Thermal Kinetics

Transference Of Heat
SYLLABUS
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases; Calorimetry, latent heat; Heat conduction in one
dimension; Elementary concepts of convection and radiation; Newtons law of cooling; bulk
modulus of gases; Blackbody radiation: absorptive and emissive powers; Kirchhoffs law, Wiens
displacement law, Stefans law, Specific heat of a liquid using calorimeter (M and E)
1.
Thermal Expansion
When a body is heated, it expands in terms of length, area & volume and temperature rises. In a
solid, molecules can only have thermal agitation (random vibrations). As temperature of a body
increases, the vibrations of molecules will become fast and due to this the rate of collision among
neighbouring molecules increases, it develops a thermal stress in the body and due to this the
intermolecular separation increases which results in thermal expansion of body. At ordinary
temperatures, the atoms in a solid oscillate about their equilibrium position with amplitude of
approximately 1011 m. The average spacing between the atoms is about 1010 m. As the temperature
of solid increases, the atoms oscillate with greater amplitudes, as a result the average separation
between them increases. Consequently the object expands.
In the similar way the block diagram shown in Fig. explains the way how thermal expansion takes
place.
Themal vibration
energy of
molecules increases
Temperature of
Body Increases
Rate of collision
between neighbouring
molecules increases
Interatomic
separation
increases
Thermal
exp ansion
takes place
Thermal expansion of a substance can be classified in three broad categories, these are (i) Linear
Expansion (ii) Superficial Expansion and (iii) Cubical Expansion or Volume Expansion
(i) Linear Expansion: Consider a rod of length l1 at a temperature T1. Let it be a heated to a
temperature T2 and the increased length of the rod be l2 then
l2 l1 (1 t)
Coefficient of linear expansion and t T2 T1
Example 1. The density of substance at 0C is 10 g cm-3 and at 100C, its density is 9.7g
cm-3. The coefficient of linear expansion of substance is
d0 dt (1 3t)
Solution:
10 9.7(1 3 100)
1
0.3
10
1
or
0.0001/ C
9.7 300
9.7 300
or
(ii) Superficial Expansion (expansion in surface area): If A1 is the area of solid at T1 C and A2 is the
area at T2C . Then
A2 A1(1 t )
Coefficient of superficial (areal) expansion and t T2 T1
(iii) Volume expansion (Part A: expansion in solids): If V1 is the volume of solid at T1C and V1 is
the volume at T2 C then
V2 V1 1 t
coefficient of cubical (volume) expansion and t T2 T1
SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA
Page 207
Note: For isotopic solids:
2, 3
Relation between expansion coefficient are

6 3, 2
As temperature increases, density of solid decreases. If d1 is the density at T1C, d2 is the density at
T2C then
d1
d2 =
or d2 =d1 1- t
where t T2 T1
1+t
(iv) Expansion of gases (Part B: expansion in gases):
Pressure coefficient of a gas is the ratio of increase in pressure for 1C rise in temperature to the
pressure at 0C, provided the volume of the gas is kept constant.
p =
pt po
po t
Where p = pressure coefficient

Pt = pressure at tC
Po= pressure at 0C
Volume coefficient of a gas is similarly defined as (pressure being kept constant)
Vt Vo
v =
Vo t
Where v = volume coefficient
Vt = volume at tC
Vo= volume at 0C
Experiments have shown the value of p (or v) is the same for all gases and equal to 1/273 per degree
celsius, i.e.
1
1
p = v =
perC or
per K,
273
273
Where K stands for absolute of kelvin temperature.
Example 2. A grid iron pendulum consists of 5 iron rods and 4 brass rods. What will be
the length of each brass rod if the length of each iron rod is 1 m ? (Fe= 12 10-6/C,
brass = 20 10-6/C)
Solution:
There are 5 iron rods and 4 brass rods in the pendulum. The number of iron
in one half of the pendulum including the central rod is 3. The number of brass rods
is 2.
Since the pendulum is compensated,
lbrass liron
or
2l2 2 t 3l11t or l2
3l11
2 2
3 1 12 10 6
m 0.9m
2 20 10 6
Page 208
2.
ERROR in measurament DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION
2.1
HEATING A METALLIC SCALE
A metallic scale (linear) expands in length when heated. As a result

all the markings are displaced from their usual (correct) positions.
A reading of l unit on a heated scale is equivalent to an actual
length of l 1 t , where is coefficient of linear expansion of
material of scale, and t is the temperature of the heated scale.
If the reading is x, actual length x(1 t)
actual length reading (1 t)
3
Scale
3
Heated
scale
2.2
DIFFERENCE OF LENGTHS OF TWO RODS

Consider two rods 1 and 2 of lengths l1 and l2. Let they be heated through a temperature t . If l1 and
l2 are their expanded lengths, then:
l2 l2 1 2 t where 2 is coefficient of linear expansion of rod 2
l1 l1 1 1t where 1 is coefficient of linear expansion of rod 1
Since the difference of length of two rods is constant
l '2 l '1 l 2 l1
l11 l 2 2
Example3.
Two rods of length l1 and l2 are made of materials whose coefficients of
linear expansion are 1 and 2 respectively. If the difference between the two
lengths is independent of temperature, then relation between length and linear
expansion coefficients.
l1 l11t
Solution:
l2 l2 2 t
l1 l2 0
l11t l2 2 t or
l1 1
l2 2
2.3
TIME PERIOD OF PENDULUM

Time period (T) of a sample pendulum of length l is given by
l
T 2
g
If there is a rise in temperature by t, length of the pendulum increases and hence the time period
increase. As a result the clock slows down.
If l0 be the length of the pendulum and corresponding time period be T0 then
l
T0 2 0
g
If the pendulum be heated by t (rise in temperature), the new time period T1 is:
Page 209
T1 2
T1
T0
l1
g
l1
l0
l0 1 t
ln
T1
1
1 t 1 t
as is very small
T0
2
T1 T0 1
T 1
t
t
T0
2
T0
2
The above relation gives the time lost per second by the pendulum clock. If t is the fall in
temperature, same equation will give the time gained by the clock per second as its oscillation will
become faster due to reduction in its length.
Example 4:
A clock with a metallic pendulum is 5 second fast each day at a temperature of

15 o C and 10 seconds slow each day at a temperature of 30 o C . Find
coefficient of linear expansion for the metal.
Solution:
Time lost or gained per second by a pendulum clock is

given by
1
t T
( Here T is difference of temperature)
2
Here temperature is higher then graduation temperature thus clock will loose
time and if it is lower then graduation temperature will gain time.
1
t T 86400
[as 1 day 86400 sec.]
2
If graduation temperature of clock is T0 then we have.
At 15C, clock is gaining time, thus
1
5 = T0 15 86400
(1)
5
At 30C clock is loosing time, thus
1
10 = 30 T0 86400
(2)
5
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we get
2(T0 15) = (30 T0)
or
T0 = 20C
Thus from equation (1)
1
5 = 20 15 86400
2
2.31 10 5oC
2.4 STRESS IN OBJECTS DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION
If crosssectional area of wire is A and F be the tension developed in wire due to stretching. Thus the
stress developed in the wire due to this tension F is given as
Force
Strees =
= F/A
..(1)
Area
Strain produced in wire due to its elastic properties is
L
T ..(2)
Strees =
L
Page 210
If youngs modulus of the material of wire is Y, we have
strees
Y
strain
F/A
Y
or
T
F YA T ..(3)
or
Equation - (3) gives the expression for tension in the wire due to decrease in its temperature by T.
This result gives the tension in wire if initially wire is just taught between clamps. If it already has
some tension in it then this expression will give the increment in tension in the wire.
Example 5. A uniform metal rod of 2 m m2 cross-section is heated from 0C to 20C.
The coefficient of liner expansion of the rod is 12 10-6 per C, Y=1011 N/m2. The
energy stored per unit volume of the rod is
solution:
Energy per unit volume
1
1
1
stress strain (Yt)(t) Y 2t 2
2
2
2
11
12
10 144 10 400
J m3
2
288 10 J m3 2880 J m3
3.
SPECIFIC HEAT
When heat energy flows into a substance, the temperature of the substance usually rises.
The heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a body through 1 oC or ( 1 oK ) is called
specific heat capacity or simply specific heat of the material of the body. If Q heat changes the
temperature of mass m by T.
1 Q
c
(1)
m T
The SI unit of specific heat is J/kg K. Heat is so frequently measured in calories, therefore the
practical unit cal/g C is also used quite often. The specific heat capacity of water is approximately 1
cal/g C.
From Eq. (1), we can define the specific heat of a substance as the amount of energy needed to raise
the temperature of unit mass of that substance by 1C (or 1 K). A closely related quantity is the
Molar heat capacity C. It is defined as,
1 dQ
C
(2)
n dT
where n is the number of moles of the substance. If M is the molecular mass of the substance, then n
m
=
were m is the mass of the substance and,
M
M dQ
C=
(3)
m dT
The SI units of C is J / mole K.
Key points:
(a)
It depends on nature of material of body. Dulong and petit has found formula for elemental
solids that (with few exceptions such as carbon)
Page 211
Atomic weight Specific heat 6 cal / C
So, heavier the element lesser will be the specific heat, i.e., CHg < CCu< CAl
o
Specific heat of a substance also depends on temperature (particularly at low temperatures)

the variation of specific heat with temperature for wateris shown in Fig (A) for metals in Fig
(B). This temperature dependence of specific heat is usually neglected.
1.008
1.004
4
Molar Sp. heat
Sp. heat cal / gm C
(b)
1.000
0.996
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. (A) Water
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
300
200
Temp. in K
400
500
Fig. (B) Metals
Specific heat also depends on the state of substance, i.e., solid, liquid or gas. e.g., specific heat of
solid copper will be different from that of liquid copper. In case of water
Specific heat of
Ice (solid)
Water (liquid)
Steam (gas)
(d)
0
100
Temp. in C
(c)
c T3
2
In cal/g C
0.5
1
0.47
In SI units, i.e., J/kg K

