end of a tube or pipe. Both
effects produce strong signals. The effects are
intensified by the wide eddy current fields
developed by large diameter coils and lower test
frequencies.
Edge effect can be eliminated by scanning
the coil parallel to the material edge at a constant
distance from the edge; simple fixtures to
accomplish this can be easily fabricated. This
technique maintains edge effect at a constant
value. Interception of a discontinuity then causes
a signal change. The use of smaller diameter
coils reduces edge effect and the use of shielded
coils virtually eliminates it.
9.4
Equipment
A variety of ET instruments are available for

use, from simple to complex. Although these
instruments vary greatly in applications
flexibility as well as size, most of them operate
on similar principles.
Multifrequency instruments offer potential
for substantial enhancement of performance. Use
of more than one test frequency has three advantages:
Signals generated by the various frequencies

can be mixed to prevent display of
undesirable signals; suppression of signals
from steel supports during examination of
nonferro-magnetic tubes is an example. Each
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
additional frequency enables an additional

variable to be isolated.
Use of multiple frequencies allows more than

one frequency to be used simultaneously. For
example, during in-service tube examination,
a higher frequency provides sensitivity to
inner diameter discontinuities and a lower
frequency provides sensitivity for responding
to outer diameter discontinuities.
Use of multiple frequencies aids signal

analysis. The various conditions that can be
detected by ET exhibit different responses as
frequency is varied.
9.4.1 System Components

All ET instruments require at least three
circuit
components:
alternating
current
generator, coil, and processing/display circuitry.
The level of flexibility designed into each of
these elements generally determines how ET
instruments differ from each other. ET coils can
be classified according to both basic
configuration and mode of operation. Coil
design, as well as magnitude and frequency of
the applied current, all affect the electromagnetic
field developed by the coil.
Basic ET equipment consists of an
alternating current source (oscillator), voltmeter,
and probe. When the probe is brought close to a
conductor or moved past a discontinuity, the
voltage across the coil changes and this is read
off the voltmeter. The oscillator sets the test
frequency and the probe governs coupling and
sensitivity to discontinuities.
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Student Manual
Most ET instruments use an alternating current bridge for balancing but use various
methods for lift-off compensation. Send-receive
instruments should be used for accurate absolute
measurements in the presence of temperature
fluctuations. Multi-frequency instruments can be
used to simplify discontinuity signals in the
presence of extraneous signals.
control or in discrete steps from about 1 kHz to 2

MHz.
ET instruments and recording equipment

have a finite frequency response which limits the
examination speed.
The bridge output signal amplitude is controlled by the GAIN control. In some instruments
it is labeled as sensitivity. GAIN controls the
amplifier of the bridge output signal and does not
affect current going through the probe.
The main functions of an ET instrument are

illustrated in the block diagram in Figure 9-11.
A sine wave oscillator generates sinusoidal
current, at a specified frequency, that passes
through the test coils. Since the impedance of
two coils is never exactly equal, balancing is
required to eliminate the voltage difference
between them. Most ET instruments achieve this
through an alternating current bridge or by
subtracting a voltage equal to the unbalance
voltage. In general they can tolerate an
impedance mismatch of 5 percent. Once
balanced, the presence of a discontinuity in the
vicinity of one coil creates a small unbalanced
signal, which is then amplified.
The most troublesome parameter in ET is
lift-off (probe-to-specimen spacing). A small
change in lift-off creates a large output signal.
Figure
instrument
frequency
frequency.
9-12 shows a typical eddy current

with various control functions. The
selector sets the desired test
Frequency is selected by continuous
The balancing controls, labeled X and R are

