S-18 3150 Overvoltages and Insulation Coordination PDF

OVERVOLTAGES &
INSULATION COORDINATION
Lecture 6
S-18.3150 High Voltage Engineering
S-18.3146 Suurjnnitetekniikka
https://noppa.aalto.fi/noppa/kurssi/s-18.3150
Week
Date
Lecture
Topic
38
15.9
General + Safety + High Voltage Lab Tour
39
22.9
Electrostatic Fields + FEM
40
29.9
Gas Insulation
41
6.10
Liquid and Solid insulation
42
13.10
Transients
43
20.10
44
27.10
Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination
45
3.11
HV Testing & Measurements
46
10.11
Generation of High Voltages
Seminar Presentations
47
17.11
Seminar Presentations
(Seminars)
48
24.11
Prysmian Cable Factory
Surge Arrestor Lab
49
1.12
NO LECTURE
50
8.12
EXAM (13 16, S5)
NO LECTURE
Exercises
1 + FEM tasks + Seminar Tasks
Partial Discharge Lab
OVERVOLTAGES
Overvoltage Shape
Temporary (Sustained) Overvoltage
0.1 s
Test Voltage
0.1 s
- earth fault
- load disconnection
- resonance and ferro-resonance
- open phase connection
Slow-Front (Switching) Overvoltage
10 ms
- connecting load to network

- faults and re-closure
- disconnection of load current
250 s
Fast-Front (Lightning) Overvoltage
100 s
- lightning (induced, back surge, straight hit)
Very-Fast-Front Overvoltage
- arc interruption and restriking
2500 s
50 s
1.2 s
0.1 s
No standard yet
(equipment type specific)
OVERVOLTAGES
U [p.u.]
Lightning Surges
(Fast-Front Overvoltage)
Switching Surges
(Slow-Front Overvoltage)
4
3
Temporary Overvoltages
(Sustained Overvoltage)
t [s]
10-6
10-4
10-2
100
102
104
Temporary Overvoltages
a.k.a. Sustained Overvoltages
Earth Fault
Load Disconnection
Resonance
Open-Phase (Asymmetric) Connection
EARTH FAULT
Most common cause
for temporary
overvoltages
Overvoltage caused between
healthy phase and earth
Magnitude depends
on earthing type:
a.) Isolated neutral
b.) Resonant earthed
(Peterson coil)
c.) Direct earthing
(magnitude 1.8 p.u.)
a.
b.
Magnitude given as
earth fault
coefficient k
Ratio between normal
operation voltage U and
peak phase-earth voltage Up
Network is effectively
earthed when k 1.4
c.
6
LOAD DISCONNECTION
Zk
Zj
The network supplies voltage U1 to the beginning of the line

(network represented as short circuit impedance Zk and single phase emf)
U1
Yj1
network
Yj2
line
U [p.u.]
3
ZL
load
c2 (Sk = 10)
c2 (Sk = 50)
c2 (Sk = 500)
c1 (Sk = 5)
c1 (Sk = 10)
c1 (Sk = 50)
c1 (Sk = 500)
0
0
The line is represented by a -equivalent circuit

U2 is the voltage at the end of the line
500
s [km]
1000
Zk
ZL
Increase in voltage at
beginning of line:
c1
Increase in voltage at
end of line:
c2
c1
cosh s
Zw
r jl
g jc
c2 (Sk = 5)
U2
Sk
Zk
U2
r jl g jc
Zk
tanhs
Zw
Voltage increase greatest when load is inductive and the

grids short circuit power is small (Zk is large weak grid)
Difference between c1 and c2 is the Ferranti phenomenon:
Capacitive current increases no-load line voltage as it
approaches the open end of the line
RESONANCE
Oscillations of higher amplitude at certain frequency (determined by R, C,
and L components in the circuit)
Reactance X = opposition to alternating current (caused by the build up of electric or magnetic
fields in an element). Total reactance is the sum of capacitive and inductive reactance, X = XC + XL
X>0
X=0
X<0
Reactance is
inductive
Impedance is purely
resistive
(Z = R + jX)
Reactance is
capacitive
(opposes change in current)
(opposes change in voltage)
DC (low f): Capacitor is open circuit (charges balanced with applied voltage = no current)
AC:
Capacitor only accumulates a certain amount of charge before polarity changes and
charges dissipate. Increasing frequency (less charges) decreases opposition to current
As frequency increases, inductive reactance XL increases while capacitive reactance XC decreases
At a particular frequency these two reactances are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
X L Xc
1
C
1
2 LC
Different resonance states and nonlinear components can cause temporary overvoltages
FERRO-RESONANCE
Oscillations caused by series connection of capacitance and nonlinear
inductance
- causes temporary overvoltages concurrent with harmonic distortion
Voltage transformer connected to an unearthed

