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ELECTRODYNAMICS
Editedby JulianSchwinger
Thedevelopment
of quantum
mechanics
duringthe first quarterof this centuryproduceda revolution
in physical
thoughtevenmoreprofound
thanthat associated
with
tne theoryof relativity.Nowhere
is this moreevidentthanin the areaof the theoreticaland experimental
investigations
centering
aboutthe properties
andthe inter.
actions
of theelectromagnetic
field,or,as it is otherwise
known,
electrodynamics.
In thisvolume
the history
of quantum
electrodynamics
is dramatically
unfolded
through
the originalwordsof its creators.lt rangesfromthe initialsuccesses,
to the first
signsof crisis,andthen,withthestimulus
of experimental
discovery,
to newtriumphs
quantitative
leading
to an unparalleled
accord
between
theory
andexperiment.
lt terminateswith the presentpositionof quantum
electrodynamics
as part of the larger
particles,
problems
subjectof theoryof elementary
facedwith fundamental
andthe
futureprospect
of evenmorerevolutionary
discoveries.
Physicists,
mathematicians,
electromagnetic
engineers,
studentsof the historyand
philosophy
of science
will find muchof permanent
valuehere.Thetechniques
of
quantum
electrodynamics
arenot likelyto be substantially
altered
by futuredevelop.
ments,andthe subjectpresents
physical
the simplest
illustration
of the challenge
posedby the "basicinadequacy
and incompleteness
of the present
foundations
of
physics."
theoretical
Papers
areincluded
by Bethe,
Bloch,
Dirac,
Dyson,
Fermi,
Feynman,
Heisenberg,
Kusch,
Lamb,
0ppenheimer,
Pauli,
Schwinger,
Tomonaga,
Weisskopf,
Wigner,
andothers.There
area totalof 34 papers,
29 of whichare in English,
I in French,
3 in German,
ano
1 in ltalian.
Preface
andhistorical
commentary
by the editor.xvii * 423pp.6t/sx 9%.
Paperbound.
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Selected
Popers
on
WWffiWWW
ffifuffiffiWffiffiffiW
Edited
by JuJion
Schwinger
Professor
of Physics,
Horvard
University
DOVTR
PUBTICATIONS,
II{C.,NEW
YORK
COLLEGE
CARROLI.
LIBRARY
}IELENA,MONTANA 5960I
Inc'
Copyright
'riftrts @ 1958 by Dover Publications,
leserved under Pan American and
Af
lnternational Copyright Conventions.
Publishcclirt Canatlltbl Ccncral Ptrblishing Conrpany, Ltd., 30 Leslnill Road, Don Mills, Toronto,
Ontario.
Publishcd in thc Unitcd Kingclom by Constablc
and Company, Ltd., l0 Orangc Strect, London
wc 2.
Library
CONTENTS
Preface
vll
PAPERS
P.A.M. Dirac
PAGE
OF RADIATION
p.243(re27)
Enrico Fermi sopRAr-'nlrnrrRoDINAMrcA euANTrsrrcA
Atti della Reale Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. Vol. 12.
p. a3l (1930).
P.A.M. Dirac, V. A. Fock, and Boris Podolsky
24
oN euANTUM
ELECTRODYNAMICS
29
4l
LADUNGSscHwANKUNGEN
62
|ll
68
82
Conlenls
tv
V. S. Weisskopf
DER QUANTE,NTHEORIE
DES ELEKTRONS
ro
H.
M.
Foley
ATOM
HYDROGEN
H.
A. Bethe
rHE
FINE STRUCTURE
136
139
oN QUANTUM-ELECTRoDYNAMICS
Schwinger
Julian
MAGNETIC MOMENT OF THE ELECTRON
AND THE
r42
P h y s i c a tR e u i e w , Y o l . 7 3 , p . 4 1 6 ( 1 9 4 8 )
l4
t5
S. Tomonaga
oN A RELATIvISTICALLY
INvARIANT
CORRECTIONS TO SCATTERING
169
r H E o R y P h y s i c a lR e a i e u , V o l . 7 4 , P . 2 2 4 ( 1 9 4 8 )
l9
156
Schwinger
QUANTUM ELECTRoDYNAMICS, III: THE
Julian
ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELECTRONRADIATIVE
l8
145
FoRMULATIoN
17
143
ELECTRoNTHEoRY
l6
r35
METHOD
BY A MICROWAVE
r29
oF THE
P. Kusch
and
92
W.
Paul'i
and
F. Villars
oN THE INvARIANT
r97
REGULARIZATIoN IN
20
Julian
Schwinger
2l
R. P. Feynman
198
PoLARIZATIoN
209
P h y s i c a lR e v i e w , V o l . 7 6 , p . 7 4 9 ( 1 9 4 9 )
225
Conlenls
22
23
R. P. Feynman spACE-TrME
AppRoACHTo quANTUMELECTRoDyNAMrcs Physical Review, Vol. 26, p. 269 (lg.4g)
R. P. Feynman
THEoRy
MATHEMATTcAL
oF ELEcTRoMAGNETTc
FoRMULATToN
oF THE euANTUM
rNrnnaciroN
25
2b7
F. J. Dyson
rHE RADIATToNTHEoRTESor-.r'oMONAGA,scHwrNGER,
AND FEvNMAN Physical Reaiew,Yol.Tb, p. 486 (lg4g)
F. J. Dyson
P,A.M.
Dirac
rHE
LAGRANGTAN rN quANTUM
R. P, Feynman
MEcHANrcs
2gz
MECHANTcs
27b
PhysicalReuiew,Yol.75,p. 1736(1949)
26
296
B, Heft I (lg3g)
Zl2
g2l
28
Z4Z
29
Bb6
W. Pauli
THE coNNEcrroN BETwEEN sr'rN AND srATrsrrcs
Physical Reuiew, Vol. 58, p. 716 (1940)
g7Z
30
3l
Robert
Karplus
MENT
279
and Abraham
OF ATOMIC
ENERGY
Klein
LEVELS,
ELEcrRoDyNAMrc DTsrLACEIII:
THE
HYPERFINE
STRUCTURE
G, Kiillen
CONSTANTS IN qUANTUM
ELECTRODYNAMICS
KongeligeDanske Videnshabernes
Selshab,yol 27,
No. 12 (1953)
34
Norman
Zg7
s98
M. Kroll
414
PREFACE
Prefqce
of
plementary classical particle language. The ensuing theory
iight qrruntum emission and absorption by atomic systems [l]
m"urkei the beginning of quantum electrodynamics, as the
theory of the quanrum dynamical system formed by the electronarmagneric field in inreraction with charged particles (in a
,or.,i"r sense, the lightest charged particles) ' The quantization
the ficprocedure could be transferred from the variables of
titious oscillators to the components of the field in three-dimena field
sional space, basecl uPon thl classical analogy between.
sysspecifiei within small sPatial cells, and equivalent particle
electrotlms. When it was attempted to quantize the cornplete
Physik
f'
magnetic field tW. Heisenberg and W' Pauli, Zerts'
56,"1(1929)l,ratherthantheradiationfieldthatremainsafter
enthe coulomb interaction is separated, difficulties were
countered that stem from the gauge ambiguity of the potentials
Maxwell
that appear in the Lagrangian formulation of the
are those
equations. The only t.uidyrturnical degrees of freedom
additional
of the radiation part of the fielrl' Yet one can'employ
a
degrees of freedom which are suPpressed finally by imposing
system
[2] '
.oisistent resrricrion on the admissible states of the
scheme,
To make more evident the relativistic invariance of the
introducing
other equivalent forms rvere given to the theory by
of charged
different time coordinates for each of a fixed number
formal
This
particles coupled to the electromagnetic field t3l'
field lvas terperiod of quantization of the electromagnetic
the accuracy
in
-irrut.d by a critical analysis of the limitations
produced
of simultaneous measurements of trvo field strengths'
measby the knorvn quantum restrictions on the simultaneous
Bohr and
urability of properties of material test bodies [N'
12'
Medd'
L. Rosenfeld, Kgl' Danske Vid' Sels', Math'-fys'
No. 8 (1933) 1. The complete agreement of these considerations
relawith the torrrnt implications of the operator commutation
applying the
tions indicated the necessity and consistency of
sYstems'The
quantum mechanical description to all dynamical
synthesisofthecomplemerrtaryclassicalparticleandfieldlanas exemplified in
guages in the .o.r."p, of the quantized field'
to be of
the treatment of the electromagnetic field, was found
Pref qce,
ix
Prefqce
Prefqce
xl
xii
Prefqce
displacement of energy levels in a Coulomb field. Both predictions were in good accord with experiment, and later refinements in experiment and theory have only emphasized that
agTeement. However, the Coulomb calculation disclosed a serious flaw; the additional spin interaction that appeared in an
electrostatic field was not that expected from the relativistic
transformation properties of the supplementary spin magnetic
moment, and had to be artificially corrected [14, footnote 5],
[15]. Thus, a complete revision in the computational techniques
of the r-elativistic theory could not be avoided. The electrodynamic formalism is invariant under l-orentz transformations
and gauge transformations, and the concePt of renormalization
is ir accord with these requirements. Yet, in virtue of the
divergences inherent in the theory, the use of a particular coordinate system or gauge in the course of computation could
result in a loss of covariance. A version of the theory rvas needed
that manifested covariance at every stage of the calculation. The
basis of such a formulation was found in the distinction betrveen
the elemenrary properries of the individual uncoupled fields,
and the efiects produced by the interaction between them [16]'
'fhe
application
[J. Schwinger, Phys. Rev. 74, 1439 (1948) ]'
o1 these methods to rhe problems of vacuum polarization, electron mass,and the electromagnetic ProPerties of single electrons
now gave finite, covariant results which justified and extended
the earlier calcularions 1171. Thus, to the first approximation
at least, the use of a'covariant renormalization technique had
produced a rheory thar rvas devoid of divergences and in agreement .r.vithexperience, all high energy difficulties being isolated
in the renormalization constants. Yet, in one asPect of these
calculations, the preservation of gauge invariance, the utmost
caurion was required 1181,and the need was felt for lessdelicate
methods of evaluation. Extreme cale rvould not be necessaryif.
by some device, the various divergent integrals could be rendered convergent while maintaining their general covariant
fearures. This can be accomplished by substituting, for the mass
of the particle, a suitably weighted sPectrum of masses;rvhere
all auxiliary masseseventually tend to infinity [19]. Such a Procedure has no rneaning in terms of physically realizable Particles.
Prefqce
It is best understood, and replaced, by a description of the electron r,vith the aid of an invariant proper-time parameter. Di
\:ergencesappear only when one integrates over this parameter,
and gauge invariant, Lorentz invariant results are automatica[y
guaranteed merely by reserving this integration to the end of
the calculation [20].
Throughout these developments the basic vierv of eiectromagnetism \vas that originated by Maxr,vell and Lorentz-the
interaction betr.veencharges is propagated through the field by
local action. In its quantum mechanical transcription it leads to
formalisms in rvhich charged parricles and field appear on rhe
same footing dynamically. But anorher approach is also familiar
classically;the field produced by arbitrarily moving chargescan
be evaluated, and the dynamical problem reformulated as the
purely mechanical one of particles interacting rvith each other,
and themselves,through a propagated ac[ion at a distance. The
transferenceof this line of thought into quantum language t2ll,
122], {23} rvas accompanied by another shift in emphasis relative to the previously described rvork. In the latter, the effect
on the particles of the coupling rvith the electromagnetic field
was expressedby additional energy terms rvhich could then be
used to evaluate energy displacements in bound states, or to
compute corrections to scattering cross-sections.
Now the fundamental viervpoint rvas that of scattering, and in its approximate
versions led to a detailed space-time description of the various
interaction mechanisms. The two approaches are equivalent;
the formal integration of the differential equations of one
method supplying the starting point of the other t241. But if
one excludes the consideration of bound states,it is possible to
expand the elements of a scattering rnatrix in powers of the
coupling constant, and examine the effect of charge and mass
renormalization, term by term, to indefinitely high porvers. It
appeared that, for any process,the coefficient of each porver in
the renormalized coupling constant rvas completely finite ;251.
This highly satisfacrory result did nor mean, hor,vever, that the
act of renormalizafion had, in itself, produced a more correct
theory. The convergence of the porver series is not established,
xtv
Prefqce
Prefoce
xvl
Prefoce
Prefqce
xvtl
Cambridge,Mass.
1956
Jurrex ScnwrNcrR
WffiffiWKffiW
ffifuffiffiWffiffiffiW
P o p e rI
244
P. A. M. Dirac.
X"E,* Ho
(1)
equalto the total energy,Ho being the Hamiltonian for the atom alone,since
the variables 8,, 0, obviously satisfy their canonicalequationsof motion
E,:-ffi:0,6,:ffi:t.
When there is interaction between the fielcl and the atom, it could be taken into
account on the classical theory by the acldition of an interaction term to the
Hamiltonian (1), which would be a function of the variables of the atom and of
the variables 8,, 0, that describe the field.
This interaction term would give
the efiect of the rad.iation on the atom, and also the reaction of the atom on the
radiation field.
In order that an analogous method. may be used. on the quantum theory,
it is necessary to assume that the variables Er, 0n are q-numbers satisfying
the stand.ard. quantum oonditions 0rE, - Erg, : ih, etc., where h is (2rc)-r
times the usual Planek's constant, like the other dynamical variables of the
problem. This assumption immed.iately gives light-quantum properties to
245
the rafiation.*
X'or if v" is the frequency of the component r, 2rvr0, is an
augle variable, so that its canonical conjugate E,l2nv, can only &ssumea
discrete set of values tlifiering by multiples of. h, which means that En can
changeonly by integral multiples of the quantum (Znh)v,. rf we now add an
interactionterm (taken over from the clasicaltheory) to the Hamiltonian (1),
the problem can be solved zsselding to the rules of quantum mechanics,and
we would expect to obtain the correct results for the action of the radiation
and the atom on one another. It will be shownthat we actually get the eorrect
laws for the emission and absorption of radiation, and the correct values for
Einstein's A's and.B's. In the author's previoustheory,f where the energies
and phasesof the eomponentsof radiation were c-numbers,only the B's could.
be obtained,and the reaction of the atom on the rafiation could not be taken
into account.
It will also be shown that the Hamiltonian which describesthe interaction
of the atom and the electromagneticwaves carl be mad.eidentical with the
Hamiltonian for the problem of the interaction of the atom with an assembly
of partioles moving with the velocity of light and satisfying the Einstein-Bose
statistics, by a suitable choice of the interaction energy for the particles. The
mrmberof particleshaving any specifieddirection of motion and energy,which
can be used.as a dynamical variable in the Hamiltonian for the particles, is
equal to the number of quanta of energy in the correspond.ingwave in the
Hamiltonian for the waves. There is thus a complete harmony between the
wave and light-cluantum d.escriptionsof the interaction. We shall actually
build up the theory from the light-quantum point of view, and.show that the
Hamiltonian transforms naturally into a form which resemblesthat for the
waves.
The mathematicaldevelopmentof the theory has beenmad.epossibleby the
author's general transformation theory of the quantum matrices.f owing
to the fact that we countthe time asa c-number,we areallowedto usethe notion
of the value of any dynamical variable at any instant of time. This value is
* Similar assumptions have been qsed by Born and
Jordan [.2. f. physik,, vol. B4,
p. 886 ( 1925)l for the purpose of taking over the classical formula for the emission oJ rad.iation
by a dipole into the quantum theory, and by Born, Heisenberg and Jordan ['Z, f. physik,'
vol. 35, p. 606 (r925)l for calculating the energy fluctuations in a field of black-bod.y
radiation.
'
t Roy. Soc. Proc.,'A, vol. ll2, p. 661, $ b (f926). This is quoteil later by, loc. cit.,I.
'
1 Roy. Soc. Proc.,' A, vol. ll3, p. 62I (1927). This is quotort later by lnc. ci,t,,Il.. An
essentially equivalent theory has been obtained inclependently by Jordan [,2. f. physik,'
vol. 40, p. 809 (1927)1. Seealso, X'. London, ,2. f. physik,, vol. 40, p. t9B (1926).
P. A. M. Dirac.
216
:1t'8 (1'1"),
t*('1")
),,
8(Er+r'-r+r")"'
nr,(e'{): -ih8 (Lt'-(t")...I ({o-t'-2,,-t")8'(E*'-1*')
Thus if the Hamiltonian H is given as a function of the ei, and 47,,we can at
once write down the matrix H(1' 4\. We can then obtain the transformation
funotion, (l'la') say, which transforms to a matrix scheme (a) in which the
Hamiltonian is a d.iagonalmatrix, as (l' l0-')must satisfy the integral equation
f
.(1'ln'),
l]J(qe')d1"(1"1n'): W (oc')
(3)
247
ieand.vleon account of the special equations (2) for the matrices representing
e and r;e. Equation (3) may be written in the more general form
I,,r't',
(3',)
248
P. A. M. Dirac.
(Ho+ Y),1,,
i'ha,s13t:
this equation
where(Iro * Y) is an operator. If (l : >,erQ,is the solutionof
that satisfiesthe properinitial conditions,wherethe tf,'s are the eigenfunctions
with one stationary state labellecl
for the unperturbedsystem,eachassooiatecl
is the probby the suffixr, and the Q,,'satefunctionsof the time only, then lo, l2
be norability of the systembeing in the state r at any time' The o"s must
theory will
malised initially, and will then always remain normalised.. The
applydirectlytoanassemblyofNsimilarinclepenclentsystemsifwemultiply
that'
of thesear's by NL so as to makeE, I a, lz : N' S'e shall now have
"u"n
in the state r'
lo, 12is the probablenumberof systems
the rate of changeof the a,'s is$
The equationthat d'etermines
'ihd,: XJ',*,,
wherethe V,*'s ate t'he elementsof the matrix representingV'
imaginary equationt
_nuu,*: xrvrr*or* : xpr*v..
(4)
The coniugate
$,)
I lroc. adt.I.
extended by Born [,2. f. Physik,' vol. 40, p. 167 (1926)]
t Th" tn"ory has recently been
changes in the stationary stat'es that may be
adiabatic
tho
account
go as to take into
This extension is not used in
produced by tho perturbation as well as the transitions.
the Present PaPer.
$ Loc. cit., I, equation (25).
249
Ifwe regard a, and ih ao* as canonical conjugates, equations (4) and (4') take
rhe Hamiltonian form with the Hamiltonian function X', : Xrron*vrro'
namely,
on't
dan
dt
'ih 6",*t
., ila.* :
Xll --;.-
dt
aF,
:---:
da,
fi t"-i6'1n,
an* -
fr *gt$":h,
)"rVrrNr+$r*9i (d'-6';72,
and the equations that d.etermine the rate at which transitions occur have the
canonical form
8Ft
0F,
\rr
'" : -
9": N'
4l'
&re-iw'tlh,
br* :
gr*
"iw,tlh,
'We
\Y,beingtheenergyof the state r.
have l4ls equalto la,lz,the probable
numberof systemsin the state r. X,orb" we find
ih'b,: W,b,+,ihh,s-;wsft
- Wrb,| 2"Yrrb"ei(w,--w,)4,1
rviththe help of (a). If rve putY,r:p*si(w,-w"Itth,sothato* is a constant
when V doesnot involve the time explicitly, this red.uces
to
ih'b,:W,b,+X,0",6"
:8"Hr"6",
(5)
P. A. M. Dirac.
250
(6)
like equation (3,). This differs from the previous equation (5) only in the
notation, a single suffix r being there used to denote a stationary state instead
of a set of numerical values l*' fot the variables 11,,and.fu being used instead
of + (g'). Equation (6), ancl therefore also equation (5), can still be used when
the Hamiltonian is of the more general type which cannot be expressed as an
algebraic function of a set of canonial variables, but can still be represented
by a matrix H(Z'\') or H,.".
'We
now lake b, and''ihb,* to be canonically conjugate variables instead of
The equation (5) anct its conjugate imaginary equation will
a, and.'iha,*.
now take the Hamiltonian form rvith the Hamiltonian function
X' :
(7)
Xrrbr* Hrr6".
s-de'lh,
bf -
Nrt d!o'tk,
(8)
to the new canonical variables N", 0r, where N, is, as before, the probable
trumber of systems in the state r, and 0, is a new phase. The llamiltonian n'
will now become
'F :
XruH", Nr* N s+e!(e'-e')lk,
and the equations for the rates of change of N" and 0, will take the canonical
form
'l\":
r a F ;-0 F
ur:
aN;.
D-0,
xrw"N, * xr.?r"N"*Nslet(0"-o''r&.
(9)
The first term X,Wf{" is the total proper energy of the assembly, and the
seoondmay be regardeclas the additional enelgy d"ueto the perturbation. If
theperturbation is zero, the phases0nwould increaselinea,rlywith the time,
while the previousphases{, would in this casebe constants'
Stati,sti,cs.
theEi,nstei,n-Bose
$3. Ihe Perturbutionof an Assembtysati,sfui,ng
According to the precedingsection we oan describethe efiect of a perturbation on an assembly of independent'systems by means of canonical variables
and Hamiltonian equations of motion. The developmentof the theory which
25L
naturally suggestsitself is to makethesecanonicalvariablesq-numberssatisfying the usual quantum conditions instead of c-numbers,so that their lramiltonian equations of motion become true quantum equations. The Hamiltonian
function will now provide a Schr<ifingerwave equation, which must be solved
and.interpreted in the usual manner. The interpretation will give not merely
theprobablenumberof systemsin anystate, but the probability of any given
tlistribution of the systems among the various states, this probability being,
in fact, equal to the squareof the modulus of the normalisedsolution of the
wave equation that satisfies the appropriate initial conditions. We could, of
course,calculate directly from elementaryconsiderationsthe probability of
any given distribution when the systems are ind.epenclent,as we know the
probability of eachsystembeing in any particular state. 'Weshall find that the
probability calculateddirectly in this way doesnot agreewith that obtained
ftom the wave equationexceptin the specialcasewhenthere is ouly onesystem
in the assembly. rn the generalcaseit will be shownthat the wave equation
Ieads to the correct value for the probability of any given clistribution when
tl.e systemsobey the Einstein-Bosestatistics instead of being independent.
we assumethe variablesb,,,ihb,* of $ 2 to be canonicalq-numberssatisfying
the quantumcond.itions
b,.,ihb,*- ,ihb,*.b, : ih
or
and
b&r* - br*b,:
brb,- brb,: g,
b,b"*-h"*br:O
1,
b,*br* - br*h * : 0,
(slr).
The transformation equations (8) must now be witten in the quantum form
b, : (N, I I'f
: -i,,/aNrl
"-t'e'1n
I
br* - N-#o,.th- eie,tk
(N" + I)+, J
(10)
lo
P. A' M' I)irac'
252
(N' { L1t
Er.b"*Hrrb,: xrrNrfot0'/lEf"
"-;e'1tt
$,,)*s.t(4"-e")1h
l,.,H,,N,l (N, + 1
(11)
inwhichtheH,,arestillc-numbers.Wemaywritethisn.intheformcorre.
spondingto (9)
(11',)
x' : x,wN" * x",o",Ni (N, +1 - 8',)* dt@'-o'tth
X'W'N' and an interin which it is again composedof a proper energy term
action energYterm.
The wave equationwritten in terms of the variablesN' ist
(12)
-1,
:!r,H",Nr',l(Nr', + 1 - 8^)+t(Nr" Nr','..Nr',
"'Nr', + 1, "')'
(13)
equation that in the matrix leplewe see from the right-hand side of this
to
ed?'-t')lk will contribute
senting X', the term in n' involving
-only
thosematrixelementsthatrefertotransitionsinwhichN,decreases
'i'e', t'o matrix elements of the type
by unity and N, increases by unitv,
Considerfirstthecasewhenthereisonlyonesystemintheassembly.Th
by the eigenfunction
probability of its being in the state g is determined
fWearesupposingfordefinitenesst.hat,thelabelrofthestationarystatest,akesthe
valuesI, 2,3, ..'.
1 "' lf*' f l) is to be takento meanrf (N"N" "'N"'"')'
t Whens : r,{r (N1',Nr'..'N''-
ll
253
{(\', Nr', ...) in which all the N,'s are put equalto zero except\,, which is
'when
put equal to unity. This eigenfunctionwe shall denoteby
it is
Q{q}.
substituted in the lefb-hanclside of (18), all the terms in the summation on
the right-hand side vanish exceptthosefor which r :
{, and we are left with
4
,ih
*+{q}:
E"Ho,{{s},
(14)
t2
254
P. A. M. Dirac.
b1rrr, ...) is also symmetrical atthat time, so that b ('t, "') rrill remain
symmetrical.
Let N, denotethe numberof systemsin the state r. Then a stationary state
of the assemblydescribableby a symmetrical eigenlunction may be specified
by the numbers\, N, .'. N,... just as well as by the numberstv t2 "' ra "'t
and we shall be able to transform equation (15) to the variablesN1, Nr ....
'We
cannot aotually take the new eigenfunctionb (N1,Nz "') equalto the previous one b (rrrr...), but must take one to be a numerical multiple of the
other in order that each may be correctly normalised.with respect to its
respeotivevariables. We must have,in fact,
\ r u r , . . l b( r r r r . . . ) l ' : 1 : X u , , N , i. b. .( N r ,N , " ' ) l ' ,
and hencewe must take lb(Nr, N, ...) l2 equalto the sum of lb(rtrr "')12 for
allvaluesof thenumberst1,rs...suchthat there are N. of themequalto 1,Nt
: XNn
equalto 2, etc. Thereare N l/Nl ! N2 ! ... terms in this sum, whereN
is the total number of systems,and they are all equal, since b(rtrr"') is a
symmetricalfunction of its variablest1, 12 ."' Hencewe must have
b (N1,N2 '..) : (N !/Nr ! Nz ! ...)*a ('{, "')'
If we make this substitution in equation(15),the left-haud side will become
"')
ift (\ ! N, ! ... /N !)* i (Nr,N, ...). The term H,,n,*b(r{, "'r*-1s',,nr7aar
become
will
sid'e
in the first summationon the right-hand
(N1,N2 ... N,- 1"'N'+ 1"'), (16)
lN1! N2! ... (N'-1) !...(N'+ 1) ! .../N lll H,ub
where we have written r tor r* and s for s*. This term must be summed-for
all valuesof s exceptr, and must then be summedfor r taking eachof the values
t1t rz .... Thus eachterm (16) gets repeatedby the summatiouprocessuntil
it occursa total of Nntimes, sothat it contributes
N, [N, ! N2 ! ... (N' - 1) ! ... (N,+1) ! ...lN !]] H,,b (N1,Nz ..'N,-1 "' N' + 1"')
: N , * ( N , * 1 ) + ( N!, N 2 1 . . . / N! ) ' H " b ( N 1 ' N z . 'N. " - 1 . . .N " + 1 . . . )
to the right-hanclsitle of (15). n'inally, the term I.o}J,,,*b(rr, 12"'\ becomes
>J'TJI,,.b(r{r...) :xN,Hnn'(N, ! N,l "'A'T!)+b (\' N, "')'
Henoeequation(15)becomes,with the removalof the faotor (N, ! N2 !... /N !)+,
,ihb (NL,N, ...) : x,x,*, N"*(N"+1)+H^b (Nr,N, ... N'-1 "' N, + 1 "')
+>N"H""b(N1, N2...)' (17)
t3
Emission and, Absorgttion of Rcrd,itttion.
255
which is identical with (18) fexcept for the fact that in (17) the primes have
beenomitted from the N's, which is permissiblewhen we do not requireto refer
to the N's as q-numbers]. we have thus establishedthat the Hamiltonian
(11)describesthe efiectof a perturbationon an assemblysatisfyingthe EinsteinBosestatistics.
LIBRI\R?
COLLEGE
EARROLT
l4
256
P. A. M. Dirac'
to the
to be symmetrical in the variable$ t1112 "', w can again transform
variablesN1, Nz . ' ., which will lead, as before,to the result
dhbQ', N1',Ne' ...) : Hr (J1)b (J', N'r, Nn' ...)
g)s,E".$r'*(Ns',+1-8n,)+Ir1J',r;J',s)b(J",Nr"Nz',..'N,',-'l..'N,',*1"') (18)
function
This is the schr<iclingerequation correspondingto the Hamiltonian
(e'-e)/2,
(1e)
x' : Hp (J) + t",. H,, N,* (N, f 1-8,.)l s"
being such that when reprein which H", is now a function of the J's and'?'1"s,
J"s). (It
sentedby a matrix in the (J) schemeits (J',J") elementis H (J',r ;
shoulalbe noticed.that H,, still commuteswith the N's and 0's')
the
Thus the interaction of a perturbiny' system and an assemblysatisfying
form (19)'
Einstein-Bosestatistics can be describedby a Hamiltonian of the
Wecanputitintheformcorrespondingto(11,)byobservingthatthematrix
elementH(J'r;J's)iscomposed-ofthesumoftwoparts,apartthatcomes
and'
s:r
foom the proper enegy Hq, which equalsW, when J7,":Jo'and
energy Y,
vanishesotherwise, and a part that comes from the interaction
which may be denotedby u(J'r; J"s)' Thus rre shall have
-W'
8"' * 0"'
H'" :
the matrix
whereon,is that function of the J's and ru'swhich is representedby
whose(J'J") elementis tr (J'r ; J's), anil so (19) becomes
-8")'"d(e'-eln'
n' : Hr,(J)+>Jil"N,*),,,o""N"* (N,+1
(20)
system
The Hamiltonian is thus the sum of the proper energyof the perturbing
perturbaHr(J), the proper energyof the perturbed systems>Jil,N, and the
8",)+d:'Q'-q')lh.
tion energy)nro,,Nn* (N, + I
,in
state to othersof tlw sameErwgy .
$5. Th,eoryof Trans,itions a systemfrom orw
we
Bofore applyrng the results of the precedingseotionsto light-quanta,
the
of
Ilamiltonian
a
shali consider the solution of the problem presentetl by
type (19). The essentialfeature of the problem is that it refers to a dynamical
d.oos
system which can, under the influence of a perturbation energy which
to others of
not involve the time explicitly, make transitious from one state
and an
the sameenergy. The problem of collisions betweenan atomic system
Botn's
electron,which hasbeentreated by Born,* is a specialcaseof this type.
consists, in
method is to fincl a period,i,csolution of the wave equation which
wayes'
sofarasnt"""*"'.'l::.;i:ff_:T;:ffiffi':""'of prane
t5
Emission and, Absorptiun of Eqd,iation.
257
i,ha (u') :
fV
@,n,)i[,x,,. a (a!,),
(2rl
l6
P. A. lL Dilac.
258
wemaysubstitutefora(oc,)intheright-hand-sideof(21)itsinitialvalue'This
gives
| aoa(x'a.o)#ffi
a08(o!- no)
i,ha(a"'):
'
Hence
Pzj
. d\r'...d^(u-,'i
f ffiffi
d^(r'
Iotot')
dw''
(23)
Toratimethatislargeoomparedwiththeperiodsofthesystemweshallfincl
is contributed by values of
that practically the i,not" of the integral in (23)
W' verY closeto W-o: W (oco)' Put
: J (W" "y')'
a (u'):o (W', y') and ? (ar', uz'. . ..n,')13(W', T" "' Tu-r')
of (22) (provided'Tk'*\ka
Then for the integral in (23) we findl, with the help
for somek)
I ir(w',T')ltJ (w',v')dw'
t*'-*"r'ro
-j]!:o !:':t'4:11 dw'
: Ia0l, i, {w',v' ; w0,yo)l' J (w',r', [eo
J
-W0)2'dW'
- 2 I *01'[ 1, 1W',v'; Wo,yo)l' J (W',T')[1- cos(W'-Wo) t lh]| (W'
J
17
259
: zrc
tlh.f r,#, r, i wo,yo)l, J(W, y,).
I aolz
The probability per unit time of a transition to a state for which each
y7,lies
betweenya' and yr,'* dT*, is thus (apart from the normalisingfactor)
Znl aolLlh. l, (Wo,y' i W0,yo)l, J (Wo, ilTr,.il^(r,... d,y*_t,, (24)
T,)
which is proportionalto the squareof the matrix elementassociatedwith
that
transition of the perturbing energy.