potentiometers. They match coil impedance to
achieve a null when the probe is in a
discontinuity free location on the test sample.
Most instruments have automatic balancing.
Following amplification of the bridge unbalance signal, the signal is converted to direct
current signals. Since the alternating currents
signal has both amplitude and phase, it is converted into quadrature X and Y components.
ET instruments do not have a phase reference. To
compensate for this they have a phase shift.
Crack Detection Instruments - Crack
detector instruments contain only one coil, with a
fixed value capacitor in parallel with the coil to
form a resonant circuit. At this condition the
output voltage for a given change in coil
impedance is maximum. The coils inductive
reactance, XL, must be close to the capacitive
reactance, XC.
Crack detectors that operate at or close to
resonance do not have selectable test
frequencies.
Crack
detectors
for
non-ferromagnetic, high electrical resistivity
materials such as Type 304 stainless steel
typically operate between 1 and 3 MHz; those for
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low resistivity materials (aluminum alloys,

brasses) operate at a lower frequency, normally
in the 10 to 100 kHz range. Some crack detectors
for high resistivity materials can also be used to
examine ferromagnetic materials, such as carbon
steel, for surface discontinuities. Normally a
different probe is required; however, coil
impedance and test frequency change very little.
Crack detectors have a meter output and
three basic controls: balance, lift-off, and
sensitivity. Balancing is performed by adjusting
the potentiometer on the adjacent bridge arm,
until bridge output is zero (or close to zero).
GAIN (sensitivity) adjustment occurs at the
bridge output. The signal is then rectified and
displayed on a meter. Because the signal is
filtered, in addition to the mechanical inertia of
the pointer, the frequency response of a meter is
very low (less than 10 Hz). LIFT-OFF control
adjusts the test frequency (by less than 25
percent) to operate slightly off resonance. In
crack detectors the test frequency is chosen to
minimize the effect of probe wobble (lift-off),
not to change the skin depth or phase lag.
9.4.2
Data/Displays
Since the impedance plane is a graphic plot

of ET information, resistance values are shown
on the X axis; inductive reactance values, on the
Y axis. Impedance plane display instruments
thus present both impedance amplitude and
impedance phase angle simultaneously on a CRT
screen.
Data on an impedance plane instrument is
interpreted by observing the movement of the
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
display dot on a CRT screen while the coil interacts with the specimen. Each type of condition
that ET can detect is characterized by a certain
pattern of display dot movement. Variables are,
in fact, arranged along curves or loci on the impedance plane. Generally there are separate
curves for each variable. Distribution of
information on the impedance plane can be
altered by changing frequency. Redistribution of
information on the impedance plane by
adjustment of frequency is a key technique in
optimizing performance.
Sections 9.4.2.1 through 9.4.2.4 describe
several types of curves displayed on the CRT.
9.4.2.1
Lift-Off Curves
The zero conductivity point, also called the

coil in air or empty coil point, is typically located
at a position of low resistance, but of moderately
high inductive reactance. This is the impedance
point for a coil whose flux is not near any
conductive material. However, as a coil is moved
toward a conductor, secondary flux changes the
coils impedance and the display dot moves. The
position where movement terminates depends on
the conductivity of the test material. The more
conductive the test material, the greater the
cancellation of primary flux, which causes a
greater drop in inductive reactance and
movement further downward by the dot. Because
the coil and specimen are coupled, the specimen
acts as a load on the coil and the effective
resistance of the coil also changes. The
movement of the display dot is, therefore, a
combination of variations in both inductive
reactance and effective resistance.
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9.4.2.2
Conductivity Curve
Originating at the zero conductivity point is