2100
4200
1970
If a substance is undergoing change of state which takes place at constant temperature (called
isothermal change) , specific heat
1 dQ
1 dQ
c

[as T = 0]
m dT
m
0
i.e., specific heat of a substance at its melting pint or boiling point or isothermal change is
infinite.
Specific heat is found to be maximum for hydrogen (3.5 cal/gm C) then for water (1
cal/gm C = 4200 J/kg K). For all other substances specific heat is lesser than 1 cal/gm C
and is minimum for radon and actinium (= 0.22 cal/gam C)
If the temperature of a body changes without transfer of heat with the surroundings (adiabatic
change) as in shaking a liquid or compressing a gas,
Q
0
c=
=0
[as Q = 0]
mT mT
i.e., specific heat of a substance, when it undergoes adiabatic change, is zero.
Specific heat of a substance can also be negative. Negative specific heat means that in order
to raise the temperature, a certain quantity of heat is to be withdrawn from the body. Specific
heat of saturated water vapours is negative.
When specific heats are measured, the values obtained are also found to depend on the
conditions of the experiment. In general measurements made at constant pressure are
different from those at constant volume. For solids and liquids this difference is very small
and usually neglected. The specific heat of gases are quite different under constant pressure
condition (cp) to constant volume condition (cv).
As by definition c = (Q/m T), heat required to change the temperature of m gm of a
substance through T:
Page 212
Q = mc T
and as T = (Q/mc), greater the specific heat of a substance lesser will be the change in
temperature for a given mass when same amount of heat is supplied. Now as specific heat of
water is very large (1 cal/g C), by absorbing or releasing large amount of heat its
temperature changes by small amounts. This is why, it is used in hot water bottles or as
coolant in radiators. This is also how the sea moderates the climate of nearby coastal land.
WATER EQUIVALENT
4.
Waterequivalent of a body is the mass of water which when given same amount of heat as to the
body, changes the temperature of water through same range as that of the body, i.e.,
W = (m c) gm
The unit of water equivalent W is gm while its dimensions [M]. Units and dimensions of some
physicalquantities used in heat are given below in a tabular form.
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
Physical quantity
Heat
Specificheat
Molar sp. heat
Symbol
Dimensions
2
Q
c
C
[ML T ]
[L2T21]
[ML2T2
Units
SI
Joule
J/kg K
J/mol K
CGS
calorie
cal/gm C
cal/mol C
J/kg
J/K
kg
cal/gm
cal/C
gm
1 1
4.
5.
6.
5.
Latent heat
Thermal capacity
Waterequivalent
L
Tc
W
[L2T2]
[ML2T21]
[M]
PHASE CHANGES AND LATENT HEAT
Suppose that we slowly heat a cube of ice whose temperature is below 0C at atmospheric pressure,
what changes do we observe in the ice? Initially we find that its temperature increases according to
equation Q = mc(T2 T1). Once 0C is reached, the additional heat does not increase the temperature
of the ice. Instead, the ice melts and temperature remains at 0C. The temperature of the water then
starts to rise and eventually reaches 100C, whereupon the water vaporizes into steam at this same
temperature.
During phase transitions (solid to liquid or liquid to gas) the added heat causes a change in the
positions of the molecules relative to one another, without affecting the temperature.
The heat necessary to change a unit mass of a substance from one phase to another is called the latent
heat (L). Thus, the amount of heat required for melting and vaporizing a substance of mass m are
given by,
Q = mL
(1)
For a solid-liquid transition, the latent heat is known as the latent heat of fusion (Lf) and for the
liquid-gas transition, it is known as the latent heat of vaporization (Lv).
6.
PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY
When two bodies (one being solid and other liquid or both being liquid) at different temperatures are
mixed, heat will be transferred from body at higher temperature to body at lower temperature till
both acquire same temperature. The body at higher temperature releases heat while body at lower
temperature absorbs it, so that:
Page 213
Heat lost = Heat gained,
i.e. principle of calorimetry represents the law of conservation of heat energy.
While, using this principle always keep in mind that:
(a)
Temperature of mixture (T) is always lower temperature (TL) and higher temperature (TH),
i.e.,
TL T TH
i.e. the temperature of mixture can never be lesser than lower temperatures (as a body cannot
be cooled below the temperature of cooling body) and greater than higher temperature (as a
body cannot be heated above the temperature of heating body when there is no chemical
reaction).
(b)
When temperature of a body changes, the body releases heat if its temperature falls and
absorbs heat when its temperature rises. The heat released or absorbed by a body of mass m is
given by:
Q = mc T
Where c is specific heat of the body and T change in its temperature in C or K.
(c)
When state of a body changes, change of state takes place at constant temperature [m.pt. or
b.pt.] and heat released or absorbed is given by
Q = mL
Where L is latent heat. Heat is absorbed if solid converts into liquid (at m.pt.) or liquid
converts into vapours (at b.pt.) and is released if liquid converts into solid or vapours
converts into liquid.
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat can be transferred from one place to the other by any of three possible ways:
conduction, convection and radiation. In the conduction, convection processes, a medium is
necessary for the heat transfer. Radiation, however, does no have this restriction. This is
also the fastest mode of heat transfer, in which heat is transferred from one place to the
other in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
(i)
Conduction
Figure shows a rod whose ends are in thermal contact with a hot reservoir at temperature T1
and a cold reservoir at temperature T2. The sides of the rod are covered with insulating
medium, so the transport of heat is along the rod, not through
T1 T2
the sides. The molecules at the hot reservoir have greater
vibrational energy. This energy is transferred by collisions to
T1
Q
the atoms at the end face of the rod. These atoms in turn (Hot )
transfer of heat through a substance in which heat is transported
without direct mass transport is called conduction.
T2
(Cold)
Most metals use another, more effective mechanism to conduct heat. The free electrons,
which move throughout the metal can rapidly carry energy from the hotter to cooler
regions, so metals are generally good conductors of heat. The presence of free electrons
also causes most metals to be good electrical conductors. A metal rod at 5C feels colder
than a piece of wood at 5C because heat can flow more easily from your hand into the
metal.
Page 214
Heat transfer occurs only between regions that are at different temperature, and the rate of heat flow
dQ
is
. This rate is also called the heat current, denoted by H. Experiments show that the heat
dt
dT
current is proportional to the cross-section area A of the rod and to the temperature gradient
,
dx
which is the rate of change of temperature with distance along the bar. In general
dQ
dT
kA
H=
(1)
dt
dx
dQ
dT
The negative sign is used to make
a positive quantity since
is negative. The constant k,
dt
dx
called the thermal conductivity is measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat.
A substance with a large thermal conductivity k is a good heat conductor. The value of k
depends on the temperature, increasing slightly with increasing temperature, but k can be
taken to be practically constant throughout a substance if the temperature difference
between its ends is not too great.
Let us apply Eq. (1) to a rod of length L and constant cross sectional area A in which a steady state
has been reached. In a steady state the temperature at each point is constant in time. Hence,
dT
T1 T2
dx
Therefore, the heat Q transferred in time t is
T T
Q kA 1 2 t (2)
L
Thermal Resistance (R)