To apply this result to a simprecollisionproblem, we take the cr,sto
be the
eomponentsof momentuu p*, pa, 7t" of the colliding electron and the
y,s to
be 0 and /, the angleswhich determineits direction of motion. If, taking
the
relativity change of mass with velocity into account, we let p denote
the
resultantmomentum,equal to (p|*pf*p*)t,and
E the energy,equal to
(mzc4a-Pcz1t,
of the electron, mheingits rest-mass,we find for the Jacobian
^
P , , P u , ' P ":\ : E P - ' - -u'
"J :-0 : (TE;o;;)
;, "o
Thusthe J (Wo,y') of the expression(24) hasthe value
J (Wo,T') : E'P' sin 0'/c2,
(25)
where E' and P' refer to that value for the energy of the scattered
electron which
nrakesthe total energy equartheinitial energywo (i,.e.,to that
varue resuired
by the conservation of energy).
We must now interpret the initial value of a(x,), namely, a0 g(a,_ao),
which we did not normalise. According to 2 the wave function in terms
$
of the
variables ae is 6 (a'): a (a') s-iw'tln, so that its initial value is
o0 8(oc'- d.o)e-iw'tth:ao E(p,, -p,o)g(pr, -
puo)g(p,, _,p:)e-i\\'tth.
andthetransrormati;;;
d,p'd,pu,d,sti,
l{*,rn) rr(p,)
we obtain for bhe initial wave fu4ction in the co-ord.inates n,
ao z the value
ao (%t6;
zt z
"i>
q,p,or'I h
i'w'tI h
e.
l8
26A
P. A. M. Dirac.
per unit
This correspondsto an initial distribution of I o012(2tch)*3electrons
striking a
volume. since their velocity is Pocz/Eo,the number per unit time
unit surfaceat right-anglesto their direction of motion is lo0l2P0c2/(2nh)sBo'
(25)'
Dividing this into the expression(24) we obtain, with the help of
po)itSrio 0' d,0'd+'.
-''
4n2(%ch)2E$t,
t 0t' ;
(26)
cn
it shall
This is the efiective area that must be hit by an electron in order that
result
This
energy E''
be scattered.in the solid. angle sin 0' d0'd{'withthe
for the
difiers by the factot (Zrch)zlumv',. P',/Po from Born's.* The necessity
of
detailecl
principle
lactor P'/Po in (26) could have been predicted" from the
2
the clirect and
balancing, as the factor I o: (p' ; Po)l is symmetrical between
Teverseprocesses.f
$ 6. Appli,cation to Light-Qrtanta'
of the
We shall now apply the theory of $ 4 to the case when the syst'ems
since lightassernbly are light-quanta, the theory being applicable to this case
A
interaction.
quanta obey the Einstein-Bose statistics and have no mutual
momenlight,quantum is in a stationary state when it is moving with constant
comthree
the
by
tum in a straight line. Thus a stationary state r is flxed
specifies its
ponents of momentum of the light-quantum anil a variable that
are a finite
there
Jate of polarisation. We shali work on the ass*mption that
as it would.
number of these stationary states, lying very close to one anothel'
light-quanta
of
the
be inconvenient to use continuous ranges. The interaction
form (20),
with an atomic system will be described by a Hamiltonian of the
and the
in rrhich H, (J) is the Hamiltonian for the atomic system alone,
this form
coefficients ,t)rs ate for the present unlic0.own. we shall show that
laws for the
lor the Hamiltonian, with the o", arbitrary, leads to Einstein's
emission and absorption of radiation.
to exist
The light-quantum has the peculiarity that it apparently ceases
its
in
which
when it is in one qf its stationary states, namely, the zero state,
moment'um, and therefore also its energy, ate zetl, When a light-quantum
when one is
is absorbed it can be consicleredto jump into this zero state, and
in which it is
emitted it can be considered to jump from the zero state to one
* In a morerecentpaper('Nachr. Gesell.d. Wiss',' Gottingen,p' 146 (1926))Born has
mechanics,
obtained a,result in agreementwith that of the presentpapertor non-relativit'y
I am
theorems.
by using an intorpretation of the analysis baseil.on the conservation
work'
of
this
copy
indebteclto Prof. N. Bohr for soeingan atlvance
'2.
f SeeKlein and Rosseland, f. Physik,' vol' 4, p' 46, equation(4) (1921)'
t9
261
l)!' e-ieotn -
oD
ustNr!6i0oih :
ur*,
* o,o(N, r tf
"_te,1n1
*X"*oX"*o?r,,N,+(N" + I - 8,,)*fto,.-e;tr,.
e7)
The probability of a transition in which
a light-quantum in the state r is
absorbed is proportional to the square of
the modulus of that matrix element of
the Hamiltonian which refers to this transition.
This matrix eiemenr, must
come from the term arN,ls.an in the Hamiltonian,
and must therefore be
proportional to N"'* where N,' is the number
of light-quanta in state r before
the process. The probability of the absorptioo
p"or.*, is thus proportional
to Nn'' rn the same way the probability
oi a light-quantum in state r being
emitted is proportional to (N,,
f l), and the probability of a light_quantum in
state r being scatteredinto state s is proportional
to N,, (ti,, it).
Radiative
processesof the more generar type considered
by Einstein and Ehrenfest,f in
which more than one light-quantum take part
simultaneously, are not ailowed
on the present theory.
To establish a convrsslien between the number
of light-quanta per stationary
state and the intensity of the radiation,
we consider an enclosure of finite
volume, A say, containing the radiation.
The number of stationary states
for light-quanta of a
type of polarisation whose frequency
lies in the
_given
| 'Z. f. Physik,'vol. lg, p. BOf (f923).
20
262
P. A. M. Dirac.
rarge v?.to v, { dv, and whose d.irection of motion lies in the solid angle d'a,
about the direction of motion for state r will now be Lv,2d,v,cla,l&. The energy
of the iight-quanta in these stationary states is thus Nr' .Znhv, . Av,2d'vrd'arlC'
This must equal Ac-lr durt^,, where I, is the intensity per unit frequency
ranse of the radia.tion about the state r.
Hence
(28)
2l
263
per unit frequency range of the radiation in the neighbourhood of the component r is I":72rc-\d,2v,26,. Comparing this with equation (28), we obtain
a, : 2 (hv,I co")lNr}, and hence
u,,:2(hv,lco")l N,+ cos O"/fr.
The Hamiltonian for the whole system of atom plus radiation would now be,
according to the classical theory,
F : Hr, (J) + >" lZihvSN, f 2c-rX" (hv,lco,)l X"N,! cos 0"/1,
(2g)
where He (J) is the Hamiltonian for the atom alone. On the quantum theory
we must make the variables N" and 0" canonical q-numbers like the variables
Jp, w,that describethe atom.
by the real q-nurnber
1)r e
-ierlh\
)'
(30)
ar:
and
(31)
The wave point of view is thus consistent with the light-quantum point of view
and gives values for the unknown interaction coeffi.cient o," in the lightquantum theory. These values are not such as would. enable one to express
the interaction energy as an algebraic function of canonical variables. Since
the wave theory gives ,u"r: 0 for r, s f 0, it would seemto show that there are
no direct scattering processes,but this may be due to an incompleteness in
the present wave theory.
lVe shall now show that the Hamiltonian (30) leads to the correct expressions
for Einstein's A's and B's. we mustfirst modifyslightly the analysis of $b
so as to apply to the casewhen the system has a large number of discrete stationary states instead of a continuous range. rnstead of equation (2I) we shall
now have
i,ha (a' ) : 2^', Y (a'a") a (a").
If the system is initially in the state oc',we must take the initial value of a (a')
to be 8.,'0, which is now correctly normalised. This gives for a first approximation
i'h a (a.'):
(a')-N (ao))tlh,
: u(a'al)
Y (oc'0c0,)
which leadsto
"i'l'er
'ih a(u'):
$.,on{
u(u'*o)
,d[W(c)-W(ao)]llh
r,fW(oc')-W(no)llh'
22
P. A. M. Dirac.
264
hvr, i
,rr
ftfrWff,\*,(JoJ')lzN,o'
To obtain the probability for the processwhen the light-quantum comesfoom
any direction in a solid angledo, we must multiply this expressionby the number
of possibledirections for the light-quantum in the solid angle d<o,which is
d,a o,LW lZzth. This gives
Vr
'r
t
o^ -h"tl x"
lJoJ';l' N,o :
d'J=rlx,
zlcll"a\;'
lJoJ'; 1tI'
with the help of (28). Iilence the probability coefficientfor the absorption
prooessisll}nhzcv,z.lX,(J0J',)lr, in agreementwith the usualvalue for Einstein,s absorption coefficient in the matrix mechanics. The agreement for
the emissioncoeff.cientsmay be verified in the samemanner'
23
265
24
P o p e r2
R E N D I C O NDTEI L L AR . A C C A D E M INAA Z I O N A LD
EE I L I N C E I
Classe di Scienze fisiche. matematiche e naturali.
Estrattodal vol. XlI, serie6', zo sem.,fasc.9. - Roma,novembrergJo-vrrr.
(')
+t#+di'u-o
che lega tra di loro i potenziali scalare e vettore e che, anche nella teoria
di Heisenberg e Pauli costituisce uno degli elementi pir\ caratteristici delI'elettrodinamica quantistica.
(zI) che rappresentaI'HaNella Nota I abbiarnotrovata I'espressione
miltonianadel nostro sistema, Se, invece della meccanicaclassica,vogliamo
rappresentareil moto dei punti per mezzo della Hamiltoniana di Dirac,
il z9 settembrergjo,
(r) Pervenuta
all'Accademia
(21E, Fnnut,<Rend.Lincei>,9,88r, 1929.Citatanel seguitocon I.
und W. Peurt,<Zs,f. Phys.>, 56, r, ry29; tg, r5o, r93o,
13) W. HcrsrNnnnc
25
-)8,m, r. +1t,tlp)
(") H - - ,2t,X p,,
+ ) e , t l *) t,x
t,; +
e, cos
(a ,2 s,
r
f A ,,w ,,* A,"w,") sinls;
. ?l+(<oi
1oi + 6: -
P?)+ zrr"u?
(*?,+ w?,+ x?- a)]
Punu.
Osservianro
in particolareche dall'Hamiltoniana
(z) risulta
.
ALI
AH
i P,: -tO -
\Q,:ffi:-t'
,l a H
ar:ad*:4,
G)r:
y''n2vlq' - '
AHAX
-r
4tt'vl a' -
coS
rs;
I tZe;
'fEnle,t,X a,sinf,;
aH
z\r:*--cTi
da cui
d_
,-
cos Ii; -
2rc\ts\i\
a, sin lr; .
Da questa equazionee dalle (3) risulta subito che anche dalla nuova
Hamiltoniana (z) deriva l'equazione (lB)I;
e quindi clre se l'espressione
(t9) I si annulla insieme alla sua derivata prima all'istantezero, essaresta
sernpre nulla in virtu delle equazioni differenziali. E rest:r quindi verificata
l a c o n d i z i o n e( r ) , e q u i v a l e n t ea l l a ( r 9 ) I . P e r t n e z z od e l l e ( 3 ) , I a ( r 9 ) I
si pu6 scrivere
(+)
2ft\ts ls -
P, :
(t)
6s- 27rvs
a, * #
l*1',cos
rs;: o.
26
-433In una interpretazione classica potfemmo dunque dire che l'elettrodinamica ordinaria si ottiene integrando le eqr-razionicanoniche dedotte dalla
(z) e imponendo (4) e (5) come condizioni iniziali; ci6 basta, poichd si
d detto che se (4) e (5) sono verificate all'istaute zero, esse lo sotro anche
automaticamente a un istante qualsiasi.
Per tradr.rrre tutto questo nel linguaggio della meccanica quantistica,
(i) possalro avere simulosserviamo che, affinchd le due grand,ezze(+)
"
siano
commutabili, poichd
che
esse
zero,
E
necessario
valore
taneanrenteil
un
valore determinato
ha
altrirrenti il fatto che una clelle due grandezze
renderebbedi necessiti indeterrninato il valore dell'altra. Ora si verifica facilmente, in b;rse alle ordinarie regoie di conrmutazione, che i primi membri
di (a) e (5) sono effettivamente comtnutabili; si puo quindi anche quantisticamente attribuire ad essi allo stesso istante il valore determinato zero.
Al procedimento classicodi integrazione delle equazioni canonichecon
valori arbitrari delle costanti di integrazione, corrisponde, nella nreccanica
ondulatoria f integrazione dell'equazionedi Schroedinger corrispondente alla
Hamiltoniana (z), scegliendo arbitrariamente la funzione che raPpresenta
lo scalare di campo
(6)
* :
(ot rappresentasimbolicamente la coordinata interna < spincoordinate> dell'i.esimo corpuscolo) per il valore t: o del terl.lPo. Se vogliamo invece
soddisfareIe condizioni (+) (l) nort possiamo pir\ lasciare arbitraria questa
"
funzione; resta invece determinato il modo secondo cui essa dipende dalle
vari:rbili ls e Qs . Siccome infatti 6, , conittgatadi 2g', deve avere, secondo
l. (l) il valore
6 s .:
c r/B
^
27r\s
Q - rr*a |/ "# ? e;cosfs;
da p nel fattore
risultache tf devedipendere
0)
r,;).
,"# *,('*, a' . *\ EV ",'o'
Dalla (4) seguein modo simile che Q' deve intervenire soltanto nel
fattore
(8)
zxi
2frltuti/t
h
il quale b del resto gii contenuto nel fattore (Z). In conclusionela solualle condizioni (a) e (5) deveaverela forma:
zione corrispondente
- .*iffi4",'""",,)]
,"Ij''("n,e,
(s) *:
e(t,x;,,oi,w,,,w,,).
lU
-43+Dobbiamo 'ra dimostrare che effettivamente si pro soddisfare I'equazione di Schroedinger per tnezzo della posizione (9). L'eqr.razionecli Schroedinger dedotta dall'Hamiltoniarra(z) d
-*#:"q
( ro)
-*#:
(r t)
on
:) R: -t1T;Xpt
fr
+' ) l : ( c o '
alz'"
-)8imic"
{)e'clf?r,X
(A,,2u,,
I A,,w,,)sinr,,
*
+ .;) + 2n2v2
@:,+ *:)]+#?n(?,'
.o,r,,).
,' s l_(
: #> r,r,gl#1&:
cosr,;)
lE{ra u,, \;>e;
atTi;
/
-_
vr
a--
":
zc,Ti
:1*r>+(> e;cos
r,;): lDU
.
TEsr.iv;\zf,r;i
/
('+) R -
- c)yr X Pt -2}rmic'
4')efi
rsi*
(A,,cu,,
* A,"w,,)sin
[o ?t, *
* *:")l*+4';'
- ?f;(.,', * o,:)+ 2rc'zv:(w?,
Osserviamoinfine che la funzioneg che abbiamo sostituitoallo scaIare di campo ,lt per mezzodella (y) puo in tutte le considerazionisostituirsi ad esio, da cui differisce per un fattore complessodi modulo r .
di schroe(rr) che d del tipo di una equazione
La g soddisfaall'equazione
dinglr in cui pero si deve prenderecome HamiltonianaR invecedi H
dalla (t4)
qolsta nuova HamiltonianaR, come si legge immediatamente
dell'energia
espressione
aggiungendol'ordinaria
d costituitasemplicemente
elettrostaticaalla ordinaria Hamiltonianadei termini di pura radiazione'
Possiamodunqueconcludereche, in questaforma, il problemadi elettrodinarlricaquaniisticanon d in alcun modo piir complicatodi un ordinario
problernadi teoria della radiazione.
Naturalmente,come giir abbiagroaccennato,anchequestateoria conserva in se due difeni fondamentaliche pero piu che di origine elettrodidella
namica,possonoconsiderarsiderivanti dallanon completaconoscenza
struttura elettronica.Essi sono la possibilithche ha l'elettronedi Dirac di
passarea livelli energetici con energia negativaed il fatto che l'energia
puntiforme.
intrinsecaa valore infinito se si ammettei'elettroneesattamente
ON QUANTUMELECTRODYNAMICS.
3a P.A.M.Di,rac,
wherc
Ha:
(1)
Ha(poeoT')i Eu : Eu (puqaT);
v: V (poqo0ueuT)
and 7 is the time for the entire system. The wave function
for the entire system will satisfy lhe equationn
(H-ihdldT)g@"qu?): o
(2)
ancl will be a function of the variables indicated.
D i r a c , P r o c .R o y .Soc. A 136, 458, 1982.
H e i s e n b e r g a n c Pauli,
l
ZS. f. physik, b6, 1, 1929 and 59, 168,
1930.
R o s e n f e l d , Z S . f . p h y s i k 7 6 , 7 2 5 ,t S B 2 .
4
ft, is P I a n c k's constant divided by 2:r.
1
30
On Quantum ElectrotlYnanics.
(3)
r* : r*"u' g,
(4)
(H:+V* -ihdldT) ** : o.
(5)
on-lheotherhand'
sinoe f/, commuteswith r[' HI:Ho'
is not clis'
variables
bet*een
relation
iunctional
the
since
turbecl by the canonical transformation (a), Z* is the same
p, q..
function of the transformedvariables P*, Qn as z is of
q"'
q;:
that
Fi: P",
Bttt gto and. qo commute with f/u so
Thorefore
(6)
vx - T (It"q"piqi),
where
n;:;
9i:,*aor
'nrr-*"u'
(7)
nr'-
*o"
It wili be shown in $ 7, after suitable notation is developetl, that Eqs. (z) are equivalent to
oqitdt:f,{n,u;-qiila)
dpildt:J@uni-pi*t)
I
|
,',
3t
470
t7n :
"
1T
\,
/ , l \ C d " . ID,
a
s
-1- 1
1 ) ,r t - ( l ) t
i ' . ' u" - t l -
\- rt
Atts
!-1
and
(e)
r/x:
\r T/*- \r
r,rr
'
'./' s- 2'" " L- (r", T) - o"' A (r", T)l
s:l
S:1
l!r..r
l.L/t"s
(10)
( 11 )
R : 6q.
nL,c2e"4*f e.,fO(r" 16)- o A (r rt
*
"
".?"
".
")]
:|n(r, rz . .. rnl tt tz . . . t,ri ,I), when
and tl,,*'
all the l's are
put equal to the common time ?.
32
On QuantumElectrodynamics.
+71
for this purpose some formtrlas obtained by F o c k and P 0d o 1sk y. t Starting nwith the Lagrangian function
'1
't
"\2
L -;(G:-6:)- .1 /
1ir'.'a+;a),
Uz)
1
-,r.
A:
$ :
curl .J,
(13)
one obtains
(P, PrPr) : r:
P,t:
-
--
O;
|
' (
l- ,ir)
o,u^++
,
c
c
(11)
l'
anclthe Hamiltonian
s2
1 T (99' -oQ'\'
P':- P)+
P'?)-+s: , (P.
z f\or,
dn1)
3
lf - cP.rrad.Qo.
b"zad*'
"P.T
The equationsof **on
ur.,
):e2P-,cgrado,
6:-c2Po-cditA,
i: :
(15)
I
I)
{'-1-'6 )
[
I
4:-_cdivP,
0n eliminationof P antl Po, Eqs.(16) give the D'Alernbert equationsfor the potentlals(D and ,4. To obtain Maxweil's equationfor empty spaceone must set Po:9. The
quantization rules are expressedin terms of the amplitudes
of the Fourier's integral. Thus, for every F:F(nAat),
1 F o c k a n d P o d o l s k y , S o w . P h y s . 1 , 8 0 1 ,1 9 3 2 , l a t e r q u o t e d a s lc. .
For other treatments see Jorclan
anrl PauIi,
ZS. f. Physik, n, $L,
1928 or F e r m i, Rend. Lineei, 9, 881, 1929. The Lagrangian (12) cliffers
lrom that of Fermi
only by a'four-dimensional divergence.
r A dot oyer a field quantity will be userl to designate a rlerivative
rr,'ith respect to the field time /.
33
P. A. M. Dirac, V. A. Fock and Boris podolsky,
472
'
(r; / .J {ftttl e-dclktt+it r + F+(k)s-ricrktt-ut ' r\ d,k (r7)
where r:(nya)
is the position vector, k:(k*k11k,) is the
wave vector having the magnitucle I fu| : 2rll,, d,k: d,krd,ksdkr,
the integration being performed for each component of &
from - co t0 oo. In terms of the amplituclesequationsof
motion can be written
t:
- tklA(k)l:- I s(rl
P(k): I trcaOrl
:
I
- k.a(k))
Po(k):itlnl o (tu)
I
)
trst
kJ
- k)
6tua(k
(1e)
Case.
$ 4. For the Maxwellian casethe following aclclitionaiconsiderations are necessary. In obtaining the field variables,
besidesthe regular equationsof motion of the olectromagnetic
fieid onemust usethe atlditional conclitionp0-0, 0r -cps:
:rliv A-l@1c:O. This condition cannot be regardedas a
quantum mechanical equation,but rather as a condition on
permissible tf functions. This can be seen,for example,from
the fact that,.when regarded as a quantum mechanichlequatiol, div A{Afu:0
contradictsthe commutationru}es. Tnus,
oniy those {'s should be regardetl as physically permissible
which satisfy the conclition
- cpo*:(u'"A++b),l - o.
(20)
34
473
Od QuantumElectroclynamics.
by the
Condition(20), expressedin terms of amplitucles
use of Eq. (18),takesthe form
i L k.A (h )- I kl o (/r ) 1,1,:0 I
(zo')
antl
-i,[k. A+(D- t rl o+(/r)]q,t:0.rl
the wave equation
To thesemust, of course,be aclcled
(21)
(Hb-ihdldr) q:0,
where fIa is the Hamiltonian for the fieltl
(22)
Ha : 2 | | A+(k).A(k)- o+(k){'(tu)} I klz dk,
as in l. c.
If a number of equations,4,|:0, Bq:0, etc., are simul'
taneousiysatisfied,then ,4BQ..=0, 8A,1.,.0, etc.; and thereetc. AII such new equationsmust be
f,ore(AB-Bilq:0,
of the old, i. e. must not give any new condiconsequences
tions on tp. This may be regardod as a test rrf consisteney
of the original equations. Applying this to our Eqs. (20')
and (zt) we have
Po@)Pf (k') - Pf,(k',)Pu(h)
=..tz yn.A(k)lt'.A+(k')- k' .A+(k')k. A(k)l
(23)
i(k-k')
lkt:1
o.
(24)
35
174
and
C (k),y:s a n d C +(k)+:0,
where
(26')
r , , k.,i ,/ ,,"
! \!
t.l
i."r'"
tktt"-ik'rs.
(27')
and
1 We shall
of {r*.
l'(n)'n"-,,U'-tu)]:o
(28)
dldt"- e,(D(r"f")l : s.
lC(k), i.l't,
(2e)
use p iustead
36
n Quantum Electrodynarrrir:s.
+75
sle ct'',",p"f:o.
eiekit
(30)
::Il
ti ts
ik'ra.
(32)
' ?'.s, :
1ts]
hi, grad,s-nk'r" -
hke-ik' rB
(33)
k t,-ik't'"
r ". ) ] =
Ilklo(k), <D11
,(=,.)r-:,sic
(34)
an0
(35)
feicth\ts,i'h'didt"f=-clxlkleacftlts,
Thus, conditions(26') satisfy ail the requilementsof consistence. It can be shown that these requirementstletermine C(k) uniquely up to an additive constant if it is taken
to have the form ,i[k.A(k)- ltulo(A)]{ f(r,ts).
$ 6. We shall now show that the introduction of separate
time for the field and for each particle allows the use of the
entire vacuum eiectrodynamicsof $ 3 and 1.c., except for
ihe change discussed,in $ 5. In fact, we shall show that
M a x w e l i ' s e q u a t i o n s o f e l e c t r o d y n a m i ci ns , w h i c h e n ter current or chargedensities,becotneconditions on,f
functio'n.
For convenience we collect together our fundamental
equations.
37
P. A. M. Dirac, V. A. Fock anrl Boris potlolsky,
476
I dirnl;
6:curl14
r :.
LA- L"]A: o.
(R"-'i'n,ldl") I : 0,
where
Rs:
(l 3)
(36)
l tr rl
e"(D(r"l*). I
(26')
(2i')
A'"tn"
We transform the last two equationsby passingfrom the
amplitutles C(k) and C+(k) t0 C(r,t) by meansof Eq. (1?).
Thus we obtain
C(r, t) 9:0
(26)
and
C (r, t): div,4
^(x): rl la{r";
* ct)-E(ri-- cf)1"
(37)
div$:o andcurlG
+
f, fi,$:o
(38)
I q,Y) g"u,a
j jga(x-x")e
o:
,,
and Pauli,
s:l
(Be)
38
On Quantum Electroclynamics.
477
and
(40)
F o r a n y q u a n t i t yf : f ( t k t z . . . t n )
us#:[(rJ.(#) + +(#)]^:,(41)
and for each of lhe n derivatives d1dt,we have an equation
of motion
dfi
(R"f - fR,).
(42)
;;": h
If we put /:A(r,t) or f:Q(r,t), then, sinceboth com*
mute with Rs,dfldts:0 and we get
da da
Dt: ar
and
do : do
dt
dr'
(43)
lt foliows that
(44)
q 1),
/ni,,a- a-*,)
c or"l
\
t oG\
t
,*
l c u r l . -p - =(_ lo r f t * : r 9 : L )
\
(45)
(46)
and
$7)
39
P. A. M. Dirac, V. A. Fock ancl Boris Podolsky,
478
->hln.' Gl
\;-"t J,,:, , m
ao\
/r
I dc
(48)
'i611,e,'d.*
6(r -
r").
(4e)
- att
3('r)'
l+ :t^tt' l,:o:
(50)
1 df,s\
{curlg
- - +c -:;),1,> i.4i,(r-r")g
otl'
\\ / 8 : 1
(51)
(52)
and
which are just the remaining M a x w e 1l's equationsappear.ing as conditions on ,f. Eq. (rz) is the additional conclition
of H eisenb erg-P auli's theory.
g 7. We shall now derive Eq. (8) 0f S 1. For this we
need to recall that the transformation (T) is a canonical
transformation which preservestho form of the algebraicrelations between the variables, as well as the equationsof
motion. These rvill be, in the exact notationnow developed,
dq;
dT:
i ,,.*
hLn'
Qi)t,:ri
'-u';:
t lu.,pih":r.
(rr)
und Pauli,
Z S . f . P h y s i k5 6 , 3 4 , 1 9 2 9 .
(5+)
40
On QuantumElectroclynamics.
479
dp;
dr
(55)
u#:\#*fi)w,,qlil,.:,
ancl
u#:1#*#iro,,nil\,*,
(56)
u#:{#*tv.,qil},":"
u#-{#*"tv.'
ai)|,,"-,
I
t
(58)
(H),:,: f,tnu,Q*u.t,:,I
(
(#),:,: #tuu'Pitt-r
(5e)
P o p e r4
41
Aquivalenzverbot.
und E. Wigner
in Giittingen.
42
63i
N, -
(l)
bTb,
der lrorm
2nt ^
g-
b, :
@r
Yrlz,
(2>
zfrd ^
ul,: lrlt'c-T't
zerlegt,wobei man forderf, da6 $, @' kanonisch konjugiert seien'
Legt man nun als Definition kanonisch konjugierter Gro0en diejenige
zugrunde,die von einemder Verfasserkiirzlich vorgeschlagenwurtle*, so
erhii,lt man die Miiglichkeit, in clieserForm nicht nur die Einsteinsche
Statistik darzustellen,bei der die Eigenwerte Ni von -lI, durch
-lli:0,
(3)
1,2,3,...
(4>
lr;-0,
'weitere
in Frage konmt. Man erhalt dann ferner sofort neben (2)
und zwar im Einsteinschen Falle
Gleichungen,
b,:
)l
bf,:#u'g4Ns',,t
(5)
(1 -
1\r) tzs
ztui ^
---sr
'"
2fl1 ^
-+
b;-e
"
-t
..
(o/
r7\1,
(l-l\r;-tz,
43
ilber tlas Paulische Aquivalenzverbot.
633
ci lrro :
ci :
.orr*t
(6)
lr]L i
"
-.-
aj\1) +
,s
-'
(7)
iT
er
+1
wobei das positive oder negative vorzeichen in * 1 zu whhren
ist, je
nachtlem, ob die t-te Teilchenart dom pauriprinzip oder
der Einsteinstatistik gehorcht.
Als wechselwirkungsprozessesind nun natiirlich nur solche
zuzulassen, bei denen die Forderungen(6) nicht verletzt werden.
Eine bestimmte Form eines sorchen Elementaraktes ist zu beschreiben
durch
Angabe der rndizes I uncl der Geschwindigkeitender vor
dem Erementarakt vorhandenenund der nach dem proze' vorhandenen
mitwirkenrlen
Teilchen. Es seien nL nt, ..., ni die zugehiirigenDichten
ne)(E) ftr
diejenigenvor dem Proze} vorhandenenTeilchen, welche
der Einstein_
statistik folgen; und zrr, Ixi, ..., n, die n(D(E) fiir die
vor dem prozefi
vorhandenenmitwirkendenTeilchenpaurischer Art. Entsp'echend
sollen
*t:1.1ri, mt,_..., nt[; rnr, M2,..., mo auf.die nach dem proze_B
iibrig_
gebliebenenbzw. neu erzeugtenTeilchen beziehen. Dann
muB aus stati_
stisch-thermodynamischen
Griinden die wahrscheinrichkeitdes Elementarakts proportional mit
n [ n [ . . . n i n , n 2. . . n ; ( I * m De _ f * i l . . .
. . (1+ m[)(1_ nx,)(r _ m;)... (r _ m;)
angenommen werden;
portional mit
m i . . . m i m l . . . r n ;( t *
"f)
.. . (1+ nD e _ n) .. . (r _ ni).
(B)
pro-
(e)
f P . J o r d a n , Z S . f . p h y s . 4 l , 7 I L , 1927. Anmerkung
nach Abschluf der
Arbeit: Dieselbentr'ormelnsind kiirzlich v o n B o t h e , Z S . p h y s .
f.
46,827, Lgzg.
erneut eriirtert worden.
44
P. Jordan untl E' Wigner'
-l
634
n,(l I n)
(10')
n, (l - n) ;
(10r';
: (?
3),'I
*: (:?).: ?(?;).
I
u -.- / 0 1 \ ; { ,
"'
\0 0/,
( 11 )
i@,
an\
(r2)
a22/r
eine Matrix, deren Zeilen und spalten bezeichnet werden durch eine Reihe
von Indizes, tleren jetler clenWert 0 oder t haben kann; und zwar ist
(12) eineDiagonalmatrix in bezugaul den erstenbis (r.- l)-ten Index
uncl in bezug aui den (r f l)-ten und die folgenden Inclizes'
45
iJber das pauljscheiquivalenzverbot.
63b
N,;
(13)
2fii
eh
Man kann alle diese Griifien ausdrticken crurch drei GrdBen klr), k;rr,
6rD, die den Multiplikationsregeln der euaternionen folsen:
:
:{'::;,
(klrr)2:
:
:;::? 1P: II
(nrrjr:flr;r;,-
(14)
-t, J
hr-
n"--ryi
+
2'
@,-- ! oo;"
(16)
9 1) .
(16)
atfi : @op(F',
e).
(r7)
46
P. Jordan und E.
636
l
.Wigher,
V o o ( F o , F ( D ,. . . , p ( N ) . q @1 q ( 2i ,. . . , q ( N ) ) ,
(18)
worln
(te)
sein soll; und dann :
,rr*fi:#. )
(n)
r" fI
@op(F@,q@k\),
(20)
k:|
(21)
N'(P'); N'(s.')
(22)
gewlnnt.