the conductivity curve, sometimes called the
comma curve, because of its shape. Different
positions
along
this
curve
represent
non-ferromagnetic materials of different
conductivities, whose thicknesses are infinite
relative to electromagnetic penetration. That is,
the flux lines entering the material, as well as the
eddy currents that they generate, are not
perceptibly affected by the bottom surface of the
material. The counterclockwise extreme of the
conductivity curve represents zero conductivity,
whereas the clockwise extreme of the curve
represents infinite conductivity.
As the frequency is increased, the impedance
points for the various conductivities move
clockwise along the curve; the lower
conductivity materials spread apart along the
curve while the higher conductivity materials
become compressed at the bottom end of the
curve (Figure 9-13). Higher frequencies provide
greater separation for conductivity tests on lower
conductivity materials (Figure 9-14a). As the
frequency is decreased, the impedance points for
the
various
conductivities
move
counterclockwise along the curve (Figure
9-14b); the higher conductivity materials spread
apart while the lower conductivity materials
become compressed at the top end of the curve.
Lower frequencies provide greater separation for
conductivity tests for high conductivity materials
(Figure 9-14c). Frequency adjustment also
helps separate the lift-off and conductivity
variables during conductivity tests. At low
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
frequencies, lift-off curves for low conductivity

materials are almost parallel to the conductivity
curve.
As frequency is increased, the operating
point moves clockwise along the conductivity
curve, increasing the angle between the lift-off
curve and conductivity curve. Maximum
separation is achieved at the so called knee of
conductivity curve, where the lift-off curve
approaches it almost perpendicularly.
9.4.2.3
Thickness Curves
As previously stated, the conductivity curve

consists of impedance points for materials whose
thicknesses are infinite, relative to electromagnetic penetration. At lesser thicknesses, eddy
current flow in the material becomes restricted
and
the
impedance
point
moves
counterclockwise, spiraling away from the
conductivity curve. As thickness approaches
zero, the impedance point necessarily
approaches the zero conductivity point.
A standard depth of penetration is indicated
by the symbol. It is approximately located on
thickness curve at a point slightly to the right of
the intersection with the conductivity curve.
Again, frequency adjustment optimizes performance. As frequency is decreased, material
penetration increases, but thickness resolution on
thinner materials decreases. As frequency is
increased, material penetration decreases, but
thickness resolution on thinner materials increases.
9.4.2.4
911
Discontinuity Signal Display

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In an ET examination, a discontinuity is an
interruption of conductivity. The magnitude of
an ET discontinuity signal depends on the
quantity of interrupted current flow. Length,
width, and depth of a discontinuity all affect
signal magnitude to the extent that discontinuity,
volume, and shape obstruct the greatest amount
of electron flow. Because ET density decreases
exponentially with depth, a given discontinuity
volume disturbs increasingly fewer electrons
with depth. The depth of the disturbance,
however, causes a linear phase lag of the signal
(Figure 9-15).
9.4.3
Basic Coils
The basic coil configuration determines how

the coil is packaged to fit the object being
examined. There are three basic configurations,
described in sections 9.4.3.1 through 9.4.3.3.
9.4.3.1
Surface Coils
Surface coils are built into probe type housings for scanning material surfaces. The coil axis
is usually perpendicular to the specimens
surface. Surface coils are available in different
shapes and sizes to meet different application
needs (Figure 9-16). Larger surface probes
permit faster scanning and deeper penetration,
but cannot pinpoint the location of small
discontinuities (Figure 9-17). They are useful for
conductivity examination because they tend to
average out localized conductivity variations
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
along material surfaces. Conversely, narrow

coils are preferred for detecting and pinpointing
the location of small surface discontinuities.
Because
of
their
smaller
diameter
electromagnetic fields, narrow coils are less
susceptible to edge effect.
9.4.3.2
Encircling Coils
Encircling coils (Figure 9-18) completely

surround the specimen, thus they are normally
used for production examination of rods, wire,
bar stock, pipes, and tubing. Because of center
effect, eddy currents oppose and therefore
cancel themselves at the center of solid
cylindrical materials examined with encircling
coils. Thus, discontinuities located at the center
of rods and bar stock cannot be detected with
encircling coils. Encircling coils examine the
entire circumference of the specimen; however,
they cannot pinpoint the exact location of a
discontinuity along the circumference.
9.4.3.3
Internal Coils
Internal coils (Figures 9-19 and 9-20) pass

though the cores of pipes and tubes; thus, they
are normally employed for in-service
examinations. Like encircling coils, standard
bobbin-wound internal coils examine the entire
circumference of the specimen at one time but
cannot pinpoint the exact location of a
discontinuity along the circumference.
Both manual and automatic means are used
to propel internal coils down the length of a long
tube. Flexible u-bend assemblies are available
for navigating extreme curvature of tubing.
912
Rev 0103