Eq. (2) in differential form can be written as
dQ
T T
H
(3)
dt
l / kA R
Here, T = temperature difference (T.D) and
l
R
= thermal resistance of the rod.
kA
(ii)
Convection
Although conduction does occur in liquids and gases also, heat is transported in these media
mostly by convection. In this process, the actual motion of the material is responsible for
the heat transfer. Familiar examples include hot-air and hot-water home heating systems,
the cooling system of an automobile engine and the flow of blood in the body.
You probably have warmed your hands by holding them over an open flame. In this
situation, the air directly above the flame is heated and expands. As a result, the density of
this air decreases and then air rises. When the movement results from differences in density,
as with air around free, it is referred to as natural convection. Air flow at a beach is an
example of natural convection. When the heated substance is forced to move by a fan or
pump, the process in called forced convection. If it were not for convection currents, it
would be very difficult to boil water. As water is heated in a kettle, the heated water
expands and rises to the top because its density is lowered. As the same time, the denser,
cool water at the surface sinks to the bottom of the kettle and is heated. Heating a room by a
radiator is an example of forced convection.
Page 215
Ingen Hausz Experiment:
Ingen Hausz provided a method to compare the thermal conductivities of different
materials. He took wax coated rods of different materials but of the same area. One end of
the rods is kept in a hot water bath and the other end is kept at the temperature of
surroundings. If 1, 2, 3 . . . represent the lengths upto which the wax has melted and K 1,
K2, K3 . . . are their thermal conductivities, then
K1 K 2
2 = . . . = constant
21
2
or
K 1 21
K 2 22
Example-6. A wall is made of two equally thick layers A and B of different materials.
The thermal conductivity of A is twice that of B. In the steady state, the temperature
difference across the wall is 36C. The temperature difference across the layer A
will be
K cons tan t
Solution:
A
K
1
B 2K 2
1
A
36 12C
2 1
(iii)
Radiation
The third means of energy transfer is radiation which does not require a medium. The best
known example of this process is the radiation from sun. All objects radiate energy
1
2
continuously in the form of electromagnetic waves. Energy 0E The rate at which
2
an object radiates energy is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
This is known as the Stefans law and is expressed in equation form as
P = AeT4
Here P is the power in watts (J/s) radiated by the object, A is the surface area in m2, e is a
fraction between 0 and 1 called the emissivity of the object and is a universal constant
called Stefans constant, which has the value
= 5.67 108 W/m2-K4
BLACK BODY RADIATION
(i)
Perfectly black body
Page 216
A BODY THAT ABSORBS ALL THE
RADIATION INCIDENT UPON IT AND
HAS AN EMISSIVITY EQUAL TO 1 IS
CALLED A PERFECTLY BLACK BODY.
A BLACK BODY IS ALSO AN IDEAL
RADIATOR. IT IMPLIES THAT IF A
BLACK BODY AND AN IDENTICAL
ANOTHER BODY ARE KEPT AT THE
SAME TEMPERATURE, THEN THE
BLACK
BODY
WILL
RADIATE
MAXIMUM POWER AS IS OBVIOUS
FROM EQUATION P = EA T4 ALSO.
BECAUSE E = 1 FOR A PERFECTLY
BLACK BODY WHILE FOR ANY
OTHER BODY E < 1.
MATERIALS LIKE BLACK VELVET OR
LAMP BLACK COME CLOSE TO
BEING IDEAL BLACK BODIES, BUT
THE BEST PRACTICAL REALIZATION
OF AN IDEAL BLACK BODY IS A
SMALL HOLE LEADING INTO A
CAVITY, AS THIS
ABSORBS 98% OF THE RADIATION
INCIDENT ON THEM.
(ii)
Absorptive power a
It is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a given time to the total
radiant energy incident on it in the same interval of time.
energy absorbed
a
energy incident
As a perfectly black body absorbs all radiations incident on it, the absorptive power of a
perfectly black body is maximum and unity.
(iii)
Spectral absorptive power a
The absorptive power a refers to radiations of all wavelengths (or the total energy) while
the spectral absorptive power is the ratio of radiant energy absorbed by a surface to the
radiant energy incident on it for a particular wavelength . It may have different values for
different wavelengths for a given surface. Let us take an example, suppose a = 0.6, a = 0.4
for 1000 and a = 0.7 for 2000 for a given surface. Then it means that this surface will
absorbs only 60% of the total radiant energy incident on it. Similarly it absorbs 40% of the
energy incident on it corresponding to 1000 and 70% corresponding to 2000 . The
spectral absorptive power a is related to absorptive power a through the relation
a a d
0
(iv)
Emissive power e
(Dont confuse it with the emissivity e which is different from it, although both have the
same symbols e).
Page 217
For a given surface it is defined as the radiant energy emitted per second per unit area of
the surface. It has the units of W/m2 or J/sm2. For a black body e=T4.
(v)
Spectral emissive power e
It is emissive power for a particular wavelength . Thus,
e e d
0
Kirchhoffs law: According to this law the ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is
same for all surfaces at the same temperature.
T
Fig.
e1
e e
2
a1
a2 a
but
(a)black body = 1
and
(e)black body = E (say)
e

cons tan t E
Then,
a
for any surface
Similarly for a particular wavelength ,
e
E

a for any body
Hence,
Here
E = emissive power of black body at temperature T

= T4
From the above expression, we can see that
e a
i.e., good absorbers for a particular wavelength are also good emitters of the same
wavelength.
COOLING BY RADIATION
Consider a hot body at temperature T placed in an environment at a lower temperature T0.
The body emits more radiation than it absorbs and cools down while the surrounding
absorb radiation from the body and warm up. The body is losing energy by emitting
radiations at a rate.
P1 = eAT4
and is receiving energy by absorbing radiations at a rate
P2 = aAT04
Here a is a pure number between 0 and 1 indicating the relative ability of the surface to
absorb radiation from its surroundings. Note that this a is different from the absorptive
power a. In thermal equilibrium, both the body and the surrounding have the same
temperature (say Tc) and,
P1 = P2
or
eATc4 = aATc4
Page 218
or
e=a
Thus, when T > T0, the net rate of heat from the body to the surroundings is,
dQ
eA (T4 T04)
dt
dT
mc eA (T4 T04)
or
dt
Rate of cooling
eA 4
dT
4
dt mc (T T0 )
dT
or
(T4 T04)
dt
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING
According to this law, if the temperature T of the body is not very different from that of the
dT
surroundings T0, then rate of cooling
is proportional to the temperature difference
dt
between them. T0 prove it let us assume that
T = T0 + T
So that
T
T = (T0 + T) = T 1
T0
4
0
4T
T04 1
(from binomial expansion)
T0
4
3
(T4 T0 ) = 4 T0 (T)
4
or
(T4 T0 ) T
(as T0 = constant)
Now, we have already shown that rate of cooling
dT
4
4
dt (T T0 )
and here we have shown that

(T 4 T04 ) T ,
if the temperature difference is small.
Thus, rate of cooling
d
dT

dt T or
dt
as
dT = d or T =
Variation of temperature of a body according to Newtons law
Suppose a body has a temperature i at time t = 0. It is placed in an
atmosphere whose temperature is 0. We are interested in finding the
temperature of the body at time t, assuming Newtons law of cooling
to hold good or by assuming that the temperature difference is small.
As per this law,
rate of cooling temperature difference
d eA
3
or
dt mc (40 ) 0
0 cons tan t
0 cons tan t
t0
tt
Page 219
d
dt 0
4eA30
Here =
is a constant
mc
t
d
i 0 0 dt
or
0 i 0 e t
FROM THIS EXPRESSION WE SEE THAT = I

AT T = 0 AND = 0 AT T = , I.E.
TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY VARIES
EXPONENTIALLY WITH TIME FROM I TO 0
(< I). THE TEMPERATURE VERSUS TIME
GRAPH IS AS SHOWN IN FIG.
NOTE:
IF THE BODY COOLS BY
RADIATION FROM 1 TO 2 IN TIME T, THEN
TAKING THE APPROXIMATION
1 2
d

and = av = 1 2
dt t
2
d
The equation 0 becomes
dt
1 2

1 2 0
t
2
This form of the low helps in solving numerical problems related to Newtons law of
cooling.
WEINS DISPLACEMENT LAW

At ordinary temperatures (below about 600C) the thermal radiation emitted by a body is
not visible, most of it is concentrated in wavelengths much longer than those of visible
light.
Figure shows how the energy of a black body radiation varies with temperature and
wavelength. As the temperature of the black body increases, two distinct behaviours are
observed. The first effect is that the peak of the distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths.
This shift if found to obey the following relationship called Weins displacement law
Page 220
maxT = b
Here b is a constant called Weins
constant. The value of this constant in SI
unit is 2.898 103 mK. Thus,
1
max
T
Here max is the wavelength corresponding
to the maximum spectral emissive power
e.
The second effect is that the total amount
of energy the black body emits per unit
area per unit time (= T4) increases with
fourth power of absolute temperature T.
This is also known as the emissive power.
We know
e =
graph
4000 K
3000 K
2000 K
Wavelength ( m)
e d = Area under e
= T4
Area T4
or
A1
T
m
A2
2T
m
2
A2 = (2)4A1 = 16A1
Thus, if the temperature of the black body is made two fold, max remains half while the
area becomes 16 times.
Example-7. Estimate the surface temperature of sun. Given for solar radiations,
m = 4753 A
Solution:
From Wiens displacement law
mT = b
T=
b
( 2.89 10 3 m k )
= 6097K.
m
( 4753 10 10 m)
Example-8. Experimental investigations show that the intensity of the solar radiation
is maximum for wavelength m 4753 A o in the visible region. Estimate the
surface temperature of the sun. Assume the sun to be a black body. Wiens
constant (b) = 2.892 10 3 mk .
Solution :
Wiens law states that
m T = constant = b
T
b
2.892 10 3 mk
m
4753 10 3 m
Page 221
Example-9:
Solution:
= 6060 K
A body cools from 62C to 50C in 10 minutes and to 42C in the next 10
minutes. Find the temperature of surroundings.
For the first ten minutes,
62o 50 o
dT
= 1.2C/min and

dt
10
62
50
T0 (56 T0 )o C
T =
10
1.2C/min = KA (56T0)C
Similarly for the next ten minutes
dT 42o 50o
dt
10
(1)
= 0.8 C/min and
42 50
T0 ( 46 T0 )o C
2
T =
0.8C/min = KA (46To)C
Dividing (1) by (2)
3 56 T0
2 46 T0
T0 = 26C.
(2)
measurment OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY & error analysis