$ 5. Die in solcher Weise definierten antisymmetrischenAmplituden
sind nun in-eindeutiger Weise rlarstellbar als Tunktion von Argumenten
mit folgender Bedeutung:N' (p') ist die Anzahl von Atomen' bei ilenen
p den Wert p' hat; ist also B' ein diskreter Eigenwert, so ist nach dem
allgemeinen P a u lischen Aquivalenzverbot
n['(p') -
0 oder1.
(23)
47
ilber das Paulische Aquivalenzverbot.
Liegt dagegenp'in
wir zu schreiben:
637
(24)
wenn insgesamt-l[' Teilchen vorhanden sind; das rntegral von -ly''(p')
iiber ein Teilsttick des Eigenwertgebietesist dann die Anzahl der Atome,
bei denen die Werte von p in dieses Teilstiick fallen.
wir begniigenuns aber nicht mit der rein mathematischenEinfiihrung
der neuen Grd8en N'(p'), N' (q'), sondern gehen zu einer neuen physi_
kalischen Theorie iiber, indem wir arrehmen, das Gesamtgassei ein
System,das durch ein kanonischesSystem von
4_ZahlgriiBen
u(0'); @(p')
(25)
f f ( p ) . [ 1- r ( p ' ) ] : 0 ,
(26)
r iir
l N (B o)N (B ')f i i r P' + 8",
0':F"
Q7)
48
P. Jordan uncl E. Wigner,
638
im folgenden entwickeln
mit
n (p ); @" (p ' )
(28)
N (q');
(2e)
bzw.
@o(q') usf.
rr(p), @"(p')
miissen als 4-Zahlen gewisse Funktionen der q-Zablen
Itr(q'), @o@')
soll jetzt besprochenwerclen. Irn
sein; dieser {unktionale Zusammenhang
Bose-Einsteinschen Falle EaIt einfach
b* (0\ :
2 @"o(0', q')bp(q'),
q'
f"(g) :
(30)
)q ' r,i(s)(Dro(e',
F);
gelten nicht
ao(F) :
*"r 1p',q'1ao(il,
: Z [tn> (Doo(q',
a,L@)
0'),I
rvenn wir die Grijfen
(30a)
a, ai durch
ae (e') :
ol(q'): ul(b.o(q');I
a(q'): fltt - 2N(q")\
(31)
(32)
q" 4q'
clefinieren.
Hier
: r.
V;.(q')12
(33)
49
tber das paulischeAquivalenzverbot.
689
b I @ ) . u( q " ):
a (q").b (q')
frir
q'
o (q") .b (q')
liir
q'
fiir
q'
liir
S'
Sc"'I
=;';l
bl(q'l. \r - zlr(q')) :
:
wird.
N(q,)rT
uo'n''
lt -
''o
2rr(s,))
-{I-2N(q)}b[(q')
(35)
ap(4,,)riekL),
(36)
: - 4@\ oI@).
4,@)o!n(q")
Man beweist z. B.
ap(q')ap(q") :
:
a (q')bo(q')o1q,,7bo(e,')
a (q')o (q,,)bp(s)bp(s\ fiir s.
lI a (q,)o(q,,)bn(g,)be(e,,)fiir q'
A-t
q";
(37)
q,':
[bo(q')], :
o,
(38)
[ao(q')]z :
o,
(3e)
womit fiir q' : q" die Formel (86) schon bewiesenist. Man sieht
danach
aus (37), da$ das Produkt (86) in der Tat antisymmetrischin q,, q,,
ist.
Ferner gilt
6 (q'_ q',).
(40)
[ o ( q . , ) ] r . t f r @ , ) btiu@
, ) ) f o & , ) l:
o@
r.
q,, gleich
@2)
50
P. Jordanund \ Wigner'
640
Nunmehr zeigen wir, dafi die Gleichungen(36) und (40) wirklich invariant sincl gegen Transformationen (30 a)' Es ergibt sich
a"(0)a,(fl) + a"(p")a"(p')
q'q"
e,(0')+ o,(B\*L(P')
aL(p')
q'q"
bL@)b"(p")- b"(p")bL@')
:6(P'-tr
ol@)
oll|\o"(f'):
b*(F) :
q')boQ');
2 @"n1p',
s'
o;
a,(F")aL@')
",@\ I
ao(p') :
N(f');
o"n1p" q',)ao(r').
q'
n(p)n(p') - N(p")lr(p')- 0,
lf'(p)
0 ocler 1
(45)
(46)
5t
iiber das Paulische Aquiialenzverbot.
641
aL(B)a"(F)* a*(p'S
af,1p,1
: r
gilt wegen
[a"(B')]z :
die Gleichung
(47)
also wird
N(p'). tl - rr(p')l :
a,L(p,)a" (F) ;
a+"@,)
e*(p,).fr _ oL@)a"(p,)l :
(48)
0. (4e)
Es sei nochbetont: Da a(p') aus den ir(p") arieinzu bilden ist (nachdem eine Reihenfolgeder Eigenwertefestgel.egtwurde), so kann man
vermittelst
b"(0'): , (F)a"(0),\
uL(p')
: oItb, til i
(50)
fl :
)tr(p ,):
)a r(s).
(51)
q,
F'
Diese rnvarianz ist offenbar nur ein anderer Ausdruck dafiir. das (30a).
eine unitare Transformationist.
zusaLz bei der Korrektur.
E s z e i g t s i c h d u r c h e i n eS l e n a u e r e
Betrachtung, die im Anhang mitgeteilt wird, dag itie Multiprikationsregeln der a, at niclnt'nur die Eigenwerte der x(B') schon bestimmen,
sontlern iiberhaupt die Matrizen a, ar bis auf eine kanonische 'r.ransformation iler Matrizendarstellung festlegen.
S 7. Fiir ein eindimensionales Kontinuum mit der Schwingungs_
gleichung
d, ,lt
d *':
dr tp
dt';
1P:
t1:@, t)
(52)
rl'(0, t) :
{ (1,t) :
(53)
52
t
P. Jordan und E. Wigner'
642
der Wellen(54)
3 . srnr7#r
(oo)
frb,
wo lVn : frb, die Anzahl von Teilchen im r-ten Quantenzustand der
Translation bedeutet.
Wir haben jetzt (55) zu korrigieren, inclem wir die b' durch entrl :
a, ersetzen:
sprechencle
:n
4t:Za7s\trrfi'
r:l
(Do)
t
(57)
propcl-
(5e)
Y-Vr+%+...]_VN,
(60)
53
iiber das Paulische Aquivalenzverbot.
643
(61)
so bestimmen wir, da' wir diesen Zustanil fortan in
unserem neuen
-ll-Raumedurch die Wellenfunktion?[( f,(pf, N,(p;), ...,
N, fpj.)) t._
schreibenwollen. Dabei sei
ryW'$',),...,
r'(g,*)y:
hf
p,n):
(0,,,...,
(62)
54
P. Jordan und E. Wigner,
6+4
tlt(F',0'',..., F'N')
Koordinatenraumeim folgendenimmer (also auch,
im mehrdimensionalen
'wenn keine Wellenfunktion ist) festhalten. Es ist zu beachten,daB
U
es liir dasVorzeichenvonP wichtig ist, in ry'die Bi , B;, ..., p3-in der
einmal festgesetztenReihenlolge
identisch.
(63)
(64)
K
pY :
(6Za)
Ht|a!,a1
z, 1': 1
(66 a)
55
tlber das Paulische Aquivalenzverbot.
Dz+i)
Gleichung (65) ist zuniichst sicher richtig an allen Stellen (fiir alle
Wertsysteme der Argumente), wo die Anzahl der 1 im Argumentsystem
ootr ,l nicht eben gleich -lI' ist. Dann verschwindet nii,mlich die jinke
Seite wegen (62), (62a),
P1 .'. plvf : r
KK
p2:7
PL:7
... +
> Hry,yp,rt,(pi,,p;r,..., p'p,*)
l.lv, :
r:l
tt:t
das zweite ersieht man aus (63). Unsere Absicht ist nun, die rechte
Seite von (67) durch die T auszudriicken. Zu diesemZweckebemerken
wir, da8 in (67) rechts die pi schon in der richtigen Reihenfolge stehen,
nur das jeweils auftretendeBi ist an der falschenStelle. Ist etwa+
,lt(P;', . . ., Fi.t,)
* Das Gleichheitszeichen kommt nicht in Frage,
fu dann das entsprechende
r,a doch verschwindet.
56
P. Jordan und E. Wigner'
646
u-o natiirlich
aber schon
P:r,<"'{F't,<"'<P''
gili.
V (*r...rr) :
xi:l
It:o
* $ t V ( n r , . . . , f r i _t , 0 ,n i 4 r t . . . t f r t r. ,_l , q , . . . , u 6 )
+ 2 H . i i T(t n r ,. . . . n x )
(68)
,j: r
fst i, :
der vorangehenden
Formeln
schon
Wir wissen,
dafi der Wertbereich der Argumente von T ingesamt 2r Stellen umta$t, inilem liir jedes der r1,:
.lI'(B;) entweder f 1 oder 0 gesetzt
kann.
Ein
darauf
wirkender
linearer Operator ist also eine
werden.
Matrix mit 2r Zeilen uncl ebensoviel Spalten. Wir bezeichnen jede Zeile
oder Spalte mit -K Indizes (den or, ..., nK entsprechend), die jeweils 1
oder 0 sein kiinnen.
Der Operator a1 ist entsprechend $ 3 und $ 6 zu definieren (wir
:chreiben der bessoren Ubersicht halber die Indizes als Argumente) durch
ay(rr, fist . . ., tKi
U , t ,U s , . . . , Ur )
:(-f)or*12+"'1'rt-r6r.n,0*rn,...drr-ry,t-rdrr.odr^rdr,*
!t).*1-..drrsr, (69)
a f ,( n u . . . , f r K i A r , . . . , , ! r )
(- 1)"* "' * a,-r6rrar... 6*r*rur-r0",
1d'go
r ,. . . 3 r r ' r .
(69a)
647
.2 u;^
t, /-:t
lt..,Ag:9,1
zl. '.2K:n'7
wie man sich mit einiger Miihe iiberregenkann, was aber schwer
hingeschriebenwerden kann. Damit ist (66) gewonnen.
S 9. Wir haben also in $ B folgendesgesehen:Jeder antisymme_
trischen Funktion, vrelche definiert ist in den Koordinatenr?i,umen
mit
allen AnzaLlen ,}tr'( K 'on Dimensionen,entspricht durch (62)
eine
tr'unktion im neuen Raume. Es entspricht dann dem operator
(60)
.]
V - V, ) Ys * ... t Vr fmit der Matrix jn (64\ FI_ .
Koordinatenraum der f)perator ,fJ von (68) ;=;;.';
iiil;",*'#
Operator ,fl ist dabej
.{}:
H,;alo4
(66 a)
xr7:1
(tp) :
.)
(7r)
IJK
(4)E) :
ergibt.
N'l
p'r,...,F,N':Fr
F'I< <F'N'
Andererseits gilt irn neuen Raume
(73)
f,l ,..r,X-:0,1
Bd.4z.
58
P. Jordan und E. Wigner,
648
Tit,
(60 b)
i, k:r
j<k
r 1 1 .; , p 1 - . . . t L N l
Erirlrruirr6rtpr'.'6,i-rt'i-'r6ri1rr.7
2
i, k:r
j<k
Es ist dann
entspricht.
d17611t76+r..'d"lr,p,r',
(63b)
11'..dr1-1rr7a-1
(64b)
mit Hilfe von (63b) [ebensowie (65)] zu berechnen. Dann ist wieder
die ,,richtige Reihenfolge" der p auf der rechten Seite herzustellen.
Dabei ktjnnen die pi stehengelassenbleiben, 01, und pj., miissen iiber
eine Anzahl von Bi hiniibergeschoben werden, $'obei sich wieder das
Vorzeichen ilndern kann.
Beachten wir wieder (62), so kdnnen wir wiecler links und rechts
fiir I bzw. r/' einsetzen {r bzw. ep. Unter Beacht,ng von (69) findet
man nun, ila8 dem Operator (60 b) nunmehr der Operator
1K
t-
'
>
Hrr.r, 1.r1,a!,.ral,ra7.ra7,
(66 b)
)1, tr'2:1
zt, z2:l
entspricht.
Es ist befriedigend, da8 die Riickwirkung der 'Ieilchen auf sich
solbst wieder durch die nichtkornmutativen Multiplikationseigenschaften
der Wellenamplituden im dreidimensionalenRaume automatisch ausgeschlossen
wird. Im Bose-Einsteinschen Falle wurde clieserUmstancl
deutlich gemacht durch Formel (40) der Arbeit von Jordan und Klein.
DaB dieselbe Fornrel auch hier gilt, folgt aus cler leicht beweisbaren
Tormel
af,a1,a!
a1- afra!a,*1,: 6t ta!,arr.
Wir wenden uns endlich zu dem Fall von Operatoren, die aus
Summandenbestehen,welchejeweils in ro) 2 feilchen symmetrischsind,
* P. Jordan
und O. Klein.
a. a. O.
59
Uber das Paulische Aquivalenzverbot.
649
il ^,4:r
,,..4:r'""'f;t'i
6po) :
0 fiir
> rr'(B) *
F'
und
f,fZ)
Y'
Ear,fp)
F'
Y,
wohei Q(fl, W!"X aie in $ 4 besprochenenFunktionen
sind.
Die in A in der Form
{)a'"ulu,_w\a:o
angegebeneno"r.tioo"tgreichung fiir die zum
Gesamtsystem gehiirige
Amplitude @ lautet nunmehr bei unserer vorzeichenbestirnmung
ie. i,, @
enthaltenen Determinanten:
l) A, aiau- w] o :
o;
60
P. Jordan uncl E. Wigner,
650
^(
(36)
a,;ai+a)a):uJ
und
-- 6/r.
ol,.o^
+ qdI
(40)
a,. I
a!,-,
1.
T \a'x -
*,1
a';).
(r)
a I )+ @ 1 + * b . @ , * a I ) -
\o, * d).@iI
26,t.
'I
-
L axa,
fiir
]
,t + 1, I
(II a)
6l
Uber das Paulische Aquivalenzverbot.
651
Nt,
dz,
&8,
Nti
d1d9t
dldgt
&1d4t
dzd,,
d,2a44t a.a4;
C 4 , t C l 2 d s t-
1qABA4t -
A1&gd4t
&gd3Ci4t -
ArA,ZABC:,4.
62
P o p e r5
Die Diracsche Theorier) des Positrons hat gezeigt,daB Materie aus Strahlung entstehen kann, inilem z. B. ein Lichtquant sich in ein negatives urrd ein
positives Elektron verwanclelt. Dieses auch experimentell bestii,tigte Ergebnis
hat zur X'olge, daB iiberall dort, wo zur Messung eines physikalischen Sachverhalts gro8e elektromagnetische X'elder beniitigt werd.en, mit einer bisher
nicht beachteten Stiirung des Beobachtungsobjel:tesclurch das Beobachtungsmittel gerechaet werden muB, niimlich mit der Erzeugung von Materie clurch
den MeBapparat. So gering diese Stiirung fiir die iiblichen Experimente auch
sein mag, ihre Beriicksichtigung ist fiir das Verstdnalnis der Theorie tles
Positrons von prinzipieller Becleutung.
Zu ilrer nbheren Untersuchung in einem sehr einJachenX'all betrachten wir
ein quanten-mechauischesSystem von foeien negativen Elektronen, die sich
gegenseitignicht merklich beeinflussen; ihre Anzahl pro ccm sei f;. In einem
Volumen o(nt4V\
e:-il+
(1)
zu finden sein (e ist der Absolutbetrag cler Elementarladung). X'iir clasmittlere Schwankungsquatlrat der Ladung im VqtrFmeno wiirile man nach der
klassischen Statistik den Wert
n':"'n j,
p)
erwarten. Es soll nun gezeigt werden, claB sich nach tler Diracschen Theorie
im allgemeinen ein griiBeres Schwankungsquailrat ergibt. Der Uberschu,E
gegeniiber Gl. (2) ist auf ilie mtigliche Entstehung von Materie bei der Messung
der Ladung im Volumen o zuriickzufiihren.
The principles of Quantum mechanids,. p. 265. Oxforcl 1930. Proc.
1) P. A. Dirac,
Cambr. Phil. Soc. 30, f50, f934.
63
318
W. Heisenberg:
Die Eigenfunktionender Elektronen hiingen vom ort t, der zeit f und der
Spinvariable o ab, sie sollen ot, (t., t, o) hei8en und in einem Volumen Z
(v ) a) normiert sein. Die allgemeinewellenfunktion der Materie wird dann
ry("t.,t,o):1o,u^(r,t,oy,
(B)
ala*{ a*fi:6n*
(4)
gelten' Darausfolgt
don:Nn;
a*io:r-^r,.
(b)
n'iir die Zustiindenegativer Energie (E* < o) soll noch eingefilhrt werden:
NL:I-N*.
(6)
-'4]r|{"d",-uZn;")"*+
)aia*uiu*)'
F)
e:-e["3J" i,Z{#
(s)
+-Zr
-"Iw 7 {awiQto)u*('dl'
Aus Griinclen,die von Bohr und Rosenfeldz) ausfiilrlich diskutiert wurden, soll der zeitliche Mittelwert von e iiber ein endliches Intervall ? betrachtet werden, wobei auch die Grenzendes Intervalls eventuell noch unscharf gelassen werden. Wir fiilren daher eine X'unl:tion l(t) en, die nur
im Bereich O <tS?
von Null verschiedenist und fiir die
I l(t)dt:r .
Auch die Grenzen des volumens o sollen eventuell unscharf bleiben; es soll
daher g(t) eine X'unktion von r beileuten, die in o bis auf die Umgebung der
Grenzen l ist, au8en verschwindet und fiir dte
Der entsprefd,rg(r):a.
chenclezeitliche und riiumlicho Mittelwert der Laduns e wiril dann
L) Ygl. z. B. W. H. X'urry u. J. R. Oppenheimer, phys. Rev. 4b,245, lgg4.
2) N.3ohr und L. R,osenfeld, Verh,der Kgl, Dbn. Gesellsch.
d. IViss.XII, 8, f 9$.
64
tlber
319
(ro)
i:_,18,*"_e,*4u.
in Ubereinstimmungmit Gl. (1). X'iir den Erwartungswert des Schwankungsquadrats ergibt sich jedoch:
(Tf:7-t:ezZ
ZT"fr;^/
n+m n'+n'
d6'
fat[atlar
(11)
o)
I dr' t(t)| (t') c Q)s Q'),|Ato) un(t' t' o')ufi(r't' o')u* (r t
:ezpN"(l-N*)J*^.
Diesen Ausdruck kann man in drei Teile zerlegen. Der erste w6re bereits
vorhanden, wenn die Erwartungswerte der If* filt Er) 0 untt N" lidrtEn < 0
alle verschwinden,d. h. im Vakuum (man beachte Jn*: J**):
e2
(12)
E">OtEn<A
Ein zweiter Teil wird, wenn nur negative Ele}:bronenvorhanden sind (N' : 0) :
*F-,*^(F,;F^)t"*'
SchlieBlich bleibt noch als dritter Teil
-a2
N^N*J,*
/
(13)
(14)
E',)>Oi E6>O
iibrig. Dieser dritte Teil enthii,lt jedoch, wie man aus (11) berechnet, den
n'aktor (1)" t u, kann daher gegeniiberclen beid.enerstenvernachliissigtwerden, wenn - wie angenommenwurde - t: <V tst'
X'iir die Berechnung d.eszweiten Teils (13) bemerken wir zuniichst, cla8
/
" t \ ,
(15)
-(r + *#-)
= +t(t-"'o'+:*")
iVn-'''-o"('-',
"*[na-n+'*a''\7.
"B
65
320
W' Ileisenbers:
Es wiril also
s$)se)I #41
('-a,-,ero*:AlilfMJarlar'to tQ)
. u | , 1 r t o 1 u " ! r ' t ' 4[:*
>1{/r -drq!
+y)lj(po-pt)l'
J k"# z r\-
- (r + L!+!:)
Po
wobei
'ao'
f -
4p"ot
- (r-"';!*i*'' rrro,
_F*)
tz.
) + fi)r|tcw
(16)
,r'
die zum Zustancl ro gehdrige wellenliinge k]ein ist gegen die rii,umliche Ausdehnung des Gebiets o und wenn ferner d.ie zeit, iber die gemittelt
werden soll, so Hein ist, daB die Elektronen in dieser zeit n'w strecken durchlaufen, die ebeufalls klein sind im verhii,ltnis zur rii,umlichen Ausdehnu:rg
von o, so ist g(p-pft) als sehr schnell veriinderlich gegeniiberdem Bruch
4+#v
*(A,'4'+,
\/
in Ubereinsti-mung mit Gl. (2).
Hierzu kommt nun noch der erste Teil, der auch im Vakuum auftritt:
'-*Als'
Ahnncnwie in Gl. (tb) findet man:
LIBRARY
JARROTLCOLLEGE
HHSNA, ilt0NTAl'lA 5$ffil
(re)
66
Uber die mit der Entstehuns von Materie usw.
32\
- "'o'r-u* ",
drId,r
Id,r'
) |e)|Q')g(r)se')l'#i H'01,
2 ! "y=I^drf
En>>oi En<.o
(r *y2*
\-
'
p'o
u*-#ot!
: l dtldtldldr'l (t)l (t')s(r)s(tI#
l#
)-
- o'tr'-''t- @'+
p6)G-t')l
"|xv
,,,"
fdb fdb , ,,
--JPJPtt\?o-r?o)t"'.lq(b_b,) ppo?o-PP'_-m2cz .
"
popo
scharfumgrenzten
Setztman9(t) : 1 in einemrechteckigen,
Yolumenmit
den SeitenlL,I,z,l,s
u. au8erhalb
Null, sowird
/i
\/l
n
L L r,
d
to'n* onu+pzz)- ( "t; 1-l
e$): I d,s(r)ei-: k. Ih,io,""n
l( +!-l
\/t
er)
\f4!
hP"
t\
/\
eA*6**zg:"ffi!)#
"',,,,0,
\r/ I
prrpr;pZ"---
2h
-'*
2h ""'
Zh'
d^.-
f(pi:*[ur,;,""'-#i
-p"cT
"m.
1(po\lz:a
p2)
man
ai"w*tl 1zr
serzt
das
rntegrar
,,"u rrri'i,l,.,r0,
"r, ." u,Jrf,"J
auf der rechten Seite von Gl. (20). Man erkennt dies am einfachsten,inclem
: S einfii}rt; es
man als neue Integrationsvariabeln .p-.p' : f und t+{
-//
tz
\t
tz
wird dann:
-($I1z- Pa4 l -mzcz
+ nx'a'l
yl,'
\ l' S' + +
"
4
4
|
o* P')t''Ic$)t'
' -4 {;:; J#"[#r|@
tl@T.;q4''+
Bei eirrem vorgegebenengroBen W'ert von f (fr > rnn) eryibt die fntegration
zu I g(f )2| ;
iiber $, clie konvergiert, einen X'akborder ungefrihren GrABe
Vf Ty
dann
wesentlichen
iiber
fiihrt
im
auf das fntegral
die Integration
f
dtc" ++
I q#,rq dh,dku
"i"' "*'
fu'lz
u' !z!,
(23)
67
322
|cG)t'
,3,, {:z; I # f# |t QP)12
2(P2+mzc2)'
F ;4 J ;l s (t)l 't'
f .Lt
4;19:61fi1t61't'
(24)
tu,T<.fr,
TfuT}J-.
nz c"
Ag__L I,t:,,4
@d,-
-2
rurr<Z
o+t -
" <',i##;t
*," r>
,=- I
ftt
{*
P5)
P o p e r6
68
W:T-l(1/8")
J
| (H'zlE'z)d.r.
u^,s:(r/81)r r?dt
(1)
.
U^^e: a2h2
f (6rm2c2a3)
f E"rdr.
W"r:limt"-or-z /a,
72
69
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD
OF
THE
ELECTRON
73
(E,- rr,)dr
,i
mcl}
-l{oct>(imcl/h)
G(0 : e"= .
h l0l2r
(SectionII). Hels lJgrrr(*)is the Hankel function
of first kind. G({) has still a quadratic singularity
zeits'f' Phvsik8e,27 (1934);s0,817
(risYl.w"b"kopt,
70
74
V.
F.
WEISSKOPF
(2rmca2)
U-,*: litn 1,-o1le2h/
- ezmc/(4rh)'ls @/mca)f.
(2)
Frc.
the action of the electromagnetic field fluctuations upon the electron. The efiect of an external
field upon an electron in positron theory is to a
first approximation the same as one expects for
an electron with infinitely small radius, since the
effect of the field upon the displaced vacuum
electrons can be neglected. For instance, no
destructive interference effect would occur in the
interaction with a light wave whose wave-length
is smallerthan h/mc.The exclusionprinciple does
not alter the interaction of an electron with the
field as long as one considers that action to a
first approximation to be the sum of independent
actions at every point; it has only an efiect on
the probability of finding one particle in the
neighborhood of another.
The energy Wno"tin positron theory is therefore not difierent from the same quantity in one
electron theory as shown in Section IV. In the
former theory, however, it is balanced by the spin
energy lV"n the most strongly divergent terms of
which are just oppositely equal 1e fi/n""1. The
sum of W"o and l/1,,"t is only logarithmically di(rmcaz)
W : - 2 U-,"- - lim <o-or
fezhf
"p
vergent.
- e2mc
/ (Zrh) . lg h/ (mca)).
Thus according to positron theory the selfof an electron consists of three parts:
energy
The broadening effect cannot, however, be ap(a) The energy trZ"tof the Coulomb field, which
plied to the energy lTrro*, which is the energy o1
divergeslogarithmicallybecauseof the character6 We use the term "one-electron theorv" for the descrioistic spread of charge.
tion of the electron bv means of the Diiac wave equation
(b) The energy W", of the oscillatory motion
without filling up the negative energy states, in oider to
which produces the spin, This energy, although
distinguish it from the "positron theory."
71
ELECTROMAGNDTIC
FIELD
w:Ew(")
(3)
OF
THE
ELECTRON
75
G({): I p(r-E/z)p(ttt/2)dr;
J
(4)
p(r):el**(r)'l'(r)l -",
(5)
l,l'*tl:D{,*,1,
for the scalar product of two spinors. a is the
charge density of the unperturbed electrons in
the negative energy states which is to be subtracted in the positron theory. In the oneelectron theory o is zero. The wave function ry'
can be expanded in wave functions 9o of the
72
76
V.
F.
WEISSKOPF
stationarystatesg of a freeelectron:
r!(r):la,e
nQ).
The following
{e*oQ)eo$)l:11Y'
r e x Di ( {-' o- ) l h
:e26(t). (11)
GG):r,lap-'
grzPt
J
(6)
( 7 ) the 6-function.
We now apply (10) to the vacuum of the
where 7 is the total volume of the system.We positron theory, that is, we set
a o*&o'a o'*6o
, :Nq(1
(g)
-Nq')'
G,*(0=e'L I
ls -s' J
f { p - 0 , * ( t ' ) p r o ( "|' )
X\p+o*?)
p-o'(dlat.
^ t
"> [
t:a*".
( 1 0 ) vacuum G"*():
N-o:1,
(8)
We now insert (6) into (5) and (5) into (4) and
keep only terms which contain the products of
two a's of the form (8) or the following combinations of four o's:
a q+0.na o'*6 n': N nN o' ,
ff+o:0,
" , :
t'( El
uvacr
r \ 1.,
u soc\ l/ :
e qlt)\ l,p,*(rz),pq"(r,r)\d'r.
\,pa,x(rt)
I
"-L)
If one inserts the actual solutions 9o of Dirac's
wave equation of the free electron, this expression
can be readily evaluated. One obtains after replacing the sum by an integral as before:
,'(L*
exPi(E'P)/h
f
(12)
G ( t ) : e ' m c ' l o -p *
t
J
8n3h3E(?)
-l
Akad'86,317(1934);
W. HJr"nb"re,Verh.d. Siichs.
J . R . O p p e n h e i m F i ,e l y s ' R e v . 4 7 , 1 4 4 ( 1 9 3 4 ) .
73
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD
i*t
G
t):1
" (\s/
mc t
lez -.
f or {41hfmc
lh
Ez
l4r2
I
..-.".
2
/ m""c\'
le'(
| (h/zrLrnce)r' e-ncEttt
\h/
|
|
OF
'
forwhich
77
w * : i JfG\t)
^ot
Tfi- quadratic
^,,.n,.ri^ .i--,,r..i+.,
The
singularity of G() at :0 gives
rise to a logarithmic divergenceof 17"1.By substituting (12) and by performing the integration
over f first' we obtain the result
)
,'n
4n2J
ELECTRON
THE
dP-
mc2
hrE<rtf,
-li^*-.rL*r"WPjg'+y2
rhc
(13)
lnc
**''*
ii"oxoo,l,",*Lf";3/,.'h:Hn:J,f""?*":n
f a{,,)it)or--"{t).
ezh
Wu1- lim 1a:o1-tm2c2lg -,
TnC
tnco
f _ / mcz1l expi(l.p) /h
o:'J oP\E@))
u*
IIL
'
and for
lllc
: fi-s-2-stzr-312r-6t2
IL
r<<h/mc
'
Po,:Po*k
etc_
74
78
F.
V.
WEISSKOPF
tt:t-'
.c
lr-r'I
lr-r'l
1l
eo:--tuoexp-(ipo-r-iEot).
vth
(14)
A,(r,t):-22
V
X e x p i [ ( p o ,- p o ) ' r -
(Eo,- E
:2re'zhz(Z-I)hq
+q
-q
-I/-,*(Vac.*1) - U*,"(Vac.)
'Po'
(15)
")t7/h.
The field strengths can immediately be computed
from this expression. The time average of the
magnetic field energy, U-,* is found to be
- *TT
vmes-'
:-
e'h' f
|
dp
* J aoth"E(b)
I e2
-tim(p__r
2rmch
mzcz P*Pol
|
ls l.
I PPo-2
mc J
L
(18)
Here Po is definedby Pq: (P2fmzcz)t.l\is quadratically divergent expression is just what one
would expect for the field energy of the magnetic
1f
density of the electron if this density is
dipole
:-e'h'caLL(Po - Po,)','No(1-ffq,)
equal to the charge distribution calculated in
qc'
2
the previous section.
In order to show directly, that this magnetic
lu o*a"u o'l lu o'*o"uol
(16)
X
field
is equal to the "static" field of the magnetic
lE oE o' mzca czpo. p 4f'
moment of the spin, we consider the magnetic
if one usesthe relations (9). a, is the component polarization (dipole density) M,
of c'which is perpendicularto pq- pq,.We apply
eh
this expression first to a single electron at rest
M":_[l/*poro"9l
,
2mc
( / f o : 1 , g : q o ; N o : O , q + q o )|
u*,"=rl/Gu rt A'126,
o
[uoo*a"uolluo*a"uqol
tl^"t:-e2h2Lf
o'-'
?-m2(Eo'm2ca)2
2
One obtains after averaging over the spin
directionsand replacing the sum by an integral:
(
I
75
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD
::1e obtains
OF
THE
79
r(f):--G(s),
4 tn2c2
trl
fi:(#)'.,i,(#):
iC:+
4Gi)'-*r.ao),]ar
1 r
/ o--i'Aldr
+ f (" p
J\
I r /6A"\2
:'"r:-,1-ldr
8rc2J \ 0t /
::
ELECTRON
*cI
iJ
r e2h2
^ tI(Eo,_E)'
2Coqq'
{u o*a"uo'lluo'*a"uol
-ry26e - c2p p
lE oE o,
o. 4fz
ffr,).
I f /;*(".pi*9nc){';ld.r.
Ua:r-----rt
do
-:
:U^"s.
fnzczJ gT8h8
(le)
*:!-[
Ed.r
<a,+H\dr-!l o.div.