9.5
Techniques
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
9.5.2 Impedance
Plane
Response
Conductivity Variations
to
During examination, ET instruments and

recording equipment are typically connected as
in Figure 9-21. The eddy current signal is
monitored on a storage CRT and recorded on
X-Y and two-channel recorders. Recording on a
magnetic tape recorder for subsequent playback
is also common.
Presentation of conductivity changes on the

impedance plane are shown in Figure 9-22. The
point where the probe is balanced (nulled) is
known as the operating point. It is from this point
that all movement of the spot is originated.
9.5.1
By setting an intermediate operating

frequency that will not exceed 30 percent
thickness of the test material for one standard
depth of penetration.
By balancing (nulling) the equipment and

calibrating the CRT display as shown in
Figure 9-23 to display two known
conductivities bracketing the unknown
conductivity.
Impedance Plane Fundamentals
Measurement of conductivity can be made:
The essential features of impedance plane

analysis are:
The separation of the voltage drop across the

eddy current probe coil(s) into voltage drop
due to pure resistance and the voltage drop
due to inductive reactance.
The presentation of the impedance vector due

to resistance changes and inductive reactance
changes as a spot on an oscilloscope
(Figure 9-22).
The movement of the impedance spot in

different directions is caused by the
following different factors:
NOTE: The use of reference calibration

samples is essential for this task. Reference
calibration samples should both bracket and
approximate the unknown conductivity for
higher accuracy.
9.5.3
A change in conductivity (or resistivity),

A change in lift-off (separation of the
probe from the test surface),
A change in probe frequency,
A change in geometry,
A change in probe, or
A change in permeability (or reluctance).
In the same way that conductivity can be

measured, materials can be sorted. Different heat
treatments or different alloys, even different
permeabilities,
are
easily
discriminated
permitting material sorting.
9.5.4
Sorting
913
Discontinuities
Rev 0103

Location of surface breaking discontinuities

is dependent on frequency. Presentation of frequency changes on the impedance plane are
Calibration is formally defined as
comparison of the instrument to a reference
standard. During an actual ET examination,
calibration is the process of adjusting the
instrument display to represent a known
reference standard so that the examination can be
a comparison between the specimen and the
reference standard. The validity of the
examination thus depends upon the validity of
the reference standard.
Since there is an infinite variety of a
discontinuity condition, it is neither possible nor
practical to have a set of reference standards so
complete as to replicate every possible condition
that could be detected during an examination.
Therefore, it is not practical to match each signal
with an identical reference signal. Instead, one
obtains practical reference standards that contain
a manageable number of representative
discontinuity conditions. Signals that vary from
these must then be interpreted through
techniques such as impedance plane analysis.
9.5.4.1
Discontinuity Location in Installed

Nonferrous Steam Generator Heat
Exchanger Tubing
ET equipment capable of operation in the

differential mode or the absolute mode, or both,
should be used for this examination. A device
for recording data, real time, in a format suitable
for evaluation and for archival storage, should be
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
provided when required by the referencing Code

Section.
Electronic instrumentation of the ET system
should be calibrated at least once a year or
whenever the equipment has been overhauled or
repaired as a result of malfunction or damage.
Single frequency or multiple frequency techniques are permitted for this examination. Upon
selection of the test frequency(s) and after completion of calibration, the probe should be
inserted into the tube where it is extended or
positioned to the region of interest. Resulting
ET signals at each of the individual frequencies
should be recorded for review, analysis, and final
disposition.
The calibration tube standard (Figure 9-25)
should be manufactured from a length of tubing
of the same nominal size and material type
(chemical composition and product form) as that
to be examined in the steam generator. The
intent of this reference standard is to establish
and verify system response. The standard
should contain calibration discontinuities as
follows:
A single hole drilled 100 percent through the

wall;
A flat bottom hole 0.109 in diameter and

60%throuigh the tube wall from the outer
surface.
Four flat bottom holes, 3/16 inch diameter,

spaced 90 around the circumference at 20%
through wall from the outside surface;
914
Rev 0103