system
U
L
Resonant circuit formed by the earth

capacitance of the system and the
nonlinear inductance of the voltage
transformer connected between phase
and earth
UV
UC
Nonlinearity effect inductance decreases as current increases when saturation occurs

giving resonant conditions at basic frequency (or multiples). Resonance may cause the
voltages and currents to jump from one state to the other and current overloading of the
transformer may lead to thermal damage.
Operation should be where the difference in UL and UC is equal and in the same
direction to UV
P1: stable operation when dUL/dI > dU/dI. Circuit returns to P1 after short current surges (e.g. switching operations).
P2: if critical value dUL/dI = dU/dI is exceeded, the circuit shifts to P2. Stable operation not possible at P2. A small
increase in current above I2 results in a larger voltage UV than required to maintain increasing current. Thus,
current increases further.
saturation increases (inductance decreases) and current increases until it reaches a value where the circuit becomes
capacitive (current changes direction by 180 once P2 is exceeded). Operation shifts to P3.
P3: stable operation (although current and voltage is significantly higher than normal operation)
Jump-resonance transition from P1 to P3 is called jumping (FI: kippaus)

UV
UL
U P1 P2
UC
U = |UV UC|
|UC|
|UL|
Inductive (UL > UC)

XL(lin) > XC
UV = UL UC
Capacitive (UC > UL)

XL(sat) < XC
UV = UC UL
UL
U
UC
UV
UL - U C
I3
UL
I1
I2
UC
UV
P3
P1
P2
UV
P3
10
For continuous operation, jumping occurs during each half cycle:

1.
P2 P3 P1
P2 P3 P1
P2 P3 P1
UL
Induction law:
UC
UV
2 3.
Inductor is saturated and large current flows

in the circuit. As a consequence of the
current surge, the capacitor charge changes
from UC to +UC.
+Bsat
i
Bsat
2. 3.
4. 5.
Udt
A A
2.
3.
Flux density reaches +BS. Inductance

decreases. A rapid increase in current
follows.
1.
The capacitor has just become charged. Due

to the voltage difference between UV and
UC, voltage UL increases forming a voltagetime area (displayed in grey). As this area
becomes larger, the magnetic flux of the iron
core decreases.
The inductors voltage becomes negative.

Since there is no current flowing in the
circuit, the capacitors voltage UC is
constant.
The increasing
from + to .
4.
4 5.
5.
U,t-area changes the flux
Saturation limit is onec again achieved

Inductor is saturated during which currents
are large.
Process repeats itself from point 1.
11
ASYMMETRIC CONNECTION (OPEN PHASE)

Burnt
Fuse
Broken
Conductor
Switchgear
Malfunction
One or two
phases are
disconnected
Line capacitance and no-load impedance of a transformer may

produce resonance at harmonic frequencies, resulting in overvoltages
MV overvoltages not significant
LV insulation may fail and cause thermal damage
12
Slow-Front Overvoltages
a.k.a. Switching Overvoltages
Load Connection
Applied Voltage and Re-closure
Faults
Disconnection of Load Current
Previously called
Switching Overvoltage
Caused in most cases

by changes in the grid
Faults short circuit,
earth fault, load

disconnection,
asynchronous operation
Switching operation
opening or closing of circuit
Switching operations can cause