+
[ (,0-'-t.t)a'
2ne2h2
(E-t)(Eo-mc2)2
" +q -q
t1uqr*a
*cIJ
u a q
"u rl I o* "u ul
m2(Eo-m2ct)2
| 9,*(". p* flmc),!
;ld.r.
and then
e'h' f
dp
: -[J^^".
Uet: -r-f
^J
m
8r|hsE(f)
r :'>
(20)
The interaction
energy
f Go-0/c)i'L):eH'
76
80
V.
F.
WEISSKOPF
w":w"to)+
f" <r,e)t^"ur,
v0
the relations
1..
66'-.;Q'=
-A'rP,
1..
alt'--A':
-Ari,
and we obtain
- L <i.r,>^ar.
*, : L <<a,
*)d.r
\ u- (H,,)
[
f
Here
(t)
H' (e): g' <ot
a eHt +' "
and get from (21)
e2
(t
(0)
W s: W s@\
+ e<H' )r"*-(f1' ))A"+., . .
w",:! f
8rJ
lf
:-(It"(r))A": -(H')*:L
22Jc
6: Qo*Q'.
w': +[ (oo'r"-l1i'r,')^,)d,
((E"'z)e'- (H'z)^')dx:
'"":
Ua-
U^"u' (23)
uJ
wrwt: _![i.xar.
| ((pO)^'--(i'A)n)dr.
"",,0,
Q2)
wrrct: -!
[t
. t a,
-|[ <''o'>^'o''
i ' : [ 9 0 * c / r ]* { 9 t * c r l o } .
of ffi:J;r:*[:ti:,Ll?,Yil;H::Hil;Xbymeans
Thefirsttermcanbetransformed
(24)
77
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD
OF
THE
ELECTRON
81
We have
,h:Laoeq'.
go' canbe calculated by means of the ordinary
perturbation method. The interaction energy
with an arbitrary field A is given by
(Af).:
7 rch
(2s)
,J lildk
(23),(1e)l
f {u 4*auolI o{-t
I q' : eLp q,l:----:---- --t-e+ icl,tl f
l/"r:limr,:or l,
W,p: (Ja- [/-"*:0.
t
LEo-Eo,lclkl
a
-1
I u 4*auol/ rt- )
ktt
- pq. The positron theory gives (Eqs. (13), (23), (20))
f --e-i't
l, hk:gq,
Eo-Eo,-clkl
I
e2
P*Po
,.
--,
ThisexpresSionis introduced into (24) and gives l/"t:limrp:-r
. mc' lg
Tttc
'nc
for the current
i"t : EEN aIuq*a,u,,1lu o,*au ol
. _ f-.._-..........-.-A , * , e x pi ( k . r f c l i I r )
/\t
L
Eo-Eo,lclhl
-,
A(-)exp-i(k.t*c'klt)1
ar-u"-u,
ltconJ'
y:_-4,
wtttct:-!
t.xar:firo,r^,.
e2 1
frn2c2P+P^1
-limcp:-rlPPo-Igjl.
Thcm
L
2
mc J
P-lP,
lim1r:'lB j*finite
rtc
(26)
terms,
78
V. F. WEISSKOPF
82
BOSB-S:TETISTICS
tUE
lr
pG):
expression :
E(k)+E(t)
e
-b*(k)b(1)]
[o*(k)o(l)
zv? f"(D"(Df- E(t)
+E(k)
[o(k)6(l)-a*(k)b*(l)],
[E(e)E(')]t-
where l:kfs.
The o(k) and D(k) fulfill the .elations
a*(k)a(k) : l{(k),
o(k)o*(k) : 1+N(k),
b(k)b*(k): 1+M(k).
1
t:-E
s ( k )e x p i k . r ,
v^ h
e7)
P(k) exP-ik'r'
LZ\-
;s2
vrh
p@):l ___:_:
| (o*(k)+D(k)),
\'2/
E(k): c(h'k2*m2c2)+,
t-
1r(E(fr)*E(l))'
re2
rr,-.:-- tt-l
s
"L E(k)E(t)
2y'i7
| 1|
/
o&): _il -I (o*(k) _D(k)),
\28&)/
*,
1
r:-.8
(2s)
(28)
",:
W (Y ac.* 1) - ilz"t(Vac.)
"t
79
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD
plpol
7 p 2 . m z c 2 - ----lg
l.
"
Lh'
h2
mc J
'
\''
\mcal
wrn"t:2 [ Aorg*gdr.
J
e2
nr(k)+M(k)+l
Wn"t:=(Ao')^">_--.--'T
2
E(h\
and finally
f,Vru"t: tr;Zl,c(Vac.* 1) - I4lrr"*(Vac.)
grad. '1,),
exp ir . s,
i ( s ) : i 'h c e-il -
We obtain then
e2
it:i.hce(t
ir: Ii(s)
83
:;(Ao')^"
grad. ,!,*-{*
iz: -2e2L{*{.
We introduce
and get
ELECTRON
iz': -2e2Aot*{.
THE
e2h r
l*2m2c2 /h2s2
W.t:_
| ds _- (s21m262/ft211
16ncJ
h r
: e2- - limrp:*l
mc4
OF
k+l
( o * ( k ) (al )* b ( k ) b * ( l )
la1n1a14y
- a ( k ) b ( 1 )- b ( k ) a ( l ) ) ,
l:k*s,
wru.,: _![
r. ua,.
(22)
80
84
V.
F.
WEISSKOPF
self-energy. The calculation of the electrostatic The only differencebetween the pair (a), (b) and
energy and the mixed terms in higher approxima- the pair (c), (d) consists in the fact that the
specified transitions start from a positive or
tion can be made along the same lines.
We now consider the detailed form of the ath from a negative state, respectively. This fact
approximation Ws@\of the energy of the state s. does not affect the energy differences in the
W,@)is a sum of terms containing a product of denominators in the limit m--+0, as in this limit
2n matrix elements of the interaction energy the energiesof s"'6and s-s are eeuol. lt.remains
whicq correspond to consecutive transitions of to show that the numerators are also unchanged.
the total system from one state to another This can be seen in the following way: the
starting from the state s and returning to it. transition matrix elements appearing in the deThe terms have denominators that are products nominator belong to a chain of consecutive
of energy differencesbetween the original state s transitions starting from and qeturning to the
initial state of the system. Thrls the transition
and intermediate states.
The self-energyof the electron I7(") is given elements from or to s+0or s-o belong to a chain
of transitions of an electron starting from the
by the difference
state s1o(or from s-s, respectively) and returning
Ii/@:W@(Vac.f 1) - il/r")(Vac.). (30)
to this state. The transition elements form the
We now prove that ltr/@:0 for m:0 by com- product:
paring it with the self-energy of a positron 2 a :
'fu'<">
I i l " ( * 0 ) H ' { ( f ' ) \ l , t * @ t ) H r V @ ) | .. .
in the same state:
x \t*@"-,)H"/(+o) ). (33)
:2w(n')(Vac.)
for m:0. (sz) r*:r'"t"ll/,
ttt4 7<"r(Vac.-1)
Comparing ryt"r(!ac.f1)
w'th l4l(r)(Vac.)we notice:
(a) Wr"t(Yac.-l) lacks all terms containing
transitions of the electron in the state s-0.
(b) t/(,)(Vac.f 1) contains additional terms
from transitions of the additional electron in
s+0.
(c) I4zt"r(Vac.-1) contains additional terms
from transitions of one of the vacuum electrons
into the empty state s-0.
(Vac. { 1) lacks terms containing tran(d) I4z<"t
sitions of the vacuum electrons into the state s+o
of the additional electron
We now prove that the missing terms of (a)
and (d) are in the limit m+0 identical with the
additional terms of (b) and (c), respectively.
+(r+1J4)
U'
,(+Y#)...a.+rr*or].
is the energy of the
Here E6: *(b?lm'c2)t
wave function V@t. fi we now go to the limit
v7+0, all terms with B disappear except those
containing the p in the last pbrenthesis. (fli does
not contain the operator B.)12Since the trace of
every expression containing a's but only one B
is zero, we are allowed to omit the last also, and
it becomesevident that P*:p-. From (30), (31)
rr This conclusion does not hold if one or more of the p;'s
As l7r"l is an integral over all possible inter'
are Mc,
mediate momenta pi in the volume I/, the terms with one
contain one or more factors (nc;l'"o ,nu,
or more bi-nc
these contributions should be neglected.
8l
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD
for
OF
THE
ELECTRON
85
m:O.
2-5n-l
F(kr'...k"'):
We now prove that this result infers a losarithmical divergenceof.,Th, for finite zz. The terms
of W@ contain transitions in lnhich n lisht
quanta are emitted and absorbed.We write
ll/(n) 2s an integral over the wave vectors
kr. . .k, of theselight quanta:
c,x-" for
p>)mc.
z:Zn_1
(35)
u
. .k^) (34)
w*, :,[o'' atr.. .
uo^r(kt.
fo"'u
F ( k t , .. . k " , ) : x N F ( k r . . k , )
if
pn>>*r,
Ju
,i,,, =,(;)"
#
(.
:)
.mc2tsmater
".
*,",-(;)"^.(*#)
T[IE0RIE DU POSITRON
P,ln II.
IItttv!:
tr.
F.,
2ill'
n L 2 c L - +c- 7 p ) ,
ou
w:c
lrrl\'-+p',
83
20
Il n'a pas 6t6 possible de d6velopper une th6orie quantique relativiste de l'6lectron dans laquelle les transitions d'une valeur.
positive i une valeur n6gative de l'6nergie soient exclues. Il
n'est donc plus possible d'admettre que l'6nergie est toujours
positive sans qu'il en r6sulte des inr:ons6quences
dans la th6orie.
Dans ces conditions, deux possibilit6s nous restent ouvertes.
Ou bien nous devons trouver une signi{ication physique pour les
6tats d'6nergie n6gative, ou bien nous devons admettre que la
th6orie quantiq.e relativiste est inexacte dans la mesurp or'relle
pr6voit des transitions entre les 6tats d'6nergie positive.'et ceux
d'6nergie n6Eative. Or de sernblablestransitions sont en g6n6ral
pr6vues pour tous les processus rnettant en jeu des 6changes
d'6nergie de l'ordre de rnczet il ne semble y avoir aucune raison
de principe contre I'applicabilit6 de la m6canique quantique
actuelle h de semblables6changesd'6nergie. Il est vrai que cette
m6canique ne semble pas pouvoir s'appliquer aux ph6nomines
dans lesquels interviennent des distances de I'ordre du ravorr
classique de l'6lectron
Irirque la th6orie actuelle ne peut
fi,
en aucune fagon rendre compte de la structure de l'6lectron,
mais de telles distances, consid6r6escomme longueurs d'onde
6lectroniques, comespondent d des 6nergies de I'or.dre ryo;,
rncz,
beaucoupplus grandesque les changementsen question. Il semble
donc que la solution la plus raisonnable est de chercher un sens
physique pour les 6tats d'6nergie n6gative.
Un 6lectron dans un 6tat d'6nergie n6gative est un objet tout
i fait 6tranger d notre exp6rience,mais que nous pouvons cepend a n t 6 t u d i e r a u l r o i n t d e v u e l h 6 o r i q r r e n; o u s l r o u v o n s e
, n p a r ti culier, pr6voir son molrvement dans un charnp 6lectromagn6tique
quelconque donn6. Le r6sultat du calcul, e{Iectu6soit en m6canique classique, soit en th6orie guantique, est qu'un 6lectron
d'6nergie n6gative est d6vi6 par le champ exactement comme le
serait un 6lectron d'6nergie positive s'il avait une charge 6lectrique positive * e au lieu de la charge n6gative habituelle - e.
Ce 16sultat suggdre imm6diatement une assimilation entrt
l'6lectron d'6nergie n6gative et le positron. On serait tent6
d'admettre qu'un 6lectron dans un 6tat d'6nergie n6gative constitue pr6cisr4mentun positron, mais cela n'est pas acceptable.
84
T H E o R I ED U P o s I T R o N .
:2o5
85
206
S T R U C T U R E T P R O P R I E T ED
SE S N O Y A U XA T O M I Q U E S .
86
THEORIE DU POSITRON.
207
, l i vi : 4 r o
87
1)O8
S T R U C T U R E T P R O P R I E T ED
S E S N O Y A U XA T O M I Q U E S .
(z)
a e , ( o , p ) - + p t n l . c 2-
eY ,
ll2 :
lt.
88
THEoRIE DU PosITRoN.
:IOII
',,-i('-+)
cgr(O, p)r-
93lzc,t.
(5)
.r:(W-eV)(Ro+-R,)-(Ilo-fllr)(W-eV)
: W l t ,- R r W - e ( V R 6 - R n V ) .
w
l\Y1
-. i'
llous avoDs
I
W :
ci(,elc't4
et aussi
F, o :
lxsrr?uT soLvAY {PHy-*IQUEJ,
I'
-(I-1).
ptl'.t
89
2]O
S T R U C T U R E T P R O P R I E T ED
SE S N O Y A U XA T O M I Q U E S .
y ( m 2 c 2 + - p r ) - R 1 - R 1 1 ( n r l 6 1 1 p: : ; i
ii,l.\'
0)
-\'t).
qui se r6duit h
R1,
1 R 1- + R 1 1: o .
1z z : c 1- r p r ) i R , - + R r ( t t z 1 c 2 -p+.-) T :
ii,\'
- 1\ 1 r.
La quantit6 qui nous int6resse est la densit6 6lectrique correspondant d la distribution \. Pour l'obtenir, nous devons former
la somme diagonale d" R , par rapport attx variables de spin
et prendre ensuite l'6l6ment diagonal g6n6ral, multipli6 par - e,
de la matrice r6sultante par rapport aux variables de position o.
Si D repr6sente la somme diagonale par rappor[ aux variables
de spin, nous avons, aprds un caleul simple :
-!r
( t r t ! c ) - r p : l E D r R r l - 1 -I l ( l l 1 ) ( z r 1 c 1 - + - p r r T
: 129C o < v - y v T )
: r:11''
---l----(lr:c:-;
P:)E
: r l ( p ' , V 7 , , r! r - - - - - l - ! _ ,
"
( nzt cz -+-p't 17
ce qui donne
( s ) ( r r 'l D ( R r ) I p " ) :
(nt2 c2 +- lttt':f I
90
THEORTE
DU POSTTRON.
2.Ir
Nous pouvons maintenant transformer D (Rr) dans une repr6sentation pour laquelle les variables de position c sont diagonales
et en calculer l'6l6ment diagonal. En utiiisant les lois habjtuelles
de transformation, on ohtient
t,
( r r ) ( . i r lD 1 1 1)' i r ) :
[ [ " - ' , r , n - p ' ) t t ' ( p ' l D ( R)1l p " ) d l t 'r Q : : t " .
n' .J .,1
p")
(r,,)
-e(riD(R,)t.r):-"O*$r#-:)t
- ' *4 n
"" lf,
\*)
\r-
r"*
9I
S T R U C T U R E T P R O P R I E T ED
SE S N O Y A U XA T O M I Q U E S .
2t2
que
VrV: - 4:ip,
et oir les terrnes contenant les d6riv6es de p d'ordre sup6rieur au
second ont 6t6 n6glig6s.
Le secondmembre de (ro) donne la densit6 6lectriqueprovenant
de la polarisation produite par l'action du champ sur la distributiorr des 6lectrons d'6nergie n6gative. Le terme important
est le premier eui, pour 3
o" -*p.
t^
P o p e r8
92
V. VEISSKOPF
ines der wichtigsten F'rgebnisse in der neueren Entp
'/
I
wicklung der Elektronentheorie ist die Moglichkeit,
elektromagnetische Feldenergie in Materie zu verwandeln'
Ein Lichtquant
93
4
pr. 6. V. wsrssxopn:
wird
94
Uber die Elektrodynamik'
des Vakuums.
Vakuumelektronen -
Problern wird
einer unendlichen Summe in eindeutiger Weise einen endlichen Teil abzutrennen und diesem Realitiit zuzuschreiben'
Die Losung dieses Problems wurde von DInlc und HnrsENBERGdadurch duichgefiihrt, dass sie eine wiederspruchsfreie
Methode angaben, den physikalisch bedeutungsvollen Teil
der Wirkungen der Vakuumelektronen zu bestimmen' Es
q,ird im folgenden gezeigt,dass diese Bestimmung weitgehend
frei von jeder Willkiir ist, da sie in konsequenter Weise nur
folgende Eigenschaften der Vakumelektronen als physikalisch bedeutungslos annimmt:
95
Nr.6. V. Wprssxopr:
Die Energie der Vakuumelektronen im feldfreien
Raum.
l;l
(r)
3) Eine rdumlich und zeitlich konstante feldunabhiingige elektrische und magnetische polarisierbarkeit
des Yakuunrs.
( t.)
lFl
96
Uber die ElektrodynamikdesVakuums.
von sehr vielen Quanten zu gestatten, oder in denen elektrostatische Felder mit Potentialdifl'erenzen von iber 2mcz
vorhanden sind (in diesem Falle wffrden auf Grund. des
Kr,nrn'schen Paradoxons Paare entstehen) r*'ollen n'ir von
der Betrachtung ausschliessen. Unter diesen Umstinden
lassen sich die elektromagnetischen Eigenschaften des Va=-/
kuums durch eine feldabhiingige elektrische und magnetische
Polarisierbarkeit des leeren Raums darstellen, die z. B. za
einer Lichtbrechung in elektrischen Feldern oder zu einer
Streuung von Licht an Licht fiihrt. Der Dielektrizitfrts- und
Permeabilithtstensor des Vakuums hat dann fiir schu'ichere
Feldstdrken niherungsweise folgende Form , (i, i, i,i
sind die vier elektromagnetischen Feldgrdssenr.)
Dr:
(2) oix: dir,*
-j,
tikDk,Hr: Z p*Bo
1n, - n ldik+ 7BiBft]
"knlz
tnr*:dix.#fu
i: A'
o" t x : \f0l ,,
tI k
- 7E,E*].
lz6, - n 1d,*
u.
Kocxer,e und von HnrsnNsrnc u. Eur,en3 bereits durchgeftihrt. Im nflchsten Abschnitt sollen jedoch bedeutend einfachere Methoden angewendet werden. Ausserdem sollen die
Eigenschaften des Vakuunrs auf Grund der skalaren relativistischen Wellengleichung des Elektrons von Krrrl
u. Gonoox
tikel, und ihre Erzeugung und Vernichtung durch elektro1 Es werden im folgenden
nur dort Pfeile iiber Vektorgr6ssen gesetzt, wo Verwechslungen mdglich sind.
t H. Eur,on
u . B . K o c x r r - , N a t u r w i s s . 2 8 , 2 . 1 6 ,1 9 3 b ; H . E u r - n n , A n n .
d. Phys. v.26, 398.
u W. HnrsoNranc
97
Nr. 6. V. Wnrssxopr:
98
Uber die Elektrodynamik
des Vakuums.
nung eingehende Feld die Wirkungen der andern Vakuumelektronen zum Teil implizit enthelt. Dieses Vorgehen ist
analog zur Ha,nrnrn'schen Berechnung der Elektronenbahnen
eines Atoms in dem Feld, das von den Elektronen selbst
verdndert wird. Zur expliziten Berechnung der Wechseli
\firkungen
mtisste man
II.
In diesemAbschnittsoll die ElektrodynamikdesVakuums
ftir Felder behandeltwerden, die den Bedingungen(l) geniigen. Die Feldgleichungensind durch die Angabeder Energiedichte U als Funktion der Feldstirken festgelegt-Wir bestimmen diese aus der Energiedichtef a"r Yakuumelektronen, die ftir das Verhalten des Vakuums massgebendsein
sollen.
Es ist vorteilhaft, auf die Lagrangefunktion t des etrektromagnetischenFeldes zurrickzugreifen,da diese drrch <Iie
Forderung der relativistischen Invarianz schon weitgehenrl
festgelegtist. ZwiSchen der Lagrangefunktion Z. und der
EnergiedichteU bestehenfolgendeBeziehungen:
(3)
u: Zu,#,-t.
99
10
Nr. 6. v. wnrssropr.:
nur auf langsam verinderliche Felder beschrinken, (Bedingung (1)), werden diese Zusf,tze nur von den Werten der
Feldstiirken abhingen und nicht von deren Ableitungen. Sie
krinnen daher nur Funktionen ddr Invarianten (E2 - 82) und
(EB)z sein. Entwickeln wir die Zasdtze nach Potenzen der
FeldstArken bis zur 6. Ordnung, so erhalten lvir:
1
L : +(Er_R )+ L,
8n'
L , : a ( E z _ B z 1 zp+( E B ) r +
+ t (E',- Br),+ e(8, - B\ (nn;z1 . . .
und daher nach (3)
(1
l| U :
(t\ t
r^z
---(82+82)+U'
67t
Der Zusatz zur Energiedichte ist somit durch die Invarianzeigenschaften weitgehend festgelegt; es wird
also im fol-
": ffi{}u,
f :7o,
I
s
e6hT
ffio"/ -t"*'
13.
s:2s'
too
, Uber die Elektrodynamih des Vakuums.
D,:
AI.
4- .n-f r ,
dE;
11
AL
H
- - ' - - 4 -f 't "AB;
Wir werden im folgenden diese Resultate auf eine wesentlich einfachere Weise herleiten.
)
Der Zasa\z U' zur MAxwer,I,'schenEnergiedichte des
Vakuums soll durch d,en Zusatz D' bestimmt sein, den die
Vakuurnelektronen
beitragen,Die Energiedichtebei Anwesenheit von Elektronen in den ZustAnden l)t,,Vz. . . r/, . . . ist
gegebendurch
U_
s , (82+B\+ fr',
fiu,: f
{v:, l ( " ' f*,uu*,i)+n^elvl
L\
s--f
U*", : ih > .lrtt,., A I
*Vr|
sondern
(6)
wobei V das skalare Potential ist. Man kann U' als die
kinetischeEnergiedichtebezeichnen.Die gesamtematerielle
Energiedichte U-r* lisst sich, wie wir sehen werden, leicht
berechnen;der zweiteTerm von (6) - die potentielleEnergiedichte- ergibt sich aus U-,, in folgenderWeise: S'enn
x Zwei Eigenfunktionen ry'
und g in geschwungenenKlammern , {rp, r}
bedeutet hier und im folgendendas innere Produkt der beiden Spinozen
q tr. p:
:
rlroi*, wobei ft der Spinindex ist.
{V, ,}
/
k
rol
Nr.6. v. wntssxoPr':
12
(i)
;\:rv,* ,
eVtPr)dr
: ^#\(J^u,dc
rrobei die Integrationen sich iiber den ganzen Raum erstrecken.Im Grenzfall konstanter Felder, den wir hier wegen
der Bedingungen (1) betrachten wollen, kdnnen wir die
Feldstarke ,E selbst als den konstanten Faktor l' ansehen'
und kdnnen ausserdem die Beziehung (7) auch auf die Energiedichten fibertragen. wir erhalten dann fiir die kinetische
Energiedichte
(i a)
i i , _u
ATI
r at _E--mar.
-r m
AE
(8)
1- 1
mar
gleichgesetzt rverden:
-f)
ir
l0 H\
| *
| aA,
\oA /ii
dHii:
H :
Ho* heV
so gilt dann:
l . ( e v ^) , :
0 H,'
X ^oL
102
Uber die El.:ktrodynamikdesVakuums.
13
tial durch
ige
(e)
V:
-_!9e
v o e h+ V o * e n
konstantes elektrisches Feld, wodurch Schwierigkeiten infolge des Kr,nrx'schen Paradoxons entstehen: Jedes noch so
schwache homogene elektrische Feld erzeugt Elektronenpaare, wenn es sich iiber den ganzen Raum erstreckt. Die
Elektronenbesetzung der Energiezustinde ist dann nicht
exakt stationir. In der vorliegenden Rechnung kann durch
die Periodizitit vermieden werden, dass Potentialdifferenzen
ffber 2 mcz vorkommen, sodass keine Paarerzeugungenstattfinden.
Die materielle Energiedichte ist bei voller Besetzung aller
negativen Energiezustiinde gegeben durch
(10)
U-ut :
Zw,{rp,*, rlt}
-0
a,ih"*.4r
*,-+*
{+
r03
ru
Nr.6. V. Wnrssropr:
(t2)
: =J:ro
,p,
'
(13)
X(p).
V2nh
K'rl,:
\2
^32
e
o'u - i aoo e h |, r^ , |+ L(r.
+ i I n I a + *' "' .
)
)r/
"=
o,
l-
Wir setzennun
1 . . - 2 P " ht\/ ,
,^t -:
\u+
b ,,
2or,
^ 1-: ? !- !t IrJot r.
1
u(D: fi^(n)(+o),,,
wobei fi,Q) die n-te aui 1 normierte Oszillator-Eigenfunkund
rion ist. Dann gilt \1" ful l'ac :1
(14)
t(tp :
(
(
+ b
lmz c2"
(n*
\
*))*
'.
/l
6,:
i ,ou,.
104
Uber die Elektrodynamik
""-\3
,_(;
00
10
0 -1
00
des Vakuums.
15
3\
i/
^,",+b(,+=)2 t
lKl: lf
y
\
bedeutet, die vom Wert o, des Spins abhiingt. Ebenso ist
die in der Wellengleichung auftretende Matrix a, zweireihig
und ist mit 7 antikommunativ i a, T * f o, : 0, da a, nach
(12) auch mit K antikommutativ ist. Die beiden Wellengleichungen lassen sich dann in der Form
(16)
q,: o
tKt)
ff f,. *,ih,3o-?r*/
105
16
Nr. 6. V. Wrrssropr:
(r7) xf+)(r,,):a(+)
@)
^ * ,J:"t{.PP'
l/2nh
(18)rvj(p"): + clg+lxP: rc rt.@
/
Der obere Index (f) oder (-) unterscheidetdie Zustiinde
positiver und negativerEnergie. dr (p) ist ein normierter
2-komponentiger>Spinor<. Die Gleichung (tO) und ihre
L6sungen(17), (18) stellenein eindimensionales
Analogon
zu Drnrc'gleichungdar, in dem ylff lrp statt des Massengliedesf mc'4t steht. Zu einem Impuls p, gehdrenein positiver und ein negativerEnergiewert.(Die beiden andern
Energiewerteliefert die Wellengleichung mit entgegengesetztem Spin).
Setzenwir nun diese Grdssenin die Energiedichte(10)
ein, so erhalten wir
_+t,
.'",",
1{J
_@
!#orp,) |n@p(#)+r
.4'(p,)
r'.
55
rtl
(1e)
a-@
trru
r06
0ber die Elektrodvnamik
\6:
-|
w;:
n:0
des Vakuums"
\_-r
w ; + 2 .1-J)
t7
w;
n:1
:
*''D+rr (a* Nb)
tr',"r+:= F(n
:
r ffo*"u
- 1 e r e)^ B b':'r\FQ"'-"(o
dr
+ Nb)2
; L):,")
ffi>,
_
F\2m
t,(o))
, I|
: ^,t*\*lllo, a*+i
u-o,
ai'
(20)
"
Q)
LtJo
f(r):
*-"-t
-rVp'117f
u'"';#.1-;"'nt2"'-rt
1o;l
s2ls.
nach
t07
18
Nr. 6. v. welssropr:
(21)
u': - +#n +;]' 6"'rs . ( a m - b )
z
+@
dp
,2nr
4 m-3'
(pz l mz cz) z
-a
Diese Potenzreihe l6sst sich leicht durch die Potenzreihenentwicklung des hyperbolischen Ctg darstellen. Man erhilt:
U,:
- r-f *')
ctszab
# ^r (T)'ffr* {za5
eh
*D'
m'c"
[J':-
!!.Bn+=
360n2 m 4 C 7 "
'
- 1" 4 q , B 6 + . . .
6}0nz m8c1
Wenn wir dies mit jenen Gliedern von (4) vergleichen, die
das Magnetfeld in 4, und 6. Potenz enthalten, bekommen wir:
*
I
eah
369o2 ^a"7'
6so;P
e6h3
-m%i5'
r08
iiber die Elektrodynamik des Vakuums.
l9
(22) uSl,:
,;," ( ,/,1)(o)
.
* u'a',(,r,,1)(',
?
w;T' ,(l ,/,lt)(*) sind die k-ten Niherungen in der entsprechenden Entwicklung von W, und I r2,12.llan beachte,dass
(1)'n
W.
dem angegebenenelektrischen Feld rerschwindel
Es llsst sich leicht zeigen, dass
:
i<lv ltt" drdudz o
sodass der rflurnliche Mittelwert von L'-., nur durch das
erste Glied in (22) gegebenist:.
un: zw,,r,(,/,1';,0,.
(l ,/,In)(o) wurde
ig
" m a t.: =]_,_;s
g n z h t Lfr L n u f
r*r
,,; ,',(p).
\oo
)1..
(2)
Der Wert von W.
lisst sich mit der Bons'schenNiherungsmethodeberechnen.Mit den Eigenfunktionen(17) ergibt sich:
,.
109
20
Nr'.6. V. Wnrssxopr:
ot-)(p)}
l' *
w;Q)(p): ezlvol,
il{"t*ilptg),
W
Q
)
w
:
(
p
I
0
L
(23)
'@}f
<st-q+i'
* l{:i=.
w"(il_w;(p*s) I*
l
* ( d a s s e l b em i t - q ) .
Der zlvischen den ( )-ftammern stehende Ausdruck stellt
ein skalares Produkt zweier zweikonponentiger Spinoren
dar. Bei der Integration von (28) iiber p fallen die zweiten
Glieder in den [ ]-Klammern \\,eg, \,enn man die Integration
der Glieder mit-g
mit der Variabeln p': p_g ausfiihrt:
(p+ g),ot-)(p)]l'
: erlv^lrf
*
' |
'(P)
" o,
.,u
- w'^*)
w';
(P+ g) '
J
{soo*r"'
(l+)*
tr0
Uber die Elektrodynamik des Vakuums'
27
s;5,o
rotrt" : - e'lvrf
##ht
S
von I
wobei beleits eine Reihenentwicklung nach Potenzen
zweiter
durchgefiihrt wurde und die Glieder hoherer als
wurden. Dies bedeutetdie VernachOrdnung weggelassen
der
Iiissigung der Ableitungen der Feldstiirke auf Grund
ist
Bedingungen(1). Ebenso,wie in der vorigen Rechnung'
,ron Ep", durch (20) gegeben,wenn man setzt:
F(r):-r'lvoft
"##;rt
iiber p
integriert:
: - #* rtrtro'
,Sl,
t5,"4.
-- f
?,,:,
Bn'(-)"'(o':"-t,--=\
oz,,
1
"
m'co*t)*:ol
(2m)l \drt--t
Da dieser Ausdruck
quad'ratisch in
den elektrischen
- uSl,.
fr'(2):
Glieder
Aus den friiher diskutierten Griinden kdnnen erst die
Vakuum
das
4. und hdherer Ordnung in den Feldstiirken fiir
divergierende
von physikalischer Bedeutung sein, sod'assdas
V6 durch die
Integlal wegzulassen ist. Wir ersetzen nun
elektrische Feldstiirke,E:
E :2fitu,r
ilt
22
t{". O. V. Wnrssxopr.:
\Nobei die Querstriche Raummittelungen bedeuten und erhalten ftr die ersteu beiden Glieder:
y 7 r ( 2 )/(25)
otr\
Ut\''
e{/r
o . 2-R g _ 7
"ahs
2 6*0nzffin'Ana...
t-2a:##,
Br--s':*#"
e6hz
*s ata
i:7o,
r:fq5.
I
o / m c \ a *l , f - o n - { ( z a S C t g z
E-r),
B-r^r\o/ S""\;,
do
q'obei g:
irt.
*E'
m-c"
Die hdheren Ndherungen in E lassen sich leicht bis auf
einen konstanten Faktor bestimmen. Denken wir die /c-te
Ndherung lI; G)(p) der Energie des durch p und n gegebenen Zustandes bestimmt; sie wird. auf Grund. derWellenglei_
chung (16) die folgende Geslalt hatren:
W r o ,( p ) : g o" o| % l o .G( c ,h , l K l , p )
wobei G eine Funktion ist, in welcher nur die angegebenen
Grdssen vorkommen. Ulo)-o., infolge der Eichinvarianz min-
112
Uber die Elektrodvnamik
des Vakuums.