A 1/16-inch wide, 360 circumferential

groove, 10 percent through from the inner
tube surface (optional);
Other requirements for the standard include:
All calibration discontinuities should be

spaced so that they can be identified from
each other and from the end of the tube.
Each standard should be identified by a serial

number.
The dimensions of the calibration

discontinuities and the applicable ET
response should become part of the
permanent record of the standard.
9.5.4.2
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
followed by a downward motion returning to

the point of origin.
3. The sensitivity should be adjusted to produce
a minimum peak-to-peak signal from the four
20 percent flat bottom holes of 30 percent of
the full scale horizontal presentation with the
oscilloscope sensitivity set at 1 volt per division.
4. It is common to then adjust the phase or
rotation control so that the signal response
due to probe motion, or the 10 percent deep
circumferential inside diameter groove, or
both, is positioned along the horizontal axis
of the display.
Calibration Using Absolute Bobbin Coil

Technique:
Calibration Procedure
The examination system should be calibrated

utilizing the standard. A summary of the
calibration steps follows:
Calibration Using Differential Bobbin
Coil Technique (Figure 9-26):
1. The ET instrument should be adjusted for a

frequency so that the phase angle between a
line drawn from the origin to the tip of the
response from the through-the-wall hole and
the horizontal axis is approximately 40.
The phase angle formed by a line drawn from
the origin to the tip of the response of the four
20 percent flat bottom holes and the
through-the-wall response line is between
1. The ET instrument is adjusted for the frequency chosen so that the phase angle of a
signal from the four 20 percent flat bottom
holes is between 50 and 120 rotated clockwise from the signal of the through-the-wall
hole (Figure 9-27).
2. The trace display for the four 20 percent flat
bottom holes should be generated, when
pulling the probe, in the directions illustrated
in Figure 9-27, down and to the left first,
followed by an upward motion to the right,
50 and 120. (Figure 9-28).

2. The sensitivity should be adjusted to produce
a minimum origin-to-peak signal from the
four 20 percent flat bottom holes of 30
percent of the full scale horizontal
presentation with the oscilloscope sensitivity
set at 1 volt per division.
3. It is common to adjust the phase or rotation
control so that the signal response due to
probe rotation, or the 10 percent deep cir915
Rev 0103

cumferential inside diameter groove, or both,

is positioned along the horizontal axis of the
display 5.
4. The response may be rotated to the upper
quadrants of the display at the option and
convenience of the operator.
5. Withdrawing the probe through the
calibration tube standard at the probe speed
selected for the examination should be
repeated. The responses should be recorded
for the applicable calibration discontinuities
and verified that they are clearly indicated by
the instrument and are distinguishable from
each other, as well as from probe motion
signals.
9.5.4.3
Probe Speed
The typical probe speed during examination

should not exceed 14 inch/second. Higher probe
speeds may be used if system frequency response
and sensitivity to the applicable calibration standards.
9.5.5
Thickness
The effects of edge effect have already been

described and edge effect should be clearly discernible from other factors effecting eddy currents. Geometry is different from edge effect
and can also be described by reduction in
thickness (Figure 9-29).
Phase indications on CRTs are related to the
phase change as the eddy currents penetrate the
material under test. As the phase change occurs
into the material by 57 per standard depth of
penetration, it should be quite acceptable that the
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
same phase change occurs again when sensed by