significant stress between switchgear
terminals (contact gap)
Magnitude and shape of overvoltage
depends on switchgear used for
current disruption and network
properties (L, C, load)
network configuration and instantaneous
value of voltage and current at the
moment when switchgear is opened or closed
14
a.
Busbar Short Circuit
b.
Line Fault
c.
Asynchronous network
d.
Disruption of Small Inductive Load
e.
Disruption of Capacitive Current
f.
Voltage Applied to No-Load Line
15
LOAD CONNECTION
Standard procedure in network (causes a slow-front overvoltage)
CONNECTING A CAPACITOR
Peak value of overvoltage depends on instantaneous voltage
at moment of switch closure
Maximum peak value is 2.0 p.u.
Angular frequency caused by connection is typically ~ 100 Hz
Asynchronous
closure
Earthing
technique
Resonance
Superpositioned
oscillations
over 2,0 p.u.
CONNECTING A MOTOR
Similar peak value as capacitor (2.0 p.u.)
Steeper overvoltage
Voltage stress concentrated at the beginning of the winding (not evenly distributed)
16
NO-LOAD LINE VOLTAGE APPLICATION

U
Applying voltage to a
no-load line is one of
the major causes for
overvoltages at high
operating voltages
(245 kV).
Applied voltage creates a
travelling wave which
doubles the voltage once it
reflects back from the end of
the line
2U
-U
3U
17
NO-LOAD LINE VOLTAGE APPLICATION

Voltage at end of line after closure:
Zk = 0
no trapped charge (disconnected from network for

some minutes)
1.
with trapped charge -1,0 p.u. (when re-closed,

trapped charge is seen as an opposite sign voltage)
2.
Ideal Zk = 0, no losses
s = 430 km
t = s/c 1.43 ms
u(t) = cos t
uR
Real Zk 0, losses included
22.
ur [p.u.]
1
1.
-1
-2
-3
0
t [ms]
12
16
20
18
FAULTS
Different network failures can cause
overvoltages (earth fault is most common)
The onset of a fault and its removal both cause transients
Tripping
action results
in overvoltage
Fault causes
voltage drop
Circuit breaker is
tripped (opened)
to remove voltage
drop
Network side voltage oscillates

and settles eventually at value
determined by the network
supply voltage
Typically, slow-front overvoltages related to faults do not exceed:

Onset of fault:
umax < 2k 1
Removal of fault:
umax = 2
k = earth fault coefficient
19
DISCONNECTION OF LOAD CURRENT

When a switch is opened, arcing may occur over the gap between terminals
Basic Situation:
Arc is permanently extinguished at zero current, followed by a
voltage transient. Voltage drop in the network caused by current
(arcing) oscillates and attenuates and voltage settles at the
continuous operation level.
It takes some time
for ionization in
the contact gap to
disappear and for
the switch to
regain its
insulating
properties
Immediately after arcing is

extinguished
(zero
current),
voltage over the contact gap is
formed by the supply network
and the load side potential
difference (recovery voltage ur)
i(t)
u(t)
uR
20
i(t)
u(t)
u, i [p.u.]
u, i [p.u.]
uload = 0, t > t1
i(t)
i(t)
t1
i(t)
usupply(t)
RECOVERY VOLTAGE
uload = 0, t > t1
t
usupply(t)
RECOVERY VOLTAGE
-1.0
t1
t
t1
-1.0
-1.0
RECOVERY
VOLTAGE
uload = -1, t > t1
Load Z = only RESISTANCE
Load Z = only INDUCTANCE
Load Z = only CAPACITANCE
jL
1/ jC
No phase difference between

supply voltage and load
current
If current is disrupted at first
zero point, load side voltage
remains at zero
Recovery voltage increases
along normal sinusoidal
fluctuation of supply voltage
1.0
i(t)
usupply(t)
ul
u, i [p.u.]
1.0
1.0
ur
90 phase shift between

voltage and current
90 phase shift between

current and voltage
When current is disrupted at

zero level, voltage is at peak
value (= onset recovery
voltage)
When current is disrupted at

zero level, charge equal to
voltage at moment of
disconnection remains in
capacitor (load)
The initial steepness of the

recovery voltage is large but
the peak value is still the
same as the supply voltage
Recovery voltage increases

from zero to twice the peak
value of the supply voltage
21
If the recovery
voltage exceeds
the voltage
withstand
strength of the
contact gap
Restrike
Magnitude of
overvoltage depends
on moment of
occurrence
Reignition
Restrike
Voltage at both
terminals have
same polarity
small overvoltage
Voltage at
terminals have
opposite polarity
large overvoltage
Most common cases of restriking occur when:
Disconnecting CAPACITIVE current