As shown in the figure Regnaults apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of a
solid heavier than water, and insoluble in it. A wooden partitions P separates a steam
chamber O and A calorimeter C. The steam chamber O is a double walled cylindrical
vessel. Steam can be passed in the space between the two walls through an inlet A and it
can escape out through an outlet B. The upper part of the vessel is closed by a cork. The
given solid may be suspended the vessel is closed by a cork. The given solid may be
suspended in the vessel by a thread passing through the cork. A thermometer T 1 is also
inserted into the vessel to record the temperature of the solid. The stem chamber is kept on
a wooden platform with a removable wooden disc D closing the bottom hole of the
chamber. To start with, the experimental solid (in
the form of a ball or a block) is weighed and then
T
P
suspended in the steam chamber. Steam is
A
prepared by boiling water in a separate boiler and
B
is passed through the steam chamber. A calorimeter
O Steam
with a stirrer is weighed and sufficient amount of
water is kept in it so that the solid may be C
D
completely immersed in it. The calorimeter is again
weighed with water to get the mass of the water.
The initial temperature of the water is noted.
When the temperature of the solid becomes
constant (say for 15 minutes), the partition P is
removed. The calorimeter is taken below the steam chamber, the wooden disc D is removed
and the thread is cut to drop the solid in the calorimeter. The calorimeter is taken to its
original place and is stirred. The maximum temperature of the mixture is noted.
Calculation:
Let the mass of the solid
=m1
Page 222
mass of the calorimeter and the stirrer
=m2
mass of the water
=m3
specific heat capacity of the solid
=s1
specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter(and stirrer) =s2
specific heat capacity of water
=s3
initial temperature of the solid
=1
initial temperature of the calorimeter, stirrer and water
=2
final temperature of the mixture
=
We have
heat lost by the solid
=m1s1(1-)
heat gained by the calorimeter (and the stirrer)
=m2s2(-2)
Assuming no loss of heat to the surrounding the heat lost by the solid goes into the
calorimeter stirrer and water. Thus
m1s1(1 ) = m2s2 (2)+ m2s3( 2)
(1)
(m2 s2 m3 s3 )( 2 )
or
s1 =
m1(1 )
Knowing the specific heat capacity of water (s3 = 4186 J/kg-K) and that of the material of the
calorimeter and the stirrer (s2=389 J/kg-K if the material be copper), one can calculate
s1.Specific heat capacity of a liquid can also be measured with the Regnault apparatus. Here a
solid of known specific heat capacity s1 is used and the experimental liquid is taken in the
calorimeter in place of water. The solid should be denser than the liquid. Using the same
procedure and with the same symbols we get an equation identical to equation (1) above, that is,
m1s1(1 ) = m2s2 (2) + m3s3( 2)
in which s3 is the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
We get
m1s1 (1 )m2s2
S3 =
m3 ( 2 )m3
Error analysis
After correcting for systematic errors, equation (1) is used to estimate the remaining errors.
OBJECTIVE
1.
A piece of metal floats on mercury. The coefficients of volume expansion

of the metal and mercury are 1 and 2 respectively. If their temperature is
increased by T, the fraction of the volume of metal submerged in
mercury changes by a
1 2 T
1 2 T
(A)
(B)
1 1T
1 1T
1 2 T
2
(D)
1
1 1T
Solution:
The correct choice is (A). It follows from the fact that the volumes of metal
and mercury increase to V0 (1 + 1 T) and (1+ 2 T) respectively; Vo being the
initial volume.
(C)
2.
The coefficient of expansion of a crystal in one direction (xaxis) is 2.0

106 K1 and that in the other two perpendicular (yand zaxes) direction
Page 223
K . What is the coefficient of cubical expansion of the
is 1.6 10
crystal?
(A)
1.6 106 K1
(B)
1.8 106 K1
(C)
2.0 106 K1
(D)
5.2 106 K1
Solution:
(D)
Coefficient of cubical expansion is
= x + y + z = x + 2 y
(Q y = z)
6
= 2.0 10
+ 2 1.6 106
= 5.2 106 K1
Hence the correct choice is (D).
6
3.
uniform metal rod of length L and mass M is rotating with angular speed
about an axis passing through one of the ends and perpendicular to the
rod. If the temperature increases by t C, then the change in its angular
speed is proportional to
(A)
(B)
1
2
(C)
(D)
Solution:
(B) At tC, the length of the rod becomes L= L (1 + t), where is the
coefficient of linear expansion. From the law of conservation of angular momentum, we
have
I = I
1
1
or
ML2 = ML2
3
3
2
' L
1
or
=
L '
(1 t)2
Now, for a given value of t, (1+ at)2 is constant, say k.
'
Q
=k
'
k 1
or
or
= (k 1)
i.e. ( ) . Hence the correct choice is (B).
4.
Solution:
o cylindrical rods or lengths l1 and l2, radii r1 and r2 have thermal

conductivities k1 and k2 respectively. The ends of the rods are maintained
at the same temperature difference. If l1 = 2l2 and r1 = r2/2, the rates of
heat flow in them will be the same if k1/k2 is:
(A)
1
(B)
2
(C)
4
(D)
8
(D) The rate of heat flow in rods A and B are
Q1 k1r12
Q2 k 2 r22
and
t
l1
t
l2
Q1 = Q2, if
k1r12 k 2r22
k1 l1 r22

or
= 2 (2)2 = 8
l1
l2
k 2 l2 r12
Page 224
Hence the correct choice is (D).
5:
The temperature of the two outer surfaces of a composite
x
4x
slab, consisting of two materials having coefficients of thermal
conductivity K and 2K and thickness x and 4x, respectively, are T 2
and T1 (T2 > T1). The rate of heat transfer through the slab, in a T
2K
2
K
A(T2 T1 )K
steady state is
f, with f equal to (see Fig.)
x
(A)
1
(B)
1/2
(C)
2/3
(D)
1/3
Solution:
(C)
Let A be the area of each slab. In the steady state, the rate of heat flow through the
composite slab is given by
A T2 T1
T2 T1
Q
l1
l
l1
l
(1)
t
2
2
K1A K 2 A
K1 K 2
Given l1 = x, l2 = 4x, K1 = K and K2 = 4K. Using these values in (1) we get
Q A T2 T1 A T2 T1 K
2
x 4x
t
x
3
K 2K
2
Comparing this with the given rate of heat transfer, we get f = . Hence the correct
3
choice is (C).
6.
Solution:
T1
Three identical rods A,B and C of equal lengths and equal diameters are
joined is series as shown in following fig. Their thermal conductivities are
2K,K and K/2 respectively. Calculate the temperature at two junction
points.
T1
T2
100C A
C 0C
B
0.5K
2K
(A)
85.7, 57.1 C
(B)
80.85, 50.3 C
(C)
77.33, 48.3 C
(D)
75.8,49.3 C
(A)
ith 1 = ith 2 = ith 3
(100 T1 )2KA (T1 T2 )KA (T2 0)KA
l
l
2l
T
3T2
(100 T1) = (T1 T2) = 2
T1 =
2
2
T
(100 T1) = 1
3
600
2T 2 85.7
r
T1 =
= 85.7C and T2 = 1
= 57.1C
7
3
3
Page 225
7:
Solution:
Three rods made of the same material ane having the same
90C
cross-section have been joined as shown in. Each rod is of the
same length. The left and right ends are kept at 0 C and 90 C 0C
respectively. The temperature of the junction of the three rods
(A)
45 C
(B)
60 C
90C
(C)
30 C
(D)
20 C
I=I1+I2
90C
kA(90 T) (90 t)kA (t 0)kA
I
I
l
l
l
0
TC
3T = 180C or T = 60C
I
1
or
90C
8:
A solid copper sphere (density p and specific heat C) of radius r at an

initial temperature 200 K is suspended inside a chamber whose walls are
at almost 0 K. What is the required for temperature of the sphere to drop
to 100 K?
7rpc 10 - 6
7rpc 10 - 8
(A)
(B)
72es
72es
- 10
7rpc 10
7rpc 10 +6
(C)
(D)
72es
72es
Solution:
(A) According to Stefans law P = eAT4

dQ mcdT
dt eAt 4
eAT 4 or
dt
dt
dr
mc
2
4
dT e4 r T
t
rpc dT
dt
p4rc 3 or
dt
3e T 4 o
3
or
100
200
7rpc 10 6
seconds
72e
A double pane window used for insulating a room thermally from outside
consists of two glass sheets each pf area 1 m2 and thickness 0.01 m separated by
a 0.05 m thick stagnant air space. In the steady state the room glass interface and
glass outdoor interface are at 27 C and 0 C respectively. Calculate the rate of
flow of heat through the windowpane. Also find the flow of heat through the
windowpane. Also find the temperature of other interface if, conductivities of
glass and air are 0.8 and 0.08 Wm-1 K-1 respectively.
(A)
0.72C
(B)
0.52C
(C)
0.192C
(D)
0.32C
(B)
Room
27C
0.01
Ce Outside
Air
K 0.08
Kg 0.8
dQ KA
dt
L
R
0.05
L
1 0.01
2
Req =
=
0.08
KA
A 0.8
Solution:
Kg 0.8
9:
rpc 1
t=
9e T 3
0.05m
1
0.01
0C
Page 226
1 5 26