23
U-,t:
(26)
-1 -
*r%r'tli5!j,.
#e^ffi\;j,).J
e
t
4 7 1 ; 'S
,
\
-^L * r u
nr:1
(A'-1)
Das Integral iiber G muss d.ie Dirnension (Energie)
(Impuls)-(k-1) haben, und darf nur mehr von den Gr6ssen
c,h,lKl
P+*
fzn
' .:
';::'-" 1:
rl(2rn-l)
u'
und kann damit d"ieDarstellung berechnen,die HstSeNBERG
Eurnn ftrr L'angegeben habenr:
1 In der Frage der Konvergenz dieses Integrals verweisen wir auf die
u' Eur'en S' 729'
diesbeziiglichen Bemerkungen in derArbeit von Helsrxsrnc
II3
24
L,:
Nr. 6. V. \['nrssxopr':
aa*
#-" (T)'
\fr
- r+rf<,e'
- *,1}
,?{zuctez
o.q@cts,;s
g:'t!n,
en
E:^',"'B.
eh
C t g a c t g P : - i g- 9 @
cos1/F-Faznp-conj
-a5t+ 2l(qq5)+""4+
rr ,t : - ;I , - \e e' l - - - d,nt . : l r i ? z ( E"Do i ? f , S = .
6n' nc
r"
cosqlGt-!09+2r'(qs)-conj
)0
.
2,.t
,/;;--
I''
+5;:+trn-'r|
wegen der Realit:it des Gesamtausdrucksist diesertatsiichlich
nur von Ez - Bz und (EB)z abhiingig.
Die Berechnung der Energiedichte und Lagrangefunktion
des Vakuums ist in der skalaren Theorie des positrons mit
den gleichen mathematischen Hilfsmitteln durchzuffihren.
Eine Energiedichte des vakuums entsteht in dieser Theorie
durch die Nullpunktsenergie d.er Materiewellen. Die Gesamtenergie ist nach P.q,ur,rund Werssropr L c. (Formel (2g))
durch
ll4
25
wlu"t{p,n1 : "llo'*
b('+;).
tttzc2+
u-,t :
r--f*'
,)'r*'
n:0
+1
2N
(p, B)
6:-1
n-g
d:-l
n:0
' 2fr1u",
(B) : fr'(D - 2'if(ttlz)'
Man sieht daran, dass auch hier der von den Feldstirken
unabhiingige und der in ihnen quadratische Anteil unendlich
ist. Der letztere liefert also eine unendliche von den Feld-
il5
Nr. 6. V. Wrrssropr:
cteP-zctgf: -r#,
a,/(o)
f'
Lskal
-i"';\fr''{
2 i&EB)
- E\\.
+^"^.t-Lgz
'l
e"h" tt'
Fiir die in (4) definierten Koeffizienten a,p erhilt man daher:
7
|
eah
1 6 B 6 o n ,^ n { '
u:
^
P:
1
o'
7
Es sei hier noch auf folgende Eigenschaft der Lagrangefunktion des Vakuums hingewiesen. Frir sehr grosse Feldstdrken .E oder B haben die h6chsten Glieder des ZusatzesZ'
zur Mlxwnr-l'schen
L' .- -
o-
--". - Es lS C
24nzhc-
Bt -lgo q5.
-'
bzw. L' ..r ^ , :*
Z4nohc
tl6
Uber die Elektrodvnamihdes vakuums.
27
5,i1;.rsu'
der Feldgleichungen
in dieser Hinsicht
Resultat liefert.
III.
In diesem Abschnitt soll der Einfluss beliebiger Felder
auf das Vakuurn behandelt werden. Wir beschrinken uns
vorerst auf statische Felder. Die stationflren Zustinde des
t [{. Bonn u. L. INner,n, Proc. Roy. Soc.143, 410' 1933.
117
Nr. 6. V. Wnrssxopl.:
Im Falle dass aber das Eigenwertspektrum sich eindeutig in die beiden Gruppen einteilen liisst, kann man die
Energiedichte U und die Strom-Ladungsdichte i, g der Vakuumelektronen nach den Formeln
ff
?t'
(2e)
o-
*' irrl
t
ih f lrt,,
" ){'!f
v)
->
;-
tr8
29
Wenn aber die physikalisch bedeutungslosen Teile abgetrennt werden, erhalten wir konvergente Ausdrtcke.
Um diese Teile auf Grund der Annahmen (I) festzulegen,
entn'ickeln wir die Summanden der Ausdriicke (29) nach
Potenzen der iusseren Feldstdrken in der Weise, dass wir
uns die letzteren mit einem Faktor l. multipliziert denken
und nach Potenzen dieses Faktors entwickeln. Dieses Verfahren ist identisch mit einer successivenStorungsrechnung'
die von den freien Elektronen als nullte Niherung ausgeht'
Die Annahmen Ir, I, verlangen vor allem das Verschwinden der von l, unabhiingigen Glieder, die aus den
Beitriigen der vom Felde unabhiingigen ffeien Vakuumvorldufig nur jene freien
p
Vakuumelektronen beriicksichtigen, deren Impuls lp I <
ist, so erhalten wir hierftir folgende Beitrf,ge:1
elektronen bestehen. Wenn wir
tP
uo: -#o'\d;
'tiF+;'.TF'
lPl<P
(30)
Q o:
"
f t
4#F\dP,
lpl<P
--->
io
e (-
+,"';f)anffi
lPl<P
Elektronen
'-
P-+oo
diver-
gieren natiirlich.
Durch das Abtrennen der von i,'unabhflngigen Glieder
vollstiindig erftrllt'
ist aber die Annahme I, noch licht
Vakuumfeldfreien
Die Ladungs- und Stromdichte gs, iq der
1 Es ist niimlich der zum tmputsI
die Anzahl der Zustinde
l"no:tg"
-!!--..
in Intervall d;',
'
4n3hd
st"o-,
^9-
--
ood
ll9
Nr. 6. V. Wprssropr:
Vakuumelektronen
: -#"\,;l,y 1,*-7^1'
u'o
* *c+,y]
lpl<P
(31)
Qo :
e f ,4;F;p)ap
lpl<P
-r;:
#*\6
lPl<P
"(i+ii)
/Q*?^)'
* mzcz
i :
rotM*qO,
9:
divP
r20
Uber die Elektrodynamikdes Vakuums.
31
worin M und P die magnetischen und elektrischen Polarisationen sind, die im Falle einer konstanten Polarisierbarkeit
zu den Feldern proportional sind. Um die Annahme I, zu
erfiillen, mtissen daher in der Energiedichte U der Vakuumelektronen die zu .Ez und zu Bz proportionalen Glieder
verschwinden und in der Strom-Ladungsdichte die zu den
ersten Ableitungen proportionalen Glieder weggelassen'rn'erden. Es ist praktischer, die Form dieser Glieder nicht explizit anzugeben, sondern dieselben im Laufe der Rechnung
an ihren Eigenschaften ztr erkennen.
Als Erliiuterung berechnen wir die Ladungs- und Stromdichte des Vakuums unter dem Einfluss eines elektrischen
Potentials
i(s r)
(32)
V:VoeT*Vo*e
i (g.)
h
(33)
mit
-> -- {i,t
A:Aoeh
--> _dn
h,
+Ao*e
-->_>
(Ao,g):0
g(0)+Q(1),
e,":"xxry#*conj
irr
12r
32
Nr.6. v. wrrssxopr':
t/p"l,FF)
w ( p * g ) - c z( p , p * g ) - m zc + ,
s " r 6 a - '")pl r n p
19
'
+, /dasselbe\l
- s)i '" t cons
\,,ri t
muss 96 wegfallen;
in g(t) sind die Glieder mit 92 proportional zur zrveiten
Ableitung von V und somit zur ersten Ableitung der Feldstirken
,r,
(34) e"' :
pz / h\2
i;#;
(;")^
A v * h o h e r eA b l e i t u n g e n v o n v
iu,-"|ry#!#*conj
122
Uber die Elektrodynamik
33
des Vakuums,
Es ergibt sich
ti,:-*#!ri
{sD
eh
\mit - sl)
.->
-#\,,w<P)
1
(35)
*
{t',o,
.Xtffr#*
c'(np)'-
c'g',
3 cn(pg)'
5 c 6( n p ) z( p g ) ' ,
2 -4wr@)-i--wn1oy--
4.u.hoherer
Glieder
o.d,'o.si,.s).
Hier treten auch von g unabhflngige, also nicht eichinauf. Diese sind aber mit den wegzulassenden
variante Glieder
-->
+
Beitrdgren ii aus (31) identisch: Entwickelt man nnmlich i'o
nach A. so erhdlt man:
-,,: #,*!,itffi
*Ra_"Wr.)
+
-?
1
,
f *
: [+ ,cA
(w
'Q) - c2( np) z*.' .].
n
"
,-tp
)d
t
w
"
.o
=
"'
123
34
Nr. 6. V. Wrrssxopr:
.(r)
ez / h\2
__->
; t: J A AA * h<ihereAbleitungen.
60nz Irc
\mc/
Die beiden Beispiele sollen zeigen, dass bei einer Storungsrechnung die wegzulassendentseitriige unmittelbar erkenntlich sind und dass die iibrigen durch die Annahmen (I)
nicht berfihrten Beitrdge der Vakuumelektronen
bei der
Summierung zu keinen Divergenzen mehr ftihren. Die angefthrten Beispiele beweisen dies zrn'ar nur in erster Ndherung. Die 0berlegungen lassen sich aber ohne weiteres auf
h6here Niherungen ausdehnen.
Die Behandlung zeitabhiingiger Felder ist im wesentlichen nicht von dem obigen Verfahren verschiecien. Es ist
notwendig, die zeitabhiingigen Felder von einem Zeitpunkt
fo an wirken zu lassen, an welchem die Vakuumelektronen
in feldfreien Zustinden waren, oder in solchen stationiren
Zustdnden, die sich einwandfrei in besetzte und unbesetzte
einteilen lassen. Die zeitliche Verdnderung dieser Zustinde
von diesem Zeitpunkt fe, an ldsst sich dann mit Hilfe einer
St6rungsrechnung in Potenzen der AusserenFelder darstellen.
Die Ausdrflcke (31) und die aus der Bedingung (Ir) folgenden Glieder kiinnen dann abgetrennt werden, wobei der
rlbrigbleibende Rest nicht mehr zu Divergenzen fiihrt. Die
Berechnung der Ladungs- und Stromdichte des Vakuums
bei beliebigen zeithdngigen Feldern in erster Nffherung findet
sich bei SennBn l. c. und bei Plur,r u. Rose L c. Die abzuziehenden Teile werden dort aus der HersnNsonc'schen
Arbeit forrnal entnommen. Sie sind aber mit jenen, die aus
den Annahmen I folgen, vollkommen identisch.
Wie iussert sich nun die Entstehung von Paaren durch
zeitabhingige Felder? Die Paare kommen bei der Berechnung
der Energie-, Strom- und Ladungsdichte nicht unmittelbar
zum Ausdruck. Die Paarerzeugung zeigt sich nur in einer
124
Uber die ElektrodynamikdesVakuums'
proportional
35
Energie der entstehenden Elektronen entspricht. Die Ladungs- und Stromdichte ist nicht unmittelbar von der
Paarentstehung beeinflusst, da stets positive und negative
Elektronen zugleich erzeugt werden, die die Strom-Ladungsdichte erst dadurch beeirrflussen, dass die Susseren Felder
auf die entstandenen Elektronen je nach der Ladung verschieden einwirken.l
Es ist daher praktischer, die Paarentstehung durch dussere Felder direkt zu berechnen als Ubergang eines Vakuurnelektrons in einen Zustand positiver Energie. Die Entstehungswahrscheinlichkeit des Elektronenpaares ist dann identisch mit der Zunahme der Intensitiit der betreffenden Eigenfunktion positiverEnergie bzw. mit derAbnahme derlntensitiit
der entsprechenden Eigenfunktion negativer Energie infolge
des Einwirkens der zeitabhiingigen Felder auf die Zustf,nde,
die bis ntr Zeit fo geherrscht haben. Die Berechnung wurde
von BBrne u. HrIrr-nnz. Hur,un u. JanceRB u. s, w. ausgeftihrt.
Die Paarvernichtung unter Lichtausstrahlung liisst sich
wie jeder anderer spontane Ausstrahlungsplozess nur durch
Quantelung der Wellenfelder behandeln, oder durch korrespondenzmdssigeUmkehrung des Lichtabsorptionsprozesses.
In
die abzutren-
nenden Teile der Vakuumelektronen nicht explizit angegeben, sondern nur ihre Form und ihre Abhiingigkeit von
t Die von Snnsnn belechnete Strom- und Ladungsdichte bei paarerzeugenden Feldern ist daher dem Mitschwingen der Vakuumelektronen
zuzuschreiben und ist nicht etwa die )s176ug1g Strom-Ladungsdichte<.
Die auftretenden Resonanznenner rrihren daher, dass dieses Mitschwingen
besonders stark ist, wenn die iussere Frequenz sich einer Absorptionsfrequenz des Vakuums nihert.
' H. BnrnB u. W. Hcr:rr.nn, Proc. Roy. Soc. 146, 84, 1934.
u H. R. Hur-uB u. J. C. Jascnn,
,Proc. Roy. Soc.
125
36
Nr. 6. V. WsrssropF,:
wobei c'
i : . lim e|
e:
,,
rt
_ttt
fi
,,
.l
at
"
u; : .,!f, ,
elrv
rY{r')l}
7x'1+
L*-r-A;,1{ton
aa :
Einheitsmatrix
Die Dichte-Matrix hat den Vorteil, dass fiir r' * r" die
Summation tiber die Vakuumelektronen nicht divergieren,
sondern einen Ausdruck el'geben der fiir s' : s" singulflr
wird.
Man kann nun aus den Annahmen (I) eindeutig angeben,
welche Teile der Dichtematrix der Vakuumelektronen fiir
1 Der vollstdndige Energie-Impuls-Tensor
besteht aus der Summe von
Uf, lu:nd,dem Maxwslr.'schen
Energie-Impuls-Tensor
126
Uber die ElektrodynamikdesVakuums'
37
x;'t in die wegzulassenden Teile iibergehen und gewinnt auf diese weise eine explizite Darstellung dieser Glieder.
Der physikalisch bedeutungslose Teil der Dichtematrix
s' :
rnuss tlann aus jenen Gliedern bestehen, die von den Feldstflrken unabhengig sind' aus denen, die zu Gliedern in
der Stromdichte fiihren, die zu den Ableitungen der Felder
proportional sind und aus denen die zu Gliedern in der
Energiedichte fiihren, die proportional zum Quadrat der
Feldstiirke sind. Ausserdem muss der abzuziehende Teil
der Dichtematrix noch mit dem Faktor
- vat)l
e,ar,
rr': xp
- f,"t
'
fii
)
lnc J*)E
werden, wobei das Integral im Exponenten
etin gerader Linie vom Punkte r' zs dem Punkt r" zt)
strecken ist. Dieser Faktor fiigt zum abzuziehenden Energiemultipliziert
127
38
Nr. 6. V. Wnrssxopn:
(r'
i t; q,* k')vt,(r"k")
(r'k') r/o(a:"k')|,
F r:
;
1-Vnr
*"
l 1- 'rby l r ' _C | ' .
Hilfsmittel
der Dichte-
matrix bendtigt. Die Summierungen uber alle Vakuumelektronen fiihren hierbei nicht mehr zu divergenten Ausdrticken.
Allerdings eignet sich die explizite Darstellung HrrsnNnnnc's
gut dazu, die relativistische Invarianz und die Giiltigkeit
der Erhaltungssitze in dem Verfahren zu zeigen.
Es ist hieraus ersichtlich, dass die hier beschriebene
Bestimmung der physikalischen Eigenschaften der Vakuum-
128
Uber die Elektrodynamik
des Vakuums.
39
elektronen im wesentlichen keine Willkiir enthiilt, da ausschliesslich nur jene Wirkungen derselben weggelassenwerden, die infolge der Grundannahme der Positronentheorie
wegfallen miissen: die Energie und die Ladung der von
den Feldern ungestorten Vakuumelektronen, und die physikalisch sinnlose feldunabhiingige konstante Polarisierbarkeit
des Vakuums. Alle physikalisch sinnvollen Wirkungen der
Vakuumelektronen werden mitberiicksichtigt und fiihren zu
konvergenten Ausdriicken. Man darf daraus wohl den Schluss
ziehen, dass die L6chtertheorie des Positrons keine wesentlichen Schwierigkeiten fiir
gefiihrt hat, solange man sich auf die Behandlung der ungequantelten Wellenfelder beschrdnkt.
Ich mochte an dieser Stelle den Herren Prof. BoHn,
HerseNsnnc und RossNrpro meinen herzlichsten Dank ftir
viele Disskussionen aussprechen. Auch bin ich dem RaskOrsted-Fond Dank schuldig, der es mir ermoglicht hat,
diese Arbeit am Institut for teoretisk Fysik in Kopenhagen
auszufiihren.
lntroduced
lnto the
This paper deals with the rnodiffcatlons
of the vacuum by Dirac's theory of the posltron.
electrodynarnlcs
unarnbi$ously
by
of the vacuurrr can be described
The behaviour
number
of electrons occuthe existence of an lnflnlte
assurning
pylng the negative energy states, provided
that certain well dbut oirly those to whlch
hhed effects of these elecEons are omitted,
can be ascrlbed.
It is obvious that no physical meaning
The results are identical with these of Heisenberg's and Dirac's
in positron
method of obtaininE finite expressions
rnathematical
theory. A simple rnethod is glven of calculating the polarisability
fields.
of the vacuurn for slowly varying
P o p e r9
r29
I. INrnolucrroN
-fHE
54
t30
RADIATION
FIELD
Foruure,uoN
oF rsB
MBrsoo
Il.
+ (r /s").f 11nt')'z
+1g1)d
6 This is the order of magnitude of the ratio of the probabilities of single quantum emission and radiationless
process,
7 A case in which the action of a sattering field on the
electron is not considered as a small Derturbation. is
treated in the following paper by A. Nordiieck.
8 W. Pauli, Hand.buehder Physik, Yol.24, p.266.
OF
ELECTRON
JJ
cos (k,, r)
*0'r sin (k" r))'
a"t,:2e(rh/Qo")\e,'r,.
(1)
Q)
The matrix vector a of Dirac is to be interpreted physically as the velocity of the electron
divided by c. If following the procedure in classical theory, we should in first approximation
neglect the reaction of the electromagnetic field
on the electron, we should be led to replace c in
(1) by the c number
v:Y/c,
(3)
740fr.
t3r
F.
56
BLOCH
AND
A. NORDSIECK
We accordingly solve the equation
cos (k,, r)
{c(g, p-la,r[P,r
p'))'
Elu:0.
"x')ho"-
(10)
\t'l':EV
,! :{+ -trl,-
(5)
rt
,{:(c, s)fP(l-p')l
(6)
L{-:
-,1,-.
(7)
hB:2(l-p2)t-Blt
(8)
Choosing
{ i D o " r c o s( k " , r )
r)r
(11)
o , ^ : ( u , a , r ) / n ( f r " - ( u ,k , ) )
(13)
@a)
one obtains for u' the simple equation
we get
{c(s, p - ! a,rlPrr cos (k,, r) * 0"r sin (k"' r) ])
''
*mc2ll - y\r+iE(P,x2lQ "x2)hu"TEl,l,'
(9)
"r
= -t(u+0, p -mc(l-p2)-lg
- Ea,r[P"r cos(k", r) f Q,1sin (k,, r)])r/-' +
lc(s, p')lmc'z(1
xflr-"r(0'"r), (1s)
sl
where the upper sign goes with the first superscript and the lower with the second.
The two functions !+ and{- in Eqs. (9) correspond in the limit as the interaction between
the electron and the field tends to zero, to
motions of the electron in states with momentum
mc(l-pz1-t9 and with energies+rnc2(l-p2)-",
respectively. The approximation mentioned before of first assuming the velocity of the electron
to be a given c number gc is equivalent to an approximate solution of the equations (9) in which
the right-hand sides are neglected and /- is assumed to be zero. The latter assumption is made
to obtain a state in which the energy of the
electron is positive.
E ( g , m , x ,g ) : m c z ( l - p 2 ; - l 1 c ( u , 8 )
*L@
'r
( ro.)
- (cI 2h)E G, a")' / (k - (u, k")).
"
"x* ilh,'t"
3t
Here 7(p) is a noimalizedfour-componentamplitude satisfying the relation A"y: ?.tog is an arbitrary vector introduced so that for a fixed value
of g the functions (15) form a completeorthogonal set. We shall below use only such functions
z' for which 8:0, so that for vanishing interaction between electron and field we have to deal
with an electron of momentum mc(|-pz)-to.
ro .y may be taken to be proportional to any linear combination of the columns of (1*A).
132
RADIATION
FIELD
J/
transition
of the system between two states
characterized by the velocities v:s,
and w:rc
of the electron and the quantum numb.ers zr"1 and
z8r, respectively. The matrix element of a perturbation tr/ operating'on
the coordinate and spin
variables of the electron is given by
:lf
ELECTRON
exp {i/h(ntc(I-p'z)-lu, r)
OF
(1?)
e x pt 1 - i / h ( n c ( -l p ' ? ) - t sr,) |
I d Q h ^ ( Q - os i n ( k , r ) )
c o s( k , r ) Q { l i ( c ' - r ' z )
Xexp {-i(o-z)
(19)
:exp l-i(m-n)(k,t)l.K
with
K(o, m ; r, n) : svp I - iG - r)'l
X (m ln !)tl - i2- t (o - r11t^- "t
I
l- +(a- r)'zfr
E
r- (l- r) tr !(lm- nl -t () t
(20)
(23)
the
r33
BLOCH
F.
58
AND
NORDSIECK
Qr/ha')
v2)-\
"r
'?, (24)
i r"r, z"r) |
A.
sin &dtd.e
XfI exp{-}(""^-."r)t}
[*(o"r,-
'-i)']""^
(26)
n*1
.',,-{##;-##;l'}
(27)
-(e,/4r,hc) tim
o e o - l r |o
da"
-"'
,"Jo
r"
f2n
sin d*dr}"I
'[(J;-*)'-(*-+)]
d,e,
,lo
(28)
134
RADIATION
FIELD
Xt
t
l
n"aho"Usintittd.e (30)
a!tr:o
e \t
l
1- v"/
p"
," \ tl _
-l /
-_
,
| ldo-sin 3"d.8"d.p". (31)
\ 1 -p"
l- v"/ J
OF
ELECTRON
59
I35
P o p e rI O
ss:2'00244L0.00006'
It is not possible, at the present
discrepancy
apparent
conceivable
some
small
would
These
gestion
ment
that
between
results
are not
time,
to state whether
these values
perturbation
of
of the indicated
in agreement
is real.
the
the
It
is
states
magnitude.
the recent
sug-
of the intrinsic
mo-
with
of the electron.
136
Poper I I
tf-HE
241
137
242
!VILLIS
E.
LA]VIB, JI{.
AND
ROBERT
C.
RETHERFORD
Such
a transition
be induced
M A G N E T I CF I E L D - ( G A U S S }
by the
to the
beam
of a static
electric
field
138
FINE
STRUC'TURE
OF
THE
HYDTTOGEN
ATOM
243
P o p e rI 2
t39
140
BETHE
340
properly be regarded as already included in the
observed mass of the electron, and we must
therefore subtract from the theoretical expression, the corresponding expression for a free
electron of the same average kinetic energy' The
result then diverges only logarithmically (instead
Actheorl':
in non-relativistic
of linearly)
cordingly, it may be expected that in the hole
theory, in which the aeain term (self-energy of the
electron) diverges only logarithmically, the result
will be conaergent after subtraction of the free
electron expression'o This would set an effective
upper limit of the order of mc2 to the frequencies
of light which effectively contribute to the shift
of the level of a bound electron. I have not
carried out the relativistic calculations, but I
shall assume that such an effective relativistic
limit exists.
The ordinary radiation theory gives the following result for the self-energy of an electron in a
state rn' due to its interaction with
guantum
transverse electromagnetic waves :
gt:
-(2e2/3rhcs)
fK
x I
hdhLlv,-l'/(8"-E,,+k), (1)
the relevant
(h/im)v.
(2)
yro: -(2e2/3rVr"'1
f nanu,1n.
(3)
(4)
2e2
W':W-Wo:
3rhca
rK
lv^"|,(E"- E-)
x I dkL----:-----'
;
J"
E"-E*+h
,_ ,
(s)
-2e2
W':
Ilv-"1'(E,,-E^)
3rhct
J^
z: (v2)-^.
ln*
-'
(6)
lL"-L^l
"
(7)
o:4 o"^:41P,^l'(E"-E^).(8)
This sum is well known; it is
A:DIP" l'(8"-E^):
-p' I g^*vv'v*-',
:+h,
- J fvrw*z2r:2nfuzszz,{r-2(o),
(9)
t4l
ELECTROMAGNETIC
(10)
V*'(0): (Z/na)8/r,
2a
SHIFT
341
**':
u\il
P o p e rI 3
142
correctlons
to elec-
The
of-a-radiative
exanple'
simplest
correction
is that
u"'"ttva;- n;ii5y*fjfj:ru'lf
r''"",r'"l"Lio'"-i""n
A',on phenomena
ll
to evaluate
TTEIVIPTS
radiative
,*il':iltJ1fi.n!!1
-*#HilHil'':::ff:li
'ihe
l";;";;;;;;;'n
;:A*1.'iti*T:-*'JTi::i:'s;:d:::E-J"fii "
.ig6!-3i"
;::'",,';:fu:i*:lT"TJ:'J:#i:"mt':.:"*:;t'ffi'l#Tih
ru";Y:T":::
;;#;;;i;;;u.""n.i'*i"piJ'.'io"
l1i$f;*ffihJ'"!lll,1ll;'i,;l'i,1,""'ltTX"J""i-[i:jl5
are subject to modification
ov
-o."
" -"i""* ""ti"f."to.y
th"o.y,
andaie
"^etgie'
rhi,'{*j:lim
t,u"t*o.thv
tbusrerativery
l;:"f*
transforming the Hamiltonian
o"Iii"
i"p".n""
;;d*;il
splitting
;tut"'iu*''
lT"il:ttt"t
;:H1"tJ:?t*Jl;
oro*
*"::f:lHilJ"',T:*"""T,"1,T;;:;;,i" *o-"n,
l;'i*:lI*#:X*f'.'1":';'""':Xl*T;
l'".,.-::lHi"A;f'3i:"i,'":'::,!.,:f,\T*Tl*1",fi
ii:,:il#":X;'i:
uu"oin"Jo''"i
u'a
;;"';;il
"*t.";o'.
self-energv.of
a free.erectr::-^t1':r:,;
["::lH,*Jlt"'i:"::",]:1T;:..,'*"]'"a"'o"."aa
ttvdtgg!1
to account {or the measured
1T:::;:Til?,';'J:'ilH;"
" ira"7':booi
These
?:ifi*iH.*tr*,*:',""**:**:tT:.,T'i
a"/u: o'oorgr *0'00025' respectively'
;;.Oil;;
cmbinathis
i"""r"e
theoreticalpredicmeaningfulstatementsof .rr" *".r,
u'" not in disagreementwith the
t=tit"'
a
free
of
mass
is provided bv measuretion of masses,which is an" i.o-"r1*"r,"r
iir. U"t" O*"i"e colnformatiot 'irl
,n",
ffi,'"ir**,
electron. It might ,OO".r, ,ri#1i,"
;;;il;,;.";rth.i""t,o.'#,:li':ff+;"S*i*.:1.#
*l*_":t:;,*i?..,i;-il ff3+:ill::i:i
electromagnetic
-;;;;";;.;;;
r*:""fijrug;t1!lll';;,;;;;.r--u,io.o*r"*#*fl
ffi :.{:n'm:n;lt'r:i1Fil:T
**l'iltil:H:,yi*!T:l*:u*l
)::;n'ffi*1;:ru**ry;:'J":$.'"r
lil,',.,.m
th""l".t.o-ugr"ticmassbeasmallcorrection
to the mechaniel mass zo'
\-\e'/nc)m0)
i, o"il.l*-iir."
.-i;.;; H^-'tonian
issuprio,;::h::,,f,,:,,]"ixi",J
i:**i:;*n:f,"J1...",",',;H::
fi":,i:'Jil"#::::
inr
values
vielded
ion;'"a helium'5The
essentiallYthre waYs: it
mechaniel mass; il:';;i;;it;:^ta
conjmtured
rron mass,rather rhan ,t" unJi""*"tt"
;iffer.onlv slightlv from those
;;';;;;;
in
only
field
,^a]".;"n
no-'-relativisticcalculation'and
an electron now interacts *t,-f, ii."
is, only an accelerated ;; ffi;;;;;;t..i.
"1
the presenceof an ""t"rr"t n"ia, inut
orabs'rb
;nr111;1*t1g
ii*i-'"""-r'f
i#t"tni:l;;iil"ff ;*Ji;.;'""',1*qq*lq
action energYof an electron
subject to a f,nite radiative.;;.'i;
i."". lit
ct"rtmb
iiT:T"f
poi.t,I:rr^".,-,i:,il".il.;::n".l:,T';."j.;*
,ha,ast
i::;r'"?l'#il,I-J""",ij"f'.:i
T*j"";31,.?:i3;;";i;;*:ru
n::trlJTi:lH"Ttri
naa3{E:ffli.I;:,ijj',iffi1*l,i*":,?",*T
with
".nnection-
il:i:n:J:-"":li#:i1{x**
"",i".,*""r;ii;*#;l-U'jqffiit,?ffiir:triir
Ho*"t"r,
such a term is
it has long been recognized that
*.ft:*{,{{*rffi,11'*'iiJ$?Ji#i
:H:l",tL1::'itr,ff#I"J[Tffi1::J,]il-,"JJ,l
"Ti1;1Ii]"$i,?{*i,*'iri*;ru*l
\2:';,t1"'nn
*'lij:n:::1#1'li.fl'J::5'irJ:lx'il:iT:iru
il;i;
rh.
"*p"ii-"n.ul
lactors'
contained in the renormalization
On Radiative Corrections to
Electron Scattering
I7 a/laill
JULIAN ScgwrNcER
U nio.rsit!, Cambrid.gc, M assaahw.u,
January 21, 1949
ADIATIVE
p
corrmtions to the electromagnetic prop_
l\
erties of the electron produce energy level displace_
ments and modify electron scattering cross sections.
Although the high accuracy of radiofrequency spectroscopy facilitates the measurement of energy level displace_
ments, as in the Lamb-Retherford
experimentl and t}re
evidence on the anomalous magnetic moment pf the electron,t nevertheless the correction to the cross section for
scattering of an electron in a Coulomb field is not without
interest, since it permits a comparison between theory and
experiment in the relativistic region, as compared to the
non-relativistic domain to which the energy level measurements pertain.
The radiative correction to the cross sction for essn_
tially elastic scattering of an electron by a Coulomb field
has been computed with the form of quantum electrodynamics developed in several recent papers.! In addition to the emission and absorption of virtual quanta. we
include the real emission of quanta with maimum energy
-1E, which is small in comparircn with l/:E-mc2.
the
initial kinetic energy of the electron, In other words, we
treat only those inelastic events in which a small fraction
of the original energy is radiated. The contribution of the
remainder of the inelastic proce$es can be derived from
the well-known bremsstrahlung cross section, and is not
of principal interest, The result, expressed as a fractional
decrease in the difierential cross section for rcatterine
ttrrough an angle rl, is
r/
F
\
6:2d/rL\toc;El)(I(0+K,) +iI( o- Kr+'IKz- L
(mc2/E\2
s' , ' 1 - P 2
o^l
sin?d/z"o1'
,\ r" ,
where
Ko: f\/(1{
\r)tl log[(1]Ir)
5,: [(1f \r)/\,](o_
1,
Kr- [(1*\r)/r']Kr_
t,
l11l , \:
(p/mc) sin(s/2),
Q)
:
(2n * 1)lB' sln'(o / 2),
" lt /
L=l(4/3)(os2-t)-!lp,
sin,(o/D.