Disconnecting small INDUCTIVE current
22
Disconnecting
Capacitive
Current
Once arcing is extinguished, a trapped charge (value = peak voltage)

remains in the capacitor (a.)
If switch cannot regain insulating properties fast enough (recovery

voltage higher than withstand voltage), restriking occurs at peak of
supplied voltage (b.)
No-load line or cable

disconnection from grid
Restriking creates another transient which can provide an even

greater trapped charge to the capacitor
Disconnection of
storage capacitor
sin (t)
CS
uR
uc
L, C and Cs define oscillation frequency of transient. If

restriking continues repetitively at the peak value of the
supplied voltage, an extremely large overvoltage is created.
uc
a.
sin (t)
uc
uR
b.
sin (t)
uc
t
uR
uR
uc
i
t
23
LS
Disconnecting
Small Inductive
Current
Disconnecting transformer
no-load current
Disconnecting HV motor
starting current
Disconnecting reactor
current
u(t) = 2 U cos (t)
C1
uL
C2
L2
(small inductive current = cos < 0.5 and significantly

smaller than the breakers breaking capacity)
Disconnection may occur before current has reached zero level because the breakers
breaking capacity significantly exceeds the magnitude of the current to be interrupted.
Energy remains in the load inductance L2 and causes the LC circuit (formed by L2 and C2) to
oscillate.
Peak voltage at C2:
umax
L2 2
u i0
C2
2
0
24
Disconnecting Small Inductive Current:

Restriking occurs several
times until the withstand
strength of the contact
gap exceeds the recovery
voltage stress
Transient voltages increase

rapidly and restriking often
occurs considerably earlier
before voltage has reached
its maximum value
WITHOUT restriking
In this case, restriking

limits overvoltages
WITH restriking
uL
uL
i
i0
uL
i0
t0
u0
t0
u0
u1
u2
i0
u0
u1
u2
1.
=
=
=
=
=
current at moment of interruption (chopping current)

voltage at moment of interruption
peak value of oscillations with restriking
peak value of oscillations without restriking
increase in dielectric strength of contact gap
1.
25
Fast-Front Overvoltages
a.k.a. Lightning Overvoltages
Direct Strike to Conductor
Back Flashover
Induced Overvoltages
Previously called
Lightning Overvoltage
Typically caused by
lightning:
Direct strike to
conductor
Back flashover via
grounded components
Induced by nearby
stroke
Lightning is a very large leader

discharge starting from clouds or
ground
Requires strong up-flow of air mass and
high humidity of the rising air
Cold and warm air masses meet
Air heated by the sun rises up
Not all factors and mechanisms for

the formation of thunder clouds fully
understood
27
LIGHTNING
Lightning discharge begins where the charges increase the electric field above the
breakdown strength of air (~1 MV/m for air inside a water droplet)
the lightning flash can consist of numerous subsequent strokes traveling along the
same channel and also branching discharges which terminate in air
km
14
Direction of Motion
ICE
10
Particles (ice, snow) inside cloud

collide due to the strong up-flow
of air and become charged.
-48
-32
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+ +
Negative charges heavy particles

(snow/hail) accumulate at mid section
and lower area of cloud
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + +
Warm Air
0
WATER,
VAPOR
Cold Air
SNOW
+24
Positive charges small ice crystals at

the top of the cloud. Commonly also a
small area of positive charges are the
bottom
+ + + + + + + +
Potential difference inside the cloud can

reach ~GV
+ + + +
Induced Charges at Ground
28
Negative Lightning Discharge (cloud to ground)

1.) Leader
discharge
begins from cloud
towards ground
2.) Destination of
lightning stroke
determined ~ 100
- 150 m from
ground
1.
3.) Breakdown strength

of air is exceeded and a
leader channel starts
from the ground
towards the opposite
charged discharge
++++
+++++
++++
+
+ + + +
+
+
+
+
+
++++
5.
5 - 6.) Subsequent
strokes can form
from other
negatively charged
areas in the cloud
using the same
discharge channel
3.
2.
4.
4.) When the two discharges

meet, a main stroke (return
stroke) travels from ground
to cloud discharging the
negative charge area (where
the leader started) in the
cloud

++++++++
+ ++++
++++
+
+
++ +
+
+ +
+++ +++
6.