A = 1 m2 Req =
40 8 40
dQ (27 0) 40
= 41.5 W
dt
R
26
27 1
41.5 = 0.8 12
or 1 = 26.48C
0.01
0.8 12 ( 2 0)
41.5 =
or 2 = 0.52C
0.01
10:
A space object has the space of a sphere of radius R. Heat sources ensure
that the heat evolution at a constant rate is distributed uniformly over its
volume. The amount of heat liberated by a thermodynamic temperature.
In what proportion would the temperature of the object change if its
radius is decreased to half?
(A)
2.19
(B)
5.19
(C)
1.19
(D)
4.19
Solution:
(C)
Heat liberated
Or
T4 R
T14
R
4 =
T2
R/2
Thus
dQ
dQ 2 4
R3 and
RT
dt
dt
T
1
Or
T2 = T1 or
T2 = 1
1.19
2
That is , temperature decreases by a factor of 1.19.
11:
Solution:
12:
The room temperature is +20 C when outside temperature is -20 C and

room temperature room temperature is + 10 C when outside temperature
is -40 C. Find the temperature of the radiator heating the room.
(A)
30C
(B)
60C
(C)
90C
(D)
45C
(B) Applying Newtons law
In case (1)
K1(T-Tr1)= K2(Tr2-Tout 1)
And in case (2)
K1(T-Tr2)= K2(Tr2-Tout 2)
Dividing these equations
T -Tr1 Tr2 -Tout1
T 20 20 ( 20)
=
T -Tr2 Tr2 -Tout2

T 10 10 ( 40)
or
T=60C
Some water at 0 C is placed in a large insulated enclosure (vessel). The
water vapour formed is pumped out continuously. What fraction of the
water will ultimately freeze, if the latent heat vaporization is seven times
the latent heat of fusion?
(A)
7/8
(B)
8/7
Page 227
Solution:
13.
(C)
3/8
(D)
5/8
(A) m = mass of water, f = fraction which freezes
L1 = latent heat of vaporization
L2 = latent heat of fusion L1 = 7L2
Mass of water frozen = mf
Heat lost by freezing water = m fL2
Mass of vapour formed = m(1 - f)
Heat gained by vapour = m (1 f) L1
mfL2 = m (1 - f) x 7L2
f = 7 7f or f = 7/8
A substance is in the solid form at 0 C. The amount of heat
added to this substance and its temperature are plotted in
the following graph. If the relative specific heat capacity of
the solid substance is 0.5, find from the graph, the mass of
the substance is
(Specific heat capacity of water = 1000 cal kg-1 K-1 )
(A)
0.02 kg
(B)
2 kg
(C)
0.04 kg
(D)
0.05 kg
120
100
80
60
40
20
C
A
B
2160
1000
Q
14.
A substance is in the solid form at 0 C. The amount of heat added to this

substance and its temperature are plotted in the following graph. If the
relative specific heat capacity of the solid substance is 0.5, find from the
graph, the specific latent heat of the melting process is
(A) 6000 cal kg-1
(B)
4000 cal kg-1
-1
(C) 1000 cal kg
(D)
2000 cal kg-1
15.
A substance is in the solid form at 0 C. The amount of heat added to this

substance and its temperature are plotted in the following graph. If the
relative specific heat capacity of the solid substance is 0.5, find from the
graph, the specific heat of the substance in the liquid state is
(A)
300 cal kg 1 K-1
(B)
500 cal kg 1 K-1
1
-1
(C)
700 cal kg K
(D)
100 cal kg 1 K-1
2000
(calories)
Solution 13:
(A) 800 calories of heat raise the temperature of the substance from 0C to
80C.
800 = m (1000 0.5 ) 80
(Q specific heat = relative sp. heat x sp. heat of water)
or
m = 0.02 kg
Solution 14:
(B) Latent heat = 200 4 = 800 cal (Q 1 div reads 200 cal )
= 0.02 L
L= 4000 cal kg-1
Solution 15:
(C) In the liquid state temperature rises from 80C to 120C, that is,
by 40C after absorbing (2160 1600) cal.
Page 228
16:
Solution:
0.02 s 40 = 2160 1600

or s = 700 cal kg 1 K-1
An earthenware vessel loses 1g of water per second due to evaporation.
The water equivalent of the vessel is 0.5 kg and the vessel contain 9.5 kg of
water. Find the time required for the water in the vessel to cool to 28 C
from 30 C. Neglect radiation losses. Latent heat of vaporization of water
in this range of temperature is 540 cal g-1 .
(A)
2 min 5 s
(B)
3 min 5 s
(C)
5 min 3 s
(D)
6 min 2 s
(B) Here water at the surface is evaporated at the cost of the water in the
vessel losing heat.
Heat lost by the water in the vessel
= (9.5 + 0.5) 1000 (30 20) = 105 cal
Let t the required time in seconds.
Heat gained by the water at the surface
= (t 10-3) 540 103
( L = 540 cal g-1 = 540 103 cal kg-1)
105 = 540 t or t = 185 s = 3 min 5 s
17:
In an industrial process 10 kg of water per hour is to be heated from 20 C

to 80 C. To do this, steam at 150 C is passed from a boiler into a copper
coil immersed in water. The steam condenses in the coil and is returned to
the boiler as water at 90 C. How many kg of steam are required per hour?
Specific heat of steam = 1 kilo cal kg1 C1. Latent heat of steam = steam
= 540 kilo cal kg1.
(A)
1 kg
(B)
2 kg
(C)
3 kg
(D)
4 kg
Solution:
(A) Let the mass of steam required per hour be m kg. Heat gained by water
in boiler per hour is = 10 kg 1 kilo
1
1
cal kg C (80 20)C
= 600 kilo cal
(1)
Heat lost by steam per hour is
= heat needed to cool m kg of steam from 150C to 100C + heat needed to
convert m kg of steam at 100C into water at 100C + heat needed to cool m
kg of steam at 100C to 90C
= m 1 (150 100) + m 540 + m 1 (100 90)
= 50 m + 540 m + 10 m
= 600 m kilo cal
(2)
Heat lost = heat gained. Equating (1) and (2) we have
600 m = 600
or m = 1 kg
Page 229
A closed cubical box made of a perfectly insulating material has walls of
thickness 8 cm and the only way for the heat to enter or leave the box is
through two solid cylindrical metal plugs, each of crosssectional area 12
cm2 and length 8 cm fixed in the opposite walls of the box. The outer
surface A of one plug is kept at a temperature of 100 C while the outer
surface of the other plug is maintained at a temperature of 4 C. The
thermal conductivity of the material of the plug is
Insulator
0.5 cal cm1 s1 ( C)1. A source of energy
Metal plug
generating 36 cal s1 is enclosed inside the box. Metal plug
Find the equilibrium temperature of the inner
Energy
source
surface of the box assuming that it is the same at
Surface B
Surface A
all points on the inner surface.
at 4 C
at 100 C
(A)
70C
(B)
45C
(C)
65C
(D)
76C
18:
Solution:
(D) At equilibrium, the total energy generated by the source per second must
equal the heat leaving per second through the two metal plugs (Fig.). Let
TC be the equilibrium temperature. Then heat leaving the box per second
through surface A
k(T 100) 12
=
cal s1
8
and heat leaving the box per second through the surface B
k(T 4) 12
cals1
8
12k
Hence
(T 100 + T 4) = 36
8
36 8 36 8
or 2T 104 =
=
= 48 or T = 76C
12k 12 0.5
19:
Find the time during which a layer of ice of thickness 2.0 cm on the
surface of a pond will have its thickness increased by 2 mm when the
temperature conductivity of ice = 5 10-3 cal cm-1 s-1 ( C)-1, density of ice
at 0 C = 0.91 g cm-3 and latent heat of fusion = 80 cal g-1
(A)
6 min 5 s
(B)
2 min 6 s
(C)
5 min 6 s
(D)
3 min 5 s
Solution:
(C) substituting the given quantities in the expression

pL
2
2
t=
( x 2 - x1 )
2kT
we have
0.91 80
t=
[(2.2)2-2.0)2] = 306 s = 5 min 6 s.
2 5 10 3 20
20:
Water is being boiled in a flat-bottomed kettle placed on a stove. The area

of the bottom is 300 cm2 and the thickness is 2 mm. If the amount of
steam produced is 1 g/min, calculate the difference of temperature
Page 230
between the inner and other outer surfaces of the bottom. The thermal
conductivity of the material of kettle = 0.5 cal cm -1 s-1 ( C)-1 and the latent
heat of stem = 540 cal g-1.
(A)
0.012 C
(B)
0.0.04 C
(C)
0.02 C
(D)
0.0.08 C
Solution:
21:
(A) If T is the temperature difference between the inner ad outer surface of

the bottom of the kettle, then the amount of heat flowing through the bottom
per second is
Q kAT 0.5 300 T
= 750 cal per second

