Chapter3

AnEmpireAcrossThreeContinents

Explainthesourcestounderstandromanhistory

1.

Romanhistorianshavearichcollectionofsourcestostudywhichwecanbroadlydivide
intothreegroups:
(a)texts,(b)documentsand(c)materialremains.
2.

Textualsourcesincludehistoriesoftheperiodwrittenbycontemporaries(thesewere
usuallycalled
Annals
,becausethenarrativewasconstructedonayearbyyearbasis),
letters,speeches,sermons,laws,andsoon.
3.

Documentarysourcesincludemainlyinscriptionsand
papyri
.Inscriptionswereusually
cutonstone,soalargenumbersurvive,inbothGreekandLatin
4.

Materialremainsincludeaverywideassortmentofitemsthatmainlyarchaeologists
discoverthroughexcavationandfieldsurvey.Theyarebuildings,monumentsandother
kindsofstructures,pottery,coins,mosaics,evenentirelandscapes
.

PapyrusandPapyrologists

1.

ThepapyruswasareedlikeplantthatgrewalongthebanksoftheNileinEgypt
andwasprocessedtoproduceawritingmaterialthatwasverywidelyusedin
everydaylife.
2.

Thousandsofcontracts,accounts,lettersandofficialdocumentssurviveon
papyrusandhavebeenpublishedbyscholarswhoarecalledpapyrologists.

BoundariesofRomanEmpire

1.

Tothe
North
,theboundariesoftheempirewereformedbytwogreatrivers,the
Rhineandthe
Danube
.
2.

Tothe
South
,bythehugeexpanseofdesertcalledthe
Sahara.
3.

Tothe
EastriverEuphrates
andtothe
WestAtlanticOcean
.
4.

ThisvaststretchofterritorywastheRomanEmpire.ThatiswhyRomanEmpireiscalled
an

EmpireacrossThreeContinents.
5.

TheMediterraneanSeaiscalledtheheartofRomesempire.

DivisionofRomanEmpire

1.

TheRomanEmpirecanbroadlybedividedintotwophases,
earlyandlate
,dividedbythe
thirdcenturyasasortofhistoricalwatershedbetweenthem.
2.

Inotherwords,thewholeperiodfromthebeginningofRomanEmpiretothemainpartofthe
thirdcenturycanbecalledtheearlyempire,andtheperiodfromthethirdcenturytotheend
calledthelateempire.

ThepoliticalhistoryoftheRomanEmpire

1.

TheRomanEmpirewas
amosaicofterritoriesandcultures
thatwerechieflyboundtogetherby
acommonsystemofgovernment.Allthosewholivedintheempireweresubjectsofasingleruler,
theemperor,buttheyfollowedvariouscultures,religions,languagesandraces.
2.

Manylanguageswerespokenintheempire,butforthepurposesofadministration
Latinand
Greek
werethemostwidelyused,indeedtheonlyofficiallanguages.
3.

Augustus
wasthefirstemperorwhoestablishedmonarchyin27
BCE.
He
wasalsocalledthe
Principate.AlthoughAugustuswasthesolerulerandtheonlyrealsourceofauthority,the
fictionwaskeptalivethathewasonlytheleadingcitizen(
Princeps
inLatin),notthe
absoluteruler.ThiswasdoneoutofrespectfortheSenate.
4.

Senate
wasthebodywhichhadcontrolledRomeearlier,inthedayswhenitwasaRepublic.
TheSenatehadexistedinRomeforcenturies,andhadbeenandremainedabodyrepresentingthe
aristocracy,thatis,thewealthiestfamiliesofRomanandlaterItaliandescentmainlylandowners.
5.

NexttotheemperorandtheSenate,theotherkeyinstitutionofimperialrulewasthearmy.
Romanshadapaid
professionalarmy
wheresoldiershadtoputinaminimumof25yearsof
service.Thearmywasthelargestsingleorganisedbodyintheempirewith600,000soldiersinthe
fourthcentury.Thesoldierswouldconstantlyagitateforbetterwagesandserviceconditions.
Theseagitationsoftentooktheformofmutinies.
6.