+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + +
29
High speed video (7,200 images per second) of a lightning strike to a tower in Rapid City, South Dakota. A downward propagating
stepped leader approaches the tower and an upward propagating positive leader moves up from the tower to make the connection.
30
Return Stroke
Negative Main Stroke

i [p.u.]
i [p.u.]
Milder
slope
Larger
current
Steeper
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
5%
0.6
5%
50%
0.6
0.8
0.8
95%
50%
1.0
1.0
95%
1.2
10
Smaller
current
1.2
10
t [s]
10
t [s]
31
Propagating overvoltage into both directions

along the conductor
Typically Zw
= 250 500
Overvoltage MV
Corona causes
losses which
attenuate and
flatten overvoltage
U [kV]
1
Z wi
2
0m
1600
620 m
1300 m
1
Z wi
2
2200 m
1200
800
400
t [s]
32
BACK FLASHOVER
Lightning strike to grounded line components (pole or lightning shield wire)
Reflections from neighbouring poles and the pole itself significantly alter the voltage waveform
Z1
Z1
T
u
u0
T = propagation time in pole

1 = propagation time to adjecent pole
ZT
ZT1 = 0
ZT2 = 0
Rf
(lightning impulse assumed as step)
2tT
If voltage u exceeds the voltage

withstand between the grounded
component and the live phase
conductor:
Flashover from
grounded
component to
phase
conductor
backward flashover
called back
flashover
Highest
probability when
lightning current
is high or poor
earthing
conditions (large
earth impedance)
10tT 2t1
20tT 4t1
Flashover occurs
between the
phase with the
largest opposite
voltage relative to
the lightning
overvoltage
33
INDUCED OVERVOLTAGE
Overvoltage induced by a lightning stroke in the vicinity
of a conductor or equipment
not traditional induction since current (lightning discharge
channel) is perpendicular to the conductor
Lightning current cause a rapidly changing

magnetic field into the lc loops of the line
inducing a voltage:
uind
h
kiZ0
d
i
k = propagation speed of discharge current (constant 1.2 1.3)
Z0 = 1/4 (0/0) = 30 (constant)
i = peak lightning current
h = height of conductor
d = distance of stroke from conductor
Induced voltages are typically smaller (200 300 kV)

and slower (front time c. 10 s)
d
h
34
High speed video of a positive ground flash recorded at 7,200 images per second near Red Shirt, South Dakota. Video
shows dim positive leader development and fast recoil leaders that retrace previously created positive leader channels.
Flash contains one return stroke.
35
High speed video (7,200 images per second) of a positive ground flash captured near Catus Flats, South Dakota on
6/17/07. The video shows two return strokes. Playback is 4 ms per second.
36
High speed video (7,200 images per second) of a negative ground flash captured on 7/21/07 near Rapid City, South
Dakota. Flash shows 6 return strokes. Second return stroke is preceded by a stepped-dart leader. Vehicle in lower right
of the image is traveling at 60 mph. Wiper comes into view at the end.
37
High speed video (7,200 images per second) of extensive negative leader development followed by a negative ground
flash. Captured north of Bear Butte, South Dakota on 6/1/08.
38
High speed video (7,200 images per second) of upward lightning from a tower in Rapid City, South Dakota. Video
captured on 6/16/08. Upward positive leaders visible with recoil leaders developing on the dimmer channels.
39
Very-Fast-Front Overvoltages
VERY-FAST-FRONT OVERVOLTAGES
a.k.a. Very Fast Transients (VFT): in practice restricted to transients with
frequency above 1 MHz
Typical for (HV)

disconnector operation
1500
1000
i [A]
500
0
500
t [s]
E.g. air insulated switching station:

Steep transients attenuate quickly
Only dangerous to equipment located close to the
disconnector (heats wiring, causes internal resonance)
Shape of VFT (IEC71-1): time-topeak < 0.1 s, total duration < 3

ms, superimposed oscillations with
f ranging 30 MHz 100 MHz.
41
42
INSULATION COORDINATION
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Protection levels:
1. Avoid direct impact of overvoltage by directing it towards designated
routes (lightning conductors, shield wires, and Faraday cages)
2. Ensure basic impulse level BIL (withstand level) is not exceeded
using HV protection elements:
Surge
Arrester
Spark
Gap
(FI: venttiilisuoja)
3. Extra protection for sensitive equipment
(LV filters for computers and
telecommunication)
44
Surge Arresters
Spark Gap with Non-linear Resistor