("/
(6)
and
(7)
We may remark, parentJretically, that in the sme nonrelativistic approximation, the radiative correction to the
energy of a particle moving in an external field with po.
tential energy Iz(r) ist
6B : (c/3r) flog(mc2 / 2AW +Gt / 12a)f\h / mc),|v, ff
! (a/2r)(h/2mc)<- ipa.v V)
/c\
= (a / 3 r) (h / mc), l(los (mc2/ 2^W ) + ( t 9/30) ) (v, y)' "/
and
L: (^'+i)67EY
I:tlrs++#- !rgig#]4
{ip.L(r/r)(dv/dr))1,
_*t-"?a),itsff:Ju
)
(3)
y : ll - sin2
(s/ 2)(1- d) ll
(4)
Here
where L is the
in units of i, and
system.l Applied
and, 2zP1 levels
144
LETTERS
2
mc/*c',
TO
experimental value? of
to be compared with the
ttlttl"TiJ,,ll';"htivistic or(1)is
rimit
THE
EDITOR
;:?rlr':*r4i:Yf
3fl
#;::Hid{,ii*i
determination of theenergy' sal
""'i""'*'"r'.i,".t91"1:*'StbhvJi::':T:i:'T"
' - *"' f h!,1*'i#,'l
n*," t7z)+o(")r' (s) t-'ff:";j;1tlt.',' u *,rn angle,at moderate.energies'
;' rl!;t
an addition of 4.4 104 to 6' I
where
(o/2)
- { sin
6(o)
[4i9P;['"",u,,,
**?$;'']
(9) alone'
with fie a'limptotic formula
t"
*rt*
"itai"d thecondition(f/6s)'z siil(d/2)>>1'vhich
ft".".Jr
""*rts
.lii:ij;l1ji:'#
ll*1":::,';
xp=$677p' tro) ::::lH^[;*;:
i1i*$1
**:;:::""$".1;
Hiltl:ii*j:i1i,
rheinteg^rar,.i"*.::.::.'-il"i*i.ilrJlryrrt?1,";r:;
i::E:#-;,ll:ff
;;;;t;ii"il*
l':: ili;;;;
:'",.'"1;liiu;:Tit:iT+
hasihecorrec'l
which
t-cos(B /2)
6Q)-O*@nfr+*@ifr
*l.*za=*qar*t-co:(o/2t4t]
(11)
of 6
"1r'-"*,in*,iont
!n"*o"o',liji[?l;"
::$l."t::"f:
valuable conformation for t
,"a-Jii*
"...*tions
the electron.
properties of
to the electromagnetic
l*";t*k*d:i-?$:i":**id;Y,":lxip;[1+T**tt
ttltil
(e)
;$3i;',ic rormura
m:mtt
j:.j;ir"i",,".fft;irr-**$3;*$*$$,3gff
*.a"i.ii'"n",d":'n.",.y,
;trg1l;**+m*,*rff
ftgi;'ffi
17:3.1
['ltl,,tft;-"".iq;g1iffirf+i,glm
#;;;;;,,,i*,di,io,"ioJ',;u:u'u.-x".i.'v
:*;" "-r
saei
N.'i,
;g'',::l;%T:'1i1":
*ll;"1;':X
#*i :%;ll
ETECTRON
THEORY
Report to the SolvayConference
for physics
at Brussels,Belgium
September27 to October2, l94g
by f. R.OPPEI{HE|MER
In this report I shall try to give an account of the
deveropments of the
last year in electrodynamics.
It will not be usefur to eirre . complete
presentation of the formalism; rather I shall try to pick
out the essential
logical points of the development, and raise at least
some of the questions
which may be open, and which bear on an evaluation
of the scope of.the
recent developmenrs, and their place in physical theory.
I shall dlvide the
report into three sections: (l) a brief summary of related
past work in
electrodynamics; (2) an account of the rogical and procedural
aspects of'
the recent developments; and (3) a series of remarks
and questions on
applications of these developments to nuclear problems and
on the question
of the closure of electrodvnamics.
t.
History
146
J. R. OPPENHEIMER
clearly
former, the field and charge fluctuations of the vacuum-which
on the
whereas
part;
a
decisive
have no such classical counterpart-play
limit
seriously
so
which
prgduction,
pair
of
other hand the very phenomena
compared
small
for
distances
the
electron
of
the usefulness of a point model
they
to its compton wave length hlmc,in some' measure ameliorate, though
and
of
inertia
electromagnetic
infinite
the
do not ,.rolrr., the problems of
first
points
last
These
distribution.
the instability of the electron's charge
were
were made clear by the self-energy calculations of Weisskopf,(3) and
that
to
Sakata,(5)
and
by
Pais,(+)
finding,
by
the
still further emphasized by
the
return)
to
repeatedly
have
shall
we
the order e2 (and to this limitation
and its
electron's self-energy could be made finite, and indeed small,
essentially
and
magnitude
small
of
forces
stability insured, by introducing
arbitrar:ifitsmall range, corresponding to a new field, and quanta of arbitrarily
high rest p255.(6)
b1 th. other hand the decisive, if classically unfamiliar, role of vacuum
in a highly academic situation
fluctuations lvas perhaps first shown-albeit
gravitational energy of the
(infinite)
-by
Rosenfeld's- calculation(7) of the
with the discovery of the
view
into
light quantum, and came prominently
the
current fluctuations of
to
due
of the self-energy of the photon
piobleof the (infinite)
problems
related
the
the electron-positron field, and
of renormalizanotion
the
time
first
for
the
polarizability of that field. Here
refers in fact
vacuum
of
polarization
The infinite
iior, ,rru, introduced.
be possible
should
of
charge
definition
just to situations in which a classical
the linear
finite,
were
polarizarion
slowly varying fields) ; if the
l*.uk,
classically
in
any
measured
nor
constant term could not be measured directly,
charge
induced
gf
and
"true"
interpretable experiment; only the sum
linear
infinite
the
ignore
to
natural
could be measured. Thus it seemed
the
finite
to
significance
attach
tp
constant polarizability of vacuum, but
fields'(a)
in
strong
and
varying
rapidly
deviations from this polarization in
they are in
Direct attempts to measure these deviations were not successful;
Lamb-Retherford
the
describe
do
which
any case intimately related to those
bulk of
level shift,(e) but are too small and of wrong sign to account for the
here
philosophy
and
procedure
renormalization
this observation.(10) But the
appliedtochargewastoprove'initsobviousextensiontotheelectron,s
mass, the starting point for new developments'
have
In their application to level shifts, these developments, which could
the
required
years,
fifteen
last
the
during
been carried out at any time
in
other
Nevertheless,
verify.
and
impetus of experiment to stimulate
identical with
closely related problems, results were obtained essentially
the Schwinger
and
shift
Lamb-Retherford
the
those required to understand
ratio'
gyromagnetic
corrections to the electron's
Thusthereistheproblem-firststudiedbyBloch,Nordsieck,(1r)Pauli
slow electron
and Fierz,(lz) ofthe radiative corrections to the scattering ofa
of
electromagnetic
The
contribution
z.
(of velocity u) by a static potential
2
147
E L E C T R O NT H E O R Y
inertia is readily eliminated in non-relativistic calculations, and involves
some subtlety in relativistic treatment only in the case of spin 1/2 (rather
than spinzero) charges.(13) It was even pointed 6st(1a) that the new effects
of radiation could be summarized by a small supplementary potential
I.
-(+)(fleY
L V l n ( ;)
(where e, li, m, c have their customary meaning) . This of course eives the
essential explanation of the Lamb shift.
on the other hand the anomalous g-value of the electron was foreshadowed by the remark,(15) that in meson theory, and even for neutral
mesons, the coupling of nucleon spin and meson fluctuations would give to
the sum of neutron and proton moments a value different from (and in
non-relativistic estimates less than) the nuclear magneton.
Yet until the advent of reliable experiments on the electron's interaction,
these points hardly attracted serious attention; and interest attached rather
to exploring the possibilities of a consistent and reasonable modification
of electrodynamics, which should preserve its agreement with experience,
and yet, lor high fields or short wave lengths, introduce such alterations as
to make self-energies finite and the electron stable. In this it has proved
decisive that it is zat sufficient to develop a satisfactory classical anaiogue;
rather one must cope directly with the specific quantum phenomena of
fluctuation and pair production.(o)
Within the framework of a continuum
theory, with the point interactions of what Dirac(lc) calls a ,,localizable,,
theory-no
such satisfactory theory has been found; one may doubt
whether, within this framework, such a theory can be formed that is cxpansible in powers of the electron's charge e. on the other hand, as mentioned
earlier, many families of theories are possible which give satisfactory and
consistent results to the order s2.
A further general point which emerged from the study of electrodynamics
is that-although
the singularities occurring in solutions indicate that it is
not a completed consistent theory, the structure of the theory itself gives no
indication of a field strength, a maximum frequency of minimum length,
beyond which it can no longer consistently be supposed to apply.
This
last remark holds in particular for the actual electron-for
the theory of
the Dirac electron-positron field coupled to the Maxwell field. For particles
of lower and higher spin, some rough and necessarily ambiguous indications
of liryiting frequencies and fields do occur.
To these purely theoretical findings, there is a counterpart in experience.
No credible evidence, despite much searching, indicates any departure, in
the behaviour of electrons and gamma rays, from the expectations of theory.
There are, it is true, the extremely weak couplings of p decay; there are the
weak electromagnetic interactions of gamma rays, and electrons, with the
mesons and nuclear matter.
Yet none of these should give appreciable
148
J. R. OPPENHEIMER
of application;
correctionsto the present theory in its characteristicdomains
distances,and
(nuclear)
small
very
fo,
ihut
suggest
they serve merely to
will no longer be
,r.ry t igt energies, .1..i1., theory and electrodynamics
theory of the
separable from other atomic phenomena' In the
,o
an alrnost closed'
"t.u.iy
electron and the electromagnetic field, we have to do with
precisely to the absence
almost complete system,in which however we look
ofcompleteclosuretobringusawayfromtheparadoxesthatstillinhere
in it.
2.
The problem
Procedures
recognize
then is to see to what extent one can isolate'
undportpo.tetheconsiderationofthosequantities'liketheelectron'smass
infinite results-results which'
und .hu.g., for which the present theory gives
iffinite,-couldhardlybecomparedwithexperienceinaworldinwhich
What one can hope to
arbftrary values of the ratio izfhc cannot occt:Lr'
.o*p',.withexperienceisthetotalityofotherconsequencesofthecoupling
need to ask: does theory
of .hurge and field, consequences of which we
and in agreement with
unambiguous
finite,
give for them results which are
experiment ?
as
jlrdg'.d by these criteria the earliest methods musf be characterized
They rested, as have to date all treatrnents
..r""orriugi.rg but inadequate'
notseverelylimitedthroughoutbytheneglectofrelativity'recoil'and
of a, going characteristically to
pair formaiion, on a.t expansiott in powers
out the calculation of the problem in question;
the order ez. One carrij
for the Lamb shift, I,amb and
(for radiative scattering corrections, Lewis{u);
for the electro{r's g-value'
Kroll,trel Weisskopf ulrd F,.""h,(1e) Bethe(zo);
order the electron's electroLuttinger(21)) ; one also calculated to the same
induced by external fields' and
magnetic mass, its charge' and the charge
for the effect of these changes in
the light quantum massl finaily one asked
and sought to delete the
charge and mass on the problem in question'
Such a procedure would
corresponding terms fro* ih" direct calculation'
all quantities involved
cumbersome-were
no doubt be satisfactory-if
ln
In fact, since mass and charge,correctrons are
finite and unambiguous'
outabove
divergent integrals' the
general represented by logarithmically
not necessarily unique or correct'
but
finite,
obtain
to
Iin.d pro".dure serves
an electron in an external field;
reactive corrections for the behaviour of
andaspecialtactisnecessary,suchasthatimplicitinLuttinger'sderivation
oftheelectron'su.tomulot'sgyromagneticratio'ifresultsaretobe'not
sound' Since' in more complex
merely plausible, but unambigt'ot's at'd
straip;htforward
in calculations catried to higher order in a' this
froUt.Inr, and
and the results more depenprocedure becomes more and more ambiguous'
of gauge, more powerful methods
dent on the choice of Lorentz frame and
steps' the first
Their development has occurred in two
are ,.qrrir.d.
Schwinger'(zz)
largely, the second almost wholly, due to
149
ETECTRONTHEORY
The first step is to introduce a change in representation, a contact transformation, which seeks, for a single electron not subject to external fields,
and in the absence of light quanta, to describe the electron in terms of
classically measurable charge a and mass m, and eliminate entirely all
" virtual " interaction with the fluctuations of electromagnetic and pair
fields. In the non-relativistic limit, as was discussed in connection with
Kramer's report,(z3) and as is more fully described in Bethe's,(24)1li5 112n5formation can be carried out rigorously to all powers of e, without expansion;
in fact, the unitary transformation is given by
II.
[/:exp
],f<,Vl
clearly yields:
150
J. R. OPPENHEIMER
dimensions of the otd'er hlmc, and which include the supplementary
potential -I, and the supplementary magnetic moment
I
o2 \l
ph\/+\
\na)\r^,)\"
)
as special (non-relativistic) limiting cases'
in e, they
Were such calculations to be carried further, to higher order
to the
mass,
and
of
charge
would lead to still further renormalizations
correcreactive
to
and
interactions,
successive elimination of all "virtual"
to the probabilities of
tions, in the form of an expansion in powers of e2ffrc,
Nevertheless' before
etc'
transitions: pair production, collisions, scattering,
interesting new
physically
the
such a prog.u-^ could be undertakdn, or
The
required'
is
development
a new
t..-,
th; uLo,r. b. taken as correct'
independent
general
in
not
are
reason for this is the following: the results (h)
ofgaugeandLorentzframe.Historicallythiswasfirstdiscoveredby
energy in a uniform
.oripu.iro', of the supplementary magnetic interaction
magnetostatic field 1/
\r;n)\*)\' ')
/
o2 \/
el\/*
z\
withthesupplementary(imaginary)electricdipoleinteractionwhich
appeared*ithu,,electroninahomogeneouselectricfieldEderivedfroma
static scalar Potential
/
"2
\l
ph\
.\
\e;n)\r-,*)iP"\i:E)
a manifestly non-covariant result'
Nowitistruethatthefundamentalequationsofquantum-electrodynamics
But-they have in a strict sense no soluare gauge and Lorentz covariant'
these solutions,
tions expansible in powers of e. If one wishes to explore
no longer
theory,
in a later
bearing in mind that cprtain infinite terms will,
beinfinite,oneneedsacovariantwayofidentifyingtheseterms;andfor
the whole method of
that, not merely the field equations themselves, but
This
covariance'
appro"imation and solution must at all stages preserve
Lorentz
a
fixed
imply
*.url, that the fanriliar Hamiltonian methods, which
Lotentz frame nor gauge
frarne l: constant, must be renounced; neither
a' all terms have been
in
can be specified until after, in a giv-en order
identified,'andthosebearingonthedefinitionofchargeandmassrecognized
andrelegated;thenof.o,,"t,intheactualcalculationoftransitionprobabilitiesandthereactivecorrectionstothem,orinthedeterminationof
static, and in the reactive
stationary states in fields which can be treated as
coordinate system and
corrections thereto, the introduction of a definite
well-defined terms can
gauge for these no longer singular and completely
Iead to no difficultY.
l5r
ETECTRONTHEORY
It is probable that, at least to order e2, r;rore than one covariant formalism
perturbation
can be developed. Thus Stueckelberg's four-dimensional
theory(26) would seem to offer a suitable starting point, as also do the
related algorithms of Feynman.(27) But a method originally suggested by
Tomonaga,(28) and independently developed and applied by Schwinger,{:2)
would seem, apart from its practicality, to have the advantage of very great
generality and a complete conceptual consistency. It has been shown by
Dyson(ze) how Feynman's algorithms can be derived from the Tomonaga
equations.
The easiest way to come to this is to start with the equations of motion
of the coupled Dirac and Maxwell field. These are gauge and Lorentz
covariants. The commutation laws, through which the typical guarltum
features are introduced, can readily be rewritten in covariant lorm to show:
(l) at points outside the light cone from each other, all field quantities
commute; and (2) the integral over an arbitrar2 space-like hypersurface
yields a simple finite value for the commutator of a field variable at avanable
point on the hypersurface, and that ofanother field variable at a fixed point
on the hypersurface.
In this Heisenberg representation, the state vector is of course constant;
commutators of field quantities separated by timeJike intervals, depending
on the solution of the coupled equation of motion, can not be known
a priori; and no direct progress at either a rigorous or an apProximate
But a simple change to a mixed
solution in powers of e has been made.*
Tomonaga
and called .by Schwinger the
in-troduced
by
that
representation,
"interaction representation," makes it possible to carry out the covariant
analogue of the power series contact transformation of the Hamiltonian
theory.
The change of representation involved is a contact transformation to a
system in which the state vector is no longer constant, but in which it would
be constant if there were no coupling between the fields, i.e., if the glementary
The basis of this representation is the solution of the uncoupled
charge a:0.
field equations, which, together with their commutators at all relative
This transformation leads directly to
positions, are of course well known.
of the state vector F:
for
the
variation
the Tomonaga equation
III.
"'" 6o
c'
152
J. R. OPPENHEIMER
operator of the four-vector electromagnetic potential at p; jp\et is the
(charge-symmetrized)
operator- of electron-positron four-vector current
density at the same point.
It may be of interest, in judging the range of applicability of these methods,
to note that in the theory of the charged particle of zero spin (the scalar
and not Dirac pair field), the Tomonaga equation does not have the simple
form III; the operator on Fon
the right invoives explicitly an arbitrary
time-like unit vector. (30)
Schwinger's program is then to eliminate the terms of order e, ez, and. so,
in so far as possible, lrom the right-hand side of III.
As before, o'ly the
transitions can be eliminated by contact transformation; the real
"viitual"
transitions of course remain, but with transition amplitudes eventually
themselves modified by reactive corrections.
Apart from the obvious resulting covariance of mass and charge corrections, a new point appears for the light quantum self-energy, which now
appears in the form ol'a product of a factor which must be zero on invariance
grounds, and an infinite factor. As long as this term is identifiable, it must
of course be zero in any gauge and Lorentz invariant formulation; in these
calculations for the first time it is possible to make it zero. yet even here,
if one attemp;ts to evaluate directly the product of zero factor and infinite
integral, indeterminate, infinite, or even finite(er) values may result. A
somewhat similar
153
ELECTRONTHEORY
without
3.
Questions
154
J. R. OPPENHEIMER
analogous to the corrections to the Moller interaction, have not been evaluated. Despite these discouragements, it would seem premature to evaluate
the prospects without further evidence.
Yet it is tempting to suppose that these new successeso{'electrodynamics,
which extend its range very considerably beyond what had earlier been
believed possible, can- themselves be traced to a rather simple general
As we have noted, both from the formal and from the physical
feature.
side, electrodynamics is an almost closed subject; changes lirnited to very
small distances, and having little effect even in the typical relativistic domain
p'-7n62,c,o1tld.sufnce to make a consistent theory; in fact, only weak and
remote interactions appear to carry us out of the domain of electrodynamics,
into that of the mesons, the nuclei, and the other elementary particles.
Similar successescould perhaps be expected for those mesons (which may
well also be described by Dir2ic-fields), which also show only weak nonBi-rt for mesons and nucleons generally, we
electromagnetic interactions.
are in a quite new world, where the sp$pial features of almost complete
closure that characterizes electrodynamics are quite absent. That electrodynamics is also not quite closed is indicated, not alone by the fact that for
finite ezlhc the present theory is not after all self-consistent, but equally by
the existence of those small interactions with other forms of matter to which
we must in the end look for a clue, both for consistency, and for the actual
value of the electron's charge.
I hope that even these speculations may suffice as a stimulus and an
introduction to further discussion.
155
ELECTRON
THEORY
References
1. Heisenberg and Pauli, /eits.f. Ph1sik.,56, l, 1929.
2. J, R. Qppenheimer, Ph1ts.Reu.,35, 461, 1930.
3. V. Weisskopf, <eits.f. Ph1sik.,9O, Bl7, 1934.'
4. A. Pais, Verhandelingen
Ro1. Ac., Amsterdam,19, l, 1946.
5. Sakata and,Harz, Progr. Theor.Ph1s.,2,30, 1947
6. For a recent summary of the state of theory, see A. Pais, Deuelopments
in the Theory of
the Electron,Princeton University Press, 1948.
7. L. Rosenfeld, <titt.-f. Ph1sik.,65,589, 1930.
8. General treatments: R. Serber, PhSts.Rea.,48,49, 1938, and V. Weisskopf, Kgl. Dansk.
Vidensk.Selskab.Math.-f2s. Medd., 14,6, 1936.
9. Lamb and Retherford, Ph1ts.Ret.,72,241, l9+7.
10. E. Uehling, Ph1ts.Rea.,48, 55, 1935.
1l. Bloch and Nordsieck, Ph1s.Ret., 52, 5+, 1937.
12. Pauli and Fierz, Il NuouoCimento,f5, i67, 1938.
13. S. Dancofl Ph2s.Reu.,55, 959, 1939; H. Lewis, Ph1ts.Reu.,73, 173, 1948.
14. Shelter Island Conference,June, 1947,
15. Frcihlich, Heitler and Kemmer, Proc. Ro2.,Soc.,A 166, 154, 1938
16. P. Dirac, Ph1ts.Reu.,73, 1092, 1948.
17. H. Lewis, Ph1ts.Reu.,73, 173, 1948.
18. Lamb and Kroll, Pfuts.Rea.,in press.
19. Weisskopf and French, Phys. Reu..in press.
2 0 . H . B e t h e ; P f u t s .R e u . , 7 2 , 3 3 9 , l 9 + 7 .
. eu.,74,893, 1948.
2 1 . P . L u t t i n g e r , . P l g t sR
22. J. Schwinger, Ph1ts.Rer.,74, 1439, l9+8, and in press.
23. Report to the Bth Solvay Conference.
24. Report to the Bth Solvay Conference.
25, This may be seenvery strikingly in writing down an explicit solution for the Tomonaga
equation III below. Formally it is:
;f
:-l juAydnxlV(os)
TILJ
'
In order to define the "exp", we have at present no other resort than to approximate by a
power series,where the ordering of the non-commuting factors for JrAr at different points
of space-time can be simply prescribed (e.g., the later factor to thb left). Cf. especially
F. J. Dyson, Ph1ts.Rea., in press.
26. Stueckelbery, Anfu.derPh1s.,2l, 367, 1934.
2 7 . R . F e y n m a n , P h 2 s .R e a . , 7 4 , 1 4 3 0 , 1 9 4 8 .
28. S. Tomonaga, Progr. Theor.Ph1ts.,1,27,109, 19+6.
29. F. Dyson, Phys. Reu..in press.
30. Kanesawa .id To-orrga, Progr. Theor.'Ph1s.,3, 1, 107, 1948.
31. G. Wentzel. Phys. Rea..74. 1070. 1948.
32. See for insianie resulis reported to this.conference by Pauli on corrections to the
Compton effect for long wave lengths,
33. F. Dyson. Phys. Rea.,in press.
*Author's note, 1956.
Questions l(a) and 1(b) were indeed answered by Dyson, Pi2s.
Reu.,75, 1736,1949.
34. K. Case, Phys. Rea.,74, 1884, 1948.
P o p e rI 6
156
PHYSICS
OF THEORETICAL
PROGRESS
1946
Vol.l, No.2, Aug.-Sept.,
On a RelativisticallyInvariant Formulationof
the QuantumTheorYof Wave Fields*
by S. TOMOIIAGA
L
(r)T
(a*l],)v:0,
(2)
157
P R O G R E SOSF T H E O R E T I C APLH Y S I C S
Also the differential equation (2) is no less non-relativistic. In this
equation the time variable f plays a role quite distinct from the space coordinates x, 2 and 1. This situation is closely connectedwith the {bct that
the notion of probability amplitude does not fit with the relativity theory.
As is well known, the vector y has, as the probability amplitude, the
following'physical meaning: Suppose the representation which makes the
field quantity u(x2z) diagonal. Let ylu'(x2d ] denote the representativeof
rp in this representation.* Then the representative yfa'(xyz)l is called
probability amplitude, and its absolute square
Wlu'(xyz)l : lplu'(x7a)llz
(3)
gives the relative probability of u(x1,2) having the specified functional form
u'(ry4 at the instant of time t. In other words: Suppose a planet which
is parallel to the xyz-plane and intercepts the time axis at t. Then the
probability that the field has the specified functional forrn u,(x2z) on this
plane is given by (3).
As one sees, a plane parallel to the x2<-plane plays here a significant
role. But such a plane is defined only by referring to a certain frame of
reference. Thus the probability amplitude is not a relativistically invariant
concept in the space-time world.
'
2.
As stated above, the laws of the quantum theory of wave fields are
usually expressed as mathematical relations between quantities having their
meanings only in some specified Lorentz frame of reference. But since it is
proved that the whole contents of the theory are of course relativistically
invariant, it must be certainly possible to build up the theory on the basis
of concepts having relativistic space-time meanings. Thus, in his consideration, Yukawa has required with Dirac(z) a generalization. of the notion of
probability
158
S. TOMONAGA
Dirac and by Yukawa' but are
however, not so general as expected by
is
required by the relativity theory.
it
aS,
far
already sufficiently general i,-' so
are only two fields interacting
there
that
Let us suppose for simplicity
of fields can also be treated
number
greater
with each other. The case of a
specilying.the fields'
quantities
the
denote
Let u1 and af
in the same way.
respectively' Then
)"2
and
)'1
are
The canonically conjugate quantities
relations
between these quantities the commutation
( lu,(x1at), u,(x'2'1't)) :O
r, s:r,2
lii,fitril, ).,(x'2'a't):o
(
:
x'
6
(x
i
hd
t)l
y'
) 1' ! )6(z- z')6"
zt),),,(x'z'
lfr, 1*7
must hold.
('4)
(s)
(tr,*a,tfrn*ik)r:o
frrz:[Hp
(6)
dxd2dz.
AsweadoptheretheSchrodingerpicture'thequantitieszrand)'irrHv
of time'
H2 and H1, arc all operators independent
the well-known facts' Now' as
summarized
Thus far we have merely
thefirststageofmakingthetheoryrelativistic'wesupposetheunitary
operator
Q)
u:.*p{!-(Er+trr)r}
'[n
)
andintroducethelbllowingunitarytransformationsofuand)',andthe
corresponding transformation of 9:
!V,:Uu,U,
r, A,:UL"U-|
Y:u,p.
r:1,2
(B)
Asstatedabove'uand,).in(5)arequantitiesindependentoi.time.But
of (B) contain I tlrrough U' Thus
V and Aobtained fiom them by means
thev dePend on / bY
!itii/,:v,Ei,-Fi,v,
\in't.:A,H,-F,A,.
3
r:t,2
(9)
159
PHYSICS
PROGRESS
OF THEORETICAT
These equations must necessarily have covariant forms against Lorentz
transformations,becausethey are just the field equations for the fields when
they are left alone without interacting with each other.
Now, the solutions of these "vacuum equations," the equations which
the fields must satisfywhen they are left alone, together with the commutation relations (4), give rise to the relations of the following forms:
(10)
where r4,", .B", and C,, are functions which are combinations of the so-called
four-dimensional d-functions and their derivatives.(3) One denotes usually
They are defined
these four-dimensional d-functions by D,(x1<t), r:1,2.
by
I ei(k^,+-tr
D,(x1at):#JJJ
\-
k ^ , r + zz+ck/)
*
ei(k xx+krr+kzz-.*rt).),,
(11)
with
(l 2 )
(13)
It follows directly from (13) that, if the world point (x'y'z'l') lies outside
the light cone whose vertex is at the world point (x2zt), the right-hand
*Suppose that a surface in thek*krkrk-space is defined by means of the equation
Then this surface has the invariant meaning in this space, srnce
1rz:1t,zak,2+k,21x2,
is invariant against Lorentz transformations. The area of the surface
kr2+i!2+kz2-,t2
element of this surface is given by
dS:IW
Now, since d,S has the invariant
.,
dk, dk"dk,
is invariant.
dktdf:dk"
k
i" ^n
160
S. TOMONAGA
sides of (10) always vanish. In words: Suppose two world points P and
P'. When these points lie outside each other's light cones, the field
quantities aI P and field quantities at P' commute with each other.
3.
{l
orUrUrtat), A1@7at),
V2Q2zt),
A2Q4zt))
dxd1,dz+!
8r}*:,
(14)
One seesthat I plays also here a role distinct from x, 1 and e: also here a
plane parallel to the x1z-plane has a special significance. So we must in
some way remove this unsatisfactory feature of the theory.
This improvement can be attained in the way similar to that in which
Dirac(a) has built up the so-called many-time formalism of the quantum
mechanics. We will now recall this theory.
The Schrodinger equation for the system containing "Ay'
charged particles
interacting with the electromagnetic field is given by
+!ar}v:0.
!,,s(q.))
{r",* tru,{l,,,
(ls)
Here FI,, means the energy of the electromagnetic field, Hn the energy of
.F1"contains, besides the kinetic energy ofthe zth particle,
the nth particle.
energy
between this particle and the field through q(q,),
the interaction
qn being the coordinates of the particle and s the potential of the field.
p, in (15) means as usual the momentum of the zth particle.
We consider now the unitary operator
z:exp
(; - ''
\io",tI
(16)
( r 7)
(18)
t))*!
{lr,f,,0,,w(q^, !r}o:0.
(le)
l6'l
P R O G R E SOSF T H E O R E T I C APTH Y S I C S
argument of !I. We can prove that 2[ satisfiesthe Maxwell equations in
vacuo (accurately speaking,we need special considerationsfor the equation
div G:0).
The equation (19) is the starting point of the many-time theory. In
this theory one introduces then the function @(qttt, Qztz,' ' '' qN, tN)
containing as many time variables ty t2, . . . ty as the number of the particles
in place of the function @(qt,qz,"',4N,1) containingonly one time
variable,* and supposethat this (D(qrtt,gztz,' ' ',1ytx) satisfiessimultaneously the following .lf equations:
(
h A)..
' ', qNt.il:0
1 H , ( q , ,P , , 2 { ( q n/ ,, ) ) + ;t ;ult @
rl ( q t t t , 8 z t z , '
I
n:lr2r.
. .,N.
(20)
(21)
qztz,"
',1ytr):0
(22)
are satisfied for all pairs of n and n' . If the world point (g,1,) lies outside
the light cone whose vertex is at the point (q,'tn'), we can prove that
As the result, the function satisfying (20) can exist
H,H;-H,'Hn:o.
in the reeion where
(23)
(24)
gives the relative probability that one finds the value q1 in the measurement
of the position of the first particle at the instant of time 11, the value q2 in
the measurement of the position of the second particle at the instant of
time 12, . . . and the value q]u.in the measurement of the position of the
,Mth particle at the instant of time try.
This is the outline of the many-time formalism of the quantum mechanics.