a probe on the surface (sensed at 114 total indicated phase change). This phenomenon can be
proven. A discontinuity at exactly one standard
depth of penetration will give an indication of 2 x
57 = 114 out of phase with lift-off (Figure
9-30).
9.5.5.1
Location of Secondary Layer Corrosion or Cracking
The frequency should be selected to give 90

phase separation between lift-off and material
loss. As one standard depth of penetration gives
114 phase angle, if multiplied by 0.7895, the
answer will be 90. So, for 90 phase separation
of subsurface discontinuities, the standard depth
of penetration frequency should be multiplied by
approximately 0.80.
The equipment should be balanced (nulled),
and the lift-off set horizontally from the operating point which should be to the lower right hand
quadrant of the CRT.
Thinning is represented by a move of the spot
up the calibrated thinning line. Similar results
will be seen for subsurface cracks except the
move of the spot from the operating point on the
conductivity curve will be quicker, and include
an integration of the phase change through the
depth of the crack. If the material thickens from
the balance point, the spot will move down the
CRT from the lift-off.
The final result of the variations in thickness
on the eddy currents is shown in Figure 9-31.
916
Rev 0103

Note the small comma shaped curve is the

material thickening from the balance (operating)
point.
Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
9.6
Interpretation
Requirements
and
Code
9.6.1 Written Procedure

9.5.6
9.5.6.1
Coatings
Variations in Thickness of Plating
or Cladding
These variations combine both conductivity

and dimensional variables.
Presentation of lift-off changes on the
impedance plane is shown in Figure 9-32. The
point where the probe is in the balanced condition (nulled) is known as the operating point. It
is from this point that all movement of the spot is
originated.
Measurement of non-conducting coating

thickness (lift-off) can be made using the
following procedure:
- The highest frequency should be chosen
to give maximum sensitivity to lift-off (and
hence accuracy). The equipment should be
balanced. This will bring the operating point to
the bottom of the conductivity curve.
- The CRT display should be calibrated as
shown in Figure 9-33 to display two known
non-conducting thickness (plastic foil or shim
calibration samples are used) bracketing the
unknown coating thickness.
NOTE: The use of reference calibration
shims is essential to this task. Reference
calibration shims should approximate the
unknown for higher accuracy.
All ET examinations should be performed to

detailed written procedures, unless otherwise
stated in the reference code.
9.6.2 Description of Method
The procedure for eddy current should
provide a sensitivity which will consistently
detect discontinuity indications equal to or
greater than those conditions in the reference
specimen.
Parts with discontinuities that
produce indications in excess of the reference
standards should be evaluated in accordance with
the procedure that meets code requirements.
9.6.3 Reference Specimen
The reference specimen should be a part of
and be processed in the same manner as the
product being examined. It should be of the
same dimensions and the same nominal
composition as the product being examined.
Unless otherwise specified in the referencing
Code, the reference discontinuities should be
transverse notches, drilled holes, or should
simulate as near as possible the conditions to be
detected.
The reference specimen should be long or
large enough to simulate the handling of the
product being examined through the examination
equipment. The separation between reference
discontinuities placed in the same reference
917
Rev 0103

Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
specimen should be not less than twice the length

or diameter of the sensing unit of the
examination equipment.
9.6.4
Equipment Qualification
The proper functioning of the examination

equipment should be checked and calibrated by
the use of the reference specimens as follows:
At the beginning of each production run of

given dimensions of a given material,
After each hour during the production run,
At the end of the production run, and
At any time that malfunctioning is suspected.
extensive selection of equipment is available to

fit the examination to the application. Frequency
adjustment and coil selection are the examiners
primary
controls
over
performance.
Information is obtained by monitoring changes
in coil impedance caused by variations in the
specimen. However, because the process is
complex, examiner skill is a critical variable
especially for the examination of heat exchanger
tubing.
9.7.1 Advantages
The following are advantages of ET:
This method is sensitive to numerous

material variables. Consequently, any of
several material properties can be measured
providing the other variables are either
separately identifiable or suppressed.
9.6.5 Procedure Requirements
Much of the equipment is portable, lightweight, and battery powered.
The written procedure should include at least