(1)
t
d
0.2
Q mL 1g 540 calg1
But
(2)
t
t
60s
Equating (1) and (2), we have
9
750 T = 9 or T =
= 0.012 C
750
If an anisotropic solid has coefficients of linear expansion x, y and z
for three mutually perpendicular directions in the solid, what is the
coefficient of volume expansion for the solid?
(A)
x + y + z
(B)
2x + y + z
(C)
2x + 2y + 2z
(D)
3x + 3y + 3z
Solution:
(A) Consider a cube, with edges parallel to X, Y, Z of dimension L 0 at T = 0.

After a change in temperature T = (T 0), the dimensions change to
Lx = L0 (1 + xT)
Ly = L0(1 + yT)
Lz = L0(1 + zT)
and the volume of the parallelepiped is
V = V0 (1 + xT)(1 + yT)(1 + zT) V0 [1 + (x + y + z)T]
3
Where V0 = L0 . Therefore, the coefficient of volume expansion is given by
x + y + z.
22.
In aluminum sheet there is a hole of diameter 2m and is horizontally

mounted on a stand. Onto this hole an iron sphere of radius 2.004 m is
resting. Initial temperature of this system is 25 C. Find at what
temperature, the iron sphere will fall down through the hole in sheet. The
coefficients of linear expansion for aluminum and iron are 2.4 104and
8.6 10 5 respectively.
(A)
82C
(B)
43C
(C)
45C
(D)
15C
Solution:
(B) As value of coefficient of linear expansion for aluminum is more than

that for ion, it expends faster then iron. So at some higher temperature when
diameter of hole will exactly become equal to that of iron sphere, the sphere
will pass through the hole. Let it happen at some higher temperature T. Thus
we have at this temperature T,
(diameter of hole)Al = (diameter of sphere)iron
2[1 + Al (T 25)] = 2.004[1 + iron(T 25)]
Page 231
2Al (T 25) = 0.004 + 2.004 iron (T 25)
0.004
25 oC
or T
2 AL 2.004 iron
0.004
25
or T
4
2 2.4 10 2.004 8.6 10 5
or T = 43C
23.
An iron ball has a diameter of 6 cm and is 0.010 mm too large to pass

through a hole in a brass plate when the ball and plate are at a
temperature of 30 C. At what temperature, the same for ball and plate,
will the ball just pass through the hole?
(A)
23.8C
(B)
13.8C
(C)
53.8C
(D)
83.8C
Solution:
(C) We let I stand for the iron ball and B stand for the brass plate. LI = 6 cm
and LI LB = 0.001 cm at t = 30C. Since the brass plate expands uniformly,
the hole must expand in the same proportion. Then heating both the ball and
the plate leads to increases in the diameters of the ball and the hole, with the
hole increasing more, since B > I. We require LB LI = 0.001 cm. LB
= BLB t; LI = ILI t. We can approximate LB in this formula by 6 cm =
LI. Then
LB LI = (B I)LI t = 0.001 cm
solving, t = 23.8C, and finally t = 30C + 23.8C = 53.8C
24.
It is desired to put an iron rim on a wooden wheel. The diameter of the

wheel is 1.1000m and the inside diameter of the rim is 1.0980 m. If the rim
is at 20 C initially, to what temperature must it be heated to just fit onto
the wheel?
(A)
52C
(B)
72C
(C)
102C
(D)
152C
(D) for iron is found to be 1.2 105 C1.
L = 1.1000 1.0980 = 0.0020 m = L t
0.0020 = (1.2 105)(1.098) t
t + 20 = 172C
t = 152C
Solution:
25.
Find the coefficient of volume expansion for an ideal gas at constant

pressure.
1
g =T
(A)
(B)
T
1
1
g= 2
g= 3
(C)
(D)
T
T
Solution:
(A) For an idea gas PV= nRT

As P is constant, we have
Page 232
26.
P.dV = nRdT
dV nR
dT
P
1 dV nR
nR
1
V dT PV nRT T
1
T
What should be the lengths of steel and copper rod so that the length of
steel rod is 5cm longer then the copper rod at all the temperatures.
Coefficients of linear expansion for copper and steel are 1.7 and 1.1
(A)
2.17, 14.17 cm
(B)
9.17, 14.17 cm
(C)
9.17, 18.17 cm
(D)
3.17, 5.17 cm
Solution:
27.
(B) It is given that the difference in length of the two rods is always 5 cm.
Thus the expansion in both the rods must be same for all temperatures. Thus
we can say that at all temperature differences, we have
LCu Lsteel
or Cu l1t st l 2 t [If l1 and l2 are the initial lengths of Cu and steel
rods]
or Cu l1 st l 2
or 1.7 l1 1.1 l 2
..(1)
It is given that l2 l1 = 5cm
.(2)
1.7
1.1 1 l1 5cm
5 1.1
9.17cm
or l1
0.6
Now from equation (2) l2 = 14.17 cm
A steel wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm2 is held between two rigid
clamps so that it is just taut at 20 o C . Find the tension in the wire at 0 o C .
Given that Youngs modulus of steel is Yst = 2.1 1012 dynes
/ cm2 and
5 o
coefficient of linear expansion of steel is st 1.1 10 C .
(A)
2.31 104
(B)
2.31 102
(C)
9.31 106
(D)
2.31 106
Solution:
28.
(D) We know that due to drop in temperature, then tension increment in a

clamped wire is
T = YA T = 2.1 1012 0.5 102 1.1 105 20 = 2.31 106
Two bodies have the same heat capacity. If they are combined to form a
single composite body, show that the equivalent specific heat of this
composite body is independent of the masses of the individual bodies.
2s1s2
s1s2
(A)
(B)
s2 - s1
s2 +s1
2s1s2
s2
(C)
(D)
s2 +s1
s2 +s1
Page 233
Solution:
29.
(C) Let the two bodies have masses m1, m2 and specific heats s1 and s2 then
m1s1 = m2s2
or
m1/m2 = s2/s1
Let s = specific heat of the composite body.
Then (m1 + m2) s = m1s1 + m2s2 = 2m1s1
2m1s1
2m1s1
2s1s2
s=
m1 m2 m1 m1(s1 / s2 ) s2 s1
20 gm steam at 100 C is let into a closed calorimeter of water equivalent
10 gm containing 100 gm ice at 10 C. Find the final temperature of the
calorimeter and its contents. Latent heat of steam is 540 cal/gm, latent
heat of fusion of ice=80 cal/gm, specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal/ C gm.
(A)
13C
(B)
63C
(C)
93C
(D)
33C
Solution:
(D) Heat lost by steam = mL + ms (100 - )
where, is the equilibrium temperature
Heat lost by steam = 20 540 + 20 1 (100 - )
= 10800 + 2000 - 20
Heat gained by (ice + calorimeter) = 100 80 + 100 0.5 10 + 100
Now
Heat lost = Heat gained
or
or
10800 + 2000 20 = 8000 + 500 + 110

130 = 4300
4300
=
= 33C.
130
30.
Victoria Falls in Africa is 122 m in height. Calculate the rise in

temperature of the water if all the potential energy lost in the fall is
converted to heat.
(A)
0.29 K
(B)
29 K
(C)
0.69 K
(D)
0.99 K
Solution:
(A) Consider mass m of water falling.

mgy = mc t
gy = c t
We express both sides in joules by noting
c = 1 kcal/kg K = 4184 J/kg K
Then
9.8(122) = 4184 t
and
t = 0.29 K
31.
An electric heater supplies 1.8 kW of power in the form of heat to a tank

of water. How long will it take to heat the 200 kg of water in the tank from
10 to 70 C? Assume heat losses to the surroundings to be negligible.
(A)
1.75 h
(B)
7.75 h
(C)
4.75 h
(D)
5.75 h
Solution: (B) The heat added is (1.8 kJ/s)t and the heat absorbed is
cm T = (4.184 kJ/kg K) (200 kg)(60 K) = 5.0 104 kJ
Page 234
Equating heats, t = 2.78 10 s = 7.75 h.
4
32.
What will be the final temperature if 50 g of water at 0 C is added to 250 g

of water at 90 C?
(A)
15C
(B)
30C
(C)
45C
(D)
75C
Solution: (D) Heat gained = heat lost. (We assume no hat transfer to or from container.)
(50 g)(1.00 cal/g C)(t 0C) = (250 g)(1.00 cal/g C)(90C t)
where t is the final equilibrium temperature.
50t = 22500 250t
or 300t = 22500
t = 75C
33.
A 500 g piece of iron at 400 C is dropped into 800 g of oil at 20 C. If c =
0.40 cal/g C for the oil, what will be the final temperature of the system.
Assume no loss to the surroundings.
(A)
15.7C
(B)
30.7C
(C)
45.7C
(D)
75.7C
Solution:
(D) Heat lost = heat gained is written as