Magnetic Blow-out Arrester
Metal-Oxide Varistor
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Surge
Arrester
Decrease magnitude of
overvoltage in network
Traditionally located at substation

Protects only most important equipment transformers, GIS
used in areas (FIN) where lightning density is low (intensified protection not necessary)
Placed at all incoming lines to substation on line-side of feeder circuit breaker

all equipment has some level of protection
protection level decreases with distance between surge arrestor and protected device
Also located at poles

Decrease back flashover in areas of high lightning density and poor earthing
conditions (not economically feasible in Finland)
46
NONLINEAR RESISTANCE TYPE ARRESTER
Ideal
When voltage exceeds peak
operating voltage, the arrester
becomes conductive (weak
resistor)
allowing the surge
energy to be discharged
without increasing voltage over
the protected device.
Immediately
after
excess
energy is discharged, the
arrestor
regains
its
insulting state
Reality
Limited
capacity
energy
discharge
(only applicable to relatively

short duration overvoltages)
Discharge of overvoltage is not

immediate
Leakage current is present
even in insulating mode
47
NONLINEAR RESISTANCE TYPE ARRESTER

1. Nonlinear resistor,
2. Disc spark gap,
3. Active spark gap,
4. Blow-out coil, 5. Shunting resistor
1
1
4 5
2
3
5
3
4 5
1
1
Disk Spark Gap with

Nonlinear Resistor
Magnetic Blow-Out
Arrester
(silicone-carbide gap type)
(active gap surge arrestor, expulsion type)
Metal-Oxide Varistor
48
NONLINEAR RESISTOR TYPE WITH GAPS

Disk spark gap (2) in series with SiC resistor (1) encased in a porcelain shell
Dividing the spark gap into sections decreases breakdown voltage scatter and flattens
the steep transient resulting from flashover.
The nonlinear resistor limits the earth fault current so that arcing is extinguished by
itself:
high currents low resistance
low current high resistance

As voltage over the arrestor exceeds sparkover
(striking) voltage us, the spark gap is ignited.
u1
us
ip
u u
s
ur
ur
ip
u
ij
u1 = overvoltage peak (without arrestor)

u = normal operating voltage
ur = residual voltage
us = sparkover (striking) voltage
ij = follow-through current ip = surge current peak
Surge current ip grows to a value determined by the

overvoltage magnitude
Residual voltage ur (maximum voltage over arrestor
during operation) is determined by the discharge current
and nonlinear resistor magnitude
After the overvoltage has passed, the arrestor remains
conductive and follow-through current ij (fed by the
power frequency voltage) is present until the spark gap is
extinguished (voltage becomes zero)
49
MAGNETIC BLOW-OUT ARRESTER

parallel resistance
coil
metal electrode
spark gap formed when piling

elements (rings) together
ring
parallel resistance & coil
50
MAGNETIC BLOW-OUT ARRESTER

The high frequency surge current flows through the parallel
resistance [2] of the coils [3] and causes the spark gap [1] to ignite.
After this, normal operating frequency current passes
through the coils causing the magnetic field to blow the arc in
the spark gap further.
As a result, arcing voltage increases and hence, current through the
arrestor and voltage over nonlinear resistor [4] (residual voltage)
decreases.
When the overvoltage has been discharged through the arrestor,

power frequency voltage still feeds follow-through current.
Due to the nonlinearity of the resistor,
current decreases much faster than voltage and
arcing over the spark gap is extinguished
before voltage reaches zero.
Since extinction does not require zero level voltage,

this overvoltage protection works also for DC
51
METAL-OXIDE VARISTOR
ZnO + other metal oxides: single core of ZnO
covered by a metal oxide surface layer
Cylindrical mass element connected in series or

parallel inside porcelain/polymer shell
Resistive properties are so nonlinear that spark
gaps can be left out (e.g. R(normal operation) = 1.5 M,
R(discharge) = 15 )
No rapid voltage
changes
500
No breakdown
voltage scatter
E [V/mm]
200C
200
100
ZnO
150C
Area 1
Area 2
10-6
10-3
J [A/mm2]
Insignificant back
current
At small currents the resistance of the ZnO element decreases as

temperature increases (negative thermal coefficient).
Sufficient cooling needed to assure that the arrestor does not
become unstable (thermal run-away) and break.
Area 2: Tunnel effect more current penetrates through

surface layer into ZnO core.
SiC
60
30
10-9
Area 1: ZnO penetrating current decreases radically under

voltage threshold value (high resistivity). Poorly conductive
surface layer determines magnitude of current.
Nonlinearity of ZnO vs. SiC
25C
Area 3
100
10 2
Area 3: Tunnel effect throughout entire material.