the following:
This method is nondestructive. No couplant,

powders, or other physical substances are
applied to the specimen. The only link between the probe and specimen is a magnetic
field.
Results are instantaneous. As soon as the test

coil is applied to the specimen, a qualified
examiner can interpret the results. An exception, however, is computer analysis of tape
recorded multichannel test data.
ET testing is ideal for go/no-go examinations. Audible and visual alarms, triggered by
threshold gates or box gates, are available for
high-speed examination.
There is no danger from radiation or other

such hazards.
Acceptance requirements shall

specified in the referenced code.
be
as
Frequency,
Type of coil or probe (e.g., differential coil),
Type of material and sizes to which applicable,
Reference specimen notch or hole size, and
Additional information as necessary to

permit retesting.
9.7
Advantages and Limitations of ET

Examinations
ET can provide a variety of useful

information about an object. In addition, an
918
Rev 0103

Chapter 9.0
Student Manual
Material preparation is usually unnecessary;

cleanup is not required.
9.7.2
Limitations
ET also has several limitations:
The material must be electrically conductive.

It is possible to measure the thickness of
nonconductive coating on conductive
materials.
ET normally cannot penetrate ferromagnetic

materials. Consequently, examination of
ferromagnetic material is limited to surface
discontinuities only, unless the material has
been magnetically saturated using direct
current field coils. Magnetic saturation is
limited to certain geometries only. In
addition, magnetically saturated objects may
have to be demagnetized after testing is
completed.
Even for non-ferromagnetic materials, the

ET method has limited penetration.
919
Rev 0103

Student Manual
Chapter 9.0 Introduction

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-1 Alternatting Current Flowing Through Test Coil
920
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-2
2 Primary Magnetic Field Develops
921
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-3 Inductive Reactance Occurs
922
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-4 Eddy Currents Develop
923
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-5 Secondary Field Develops
924
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-6 Eddy Currents

C
Develop Parallel to the Coils Turns
925
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-7 Effect of Variation in Discontinuity Orientation

on Eddy Current Flow Paths
926
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-8 Compressiion of Eddy Current Flow Paths by Material E

Edge
927
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-9 Attenu

uation and Phase Lag of Eddy Currents
Penetra
ating into a Conductive Material
928
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-10 Redu

uction in Eddy Current Strength with Lift-Off
Results in
i Positive Meter Movement Unless
Lift-Off is Compensated
929
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-11 Block

k Diagram of Eddy Current Instrument
930
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-12 Typical Eddy Current Instrument with Storage Monittor
931
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-13
9
Conductivity Curve
932
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
20 KHz)
Figure 9-14 (a) Low Frecuency (2
Figure 9-14 (b) Medium Frequency (100KHz)
Figure 9-14 (c) High Frequency 1 MHz
933
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-15 Direcction of Surface and Subsurface Cracks

in Alumin
num on the Impedance Plane
934
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-16 Various High Frequency Surface Probes
935
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-17
7 Typical Low Frequency Probes
936
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-18 Encircling Coil
937
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-1
19 Internal Coil (Bobbin Probe)
938
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-20 In
nternal (Insertion, Bobbin) Differential Probe
939
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-21 Eddy Current Test System
940
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
F
Figure
9-22 Impedance Plane
941
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9--23 Conductivity Measurement
942
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-24 Frequency Selection for Crack Resolution
943
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-25
5 Tube Calibration Standards
944
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Fig
gure 9-26 Internal Bobbin Probe
945
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-27 Typ

pical Signal Response from a Properly
Calibrated Diffferential Bobbin Coil Probe System
946
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-28 Typical

T
Signal Response from a Properly
Calibrated
d Absolute Bobbin Coil Probe System
947
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-29 Changes in Thickness (Example 1)
948
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-30 Change in Thickness (Example 2)
949
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-31 Changing Signal Phase and Signal Amplitude with Depth
h
950
Rev 0409