We will now return to our main subject. If we compare our equation
(14) with the equation (19) of the many-time theory,.we notice a marked
In (19) stands the suffix z, which
similarity between these two equations.
designates the particle, while in (14) stand the variables x,) ar\d e, which
* Here we suppose the representation which makes the coordinates
by a function of these coordinates.
b is represinted
the t
".toi
Thus
diagonal'
r62
S. TOMONAGA
designate the position in space. Further, @ is a function of the "lf independentvariables Qt, Qz,''', QN,g, giving the"position of the zth particle, while
F is a functional of the infinitely many "independent variables" u{x1z)
(x7<)'
and, u2@1tz), ulQyz) and u2Q1tz) giving the fields at the position
'd<
stands
d1
Corresponding to the trr- )F1, in (19) the integral lHpdx
in (14). In this way, to the suffix z in (19) which takes the values 1,2,
3, . ., "ly' correspond the variables x,7 and z which take continuously all
values from - co to + oo.
introduce infinitely many time variables
each for one position (x1z) in the space,
variables, particle times, 11, t2, ' ' ', tv,
difference is that we use in our case
we have used "lf time variables in
whereas
variables
many
time
infinitely
theorY.
many-time
ordinary
the
Corresponding to the transition from the use of the function with one
time variable to the use of the function of "ly'time variables, we must now
consider the transition from the use of Y(t) to the use of a functional
Ylt*rr] of infinitely many time variables 1,r..
We now regard t,rz as a function of (x2<) and consider its variation
e,r. which differs from zero only in a small domain I/e in the neighbourhood'
We will define the partial differential coefficient of
of ihe point (roto<d.
Ylt,r") with respect to the variable t,otozoin the following
the functional
manner:
6V
dt,oro,o
lfi,ur
fJ
dx d2 da
(25)
{tr"1"7'
''
tt+l{}v:0,
(26)
r63
P R O G R E SOSF T H E O R E T I C APLH Y S I C S
We will now adopt the equation (26) as the basis of our theory' For
Vr(P), Vz(P),A1(P) andA2Q) in Hrrthe commutation relations(10) hold,
where D(x2zl), has the property (13). As the consequence,we have
H n ( P ) H n ( P ' , )- H r z ( P ' ,H) r , ( P ) : 0
(27)
when the point P lies a finite distance apart from P' and outside the light
cone whose vertex is at P. Further, from our assumption (ii) the relation
(27) holds also when P and P' are two adjacent points approaching in a
Thus our system of equations (26) is integrable when
space-like direction.
the equations t:t,1a, considering txrz as a function
by
defined
surface
the
of x, y and 1, is spaceJike.
In this way, a functional of the variable surface in the space-time world
is determined by the functional partial differential equations (26). Corresponding to the relation (21) in case of many-time theory, Ylt-rrf reduces
io the ordinary pr(t) when the surface reduces to a plane parallel to the
x1t<-plane.
can be of any (space-like) form
The dependent variable surface t:t,r,
any Lotentz frame of
presuppose
not
need
we
world,and
in the space-time
is a relativistically
this
F[1,r"1
Therefore,
surface.
a
such
to
define
reference
be space-like
rnust
surface
the
that
restriction
The
invariant concept.
or time-like
is
space-like
a
surface
that
property
the
since
makes no trouble,
It is not
system.
reference
of
the
choice
special
on
a
does not depend
also
admit
to
theory,
relativity
of
the
slandpoint
the
from
necessary,
time-like surfaces for the variable surface, as was required by Dirac and by
Thus we consider that Ylt*r"] introduced above is already the
Yukawa.
sufficient generalization of the ordinary ?-vector, and assume that the
state* of the fields is represented by this functional
quantum-theoretical
vector.
Tben F is
Let C denote the surface defined by the equation t:t*tz'
C
we take a
On
v7[C].
as
this
write
we
c.
surface
the
a functional of
C'which
a
surface
suppose
and
(xyz,t,rr),
are
point P, whose coordinates
of
the
volume
denote
P'
We
about
domain
in
a
small
orr..lup, C except
write
may
we
Then
dap'
C'
by
C
and
lying
between
the small world
(25) also in the form:
,Yltt _ r.rnYlc'l-Ylcl.
d(tJp
dLlp
(28)
c' -c
(2e)
{o,u,,+!{}vra:o
* Trhe word state is here used in the refativisfrcspace.time
(second edition), $ 6.
meani:r$.
164
S. TOMONAGA
This equation (29) has now a perfect space-time form. In the first
place, H12 is a scalar according to our assumption (i) ;in the secondplace,
the commutation relations between V(P) and A(P) contarned in Hp,has
the four-dimensional forms as (10), and finally the differentiation
,fr
is
vg'1 :
{r
-LnH,,(p
) a.,} vyc1.
(30)
When there exist in the space-time world two surfaces C, and C2 a finite
distance apart, we need only to repeat the infinitesimal'transformations
in
order to obtain VIC)
from Ylcrl.
Thus
Ylc,l :V{, -
p) Ytc,l.
;",r(P) da)
(31)
do:p.
Then
we take the product of these transformations, the order of the factor being
taken from Ct to Cr. This product transforms then F[C1] into P[Cr].
The surf,aces C1 and C2 must here be both space-like, but otherwise
they may have any form and any configuration.
Thus C2 does not necessarily lie afterward against Ct; Ct and C2 may even cross with each other.
The relation of the form (31) has been already introduced by Heisenberg.(z) It can be regarded as the integral form of our generalized
Schrcidinger equation (29) .
+.
Generalizedprobability amplitude
165
P R O G R E SOSF T H E O R E T I C APLH Y S I C S
Let us supposethat the fields are in the state representedby a vector
[C]. We supposethat we make measurementsof a functionf (rr' r", 1r 1r)
at every point on a surfaceC1 in the space-timeworld. Let Pl denote the
variable point on C1, then, itf(Pt) at any two "values" of P1 commute
rqith each other, the measurementsofl at each of these two points do not
interfere with each other. Our first conclusion says that in this case the
expectation value ofl(P1) is given by
f ( P r ) : ( ( Y l c l , f ( P r )v t c r l ) )
(32)
(33)
(3+)
gives the probability that the field I and the field 2 have respectively the
functional form u1'(P1) and u2'(P) on the surface C1. As C1 is assumed
to be space-like,the measurement of the functional M is possible (the
measurementsof Zr(Pr) and V2(P) at all points on C1 mean just the
measurementof M).
Thus far we have made no mention of the representationof YIC). We
use now the special representationin which Vt(Pr) at all points on C1 are
simultaneously diagbnal. It is always possible to make all V1(P) and
Vr(Pr) diagonal when the surface C1 is space-like' In this representation
tr[C1] is representedby a functional Vlul'(Pt),uz'(Pt); C1] of the eigenvaluesur'(P) and ur'(Pr) of V1(P) and V2(P1). The projection operator
M has in this representation such diagonal form that (34) is simplified as
follows
wlu|(p,),,yrrrll,j
(35)
In this sensewe can call Vlu y' (P 1), uz' (P r); C1] the " generalized probability
amplitude."
IO
166
S. TOMONAGA
Generalized transformation functional
5.
We have stated above that between 9[C1] and YlCr) the relation (31)
holds, where C1 and C2 are two space-like surfaces in the space-time world.
We see thus that the transformation operator
:2-/
rlc2;cl:l"l('-;Heaat)
(36)
plays an important role. It is evident that this operator also has a spacetime meaning.
Just as the special representative of the ?-vector, the probability amplitude, has a distinct physical meaning, so there is a special representation
in which the representative of the transformation operator TlC2; C1] has
a distinct physical meaning.
We now introduce the mixed representative of TIC2;C1] whose rows
refer to the representation in which Z1(P1) and V2(P1) at all points on C1
become diagonal and whose column refer to the representation in which
We denote this
Vt(Pr) and V2(P2) at all points on C2 become diagonal.
representation by
(37)"
' )1.
l r t " ( P r ), a z "( P z ) l o r(' P r ) , u z V
(38)*
or simpler:
If we note here the relation (35), we see that we can give the matrix
elements of this representation the following meaning: One measures the
field quantities Z1 and V2 at all points on C2 when the fields are prepared
and ur'(P) at
in such a way that they have certainly the valuesal'(P)
all points on C1. Then
W l u 1 " ( P , ) , , z " ( P r ) ; a r ' ( P t ) , uz ' ( P r ) f
: l l r r " ( P z ) , , z " ( P z ) l o t ' ( P t ) ,u z ' Q ) l l ,
(39)
gives the probability that one obtains the result ur"(Pz) and u2"(P2) in this
In this proposition we have assumed thatC2lies afterward
measurement.
against C1.
From this physical interpretation we may regard the matrix element
(37), or (38), considered as a functional of u1"(P2), uz"(Pz) and u1'(P\),
az' (P t) , as the generalization of the ordinary transformation function
(g,r"lQr,').
As a special case it may happen that C 2lies apart from C1 only in a portion
52 and a portion 51 of C2 and C1 respectively, the other parts of C1 andC2
overlapping with each other.
In this case the matrix elements of TlC2; C1] depend only on the values
of the fields on the portions 51 and 52 of the surfaces Cl and C2. In this
* As the matrix elementsare functionals of a(P), we use here the squarebrackets.
II
167
P R O G R E SOSF T H E O R E T I C APLH Y S I C S
casewe need lor calculating TlC2;Cl to take the product in (36) only in
the closeddomain surrounded by 51 and Sr, thus
z[s2;s1]:tt(r-tor" ^)
(40)
6.
Concluding remarks
We have thus shown that the quantum theory of wave fields can be
really brought into a form which reveals directly the invariance of the theory
against Lorentz transformations.
The reason why the ordinary formalism
of the quantum field theory is so unsatisfactory is that it has been built up
in a way much too analogous to the ordinary non-relativistic mechanics.
In this ordinary formalism of the quantum theory of fields the theory is
divided into two distinct sections: the section giving the kinematical relations
between various quantities at the same instant of time, and the section
determining the causal relations between quantities at different instants of
time. Thus the commutation relations (l) belong to the first section and
the Schrodinger equation (2) to the second.
As stated before, this way of separating the theory into two sections is
very unrelativistic, since here the concept " same instant of time " plays a
distinct role.
r2
t68
S. TOMONAGA
Also in our formalism the theory is divided into two sections, but now
the separation is introduced in another place. One section gives the laws
of behaviour of the fields when they are left alone, and the other gives the
Iaws determining the deviation from this behaviour due to interactions.
This way of separating the theory can be carried out relativistically.
Although in this way the theory can be brought into more satisfactory
form, no new contents are added thereby.
So, the well-known divergence
difficulties of the theory are inherited also by our theory.
Indeed, our
fundamental equations (29) admit only catastrophic solutions, as can be
seen directly in the fact that the unavoidable infinity due to non-vanishing
zero-point amplitudes of the fields inheres in the operator Hp(P).
Thus,
a more profound modification of the theory is required in order to remove
this fundamental difficulty.
It is expected that such a modification of the theory could possibly be
introduced by some revision of the concept of interaction, because we meet
no such difficulty when we deal with the non-interacting fields. This
revision would then have the result that in the separation of the theory into
two sections, one for free fields and one for interactions, some uncertainty
would be introduced.
This seems to be implied by the very fact that, when
we formulate the quantum field theory in a relativistically satisfactory
manner, this way of separation has revealed itself as the fundamental
element of the theory.
PhysicsDepartment,
Tokvo Bunrika lJniversitv.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
B.
r3
P o p e rI 7
Erectro
dvnamic
s.,lll
Quantum
J3:,?:fff;ilfr%:|;,Lfln;"t "'
169
ofthe Erectron
JULIAN SCEWINGER
E araard, Uniorsity, Canbrid gc, LI assachusetls
(ReceivedMay 26,1949)
The discussionof vacuum polarization in the previous paper
of this serieswas confrnedto that produced by the field of a prescribed current distribution. We norv consider the induction of
current in the vacuum by an electron, which is a dynamical system and an eniity indistinguishablefrom the particles associated
n'ith vacuum fluctuations. The additional current thus attributed
to an electlon implies an alteration in its electromagneticproperlies q'hich will be revealed by scattering in a Coulonb field and
by energy level displacements.This paper is concernedwith the
computation of the second-ordercorrectionsto the current operator and the application to electron scattering. Radiative corrections to energylevelswill be treated in the next paper of the series.
Follorving a canonical tmnsformation which efiectively renormalizes the electron mass, the correction to the current operator
produced by the coupling with the electromagneticfield is developed in a power series,of which first- and second-orderterms
are retained. One thus obtains second-ordermodifications in the
current operator which are oI the same general nature as the
previously treated vacuum polarization cu[ent, save for a contribution that has the form of a dipole culrent. The latter implies
a fractional increaseof af2n in the spin magnetic moment of the
electron,The only flaw in ttre second-ordercurrent co[ection is a
logarithmic divergenceattributable to an infru-red catastrophe.
It is remarked that, in the presenceof an external field, the
fiFt-order cuuent correetion rvill introduce a compensating divergence.Thus, the second-ordercorrections to particle electromagnetic properties cannot be completely stated without regard
for the manner of exhibiting them by an erternal field. Accordingly, we consider in the secondsection the interaction of three
systems,t1ie matter field, the electromagneticfield, and a given
current distribution. It is shown that this situation can be described in terms of an external potential coupled to the current
operator, as modified by the interaction rvith the vacuum electromagnetic field, Application is made to the scattering of an electron
by an external freld, in which the latter is regarded as a small
perturbation. It is found convenient to calculate the total rate at
rvhich collisions occur and then identify the cross sections for
individual events. The correction to the cross section for radiationless scattering is determined by the second-order correction
to the current operator, while scattering that is accompanied by
single quantum emission is a consequence of the first-order current
correction. The 6nal object of calculation is the difierential cross
section for scatteing
through a given angle with a prescribed
maximum energy loss, which is completely free of divergences.
Detailed evaluations are given in trvo situations, the esseniially
elastic scattering of an electron, in which only a small fraction
of the kinetic energy is radiated, and the scattering of a slowly
moving electron with unrestricted energy loss. The Appendix is
devoted to an alternative treatmetrt of the polarization of the
vacuum by an external field. The conditions imposed on the induced current by the charge conservation and gauge invariance
requirements are examined. It is found that the fulfillment
of
these formal properties requires the vanishing of an integral that
is not absolutely convergent, but naturally vanishes for reasons
ot symmetry. This null integral is then used to simplify the erpression for the induced current in such a manner that direct
calculation yields a gauge invariant result. The induced curent
contains a logarithmically
divergent multiple of the external current, which implies that a non-vanishing
total charge, proportional to the external charge, is induced in the vacuum. The apparent contradiction witi charge conservation is resolved by showing that a compensating charge escapes to infinity. Finally, the
expression for the electromagnetic mass of t}le electron is treated
with the methods developed in this paper.
na1current is that ascribed to an electron or positrona dynamical system, and an entity indistinguishable
from the particles associated with the matter field
vacuum fluctuations. The changed electromagnetic
properties of the particle will be exhibited in an external field, and may be compared with the experimental indications of deviations from the Dirac theory
that were briefly discussed in I. To avoid a work of
excessiveiength, this discussion will be given in two
papers. In this paper we shall construct the current
operator as modified, to the second order, by the coupling with the vacuum electromagnetic field. This will
be applied to compute the radiative correction to the
scattering of an eiectron by a Coulomb field.'?The
secondpaper will deal with the efiects of radiative corrections on energy levels.
1. SECOND-ORDERCORRECTIONSTO TI{E
CURRENT OPERATOR
We shall evaluate the second-ordermodifications of
-,1olinn
s"h*iog"r, "euantum Electrodynamics. I,,, phys.
Rev. f,4, 1439 (1948); "Quantum Electrodynamics. II," Phys.
Rev. 75, 651 (1949).
790
170
OUANTUM
791
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
6vIol
ihc__:_:.:ss1s197r1,
III
Do(r)
(1.6)
mravlof:x(*)vlo),
(1.7)
where
1
rc(x): --j,(r)A,(x).
(1.1)
the experimentalelectron
Ir.zl
K(x):K(x)-'ct'o@)'
/i 2\
\r'rl
where
j,(r):U-tlo)
j,(x)ulal'
(1.10)
6Ivlof
ihcJ__Kr,o@)Wlo7,
(1.4)
6o(*)
(1.5)
(1.11)
in accordance with the supposition that coupling between the two fields is adiabatically established in the
be_9om.es
while the operator represenring the currentpast'
tll-rto]ru(*)tr42[o]. Now, as rve have shown in II, the remote
The operator ju(*) can now be evaluated by remarking that
: i,@+ a,'
ir@
[" J*rr-'rrt,,(*)ulo'))
=i rA>
a,' (J-Llo'fliu@),x(r'))ulo').
; ["
(1.13)
"a,'u,7a1g-@),x.(*'))t]
lc'): fuT i,t*),*t*)f
(1'14)
+ !" a,'!" a;' J
*rr-r,"lli,@),x.(r')lu[o"]),
t7l
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
r-6
\I
(U-tlo'li,G) ULo'f)
\fi )
or
6o,(x,)
i
*
j"(r):10,(rr*s 'j,(as)+(
\ f'0,,,7,,",1u-Llo,)lj,(r),K(x,))uro,l,
\ 2tu,tJ--
(1.12)
where
S:U[],
U[-o]:1
(1.18)
is the collision operator which describesthe real transitions that permanently alter the state of the system. This
processcan be continued and finally yields
i,@): i @,@)-fS-'ftu(r).1),
(1.1e)
in which
/
A,(*):7"(r)* ( -=
\
L\f'
| t da'elo.o'lljr(rS,K6')f
zncl J-
it2n"
\- il
J_
j,(r),x(x')f,x(r"))*''' . (1.20)
d,'du",la,c'
lelo',o"Jll
The further terms in the seriesare not required to compule the second-ordercorrection of the current operator.
The collision operator S can be constructed in a similar manner. Thus,
s-r: f-a,-ltbl:-!f"a,*(irbl,
J_6
6o(r)
hcJ_-
(r.21)
and
o.2z)
rvhence,
| a,r1*;(s+r)+r( - =\'
s-r: |/--)
\
zhcl.l_-
[* a,,t,',7o,o'1x(x)r(r')u[o'].
(1.2i)
2hc/ J *
( +)
-:
..
['_a,xo* (- *)' ["-a,a,,ra,o'],r(r)r(x')*
(r.24)
Only the indicated terms need be retained for the desired degreeof approximation. fn view of the absenceof real
first-order effects, as expressedby
f--*av':o'
order:
the leadingtermsin (1.24)areof the second
i r" f
i r'"
S-t
I
-;
= -;(r-.t')[r(.r),rc(x')]do'-rcro(r)l.
^,.
| a.lL 4 h r JI - - e
J
(1.2s)
(1)6)
lltcJ--
J+l
is of no consequence),
According to (II 3.14) and (II 3.71), (the vacuum term 3Co,o
--
t,f"
J_*rt*-
r )[3c(i'),3c(#r)]d@':Kr,o(x)*K,,0(r)*3c',
'(c),
0'27)
rvhence,
;:
* rc''r(*)ld''
o(r)
# I:Fcz'
(1.28)
172
793
III'
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
QUANTUM
d,u' elo,o'
ll j,(x), c (*)f* !.2h(J(,I r',lo,o'll j, (c),rc',o(*')1
i,(*) :,,)(r) - ..
_^
Zhc
i\2r'
/
- + (
| |
2tul r_^
'tc(r" ))'
(t.2e)
i,(x) -i,(r):
(1.30)
(*)'
6i,or(5)f l7ut'?r
where
xf-
j
6juilr (x) : | do'e(x x' )l uk),j,(x' )lA,(*' ),
zkc'.t_and
--(dl"(,)(-r))1,6:
'
(1.31)
1r'
| da'da"elo,a'lelo',o")llj,(x),j"(r')lA,(x'),jx(x")A1(r")lr,o
4hz(a.t_6
+'
l' (1.32)
I a,'r(r-x')lj,(r),K,.0(r)
2hcJ,-
(1.33)
(* o,'o,"ela,o'felo',o"lDa)@'-l')llj,(x),j,(x')1,j,(f'D,a!ll, (1'34)
f* a,',{*_ x')l'i,@),lr',vo(*)
2hcJ*
thdJ-^
in consequenceof
- \e(x' - *")lA,(r'),At(*")f-
and
ihc6"xD(r' - r")
(1.3s)
(1.36)
llj,(r),j,(*')f,j,(r")l:
: idc (0(it,S
- x)1u'!@)fi(x")7;l'(r"))
r)1uS(x-x")7,,!t(r")-{,(x")1,5(*"-r)7uS(x-x')t,t@))'
(1'37)
canbeconstructedinthemanneremployedinll.Wehaveonly
T h e o n e - p a r t i c l ep a r t o l l l j r ( r ) , j " ( * ' ) ) , i , ( r " ) l
a non-vanishingvacuum expectationvalue' Thus,
to notice that ljr("),i,(*'))has
\l j,(x),j,(x')f,j,(r")l'-
2lj,(r),j,(*' ))oj,(*" )
r)t,t!(*))',(0(u")t,{G"))']r,
: - dc{(tr'(r)t,S(*-r')t"'1,@')-{'(x')t,S(r'x)t,{@)
: - dC(0@)t,S(**')t,19@);0@")l
otil,@")*{(r")t,l,l'G"),'l@)llrr,S(x'-|(r')t"S(x'-x)t,l{(*),{(*")lov,{(*")1{(*")t,l'l'@')fi@)\o,S(r-r')til(x'))t $'38)
173
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
794
and
ll j,(x),i,(r' )f ,j "(x")l,: 2l i,(r),i,(r' ))oj,(x")
* e3C(p(x)1uS(nst)1,gtr)
(*t- *,)t,g(r,,)-{,1*,1.y,5o(x, _ rt)r"S(rt_r)74/t\r1
fi(r')1"5(*'-r)1,$<tt(r-*")9fl,(x")1{,1r,,1r"S<,t(r,,-r)7,5(*-r,)y,,1,@,))r.
(1.39)
Oninserting(1.37)and(1.39)into (1.34),weobtain
ir| dr' dr" r(r r')l j,(r), j,(r')ls D(.r,- r,,)j,(r,,)
2hc2J__
(6J*'''(r))',o: _
-
id r'
nJ _.a,
;. I
a;'@(n')t,S(x'- r)"yrSttt
(a- *,,)ys!(x,,)*.{t(r,)1,go;
- x)7 uS(r_x,,)7s1,(x,,))1D(r,
(x6,
_ r,,)
te f'
0@): -
e' r'
"
:6mc2L@).
(1.41)
f'
J ^d.'ar"
(1.42)
andthenullvalueof
(1.43)
:-;l
rct,o(r): * (0@)o
@)* 6@)* (r)),,
11 4ql
de
- (0@)t,xG) * xk)t r{ Qc)),,
2h
where
(1.46)
(1.4i)
(1 . 4 8 )
r74
QUC,NTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS.
7g5
III
f^
I do'S(r-r')9(*..')
(1.4e)
J_6
.(1rs0)
!lSwhence
(1.s1)
n'1
-/(.t).
I ar'S(x- r'),!(.r'):Ljm
6{-0
(1.s2)
6(
J_-
:a6-141r)-6mN@D,
ax_0dx
or
I y
e2 c*
(1.s4)
iJ-!,'r,tu1*-x5')$trt(x-l')!D(r)(r-#')S(r-j''\)7"'!(*')-tncztt(x)l'
-(.):l;S;L-
,\ 6/
--l\\
| /,-t\
in terms
(1.ss)
slnce
(1'56)
: - 6o1,,@'),
-,
_6
-x')lDr1)(tt-tc')S(r-*))r,(q*1r1:L I a''r,(D(o-r')^Scrr(a
ZxJ_
ri);;l(x')'
(1 57)
(1'58)
tnc"r4
where
and
Here
lr'
D(r- x')j,(r'),
aA,(x): J^au'
Ku(r'- *,x- tc"):I-uo\(x'-
(r)t(t+r)*s(Ov,rs(?)DG)(f+?)h,
D(*r)*s0)(t)z,f
K,o)(,"r):r,(s(t)r*so)(a)
(1.se)
(i.60)
(1.61)
r75
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
796
and
fdla
KuQ)(t,n):-yu6({)----as,(D(4)Jio)(?)+rG)("r)S(,r))y,*:
- - t r r' , ( D ('f-)' S c ) ( { ) * D o , ( ) S ( { ) h , 6 ( ? h , .
2x 6qa
2r0h-
G.62)
s1(r): S(r)+1sor1*;,
z
i
D+(*): D(*)+-DQ\(tc).
2
Thus,
(1.63)
Kn(')({,,?): r,(S+()yos+(l)D+(t*'i)
and
-S-()roS_('i) D_(t*d)^y,
(1.64)
ld
1
- D -('r)S_ ("r)
K,Q) (t d : - t ud()
)y,
^ :--z^ .r,( D +(r) S +(q)
zK on^ I
1A
1
- D (i)s -(t))r,6('r)"y".(1.6s)
7zK ;tx1,(D+(OS+({)
Ott\ t
The first term of (1.58) is the current induced by the electromagnetic field that accompaniesa given current distribution, as discussedin II. It is the second part of (1.58), expressingthe additional efiects involved ivhen the
current is associatedwith the matter field, rather than an external sysiem, that merits our attention.
In
we shall substitute Fourier integral representationsfor the various func_ order to evaluate Ku(r'-qr-r"),
tions involved, (II (A.10), (A.31)),
-lrl
S(*):-
S ( r ) ( r ): -
| A h ) e , k ' ( i - y k -K ) - ,
h'l*'
\'211"1
lr
\ z Tr "
( dk ) e t k(, h h * x ) d ( 4 , { x : ) ,
lr1
l @p)4o' -,
(2n)al
k2
D("):
p,,,1,;:-t
\ZT TJ
| {oo)r,r,u{u\,
(1.66)
in which the principal partof 7/(k2!12) andT/k2 is understood. We have employed the simplified notation oD to
denote arbr, the scalar product of two four-vectors. The functions (1.63) have the following Fourier integral
representations,
lr/1
\
t*,*, :,r,ro..| Gk)t' k'rfi k - x) - - - +r i 6(k:-f *)
\
),
D*(-):
r
(WJ
/l
\
@h)e'k,\0,+ria(h,)
).
(1.67)
Theseexpressions
can be written morecompactlyby observingthat
s*:rr,(*-'#)
1
: P-+*;.A(t\
(1.68)
176
797
whence,
III
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
QUANTUM
lrl
*):_
,
S*("v)=_
| 1dk1e,n'{i7k'
PzlxzTit
e"101
l"l
D+(x):,^ * |(dk)etk'-,
(2rf 't
bz+ie
(1.6e)
lr
-'\ (k+ ('ri (k+k') @' ei k" \ ""'
K lt ) (r,t- )t,rc- x,") : | @D {an) @n")
\zr)"r
p 6(E,r*xr)
x t,Qt k' - x)t,(4 n" rh,l
*U
*+
6(kr)
l
r1 -1 1r- * -1 J'
_1
ur*
1a
1u,4
Urp,,z1_,?)
,
, r^,
\ r'' wi
(1 71)
?r":kutku",
\zr )""
f uu)lol)tol"leip'|(!'-!teip"(F'")"'/,(i'v(p'-h)-x)t,Qt(p"-h)-x)t'
6(fr'?)
6(hz-2k p")
5(h,-2kp,)
l-
1
* u*,)a*\]'(1i3)
o*
"l*ffi,+
it as
The last factor in (1.73) can be simplified by writing
11
- - 2hp') - 6(p211
(k'?
I
- 2hp'')- 6(k'?))
GG'z
I'
(1.74)
t-61nr-znp1-6(e)):r f'ouu,1r":rupu1,
o
(1.7s)
- 2bp''u)f'
- 2kp'u)- 6'(h2
dul6'(k2
(1.76)
2hp
whence (1.74) becomes
-n [,'
Therefore,'
6 not(tc,- x,x - x", :
I
ur*
f'
2J-r
Jo
ft
(r.77)
P")a)u).
kt'2+*-ia
-:-lffiP-ie
kz-2k/'-k
,-- .h2-2kq"-'i4
-'
H-i'
( 1.78)
(1.7e)
t77
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
However,
1
1_
1
t
lr(
_'\
h2-2kp' ie k2-2h!"-ie k,- ie 2k(f'- y',)LZ'Bp,\n,-znp,
-ie h,- iel
-' (;,,_r-fr)1,
,'',
and,on extracling
theimaginary
partdividedb-vr, weagainencounter
(1.74).
The secondpart oI Ku, (1.62),canalsobe readilyexpreisedin Fourierintegralform
I
,,.
K,e)(x'-t,x-*"r:
*rJ
..lr .a
/6((k-p')2+K,)
@k)(dp,)(dp,,)e,p'(r'-!reip,,(hr,'rl;l^,;7,fuv,_rr__rr,(:l'-__1__
- p"r+ct
* :# *),,+-,,)r
(/,- ;)-,t^,,
t'fu .@
1a(e . ;# *)1. t,r,,
To evaluate the derivatives with respect to pr, and 1r,,, we observe that
a
px- (w(! - k)* K)(i1,(p- k)- K)f ((p- k),+,\ : Q,
oh
( 1 . 8 2)
we obtain
a
-zkp)
JG'z
,,
?x* (ir Q- h)- *)J((?- h)'I n"): (i7Q - k)- x)t7pQ7@- p1- *l-::-.
oh
(1.83)
k2-2hp
Consequently,
nfu,<u
o- nt*0,,(U:!J! . # *)
: -t'Qt(p-'k)=ai,p^,@-k)"'(ry;v-ffi1'
invirtue
ofthederta-function
property
6'(r): -
d(r)
(1's4)
(1.8s)
Furthermore,
6'(k,-2bp\. 6(ft)
a /6(k,_2kp) 6(,r')r
- fl
h2
Jo'a'a"&'-znput'
Qrpy: ,g41\-nt* ):
according
to (1.75).Therefore,
(1.81)becomes
K,Q)(x'- x,.u- x", :
lf'r
frrl' J,
udil
(1'86)
rl
xfa"{n,- zn.p'
ul;,W <f,- nl- r)hp,Q,y
(p,- k)- x)ttyu
+,
The transformation
(1.88)
6" (k2+\2u2),
(1.8e)
178
QUANTUM
799
where
ELECTRODYNAMICS'
III
^,:r(t*ff,t-"r),
(1.e0)
- p',)
:o
o,(!,p,,)(p,
ef)' . (+)'* *: *
(1.e1)
Asaconsequenceoithistransformation,thefactorinvolvingtheDiracmatricesin(1.78)becomes
p'+p"
/ t
*
o,-rj!---o'
u_f ^r" uo1_.\.,,(r(
r,(;r(l'--,
2
2 / / \ \?-
(1.e2)
-"/
z^0",o\--)t"-nn,.
t+A(x(rlutr*
p,")((i1p'lx)- Qt!" _-x))-2(r-*llt;"'
!i.(r- uzt'?)(p,'-
i Pr"a;\!<l''+l''))
-l
1-14
-lJlflrx')*xop"111i"So"'fi{x'-x^'r-tc")'whichannihilates
of the Dirac
Now,aright-handlactori'vll"*risequivalent.to
n annihilaies'y'(*')' As a consequence
f.fr- Uunaiiito, ;tii
Si*if"r'iy,
parts.
by
integration
on
,(r//)
"
equation,therefore,
K!r)(x'-xfi-t"):+
J
(2r)"J-rf'oof'uou[{oul{oo)lot"leip'(r'-r)e;p't(Fr")6"(h2+\'?uz)
Jo
l-d
..- /
r
.
P")\'lt-'+-*
x(u-u')o,,(pi
Pi')+(f'Xl2x\,(7-u-iuz)-Ltnkzl
\l
) l'
(1'9s)
x)'
- x)7,+_ 2x2(r-u-+u')++k'-(2d(r-u-l\u')*ik"1-1;'vp*"k)
t
t(\"t\(
K
\,(trtp-, b- *)i'7pQ1Q-
(1'e6)
2x
wherefis..'orP"forthetwotermsof(1'87)'InconsequenceoftheDiracequation'therefore'
'
('
K p Q ) ( * t - * " t - n " ) = - @ ' J o " ' " J *u
(r.e?)
first two
TocombineK,o)andKr(,)'itissufficienttoperformanintegrationbypartswithrespecttooforthe
terms of (1.95), as indicated bY
A
fr
--.
rr
du,-^ 6" (h2*\2u2)'
: 26" (hz+ *'u2)|
I dr6,'(h2+x2u2)
Jr
do
J-r
(1.e8)
179
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
The integated terms precisely cancel-trr(2). If
(1.95), the fr integral t}rus encounteredis
8OO
(dk)h,!r,{u,*^,u,1
",-. J'tai)wu"'{n"+"*,,\:;l
.
