PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
Review
In this topic we take a closer look at the sedimentary process
and the resultant rock types.

Content
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the final process beginning with erosion and
transportation of eroded material to sites of deposition. Figure 1
illustrates the process of sedimentation. Particles settle out of suspension
and are deposited horizontally as layers. Over time the layers are
progressively buried by overlying layers and the sediments are lithified
into rock.
Stratification results from the arrangement of sedimentary particles in
distinct layers. Each stratum of rock is a distinct layer of accumulated
sediment. This arrangement of layers is known as bedding. Each stratum
or bed has a bedding plane between it and the strata above and below.
Diagenesis is the name given to the chemical and physical changes that
occur after deposition (Figure 2). These changes alter the texture and
mineralogy of the sediment and act to convert the soft, unconsolidated
sediment into rock. Diagenetic processes include:

compaction, where water is driven out of the sediment (a mud with

60% water content can become a mudstone with 10% water
content);

recrystallisation of unstable minerals;

growth of clay minerals.

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 1. Erosion and Sedimentation. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by

Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with
permission.)

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 2. Examples of Diagenetic Proceses. (From UNDERSTANDING

EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company.
Used with permission.)

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks can be classified as Clastic (composed of fragments or

particles) or as Chemical (composed of minerals precipitated chemically).
Breakdown of the parent rock by either mechanical or chemical means is
termed weathering.

Clastic Sedimentary Environments

Clastic (detrital) sediments are formed from the breakdown of rocks by
physical weathering and transport of the resultant particles to lower lying
areas. The majority of clastic sediments are formed from the mechanical
breakdown of pre-existing rock.
Mechanically eroded particles tend to be angular due to natural fracture
points within the parent rock. However, as particles are transported they
will themselves be further eroded by abrasion. In addition, particles may
become sorted by virtue of local conditions such as flow rate, particle
hardness, size and specific gravity (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Sorting and Abrasion of Clastic Particles. (From THE DYNAMIC

EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This
material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

As time progresses, both roundness and sorting will increase. Many sands
for example will consist almost entirely of well rounded, extremely well
sorted quartz particles, as quartz is one of the most resistant rocks to
both mechanical and chemical weathering. Bear in mind that the
geologist definition of well-sorted means that the grains are all of the
same or very similar size. Analysis of the layering and particles within a

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

sedimentary rock can give important information about the conditions of

sedimentation. For each environment we can list the distinctive physical,
chemical and biological characteristics imparted to the resultant rock that
permit us to distinguish it from rocks formed under a different
environment. Thus sedimentary rocks may be defined in terms of facies
in a similar fashion to that applied to metamorphic rocks (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Examples of Sedimentary Facies. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by

B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used
by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Alluvial
This environment includes river channels, meander belts on flood plains,
alluvial fans and alluvial plains. As water flows it deposits material in slow
moving regions (inside channel bends for example) and erodes material
from faster flowing regions (outside bends). This leads to channel
migration over time. As a channel migrates it leaves behind a distinctive

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

sedimentary sequence, with coarse sand and gravel on the channel floor,
grading into fine sands, silts and muds on the flood plain at the top
(Figure 5). This is known as the fining upward alluvial cycle (Figure 6).

Desert
The desert environment is dry enough to allow sand to be blown by the
wind. The wind blows sand into dune formations that migrate in the
direction of wind propagation. Dune sands are characteristically fine, well
sorted sands with cross bedding features (Figure 7). Dune deposits can
grade into alluvial deposits of desert rivers.

Figure 5. Deposits Formed due to Channel Meandering.

Figure 6. Upward Fining Alluvial Cycle Deposits. (From UNDERSTANDING

EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company.
Used with permission.)

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 7. Deposition of Cross Beds. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank

Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with
permission.)

Deltaic
Deltas are formed where rivers meet the sea and drop their sediment.
The environment is characterised by the stratigraphic pattern of alluvial
freshwater deposits and fossiliferous marine deposits. Coarsening
upwards of sediments may develop as the river mouth advances out into
the sea. Coarser deposits of the river will be progressively deposited over
finer offshore muds and silts (Figures 8 and 12). Large deltas may have a
complex structure of course stream channel sediments with fine sediment
laid between and still finer sediment on the sea floor.