Student Manual

too ET Examination
Figure 9-32 Changess in Conductivity, Lift-Off, Probe, and Thickneess
951
Rev 0409

Student Manual

to ET
T Examination
Figure 9-33 Coating Thickness Measurement
952
Rev 0409
SUGGESTED SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES

1.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 2006Edition.
2.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel - ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 1995 and 2006 Edition.
3.
International Standard, Nondestructive Testing - Qualification and Certification of Personnel - ISO 9712.
4.
ASM International, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control Vol. 17, 1989.
5.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME Section V, 2007 Edition.
6.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME Section XI, 2007 Edition.
7.
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 2000 Edition.
8.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbooks, Vol. 2, 3rd Edition, Liquid Penetrant
Testing, 1999 Edition.
9.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbooks, Vol. 4, 3rd Edition, Radiographic
10.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbooks, Vol. 6, 2nd Edition, Magnetic Particle
11.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbooks, Vol. 8, 2nd Edition, Visual and Optical
12.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbooks, Vol. 4, 2nd Edition, Electromagnetic
13.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbooks, Vol. 7, 2nd Edition, Ultrasonic Testing,
1991 Edition.
14.
Hellier, Charles J., Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation, 2001.
15.
American Welding Society, D1-1 Structural Welding, Code 2000.

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Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Vol I

Overview of Course .......................................................................................................... 1

Human Factors .................................................................................................................. 2

2.0 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION ...................................................... 1

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Vol I

2.3.1.3 Terminology ............................................................................................. 6

3.2 False Indications ..................................................................................................................... 1

Penetrant Examination .......................................................................................... 1

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Vol I

Magnetic Particle Examination ............................................................................ 2

Radiographic Examination ................................................................................... 2

Ultrasonic/Eddy Current Examination ................................................................. 2

Summary of False Indications .............................................................................. 2

3.3 Nonrelevant Indications .......................................................................................................... 2

Penetrant Examination .......................................................................................... 3

Magnetic Particle Examination ............................................................................ 3

Radiographic Examination ................................................................................... 4

3.3.4 Ultrasonic Examination ........................................................................................ 4

Eddy Current Examination ................................................................................... 4

Summary of Nonrelevant Indications ................................................................... 5

3.4 True Discontinuities ............................................................................................................... 5

Inherent Discontinuities ...................................................................................... 5

Primary Processing Discontinuities .................................................................... 5

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Vol I

Casting Processes ............................................................................. 6

Casting Discontinuities ..................................................................... 7

Forging Processes ............................................................................. 9

Forging Discontinuities .................................................................... 9

Rolling Process .............................................................................. 10

Rolling Discontinuities .................................................................. 10

3.4.3 Secondary Processing Discontinuities .............................................................. 10

Tears (Machining) .......................................................................... 11

Heat Treating Cracks ...................................................................... 11

Grinding Cracks .............................................................................. 11

Forming Cracks .............................................................................. 11

3.4.4 Service Discontinuities ..................................................................................... 11

Stress Corrosion .............................................................................. 11

Microbiological Corrosion ............................................................. 12

Intergranular Corrosion .................................................................. 12

Weld Discontinuities ........................................................................................ 13

Longitudinal Cracks ....................................................................... 13

Crater Cracks .................................................................................. 14

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Vol I

Burn Through ................................................................................. 15

3.5 Summary of True Discontinuities....................................................................................... 15

3.6 Interpretation Summary ...................................................................................................... 16

4.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ............................................................................ 1

Visual Acuity ...................................................................................................... 2

4.2.3 Experience and Training ..................................................................................... 2

4.3 Principles of Visual Testing ................................................................................................. 4

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Vol I

4.3.2 Visual Factors..5

Human Eye ......................................................................................................... 5

Distance Judgment ............................................................................ 6

Color and Color Vision....................................................................................... 7

Color Characteristics ........................................................................ 7