0.11(500)(400 t) = 0.40(800)(t 20)
from which
t = 75.7C
34.
A copper rod 2 m long has a circular cross section of radius 1 cm. One end
is kept at 100 C and the other at 0 C, and the surface is insulated so that
negligible heat is lost through the surface. Thermal conductivity of copper
is 401 W/mK. Find the thermal resistance of the bar.
(A)
15.9 K/W
(B)
20.9 K/W
(C)
40.9 K/W
(D)
50.9 K/W
35.
is 401 W/mK. Find the thermal current H.
(A)
1.3 watt
(B)
6.3 watt
(C)
12.3 watt
(D)
18.3 watt
36 .
dT
is 401 W/mK. Find the temperature gradient
.
dx
(A)
10C/m
(B)
40C/m
(C)
50C/m
(D)
90C/m
37 .
Page 235
is 401 W/mK. Find the temperature 25 cm from the hot end.
(A)
20.5C
(B)
40.5C
(C)
77.5C
(D)
87.5C
Solution 34 (A)
Thermal resistance R =
2
or R =
Solution 35 (B)
401 10 2
l
l
kA k ( r 2 )
= 15.9 K/W
Thermal current, H =
or
H = 6.3 watt
Solution 36 (C) Temperature gradient =
T 100
R
R 15.9
0 100
= 50 K/m =
2
50C/m
0
Solution 37 (D) Let c be the temperature at 25 cm from the hot
end, then
( 100) = (temperature gradient) (distance)
or 100 = ( 50) (0.25)
or = 87.5C
38.
100C
0.25 m
Two metal cubes with 3 cmedges of copper and aluminium

are arranged as shown in figure. Thermal conductivity of
copper is 401 W/mK and that of aluminium is 237 W/mK.
Find the total thermal current from one reservoir to the other.
(A)
0.14 K/W
(B)
0.34 K/W
(C)
0.74 K/W
(D)
0.94 K/W
39.
0C
2.0 m
100oC
Al
Cu
20 C
wo metal cubes with 3 cmedges of copper and aluminium are arranged

as shown in figure. Thermal conductivity of copper is 401 W/mK and that
of aluminium is 237 W/mK. Find the ratio of the thermal current carried
by the copper cube to that carried by the aluminium cube.
(A)
0.75 K/W
(B)
0.05 K/W
(C)
0.15 K/W
(D)
0.35 K/W
Solution: 38 (A) Thermal resistance of aluminium cube R1 =

(3.0 10 2 )
or R1 =
(237) 3.0 10 2
= 0.14 K/W
Solution: 39 (B) Thermal resistance of copper cube R2 =

or R2 =
(3.0 10 2 )
(401) 3.0 10 2
l
kA
l
kA
= 0.08 K/W
As these two resistances are in parallel, their equivalent resistance will be

Page 236
R1R2
R1 R 2
(0.14)(0.08)
=
= 0.05 K/W
(0.14) (0.08)
R=
40.
What temperature gradient must exist in an aluminum rod in order to

transmit 8 cal/s per square centimeter of cross section down the rod? k for
aluminum is 0.50 cal/s cm C.
(A)
36C/cm
(B)
46C/cm
(C)
86C/cm
(D)
16C/cm
Solution:
(D) H = kA
T
x
or 8 cal/s = (0.50 cal/s cm C)(1 cm2)
T
x
T
= magnitude of temperature gradient = 16C/cm.
x
The actual sign of the gradient depends on whether the heat flow is in the positive or
negative x direction, being negative or positive for the two cases, respectively.
41.
What is heat conduction.

(A) (A T)/d
(C) (kA T)/d
(B)
(D)
(k T)/d
(T)/d
Solution:
(C) The conduction equation, H Q/t = (kA T)/d can be reexpressed as
H = T/R, where R d/(kA) is called the thermal resistance of the slab. It has units of K/W
in SI.
42.
Consider the two insulating sheets with resistances R 1 and R2 shown in

Fig. What is the value of T' ?
R T +R 2T2
R T R1T2
T = 1 1
T 2 1
(A)
(B)
R1 +R2
R1 R2
R T +R1T2
R T +R1T2
T = 2 1
T = 2 21
(C)
(D)
R1 - R2
R1 +R22
Solution:
(B) For the two sheets, H1 = (T1 T)/R1, H2 = (T T2)/R2. Noting

that H1 = H2 = H, we have (T1 T)/R1 = (T T2)/R2. Cross
multiplying we get R2(T1 T) = R1(T T2), or rearranging terms,
R2T1 + R1T2 = (R1 + R2)T, and T = (R2T1 + R1T2)/(R1 + R2).
T2
R2
R1
T
T1
43.
A spherical blackbody of 5 cm radius is maintained at a temperature of

327 C. What is the power radiated?
(A)
231 W
(B)
431 W
(C)
531 W
(D)
631 W
Page 237
Solution:
(A) The surface area of a sphere is 4r . In this case, then, the area is 4(25
104) = 0.01m2. The power radiated is given by Stefans law:
P= T4A = (5.67 108 W/m2.K4)(600 K)4(0.01 m2) = 231 W.
2
44..
A spherical blackbody of 5 cm radius is maintained at a temperature of

327 C. What wavelength is the maximum wavelength radiated.
(A)
2.82 m
(B)
4.82 m
(C)
3.82 m
(D)
5.82 m
Solution:
(B) The surface area of a sphere is 4r2. In this case, then, the area is 4(25
104) = 0.01m2. The power radiated is given by Stefans law:
P= T4A = (5.67 108 W/m2.K4)(600 K)4(0.01 m2) = 231 W
By Wiens law, m(600 K) = 2898 m.K and m = 4.82 m.
45.
A sphere of 3 radius acts like a blackbody. It is equilibrium with its

surroundings and absorbs 30 kW of power radiated to it from the
surroundings. What is the temperature of the sphere?
(A)
2300 K
(B)
2800 K
(C)
3000 K
(D)
2600 K
Solution:
(D) The power absorbed by a blackbody is Pa = A Ta , or (30 103 W)=
(5.67 108 W/m2.K4) 4(0.03 m)2 Ta .

Ta4 = 4.68 1013; Ta = temperature of surroundings = 2600 K. Since the
body is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it is at the same temperature,
2600 K.
46 .
A blackbody is at a temperature of 527 C. To radiate twice as much energy

per second, what temperature must be increased ?
(A)
951 K
(B)
451 K
(C)
551 K
(D)
651 K
Solution:
(A) Since P T4, the temperature must be increased to 21/4(800 K) = 951 K.
47.
Use Stefans law to calculate the total power radiated per square meter by
a filament at 1727 C having an absorption factor of 0.4.
(A)
0.16 MW/m2
(B)
0.26 MW/m2
(C)
0.36 MW/m2
(D)
0.46 MW/m2
Solution:
(C) Stefans law gives R = T4 = 0.4(5.67 108)(2000)4 = 0.36 MW/m2
48.
A blackbody is at a temperature of 527 C. To radiate twice as much energy

per second, how many times of increase in radiated power when the
temperature of a blackbody is increased from 7 to 287 C.
(A)
5 times
(B)
16 times
(C)
6 times
(D)
20 times
Page 238
(B) Since P T , the temperature must be increased to 2 (800 K) = 951
K.
4
P(560 K) 560
And
16 times
P(280 K) 280
Solution:
1/4
49.
The initial and final temperature of water as recorded by an observer are

(40.6 0.2) C and (78.3 0.3) C. Calculate the rise in temperature with
proper error limit.
(A)
(27.7 0.5)C
(B)
(17.7 0.5)C
(C)
(37.7 0.9)C
(D)
(37.7 0.5)C
Solution:
(D) Let 1 = 40.6C, 1 = 0.2 C