Figure 8. Typical Marine Delta.

Beach and Bar

Beach sands result from the motion of wave action and are generally well
rounded and well sorted. They exhibit bedding gently inclined towards
the sea and oscillation ripples in the surf zone (Figure 9). A typical
sequence would be fine grained subtidal sediments overlain by mediumto coarse- grained tidal zone sand deposits, then beach sands and dune
sands or salt-marsh organic-rich muds.

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 9. Oscillation Ripples. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press

and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Shallow Marine
Sedimentation on continental shelves is determined by wave bottoms and
tidal currents: muds are deposited in depressions sheltered from
currents; sands and silts in areas of weaker currents; medium- to finesands in ribbons on shallower parts of the shelves. Large sediment drifts
can occur along continental margins due to deep sea currents flowing
near the base of the continental shelf. Deep-sea fans to great depths can
also form if a river is aligned with a submarine canyon (Figure 10)
although, in general, most land derived sediment deposition is confined
to the continental shelves.

Turbidites
Turbidite flows are formed by submarine slumps (Figure 11) as sediment
at the top of a slope is dislodged and moves as a turbid flow down the
slope and out onto the abyssal plain. Turbidite sequences grade from
coarse structureless sands to medium grained, bedded sands, then finer
sands and finally silts and muds (Figure 12). The fining upward sequence
is indicative of a waning current.

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 10. Deep Sea Fans. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C.
Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Figure 11. Turbidite Currents.

The Robert Gordon University 2006

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 12. Deltaic and Turbidite Cycles.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Clastics are composed of weathered particles or detritus, eg, shales,
sandstone and conglomerates. Clastic deposits account for three-quarters
of the Earths surface due to the dominance of mechanical erosion
mechanisms over chemical precipitation. Shale is three times more
common than any of the coarser clastics.

Fine Grained: Muds

These are the most abundant sediments on earth but due to their fine
grain size they reveal least about their formation. The material is usually
studied by electron microscopes and X-Ray diffraction. They are defined
as sediments with a large component of clay-size material (<0.0039
mm). Muds are the result of slow settling from very gentle currents.
Below the depth of wave transport, these sediments are constantly being
formed on the seafloor, blanketing ridges, continental shelves, trenches
and the abyssal plain. Siltstone is composed mainly of quartz and
feldspar where most of the grains are 0.0039 0.062mm in diameter.
Finer particles form mudstone which tends to break into blocky
fragments, shale which tends to to cleave into sheet like fragments and
claystone. The most common minerals found in shales are clay minerals,
quartz, feldspar and calcite.
Muds often contain the remains of the decay of organisms and are
therefore attractive for other organisms as a food source, eg, worms,
burrowing clams, crustaceans. They eat the sediment, digest the organic
matter and excrete the unused inorganic bulk. The reworking of
sediments by organisms is called bioturbation. Black shales contain

The Robert Gordon University 2006

10

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

abundant organic matter, having formed in a poorly oxygenated

environment in which organic matter has not had the chance to decay.
On burial this matter may alter to form oil and gas.

Medium Grained: Sandstone

Sandstones are classified on the basis of their grain size, texture and
their mineralogy. If all the grains are the same size, the rock is said to be
well sorted. If the grains are of different sizes the rock is said to be
poorly sorted. Debris flow deposits are usually poorly sorted whereas
beach deposits are characteristically well sorted. Textural characteristics
also include the roundness of the grain. This is a measure of how eroded
or abraded the grain is. The more spherical and less angular the grain the
more eroded and distal from its source. Table 1 shows sand classification
and associated grain size.
Table 1: Classification of Sand by Grain Size.
Classification

Grain Size (mm)

Very coarse sand

1.0 2.0

Coarse sand

0.5 1.0

Medium sand

0.25 0.5

Fine sand

0.125 0.25

Very fine sand

0.0625 0.125

The mineralogy of the sandstone allows it to be traced back to its source.

Quartz arenites contain almost entirely quartz grains. Arkoses contain
abundant feldspar. Lithic arenites contain lots of fine grained rock
fragments from shales, slates, schists or volcanics. Graywackes consist of
quartz and feldspar grains surrounded by a finer clay matrix (Figure 13).