Theemperor,thearistocracyandthearmywerethe
threemainplayers
inthepoliticalhistoryof
theempire.Thesuccessofindividualemperorsdependedontheircontrolofthearmy,andwhen
thearmiesweredivided,theresultusuallywascivilwar.Exceptforonenotoriousyear(69
CE
),
whenfouremperorsmountedthethroneinquicksuccession,thefirsttwocenturieswerefreefrom
civilwar
.
7.

Externalwarfare
wasalsomuchlesscommoninthefirsttwocenturies.Theempireinheritedby
TiberiusfromAugustuswasalreadysovastthatfurtherexpansionwasfelttobeunnecessary.The
onlymajorcampaignofexpansionintheearlyempirewasTrajansfruitlessoccupationofterritory
acrosstheEuphrates,intheyears11317
CE
abandonedbyhissuccessors.
8.

TheRomanEmpirehadtwotypesofterritories.Theywere
dependentkingdomsand
provincialterritory
.TheNearEastwasfullofdependentkingdomsbuttheydisappearedand
swallowedupbyRome.Thesekingdomswereexceedinglywealthy,forexampleHerodskingdom
yielded5.4million
denarii
peryear,equaltoover125,000kgofgoldperyear.
9.

AcityintheRomanEmpire
wasanurbancentrewithitsownmagistrates,citycouncilanda
territorycontainingvillageswhichwereunderitsjurisdiction.Thusonecitycouldnotbeinthe
territoryofanothercity,butvillagesalmostalwayswere.Villagescouldbeupgradedtothestatus
ofcities,andviceversa,usuallyasamarkofimperialfavour.Onecrucialadvantageoflivingina

citywasessentialcommoditieswerebetterprovidedforduringfoodshortagesandevenfamines
thanthecountryside.
10.

PublicbathswereastrikingfeatureofRomanurbanlifeandurbanpopulationsalsoenjoyeda
muchhigherlevelof
entertainment
.Forexample,onecalendartellsus
that
spectacula
(shows)fillednolessthan176daysoftheyear!

TheThirdCenturyCrisis

1.

Fromthe230s,theRomanEmpirefound
itselffightingonseveralfrontssimultaneously
.In
Irananaggressivedynastyemergedin225theywerecalledastheSasaniansandwithinjust15
yearsitexpandedrapidlyinthedirectionoftheEuphrates.ShapurI,theIranianruler,claimedhe
hadannihilatedaRomanarmyof60,000andevencapturedtheeasterncapitalofAntioch.
2.

Meanwhile,awholeseries
ofGermanictribesorrathertribalconfederaciesbegantomove
againsttheRhineandDanubefrontiers,
andthewholeperiodfrom233to280sawrepeated
invasions.TheRomanswereforcedtoabandonmuchoftheterritorybeyondtheDanube.
3.

Therapidsuccessionofemperors
inthethirdcentury(25emperorsin47years!)isanobvious
symptomofthestrainsfacedbytheempireinthisperiod.

GenderRolesinRomanEmpire

1.

OneofthemoremodernfeaturesofRomansocietywasthewidespreadprevalenceofthenuclear
family.Adultsonsdidnotlivewiththeirfamilies,anditwasexceptionalforadultbrothersto
shareacommonhousehold.Ontheotherhand,slaves
were
includedinthefamily.
2.

Thetypicalformofmarriagewasonewherethewifedidnottransfertoherhusbandsauthority
butretainedfullrightsinthepropertyofherfathersfamily.Whilethewomansdowrywentto
thehusbandforthedurationofthemarriage,thewomanremainedaprimaryheirofherfatherand
becameanindependentpropertyowneronherfathersdeath.
3.

Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,andthereisnodoubtthatwomenwereoftensubjectto
dominationbytheirhusbands.Whereasmalesmarriedintheirlatetwentiesorearlythirties,
womenweremarriedoffinthelateteensorearlytwenties,sotherewasanagegapbetween
husbandandwifeandthiswouldhaveencouragedacertaininequality.
4.

Divorcewasrelativelyeasyandneedednomorethananoticeofintenttodissolvethemarriage
byeitherhusbandorwife.Ontheotherhand,Augustine,thegreatCatholicbishop,tellsusthat
hismotherwasregularlybeatenbyhisfatherandthatmostotherwivesinthesmalltownwherehe
grewuphadsimilarbruisestoshow!
5.

Finally,fathershadsubstantiallegalcontrolovertheirchildrensometimestoashockingdegree,
forexample,alegalpoweroflifeanddeathinexposingunwantedchildren,byleavingthemoutin
thecoldtodie.

LiteracyinRomanEmpire

1.

Itiscertainthatratesofcasualliteracyvariedgreatlybetweendifferentpartsoftheempire.For
example,inPompeii,whichwasburiedinavolcaniceruptionin79
CE
,thereisstrongevidenceof
widespreadcasualliteracy.
2.

WallsonthemainstreetsofPompeiioftencarriedadvertisements,andgraffitiwerefoundallover
thecity.
3.

Bycontrast,inEgyptwherehundredsofpapyrisurvive,mostformaldocumentssuchascontracts
wereusuallywrittenbyprofessionalscribes,andtheyoftentellusthatXorYisunabletoread
andwrite.
4.

Butevenhereliteracywascertainlymorewidespreadamongcertaincategoriessuchassoldiers,
armyofficersandestatemanagers.
5.

PluralityoflanguagesthatwerespokeninRomanEmpire.TheywereAramaic,Coptic,Punic,
BerberandCeltic.Butmanyoftheselinguisticcultureswerepurelyoral,atleastuntilascriptwas
inventedforthem.AmongtheabovementionedlanguagesArmenianbegantobewrittenaslate
asthefifthcentury.

EconomicExpansioninRomanEmpire

1.

Theempirehadasubstantialeconomicinfrastructureofharbours,mines,quarries,brickyards,
oliveoilfactories,etc.Wheat,wineandoliveoilweretradedandconsumedinhugequantities,
andtheycamemainlyfromSpain,theGallicprovinces,NorthAfrica,Egyptand,toalesserextent,
Italy,whereconditionswerebestforthesecrops.
2.

Liquidslikewineandoliveoilweretransportedincontainerscalledamphorae.Thefragments
andsherdsofaverylargenumberofthesesurviveandithasbeenpossibleforarchaeologists
toreconstructtheprecise
shapes
ofthesecontainers.Spanishproducerssucceededin
capturingmarketsforoliveoilfromtheirItaliancounterparts.Thiswouldonlyhavehappened
ifSpanishproducerssuppliedbetterqualityoilatlowerprices.
3.

Theempireincludedmanyregionsthathadareputationforexceptionalfertility.Italy,Sicily,
EgyptandsouthernSpainwereallamongthemostdenselysettledorwealthiestpartsofthe
empire.Thebestkindsofwine,wheatandoliveoilcamemainlyfromnumerousestatesofthese
territories.
4.

Ontheotherhand,largeRomanterritorieswereinamuchlessadvancedstate.Thepastoral
andseminomadiccommunitieswereoftenonthemove,carryingtheirovenshapedhutswith
them.AsRomanestatesexpandedinNorthAfrica,thepasturesofthosecommunities
weredrasticallyreducedandtheirmovementsmoretightlyregulated.
5.

DiversifiedapplicationsofwaterpoweraroundtheMediterraneanaswellasadvancesin
waterpoweredmillingtechnology,theuseofhydraulicminingtechniquesintheSpanishgoldand
silverminesandthegiganticindustrialscaleonwhichthosemineswereworked.Theexistenceof
wellorganizedcommercialandbankingnetworksandthewidespreaduseofmoneyareall
indicationsofRomaneconomy.