2 = 78.3C, 2 = 0.3 C
= 2 1 = 78.3 40.6 = 37.7C
& = (1 + 2) = (0.2 + 0.3) = 0.5C
Hence rise in temperature
= (37.7 0.5)C
A cylinder of radius R made of a material of thermal conductivity k 1 is
surrounded by a cylindrical sheet of inner radius R and outer radius 2R
made of material of thermal conductivity k 2 . The two ends of the
combined system are maintained at two different temperatures. There is
no loss of heat across the cylindrical surface and the system is in steady
state. Calculate the effective thermal conductivity of the system.
(A)
4K = 2K1 + 3K2
(B)
4K = 5K1 + 3K2
(C)
4K = 6K1 + 4K2
(D)
4K = K1 + 3K2
50.
Solution :
(D) Two cylinders are in parallel, therefore equivalent thermal resistance R is

given by
1
1
1
R R1 R 2
kA
kA k 1 A 1 k 2 A 2
1
2
But
Here
1 2
, A 1 R 2
A 2 2R
R 2 3 R 2
and
A 2R
K 4 R
4 R 2
K 1R 2
K 2 3 R 2
i.e.
4K = K1 + 3K2
Page 239
A lake is covered with ice 2 cm thick. The temperature of ambient air is
15oC. Find the rate of thickening of ice. For ice k = 4 104k-calm1s1( C)1. Density =9 103 kg/m3and latent heat L = 80 Kilo Cal/Kg.
(A) 2.5 cm/ hour
(B)
1.5 cm/ hour
(C) 3.5 cm/ hour
(D)
4.5 cm/ hour
51.
Solution :
(B) Heat energy flowing per sec is given by

H
KA
t
x
. . . (I)
if dm mass of ice is increased in time dt, then

A dx
dm
dx
A. .
dt
dt
dt
dm
L
dt
Since,
H A
dx
L . . . (ii)
dt
From eq. (I) and (II)

A L
dx
KA
dt
x
Rate of thickening of ice = dx/dt
dx
KA
dt
AL x
410 4
3
0.910
80
= L x =
0( 15 )
210 2
= 4.166 106 m/s = 1.5 cm/ hour.

52.
A body cools from 60C to 50C in 10 minutes. If the room temperature is 25C and
assuming Newtons law of cooling to hold good, find the temperature of the
body at the end of the next 10 minutes.
(A)
42.85C
(B)
12.85C
(C)
20.85C
(D)
52.85C
Solution :
(A) According to Newtons law of cooling rate of loss of heat (T To)

where T = mean temperature of the body
60 50
10
Also,
60 50
25
2
50 T
10
50 T
25
2
. . . (1)
. . . (2)
where T is the required temperature

Solving both equation, we get,
T = 42.85C
Page 240
53.
Two bodies A and B have thermal emissivities of 0.01 and 0.81 respectively. The
outer surface areas of the two bodies are same. The two bodies emit total
radiant power at the same rate. The wavelength B corresponding to
maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from B is shifted from the
wavelength corresponding to maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation
from A by 1.00 m. If the temperature of A is 5802 K, calculate (a) the
temperature of B and (b) wavelength B.
(A)
2000K, 1.6 m
(B)
3000K, 1.8 m
(C)
1934K, 1.5 m
(D)
4000K, 1.9 m
Solution :
(C) (a) According to stefans law the power radiated by a body is give by
P eAT 4
According to the given problem, PA PB , with A A A B

So that e A TA 4 e B TB 4
i.e, 0.01 5802 4 0.81 TB 4
1
5802 1934K
3
or TB
(b)
According to Wiens displacement law.

A TA B TB ; i.e, B 5802 / 1934 A
i.e, B 3 A and also B - A = 1m(given)
1
B 1m
3
so B
i.e. B 1.5m
A body which has a surface area 2.00 cm 2 and a temperature of 727oC
radiates energy at the rate of 5 W. What is its emissivity? (Stefan boltzman
constant 5.67 10 8 W / m 2 k 4 ).
(A)
0.14
(B)
0.44
(C)
0.34
(D)
0.24
54
solution:
(B)
P e AT 4
5 e 5.67 10 8 2 10 4 1000
5.67 10
5
2 10 4 10 12
0.44
11 .34
55.
Two rods of equal cross-sectional area A and length L are
joined and what is the temperature of junction as shown in the
figure. The temperature of one end of the composite rod is 0 o C
and the other end of the rod is at 100 o C . Draw a graph showing
the variation of the temperature with the
distance x from the end maintained at 0 o C . Assume that the flow is longitudinal and there is no loss
of heat from the lateral surface.
Page 241
100 x L
3L
(A)
(C)
100 ( x +L )
T=
L
solution:
H
(A) R
(B)
(D)
100 ( x +L )
T=
4L
100 ( x +L )
T=
5L
L
L
3L
kA 2kA 2kA
100 2kA 200kA
3L
3L
T
200kA
200 x
T
x / kA
3L
3L
when x L
L x L x L
kA
2kA
2kA
T 2kA 200kA
xL
3L
100 x L
T
3L
R
The graph is as shown
56.
Two spherical soap bubbles coalesce to form a bigger bubble without any
leakage of air. If V is the total change in volume of the contained air and S
the total change in surface area, what is the value of 3PV + 4ST, where T is
the surface tension of the soap solution and P is the atmospheric pressure.
(A)
0
(B)
1
(C)
2
(D)
3
solution:
(A) Let r1 and r2 be the initial radii of two bubbles and r is the final radius of
the bubble after they coalesce. Then
4T 4 3
rT 4
4T 4 3
r1 P r23 P
r
r1 3
r2 3
r 3
P r13 r23 r 3 4T r12 r22 r 2 0

also V
(1)
4
r13 r23 r 3 = change in total volume
3
and S 4 r12 r22 r 2 = change in surface area

from (1), (2) & (3) we get
(2)
(3)
3PV 4ST 0
57.
The graphs gives the variation of temperature of two bodies

having the same surface area with time where Ax and Ay
represent absorptivity and x and y represent emissivity
then
(A)
x > y and Ax < Ay
(B)
x < y and Ax > Ay
(C)
x > y and Ax > Ay
(D)
x < y and Ax < Ay
x
y
t
Page 242
solution:
(D)According to Kirchoffs law good emitter is a good absorber
Ey > Ex and Ay > Ax
The temperature gradient in a rod of 0.5 m length is 80 oC/m. If the temperature of
hotter end of the rod is 30oC, then the temperature of the cooler end is
(A)
40oC
(B)
10oC
(C)
10oC
(D)
0oC.
30
80
Solution: (B)
0.5
58.
59.
A body at 300oC radiates 10 J cm2 s1. If Sun radiates 105 J cm2 s1, then its
temperature is
(A)
3000oC
(B)
5457oC
(C)
300 104 oC
(D)
5730oC
Solution : (B)
(573)4 105
4
T
10
The ratio of energy of radiation emitted by a black body at 27oC and 927oC is
(A)
1:4
(B)
1 : 16
(C)
1 : 64
(D)
1 : 256.
4
Solution:(B) E=T
60.
Page 243

Thermal Kinetics

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Thermal Kinetics

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Transference Of Heat

Relation between expansion coefficient are

Where p = pressure coefficient

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

ERROR in measurament DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION

HEATING A METALLIC SCALE

A metallic scale (linear) expands in length when heated. As a result

DIFFERENCE OF LENGTHS OF TWO RODS

TIME PERIOD OF PENDULUM

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

A clock with a metallic pendulum is 5 second fast each day at a temperature of

Time lost or gained per second by a pendulum clock is

Specific heat of a substance also depends on temperature (particularly at low temperatures)

Sp. heat cal / gm C

Fig. (A) Water

Fig. (B) Metals

In SI units, i.e., J/kg K

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

PHASE CHANGES AND LATENT HEAT

Thermal Resistance (R)

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

Perfectly black body

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

Perfectly black body

E = emissive power of black body at temperature T

and here we have shown that

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

FROM THIS EXPRESSION WE SEE THAT = I

WEINS DISPLACEMENT LAW

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

= 0.8 C/min and

measurment OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY & error analysis

A piece of metal floats on mercury. The coefficients of volume expansion

The coefficient of expansion of a crystal in one direction (xaxis) is 2.0

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

o cylindrical rods or lengths l1 and l2, radii r1 and r2 have thermal

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

A solid copper sphere (density p and specific heat C) of radius r at an

(A) According to Stefans law P = eAT4

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

The room temperature is +20 C when outside temperature is -20 C and

T -Tr2 Tr2 -Tout2

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

A substance is in the solid form at 0 C. The amount of heat added to this

A substance is in the solid form at 0 C. The amount of heat added to this

0.02 s 40 = 2160 1600

In an industrial process 10 kg of water per hour is to be heated from 20 C

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

(C) substituting the given quantities in the expression

Water is being boiled in a flat-bottomed kettle placed on a stove. The area

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

(A) If T is the temperature difference between the inner ad outer surface of

= 750 cal per second

(A) Consider a cube, with edges parallel to X, Y, Z of dimension L 0 at T = 0.

In aluminum sheet there is a hole of diameter 2m and is horizontally

(B) As value of coefficient of linear expansion for aluminum is more than

SRI BHARADWAJ EDU GENEA

2Al (T 25) = 0.004 + 2.004 iron (T 25)

An iron ball has a diameter of 6 cm and is 0.010 mm too large to pass

It is desired to put an iron rim on a wooden wheel. The diameter of the

Find the coefficient of volume expansion for an ideal gas at constant

(A) For an idea gas PV= nRT