The Robert Gordon University 2006

11

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 13. Sandstone Groups. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press

and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Course Grained: Gravel and Conglomerate

These consist of large pebbles and must have been deposited by strong
currents with enough energy to pick up the grains in the first place, eg
mountain rivers. The limit that any river can carry is approximately 25
cm in diameter. Pebbles are quickly abraded by transport and become
rounder and smaller the further they are transported. They may also
become aligned in the direction of current flow. Conglomerates (lithified
gravel) therefore form in high energy environments, for example, during
storms or on talus slopes. These are slopes at the foot of continental
margins, coral reefs or mountains where boulders and debris accumulate.
Because the clasts in gravels vary greatly in size, conglomerates are
often categorised by the size of the predominant grains, ie, boulder,
cobble or pebble conglomerates. The clasts in conglomerates are
characteristically rounded. However, if transport has been very brief, the
clasts may be angular. In this case the resultant rocks are termed
breccias. Breccias also form due to the break-up of rocks along fault lines
or of volcanic material during eruptions.

The Robert Gordon University 2006

12

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical Sediments
Carbonates
These are the most common chemical sediments, formed due to an
abundance of calcium and bicarbonate ions in seawater. Limestone
(CaCO3) is the most common carbonate rock. The related mineral
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) is formed as magnesium rich waters percolate
through limestone and diagenetically produce dolostone. Many marine
organisms, from one-celled animals to oysters, clams and other
invertebrates, secrete some calcium carbonate. In this process of
biological precipitation, the organisms extract calcium carbonate from the
seawater to make their shells. Carbonate sedimentation is favoured in
warm, shallow tropical seas. Classification of carbonate rocks is not easy
as they may be either clastic or chemical in character.

Coral Reefs
Reefs are thought to originate from corals and algae colonising the shores
of volcanic islands and to form a fringing reef. As the island slowly sinks
due to subsidence associated with sea floor spreading, the deposition of
coral may keep pace with the sinking, gradually building up the reef.
Eventually the volcanic centre disappears to be replaced by an atoll with
a central lagoon (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Reef Growth.

Deep Sea Oozes

Calcareous or carbonate ooze forms over wide areas of the ocean floor
where warm surface waters favour the growth of carbonate secreting
organisms. In deep water however (>4km) the level of carbon dioxide
dissolved in sea-water leads to dissolution of any carbonate particles.
Carbonate oozes lithify to chalk.
Siliceous ooze is formed near the ocean surface where siliceous
organisms predominate. This is often related to areas where deep,

The Robert Gordon University 2006

13

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

nutrient rich, ocean waters rise and mix with surface waters. Siliceous
oozes lithify to form chert.

Evaporites
These are salts formed by the evaporation of seawater, such as halite
(NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4). As seawater
evaporates, a sequence of salts is precipitated. The concentrated solution
formed at the surface from which evaporites precipitate is known as brine
(Figure 15).

Figure 15. Evaporite Formation. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank

Press and Raymond Siever, 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with
permission.)

The Robert Gordon University 2006

14

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Tectonics and Sedimentation

Sedimentation rates are high adjacent to regions of tectonic uplift,
significantly lower on stable continental interiors and lower still in deep
sea regions distant from terrestrial sediment sources. Exceptionally thick
accumulations of strata are related to specific plate tectonic scenarios. In
most uplift areas, uplift rates exceed those of erosion and mountain
ranges are formed.
As continents diverge, sedimentary wedges may form along the new
continental margins due to water run-off. Where continents collide,
stream sediments from the resultant mountain ranges can accumulate in
adjacent basins, and it turn, towards rivers and ultimately to the sea,
forming deep sea fans for example. These sediments may become part of
the continent and in turn be uplifted. Detritus from volcanic activity will
also add to this process (Figure 16).

The Robert Gordon University 2006

15

campus.rgu.ac.uk

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Rocks

Figure 16. Sediments and Plate Tectonics. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by
B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used
by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

The Robert Gordon University 2006

16

campus.rgu.ac.uk