ControllingofslavesandWorkers

1.

Slaverywasaninstitutiondeeplyrootedintheancientworld,bothintheMediterraneanandinthe
NearEast,andChristianitywhenitemergedasthestatereligionseriouslychallengedthis
institution.UnderAugustustherewerestill3millionslavesinatotalItalianpopulationof7.5
million.
2.

Slaveswereaninvestment,andatleastoneRomanagriculturalwriteradvisedlandownersagainst
usingthembecausetheirhealthcouldbedamagedbymalaria.Ontheotherhand,iftheRoman
upperclasseswereoftenbrutaltowardstheirslaves,ordinarypeopledidsometimesshowmuch
morecompassion.
3.

Aswarfarebecamelesswidespreadwiththeestablishmentofpeaceinthefirstcentury,the
supplyofslavestendedtodeclineandtheusersofslavelabourthushadtoturneithertoslave
breedingortocheapersubstitutessuchaswagelabourwhichwasmoreeasilydispensable.
4.

Infact,freelabourwasextensivelyusedonpublicworksatRomebecauseanextensiveuseof
slavelabourwouldhavebeentooexpensive.Slaveshadtobefedandmaintainedthroughoutthe
year,whichincreasedthecostofholdingthiskindoflabour.

ManagementoflabourbyColumella

5.

TheRomanagriculturalwriterspaidagreatdealofattentiontothemanagementoflabour.
Columella,afirstcenturywriterwhocamefromthesouthofSpain,recommendedthefollowing
points:
6.

Landownersshouldkeepareservestockofimplementsandtools,twiceasmanyasthey
needed,sothatproductioncouldbecontinuous,forthelossinslavelabourtimeexceedsthecost
ofsuchitems.
7.

Therewasageneralpresumptionamongemployersthatwithoutsupervisionnoworkwouldever
getdone,sosupervisionwasparamount,forbothfreeworkersandslaves.
8.

Tomakesupervisioneasier,workersweresometimesgroupedintogangsorsmallerteams.
Columellarecommendedsquadsoften,claimingitwaseasiertotellwhowasputtingineffortand
whowasnotinworkgroupsofthissize.Thisshowsadetailedconsiderationofthemanagementof
labour.
9.

PlinytheElder
,theauthorofaveryfamousNaturalHistory,condemnedtheuseofslavegangs
astheworstmethodoforganizingproduction,mainlybecauseslaveswhoworkedingangswere
usuallychainedtogetherbytheirfeet.
10.

TheElderPlinydescribedconditionsinthefactoriesofAlexandria.Asealisputuponthe
workmensaprons,theyhavetowearamaskoranetwithaclosemeshontheirheads,andbefore
theyareallowedtoleavethepremises,theyhavetotakeoffalltheirclothes.Agriculturallabour
musthavebeenfatiguinganddislikedthissystemsoEgyptianpeasantsdesertedtheirvillagesin
ordernottoengageinagriculturalwork.Thesamewasprobablytrueofmostfactoriesand
workshops.
11.

Alawof398referredtoworkersbeingbrandedsotheycouldberecognizedifandwhentheyrun
awayandtrytohide.Manyprivateemployerscasttheiragreementswithworkersintheformof
debtcontracts.

12.

Alotofthepoorerfamilieswentintodebtbondageinordertosurvive.Parentssometimes
soldtheirchildrenintoservitudeforperiodsof25years.Thelatefifthcenturyemperor
AnastasiusbuilttheeasternfrontiercityofDarainlessthanthreeweeksbyattractinglabourfrom
allovertheEastbyofferinghighwages.

SocialHierarchies(Divisions)inRome

1.