Magnitude of current determined by core. Resistivity of
material is very small.
52
METAL-OXIDE VARISTOR
53
ARRESTOR SELECTION
The arrestor must be selected so that the margin between protection
level of arrestor and the devices withstand level is large enough.
U cw kcU rp
Safety
Margin
Protection level
Withstand level
Urp =
Ucw =
kc
=
representative overvoltage
voltage withstand level of device
protection factor
The protection level must be set high enough to avoid arrestor operation under normal
continuous operating voltage but also low enough to avoid overvoltages above the
withstand level
Margin exists only if arrestor is infinitely close to the protected apparatus

Otherwise, must consider:
Voltage increase in line caused by propagating overvoltage (superposition of traveling waves)
Voltage drop caused by surge current at earthing conductor and arrestor connection (coupling)
54
ARRESTOR PLACEMENT
Protected device (T) is at a distance D from the arrestor (A)
The front of the voltage pulse is linear
Inductance of earthing circuit assumed insignificantly small
u
Effective Protection Level:
up(eff)
u2
2u
2SD/v
tv
u1
up
(d1 + d2)l
i
t
distance
d1
A
d2
i 2 SD
u p eff u p u1 u2 u p d1 d 2 l
t
v
up
u1
u2
d1
d2
l
D
S
v
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
rated protection level of arrestor

inductive voltage loss at earth and joint coupling
voltage increase between arrestor and protected device
length of arrestor connection
length of arrestor earthing
inductance of joint and earthing conductor (~1 H/m)
distance between arrestor and protected device
steepness of linear impulse voltage
propagation speed of impulse voltage
55
ARRESTOR PLACEMENT
E.g. A 1500 kV/ s steep propagating wave is approaching a transformer along a 123 kV
line. The voltage withstand level of the transformer is 550 kV. The arrestor is located
10 m away from the transformer and has a protection level of 380 kV. Voltage drop
u1 caused by joint and earthing coupling (d1, d2) is assumed to be 20 kV.
u p eff u p u1 u2 u p d1 d 2 l
i 2 SD
t
v
2(1500 109 V/s )(10 m)

380 10 V 20 10 V
500000 V 500 kV
6
300 10 m/s
3
Distance and junction results in a 32% increase in

protection level
Safety margin reduced from 170 kV to 50 kV
Protection factor reduced to kc = Ucw/Urp = 550/500 = 1.1
Effective protection level less than withstand level of

transformer OK
If S = 2250 kV/s,
withstand level is
exceeded.
To protect against
steep impulses
bring arrestor closer
select arrestor with
lower protection level up
56
ARRESTOR PLACEMENT
a) Transformer Protection
b e) Cable Protection
Short cables (30 50m): Arrestors at end of cable (c)
Longer cables:
Risk of back flashover. Arrestors at both ends of cable or use lightning

shield wire and minimize earthing resistance. Important to ground
arrestor and cable sheath to same point (b)
f) Protection of
important line-side
measuring equipment
g) GIS, RMU
protection - arrestors
at all line outputs
57
GENERATORS AND MOTORS

500 600 m
a) Straight connection to overhead line:

Typically 500m distance between arrestors
with protective capacitor (reflections)
0.1F
d > 500 m
b) Connection to overhead line via cable:

Capacitor not needed when distance is over
500 m
Phase-earth and phasephase protection:

a) 6 separate arrestors
b) 4 arrestor group
a
58
Spark Gap
SPARK GAP
Simple device consisting of two electrodes
one connected to the conductor to be
protected and the other to ground.
Spark gaps form a weak point enabling overvoltages to flow to

earth instead of to the protected device.
Breakdown voltage can be adjusted
Surge arresters are more expensive and

require monitoring (arrester can fail)
d/2 d/2
Cheaper and simpler solution for protecting smaller

pole transformers is to use a spark gap
at most 240 kVA, 24 kV transformer (FIN)
transformer must withstand spark gap overvoltage and steep voltage transient
60
SPARK GAP
Voltage-Time Curve:
Voltage-Time Curve:
Double
gap
400
u
kV
Single
gap
400
u
kV
300
300
120 mm
90 mm
200
120 mm
100 mm
200
80 mm
80 mm
60 mm
60 mm
100
100
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
t / s
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
t / s
500 kV/s: Direct lightning stroke to conductor

1000 2000 kV/s: Back flashover (rare)
61
SPARK GAP
Inter-electrode distance d of spark gap:
Wet Test
100
80
U
kV 60
Large enough to avoid breakdown by temporary

overvoltages and small transients
double gap
40
Small enough to protect against fast-front

transient voltages (lightning)
single gap
99 % protection level (U50 + 2.3s)
20
Problems with spark gaps:
1 % ignition level (U50 2.3s)
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Gap operation causes an earth fault
140
160
d / mm
Dry Test
Short zero voltage period needed to remove fault

(requires fast reclosing system)
Polarity dependence
100
80 99 % protection level (U50 + 2.3s)
U
kV 60
Weather conditions
Temperature, humidity, and pressure affect ionization
Large operating voltage spread
40
Up to 40%, also dependent on overvoltage shape, i.e.

steepness
1 % ignition level (U50 2.3s)
20
Spark gap implementation:

10
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
d / mm
Reasonable number of atmospheric overvoltages

Short outages allowed
62
Next time:
MONDAY 3.11.2014, 12.30 16.00
Lecture 7
HV testing and measurements
Exercise 5
For voluntary bonus points, submit answers

BEFORE the beginning of the exercise session
Work on your seminar presentations!
64

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OVERVOLTAGES &

General + Safety + High Voltage Lab Tour

Electrostatic Fields + FEM

Liquid and Solid insulation

Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination

HV Testing & Measurements

Generation of High Voltages

Prysmian Cable Factory

Surge Arrestor Lab

EXAM (13 16, S5)

1 + FEM tasks + Seminar Tasks

Partial Discharge Lab

Temporary (Sustained) Overvoltage

Slow-Front (Switching) Overvoltage

- connecting load to network

Fast-Front (Lightning) Overvoltage

- lightning (induced, back surge, straight hit)

(magnitude 1.8 p.u.)

The network supplies voltage U1 to the beginning of the line

The line is represented by a -equivalent circuit

Voltage increase greatest when load is inductive and the

(opposes change in current)

(opposes change in voltage)

As frequency increases, inductive reactance XL increases while capacitive reactance XC decreases

Voltage transformer connected to an unearthed

Resonant circuit formed by the earth

Nonlinearity effect inductance decreases as current increases when saturation occurs

Jump-resonance transition from P1 to P3 is called jumping (FI: kippaus)

Inductive (UL > UC)

Capacitive (UC > UL)

For continuous operation, jumping occurs during each half cycle:

Inductor is saturated and large current flows

Flux density reaches +BS. Inductance

The capacitor has just become charged. Due

The inductors voltage becomes negative.

U,t-area changes the flux

Saturation limit is onec again achieved

Process repeats itself from point 1.

ASYMMETRIC CONNECTION (OPEN PHASE)

Line capacitance and no-load impedance of a transformer may

Caused in most cases

earth fault, load

Switching operations can cause

Busbar Short Circuit

Disruption of Small Inductive Load

Disruption of Capacitive Current

Voltage Applied to No-Load Line

NO-LOAD LINE VOLTAGE APPLICATION

NO-LOAD LINE VOLTAGE APPLICATION

no trapped charge (disconnected from network for

with trapped charge -1,0 p.u. (when re-closed,

Real Zk 0, losses included

Network side voltage oscillates

Typically, slow-front overvoltages related to faults do not exceed:

k = earth fault coefficient

DISCONNECTION OF LOAD CURRENT

Immediately after arcing is

DISCONNECTION OF LOAD CURRENT

uload = -1, t > t1

Load Z = only RESISTANCE

Load Z = only INDUCTANCE

Load Z = only CAPACITANCE