Thesocialstructuresoftheempireasfollows:senators,equites(horsemenandknights),the
respectablesectionofthepeople(middleclass),lowerclassandfinallytheslaves.Intheearly
thirdcenturywhentheSenatenumberedroughly1,000,approximatelyhalfofallsenatorsstill
camefromItalianfamilies.Bythe
late
empire,thesenatorsandtheequiteshad
merged
intoa
unifiedandexpandedaristocracy.
2.

Themiddleclassnowconsistedoftheconsiderablemassofpersonsconnectedwithimperial
serviceinthebureaucracyandarmybutalsothemoreprosperousmerchantsandfarmersofwhom
thereweremanyintheeasternprovinces.
3.

Belowthemwerethevastmassofthelowerclassesknowncollectivelyas
humiliores
(literally
Lower).Theycomprisedarurallabourforceofwhichmanywerepermanentlyemployedonthe
largeestatesworkersinindustrialandminingestablishmentsmigrantworkerswhosupplied
muchofthelabourforthegrainandoliveharvestsandforthebuildingindustry
selfemployedartisansetc.
4.

OnewriteroftheearlyfifthcenturytellsusthatthearistocracybasedintheCityofRomedrew
annualincomesofupto4,000poundsofgoldfromtheirestates,notcountingtheproducethey
consumeddirectly.
5.

ThelateRomanbureaucracy,boththehigherandmiddleechelons,wasacomparativelyaffluent
groupbecauseitdrewthebulkofitssalaryingoldandinvestedmuchofthisinbuyingupassets
likeland.Therewasofcoursealsoagreatdealofcorruption,especiallyinthejudicialsystemand
intheadministrationofmilitarysupplies.

CulturaltransformationoftheRomanworldfromthefourthto
seventhcenturies

1.

Thetraditionalreligiouscultureoftheclassicalworld,bothGreekandRoman,hadbeenpolytheist.
Thatis,itinvolvedamultiplicityofcultsthatincludedbothRoman/ItaliangodslikeJupiter,Juno,
MinervaandMars,aswellasnumerousGreekandeasterndeitiesworshippedinthousandsoftemples,
shrinesandsanctuariesthroughouttheempire
2.

Attheculturallevel,theperiodsawmomentousdevelopmentsinreligiouslife,withthe
emperorConstantinemadeChristianityastheofficialreligion.
3.

OverexpansionhadledDiocletiantocutbackbyabandoningterritorieswithlittlestrategicor
economicvalue.Diocletianalsofortifiedthefrontiers,reorganizedprovincialboundaries,and

separatedcivilianfrommilitaryfunctions,grantinggreaterautonomytothemilitarycommanderswho
nowbecameamorepowerfulgroup.
4.

Themonetarysystemofthelateempirebrokewiththesilverbasedcurrenciesofthefirstthree
centuriesbecausetheSpanishsilvermineswereexhaustedandgovernmentranoutofsufficient
stocksofthemetaltosupportastablecoinageinsilver.Constantinefoundedthenewmonetary
systemongoldandtherewerevastamountsofthisincirculation.
5.

Constantineschiefinnovationswereinthemonetarysphere,whereheintroducedanew
denomination,the
solidus
,acoinof4gmofpuregoldthatwouldinfactoutlasttheRomanEmpire
itself.
Solidi
weremintedonaverylargescaleandtheircirculationranintomillions.
6.

TheotherareaofinnovationwasdivisionofRomanEmpireintoeastandwestandthecreationofa
secondcapitalatConstantinople(atthesiteofmodernIstanbulinTurkey,andpreviously
calledByzantium),surroundedonthreesidesbythesea.
7.

IntheWest,theempirefragmentedpoliticallyasGermanicgroupsfromtheNorth(Goths,Vandals,
Lombards,etc.)tookoverallthemajorprovincesandestablishedkingdomsthatarebestdescribedas
postRomankingdoms.
8.

Bytheearlyseventhcentury,thewarbetweenEasternRomeandIranhadflaredupagain,andthe
SasanianswhohadruledIransincethethirdcenturylaunchedawholesaleinvasionofallthemajor
easternprovinces(includingEgypt).