: -zI onlyo2+\z7rz1.
(1.ee)
Eence,
...
K,(r'-x,r-*"):_
rr
r
1 f'
f
t
| t u l u d . u l { a \"{ a "f l' {, a' O " ) e i t ( , ' - z ) e i p " ( r " ' , 1 ( p , - ,p-1' ") \, ( t (2r)ttJ-' Jo
J
L"
llaz\
u!-'ozl
4
/
.o
The integration with respect to k may now be effected. According to the integral representation,
a{n + x,4 : !
wei. t*,+x"u\,
[ _'-d
(1.101)
7r'
:e;-*'
"'f pn1
J {aila"{n'+x'^ ; I _:4,";.x"
rir'
:
--=
2J *
d@-eiu^'u'
l.l
(1.102)
A'U'
flowever, it should be noticed that we are then required to evaluate integrals with respect to a of the form
["'
:1
u*'au {ou)6''(k2+^2u\
u*'ou,
[
f o'
(1.103)
r'3
7n
(1.104)
in which the delta-functions de_scribethe.energy-momentum relations of a Iight quantum, and of a particle wit}
mass hi,,/c.On performing the &6integration, (i.105) becomes
:.J ( ;/ r,r.r[*-,-,_,,]
{i, ; *4* )., ],
(1.106)
in which form it is evident that the divergence is.associated with zero frequency light quanta-an,,infra-red
catastrophe." As we-shall later demonstrate, this divergence is entirely spurious, andis removed on properly including the efrectsof 61{tt(*), the first-order correction to the current operator. T'he divergent integrai(t.io6j can
t80
QUANTUM
801
III.
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
as
be expressedin terms of an invariant minimum light quantum wave number, Ami''
I
rl
(1.107)
t/
^;('"tru*+
With the fr and ru integrations thus performed, K u(r' x,*- r" ) becomes
- r"):
- x.x
^ rdp')(dp")*ol,e!! g'-,"r] .-n[;o"- r, Q-!::)]
K,(x,
#, I,' I
K
f(p,_p,,), t+urt
(p,-p,,)r..
-. /.
tos(t+-(t1++
"l?=(roc2-+
+
(?'-p"),
f)" . \ \ - -ic-,
))
ltl
(1'108)
*(Pi - P,"t
Irn*-,,1y u,yt _ r,1'
;*o
p.art of (1.109), while reversing the inand performing the o difierentiation for the term obtaiileb f.g\ jl:,fr.j,
be observedthat the integrand
tesration by parts for the term producedby t he secondpart of (\rt\9;. It will now
is then useful to introduJe th'elnewvariables
otit.tOA) involves only !x,-t^,,.It
I
I
!\'+Px"
(1.110)
py:px,,_px,,
,^:;,
way, we obtain
since the P integration can be immediately performed, yielding 6(*' r"), In this
11f(
K r(i - x,r- r") : - 4,a{r'
grz
r'))
-t
r' )* lG (x -*')l+
i
;a(*'
d
- * ") o u-F o(t - x'),
(1'111)
where
?r
eLrr
r'
p"t..r:Jo
ooo'^ @il
rr,yJ t+tpy+*lrr_',t>
:rcc[,affi^(*,,.)
andr,tTtog(l+(pr/4Kr)(l_
c("):
Finally, then,
J,da(t+d)_ J
(r.rr2)
a,))
@p),,,"
1+(p,/4*,)(r_t\
:,e'
f"'offiI,',
\l#(i-*) -^(#' )]
-'][0,,0,,,rr(x,)K,(x,x,x-*'\vG'\,::t*;,i:,lrFoG_
(1.113)
r')+F{r-x')li,@')da'
+|)e,jUns@-*')!F{r-x')*lG(r-x')fi,(*')d','l1ocu!,fno@-x')m,,(*')d'',
(1'114)
t8l
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
802
:',r'hich
e
(x))1
m,"(r) : - (1,(*)o,,,1,
(r.l rJl
LK
al
r
--I'|[1,,(x-r,)-]Fz(x_x')fj,(x,)da,,
J
4r x2'
:::m which we have omilted the charge renormaliza-,:lf, term, with the understanding that the value of e
: io be correspondingly altered. A rederivation of thrs
:::ult, employing methods akin to those presented in
--:s paper, is given in the Appendix. Evidently the
-,:,r contributions to the one particle current operator,
:-: given in (1.114),are of the same generalnature as
::,e previously consideredefiect, (1.116),with the ex::piion of the last term in (1.114).This is an addition
:l the current vector of the form
r,,(.$:-51*1
tn-r l
(1.117)
c@/0x)"6mu,Q),
'rhere
f
6nu.(x\:af )r I l:nQ-tt)nr,(x')da'.
(1.11S)
( 1 . 11 6 )
I{ence,
11
fl'6("r)1 "'
(2nll)Qn*3) 2x,
af
..
l,
I
(1.120)
(t.t2t)
0.122)
po:e/2x:eh/2mc,
(1.119) The comparison of this prediction with experiment will
be discussedin the sequel to this paper.
::e Bohr magneton.According to (1.118),the correcThe final result for the second-order correction to
::on to the dipole tensor at a point involves an average the one particle current operator is
aKl
tj,t2'(x))r.s:-log+T
'J
LR\nin
K"
q1
*;
;!'
4nx'
f
a
[]1'-' (.r- x') f i F,(x - x') | lG (x - *)l -j,@' ) d.a'-l c- 6mr,(x).
J|
0x"
(,)(r)),,o:
(67,
(1.123)
-1(.r*4
(1.124)
1
G(r): --;15i*1*.
.)("
182
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
QUANTUM
803
III.
manner of
one-particle operators. The apparent contradictioa be- completely stated without regard for the
tween these siatements and tle existenceof the charge exhibiting them by an external field. We therefore turn
renormalization term is discussed in the Appendix, to a discussion of the behavior of a single particle in
where it is shown that a compensating charge is created an external field, as modified by the vacuum fluctuaat infinity,
tions of the electromagnetic field.
Our result, (1.123),is marred only by the appearance
z. RADTATIVEcoRREcTIoNS To
of the logarithmic divergence associated with zero
ELECTRON SCATTERING
frequency quanta. It should be remarked, however,
thai (6r(')(s))Le is not a.complete descriptionof the
we shall now be concernedwith the interaction of
radiative corrections under discussio",.t:
j:
three systems-the matter field, the electromagnetic
-"^tl".ti
t
l
s
n
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
y
l
h
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
,
t
o
;
m e a s u r et h e c o r r e c t i o n
nelg
;;;;;" anexternar
irrt.;+iF;;;;;;; ff'k:*.-ffi1;:T:i::*'3:li:T;J}r".'#:l#iJ
sion of quanta, as describedby 07"t"(r), among the :
current distwo situations in which the reactiou on the
tribution may have a negligible effect' A description of
this state of afiairs, in the interaction representation,
is given by
aiiltqtt"ty
effects of which is o .o-p",t.liit'/i"J
vergence.It will be apparent that, as a consequenceof
irr"- ini.u-..a catastiophe,', the second-ordei corrections to particle electromagnetic properties cannot be
:l-:( i*(x)
A,t,lvr"1
* r,(r))
]
*H
-:t
l#
",
- r)(j,(r)
* t (r))ao"]v
[o]: o,
@'
(2.1a)
(2.1b)
system, respectively.
where jr(x) and Jr(r) are the current vectors associatedwith the matter field and the external
by Ar(*)' An equally valid
characterized
field,
as
electromagnetic
to
the
are
coupled
distributions
notfr.ut.*t
matters is in terms of an external electromagnetic field acting on the matter field current
*"y-"irr"ti"g
distribution:
*l!:
6o(r)
lT
rvhere
- i,@)
(r))
(A,(x)
r A,("'
|L 1
].r,tot,
c
(2.2a)
: o'
I.T "'l'r);(*)do']vrol
(2.2b)
-:
I
a2Atk)(tc):-*Jy@'
aA'k)(r)
:O.
(2.s)
(2.1) by a canonical
The equivalenceof the two descriptions is establishedby showing that (2.2) is obtained from
t r a n s f o r m ai lo n , n a m e l Y ,
(2.4)
.v-lol+e-;t@v-7"1,
with J[o] determinedby
1
6lfol
hc : :: --J,(x)A,(r).
c
6o(r)
(2.s)
r,'':-:[
ltc.r
J,(x')A,(x')du' ,
(2.6)
_a
electromagnetic field
in which the choice of lower lirnit corresponrlsto selecting the retarded potentials for the
state vector is
generated by the given current clistribution. The equation of motion satisfied by the new
l_.!r,
irr'r]vtoJ
ror* r,neil t'tA pQ()e-
(2.7)
183
JULI.AN
Xow
804
SCHWINGER
lr,
: Ar@)-| D(x-r')J,(r')da'
CJ _q
- A,(r)IA,kt(r),
(2.8)
inwhich the seriesends after two terms since the components ol Ju(*) are mutually commutative, in view of the
prescribednature of this current distribution. It is easily seen that
lr"
rJ ^D(x-
(2.e)
r')J,(*')du'
1n
|Db-r')
_1,1*'1
| ao"'______
cJ o
6*i
1
: __J,(tc),
c
and
(2.10)
AA"Gr(x.) | r"
d
:
da,-(D(x-r,)J,(x,))
-d*,
|
cJ+
dtt
:0.
Furthermore,
t,.irtdt
_:hc_:iheeirtal
6o(c)
(2.11)
6Jfol
i.hcr
dJlclr
-+_l
- Jl-al,
l*...
- -'
6o(r) 2 L
6c(tc)
J
: --J,(tc)Ao@) c2c
(2.12)
J o(r)A r(.,(r),
&:#=l-i,@)(A*(x)rA,k)1*11-f,1161.a,t,k1]vt"1,(2.r3)
describing the self-action of the given current
which is equivalent to (2.2a), since the term -(l/2c)J*(r)Ar<'t(r),
distribution, has no dynamical consequencesand can be omitted.
In a similar way, the supplementary condition (2.1b) is transformed into
L,:
wherein
er r't!
llowever.'
- (i,(r)
r,u .', r,-! @,
: o,
[.o x) * r u@Dao"]v[o]
1f,)
M ) ;.tr",-a A'(*' )
r
*'; I
6*,,
or,,
tnn|D(x'-r")
1n'0
tt,1r'")d^" : -
;J ^
ut
A'(*'
A'(*'
) ] -0
) -;J---l p'
- ol.a
L
6*u,l: t*,
J**(D
aD (*' - x\,
ur,
ln
''{*"10'"'
- *)J,(tc)ita,,
"D@,'
(2.14)
(2.1s)
(2.16)
which verifies(2.2b).
One can bitig Q.2) into a form which enables the results of the previous section to be utilized. The mass renormalization transf ormation
f 6wqf
,
(2.17)
vlopWla)vlo),
ihc:-:tcto(x)Wlof,
6ck)
184
805
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
QUANTUM
replaces(2.2a)with
III
6v[al
- lK ('c)+ Jc(')(r) lv[d],
ihc-
(2.18)
6o(*)
where (see(1.3))
(2.1e)
(2.20)
ic
and the Dirac equation for ry'(*) now involves the experimental mass. The further transformation
v[o]: U[o]o[o],
(2.2r)
6Ufa1
ihc -:
r(x)U["], Ul- af:1,
(2.22)
where
6o(x)
of an external6eld,
is the analogoI (1.8),savethat tD[c] variesin the presence
DoIol
:U-llqflcG)(r)U[o]o[o]
ihc
6o(r)
1
-- --jF@),1p@(n)+lqf,
(2.23)
in responseto the coupling with the current operator ju(r). The latter contains the modifications produced by the
vacuum electromagnetic field. The supplementary condition (2.2b) appears as
: o,
u _.t- -,;jlu'raT# bl f "nr*' 1r;a"*]o["1
in consequence of these transformationsr
(2.24)
However,
u7o
"r)
,-,raff ud }# : [_^,,rlr(r,1o,,1aE)
:
n
"r, rr'tluu*,*,''
.n.t*" tli,r*"l ut""r:1,I' 0,"Lo6'!'
* -o,
:
x" JiuG"))
lr
- x\i,(x)do,,
,J,D(x'
(2.2s)
conditionassociated
with (2.23)is simply
so that the supplementary
AA"G')
------o[ol:
(2.26)
dT,
6R[ol
" -:
H(r)Rf of,
ihc
6o(x)
a[o]:R[o]or,
Q.27)
where
(2.28)
^-j
R[o]+l,
ot-
@.
(2.2e)
r85
JULIAN
SCHW]NGER
806
The state vector (F1characterizes the initial state of the system, composedof one electron with definite energy
and momentum, and no light quanta. Thetotal probability, per unit time, that a scattering p.o."r. o..ur., .in
be obtained by evaluating the time rate of decreaseof the probability that the system remain-in the initiat state,
, : -, I ^hl (o,,o[d])
l,: -, 1 r,r^,t(o,,R[c]o,
t,.
(2.30)
The integration is extended over the surface'l:const., with dl the three-dimensionalvolume element. Now
6
(o,,R["]o,) lr: (o1,R-,[o]o,) (o1,.F/(s)R[d]o,)_ (o1,R[r]o1) (or,R-,[c]I/(*)o).
ihc-l
6o(*)
(2.31)
(2.s2)
(2.s3)
which possesses
a vanishing diagonal matrlr element for the initial state, and obtain
Rr'r:*p[-
(2.s4)
The phase lactor evidently has no effect in (2.31), and can be omitted. The latter is also unafiected if I/(r)
replaced by H' (r), Hence to the accuracy of first-order perturbation theory, we have
and
is
u,r"r
tot r: J (tln,@)
+!*u,a,v,,
I' n,r{ a,,
fr ,,.,,"r,
Ir),
(2.3s)
*: L I a,a,,
.
+f-"' (*,)a.,,u,
(rl*o,I-",, o,ro*0,
arlr)
",
(2.s6)
We may now remark that a diagonal matrix element for a state of definite energy must be invariant with respect to time displacements,whence
and
"'
: I o,o,'(.tltat r,aw;lt),
I a,a,'(rl[ n't'>an'n'<alr)
I "'
*:!f 0,0,,(rl*o[_-r,a,t*rlr).
(2.37)
(2.s8)
This result is perfectly equivalent to the more conventional perturbation formula in which the rate of transition
from the initial state is expressedas a sum of transition rates to all possiblefinal states of equal energy. The dnergy
conservation law is here expressedby the time integration, and the summation over all states oiher than ttre
original is provided for by the removal from I/(r) of the diagonal matrlx element. Our basic formula for calculatins
the transition rate for scattering of a particle by a time independent potential is thus
* : )- [ a,a,,oe(")(rx,(")(il ( tli,a> aw .
f _'_i, ",lr)
(2.3e)
We have not indicated that the diagonal matrix element is to be subtracted from ju(r), since it is suif,cient to remove, in the finai result, those transitions in which no change of state occurs.
We have shown in the first section that, to the secondorder in e,
(r) + 6, ('?)
('),
i,@): j,(r) I 6j,(1)
(2.4o)
t86
807
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
QUANTUM
III.
where
uj,' (.):
j,(r')\A,(r')da'
r')lju@),
h I :@"
- r' t (x')l 0@)t (x'- tc)tu,r@)frA (r')da',
:f
"
"s
[ roor S @ ) ",!
(2.41)
and
(6j,r2t(26))
,o:;s6
l!{r')r,{*-
[*
(2.42)
.
r'),!'(x')l1d'o'
qK\ul
(2.43)
It is only the indicated portion of 67*('?)(r),referring to one particle and no light quanta,-that need be retained to
compute ihe second-ordei correction to the scattering cross section for an external field, since only this part of
6jr('?'(r)is coherenLwith lu(*).
The total rate of transition from the initial state can now be written as
(2.44)
1!:W\tWr,
where
7e0:fi[o,ororu,<rx,,")(r')(11(r(r)r(6;,(,)(r))r,o
l [- <i,r.+ai,t',r,rt,,oa,;lr)(2.4s)
describesthe rate of radiationless scattering, while
wpL
I r
/l
rlr
1l6r(r)(r)| 6j,()(*')dr0'11
I dodo'A,<"t1r1A"(")(r')(
|
.t__
\l
hrcJ
(2'46)
l/
(2.47)
-acl_-_(11i,(n)t,96)0k)t,,!,(x'|)11)dr:.'|,
(2.48)
J*
g11,1*11,t*
)lt)d-{:#f
x)^ttuei(rs)'G'-'|),
(dq)a(qoPo)6(q'z!x2)E7,Q1q-
() LO\
r
oee;ut'-'"t
1r,yJ,,ro@rla(g'?*x:)(1"y9-r)
Before further simplifying this expression,we shall consider the analogousevaluations oI
(f"(r)16(r'1)o: -rS"pi')(.r-r'):
r*
t)dro'
i,(r)(6i
| (11
"')(*'))',ol
J_6
(2.s0)
(2.5la)
187
808
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
,/
| (r I ('a:;r,r(r)),oj,Qc,);l)dxo,
(2.s1b)
which describe the radiationless corrections to the scattering process.Now.(2.51a) can be written
r'f
- e2c2 dxo', do" (l p
I @)1al,@)fi(*")t,(*'
|
I
J 4 J
- r")!(*")
(2.s2)
l l),
- dc
- *"1ueip(."- x,
170r,7*'
I d*s' I do"aY,(t @),{,(*i'
J4U'
ezcz rt
:fiJ-.0^'J
^"
(2'53)
Joorotodu{o'*x'z)'ilrt'(i'tq-x)r'(tc'-*")uedrcrc'-')'
r lp-c):
,,(rc)xr,('c)(to,
(2.s4)
we obtain
(2.ss)
I"rrrr,urrr,r')(*')),.01L)d.*o':ffifaau;,<*-po)6(dtr,),r.t,Q\q-x)r,(p-q)u
The result of combining (2.49) and (2.55) with the analogousevaluation of (2.51b) is expressedby
*r:
l dr
r
r
d'qo@il6(qo-?dt{d+*l
e;tt-t tA,<"t({)ito'
,-u;.1
1.;ta-at',7,<"t(r)ihtJ
\zTr n'cr
'::#
onperforming
theintegration
withrespect
tosoand,r,, r"
"#;:;"j"
t'")T;
t:fi
J:?
^:*#l*lvlf.-,tn-nt',s,u,61aofrunor.,'tr"kt(/)da,d(tytr,@-.il)Qtc-*)@"*r,(?-d)u.
(2.s7)
This must be interpreted as the rate of transition from the initial state, expressedas tle probability per unit time
for'a deflection into an arbitrary elemgpt of solid angle. A further simplifiiation can be introduc"i Ly averagiog
(2'57) with respect to the.two spin stabbs in which thi incident electrin may ocflrr. For this putpos"ir"
t.qirirJ
the average of.u,ilp for the two polarizition states associated with a given Lnergy and momentum. It can bl inferred from the anticommutator
_I
19"b) fi e@')l: -.5a@- r' ) : -
1r
O* J
ot* "'t,
{aOWt + x)e(p)(i7p- x).uB;
(2.s8)
which exhibits, with equal weight, the contributions of all states of a particle, tJut
(2.5e)
\u"ae\:a6"-'*'*'
for a state with wave number four-vector &. The constant u4is conveniently evaluated for our purpose in terms of
the expectation value of the particle flux vector in the iiritial state,
5<;"t: (1ldc(r/(*)
rl@)),lt)
:icil.(u,
(2.@)
Thus,
Sunc): i c.(pdvc.\rti cA T rftv
--4cAg,
p - x)
(2.6r)
188
809
III,
ELECTRODYNAMICS,
QUANTUM
so that
<""ail:-i
1 l S ( o *')' l
(it\-x)"e.
lpl
(2.62)
This leads to the iollowing expressionfor the total rate of transition from the initial state,
Ze 2
|f
f
'-dz']
ITrl(it?-x)(t+*r-n(q-f))(itq--^)(7n+fn(2-q))1,
f ,Jol f e,rc-ot
J
4rr I
lJ
I e2
no:,-lq5ru',")l
gT2hz(z
(2.63)
in which we have also specializedto the Coulomb potential of a stationary nucleus. We may now infer that the
difierential cross sectiorfor radiationless scattering through the angle r) into a unit solid angle is
y9:tl2]'+r,l{,rt-*ter-trn(q-p'))(itq-K)(14+r4t-q))f.
{2.6+)
L(p- q)'J
dA
r o(p-q): -
t
I
(x)+-1. ip- q)Fo(\)
J,
4,?414x'?,4
af
(2.6s)
where
(2.66)
,r^l:r**-ra(F,(r)+!',(r))++(F0(r)+3P,(r)+G(r)).
*
l p - q l -l p l .
srn-,
tr: -:
2xr2
F .' ( I ) :
da
log((11 tr'?)]rr)
rt
I
(1*xz1l1
Jo 1 Ftr?(l-a,)
fl
Fl(r):J
F,(r):
(2.67)
fdo
1\
(2.68a)
I
(2.68b)
,
1 + x , ( 1 _ d , )( :1 + - / r o ( ^ ) 1
1\
zldo
r'
/
1l-r,/r'(\)--.
Jo1a-q1_,,;: (
(2.68c)
matThe more complicated transform, G(I) is not required in the following development. The trace of the Dirac
ricescontainedin (2.64)is easily computed:
Za
2o
r
\
1"Trl(itp_ x\(tq-llqh_
x ' l ( \ ) , f - - x ' ? X ' ? F o ( I ) (' z . O q )
il'(i"yg-n)(rnrrq(p_ qD):2lpo'z-^'r')(1-whence
(270
ry:(#.-,;)'(,-u,.*,;)1,-':"^^:-;*_o"no,(^)]
n*
lr
e4r
/l-
t-
l \
(2'71)
dxo'10&)t,51*'-x"'11.,1,1x"')*tr,@")t,Sfx"'-x')t,'!(x')lrA^(x")A"(x"')ll)
l/
value is
Since the state vector iDris characterizedby an absenceof quanta, only the following vacuum expectation
required for the electromagnetic field,
hc
r
''
(2.72)
(dk)a&')"0'n'-""
(Aa(x")A'(x"'))o: ihcS^'DH(n't- r"t): -5^"
|
(2r)3 J xo>o
189
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
8IO
The matter field operators are treated as before, with the result
tl
eahc r
l\
r'
r*
Q'1s)
(2.76)
Po: qo:-,ho,
*'hich is evidently that of a light quantum emissionprocess.The integration with respect to qeand the magnitude
-be
performed, leaving one with an expressionfor ror in the form of an integial extended iver all
!i u 9n now
directions of the scattered electron, and all light quanta, as restricted by energy conservatiJn. On averaging with
respect to the polarization of the incident electron, and specializingto the Cou'ilmb field of a nucleus, orr-.o"btui.r,
'"
an(anup,t
l![.
_ ,l'+r,luro-*)
"r:115,'*,1
r[* o > o
n2
L' "
lpll(p-q-k)'J
h@|_il-*
../
"
(t,
i1(qfa)-x
./ ir|-k)-K
--1^\ .
-)\t^-L
t^-r^-?,)
)r;w-
hQ-k)-*
rou-x-'n--
--
1-l
J.
e.77)
It may then be inferred that the differential cross section for radiative scattering through the angle r9, in which
the energy loss does not exceedA.E, is
dot(S,LE) d
d.
wnere
fko:K.
lqlf
Za
I'
@h)5(h't11l,r-**lirrlthp-rt
",Joo-o
(2.7e)
AF/h.
We'shall first consider the simple situation in which the emitted radiation exerts a negligible reaction on the
electron- That is to say, we shall treat-the essentially elastic scattering of an electron, in wtr[tr only a small fractionof the electron kinetic energy is radiated. Under thesecircumstancei, lvhich are expressedby aEi<IZ: E- mc2,
z. /v) srmDllnes
Io
'
dor(8,Lq) / Zo
B1 a lro:r ... . I f
q \,
: ( / d r c s c ' ?. -, t,\fr /
(t-o'?st"';)rnJr,:, uaaol\*-*)'
da
(280)
\ow
and
(L-+\',:+J',."r(|^__L_
l),
\pk qh/ (ph)(qk\
\(pp)fct) (ph),1qp1z/'
I
l\
d
7 rt
/l
-"t
(q-p)k\n-a):;l
ok)Qk):
"-,1(P+1+e=,\k1'
(281)
L\ 2
Q'82)
2 / l
'
' "l(T*'+)'l'
(2.83)
190
811
QUANTUM
Therefore,
/b
III.
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
q\2
r,da(@-q)'_a)f(dr)__1fr'l__
| { a l x n\ pl R.,- q.t tl : P - t- t
r
'\
aal J
z*t
'
'1
1t+q
b-q \
'lz
(2.84)
ll;*;')ul
I
a
tp!1+p::,\
_
"l^ak\
2
/p+s,p-
6(k)
- J f@ H - \ - r '
\ , *-7)
\i*Jr')u
:
However,
| /ry*a:,)
' ' l
t''"r
,rylu'u"t
",
"l-'!<ou>t<url'
_&)L
_q)t4_"lo
J,_^,ap^
r+t@
-C;^*'lf
"
1",(ry.r+)r)
-,[ @n)
u'{n): 19 L^*,: t rr#,(Y)* [ ffN-t,
(2.86)
so that
(\y -+)
a\!-il' =t_:,
f oa,
[r*'.-'
r+l(p- q)'z/4K'l(-&)
I l(a*oa'\ lll
, _ _ / . * 1 l f l .( 2 . 8 7
r al l\z
\LU,r
+J ( dr ) _l6( e) l
I f l,
,**_^.- l,
t l\;*-t)- JJI
fn
[Y::::Nt,-na:r"
dho
(2'88)
tr^,^T:2otos+
quanlum wave number to characterize a logain which we have again introduced an invariant minimum Iight
expressionof the second bracketed inAii-ilut
catastrophei'
the
with
associated
"infra-red
divergence
rithmic
(2'87)
tegral in
Yields.
n
fl
_ lI
r.l
^.-(ry.T)
1 tatlatn'-n')l?-
:'"1'-ia-*4,rt**
Therefore.
(dk)6(h')(p/pk-c/qk)'
J| t 0 - 0
:*
f'./(p-q)'
J" ^ \t
f
,
t- t , o * t *"Fr-t l pE
l'
{+.'lrr aftos-+ zB
n) *t,">y
d\
(2.90)
I9r
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
812
T:ere
B
\l
1-sin,-(l-72) f .
\2/
/
{:1
(2.e1)
'-- I 2P loe(r
l- tst/ | - At)
/ t
11lb-il'z/adl!-t'z)
log(2ps/x)- 1
r*l(p-q),/4x2f(1-a2)
lfl(p-il,/ax,l,1-1d)
l. r_Bt
-,
:r cast(2.90)into the form
:rhere
*, 1
2
|tog
l+Bt
N'zBEL
l+BE
'oE
1-B
"
(p-- !,1)': *t:r,.'
",1[('"* ^rT * r) to"*F,)+F,++G+H]1,
I r:, ron Nr,,
""
tBt
|.
r+BEl
los,
1--B
I
":('**hJ,aL
** -;l-*;-h;/
r,,,^,r^lroc,
, *rl.*,
(2.e2)
(2.e3)
t+BI
t"cr
l
,_B
I
(1 0/.\
(2.es)
s.
?o/x))l:':-!t<'1,
(2.e6)
pf
'rith
s, r+t . 1_{l
ttno_
//,e\:-
r,
|
tno_
lr '_z_' -_o 2 i
s i n B f2 J c o t y z )
l-l
|
IIE
at
(2.e7)
) (*-cosz(f1211+
(2.e8)
JG):"'/12,
lut must be evaluated numerically for other angles.An approximation in excess,which has the correct asymptotic
iorm at small angles, is provided by
t - (**n*,* *)'['"rz*,.,-*1@*' ]
"
r? 00)
l(r/2):1.167.
(2.100)
The total differential cross section for scattering through the angle rl, in which the energy loss does not exceed
18, is
do@
'^E) -dco.(,)
+o'J!:ou) : ( 1",.*oo-\' (1-B, ,6,1) 11-6(r,^E)),
' '
de
d{t
da
\2lplF z/ \
2/'
(2.101)
where d(r},AE) is the desired fractional decreasein the cross section produced by radiative efiects. For essentially
elastic scattering, we obtain
-l
2q
E
1
1
1
.-tf /
xz/bo,
\.
- I,)
: -s?f o z.'"tL
6(o,^E<<w)
(F0+
Fl)+-Fo-F,a-p,-H+
Q.102)
(.*G
7
; ;ffi
^n, l,
r92
813
QUANTUM
ELECTRPDYNAMICS.
III.
from this
on combining (2.70) with (2.80). It will be noted that lby only a fraction of a percent. It is evident
to scattering
the infra-red catastrophe, as characterized by fr-i" has numerical result that radiative corrections
' cross sections can be quite appreciable. For the pardisappeared. However, it is possible, in principle, to 'ticular
conditions chosen, LE can be materiaily in6
diverge
make
would
which
AZ+0,
limit
the
co.riid"r
creased(but still subject to LE{1W), without seriously
logarithmically. It is well known that this difficulty
kev, 6:6.3 10-'?,
stims from the neglect of processesinvolving more than impairing d. Thus, with AE:40
As to the energy
one low frequency quantum'5 Actually, the essentially while AE:80 kev yields 6:5'1 10-'?.
given accuracy
elastic scattering cross section must approach zero as dependenceof d, we remark that with a
6 varies
AE+0; that is, it never'happensthat a scattering event in the determination of the energy, AE/E,
Thus, with
is unaccompanied by the emission of quanta. This is linearly with the logarithm ol the energy.
10-', an increase in the total
described by replacing the radiative correction factor AE/E:0.O4/3.6:1.1
an addition of
1-6 with ,-0, which has the proper limiting behavior energy by a factor of four produces
2
Mev, and
as AE+0. The further terms in the series expansioq 4.4 l}-'z to D, whence 6:11 10 lor W:74
of e-6 express the efiects of higher order processesin- 6:15 10-' for llz:57 Mev.
The angular dependenceof 6 at relativistic energies
volving the multiple emission of soft quanta. However,
formula
for practical purposes,such a refinement is unnecessary. is not fully described by the asymptotic
(Po/*)sin'l/Z
condition,
(2.105),
underlying
the
since
particle
can
a
of
energy
the
with
which
The accuracy
dimhishing c9' Inbe measured is such that the Iimit A-E+O cannot be (1, cannot be maintained with
deed, 6 is proportional to sirfSf2 at angles such that
realized, and 3 will be small in comparison with unity
(pt/x)sin|/2<<l. However (2.105) can be used over a
under presently accessiblecircumstances'
wide angular range, even at moderate energies.Thus,
For a slowly moving Particle,
which
with lrl:3.1 Mev, AE:40 kev, and 3:r/4,
m(2 l ql
rtf
8a
(po/x)sins/2:2.7, the value of d deto
corresponds
(
2
.
i
0
3
)
g ( < l : 6 ( J , A E ( < l 4 r ) : - d ' s i n ' - l l o"gz-A E * l.
duced Irom (2.105) exceedsby only 2 percent the cor30J
31
2L
rect value, 6:4.2 70-2. We may note that under the
according to (2.95), the limiting form of 11 and the sameenergyconditions,but with S:3r/4, 6:7.2 lO-2'
corresponding limiting form of F":
The angular dependenceof 6 may be particularly suitable foi an experimental test of. these predictions,
I
(2.10+) which involve the relativistic aspects of the radiative
tr((1: F":2nl1
corrections to the electromagnetic properties of the
electron.
We have thus far considered only the essentially
elastic scattering of an electron, in which radiative corrections arise primarily from virtual processes'If we
loB
wish to compute the difierential cross section for scat- sin-))l:
tering with in arbitrary maximum energy loss A, it
x2
2Do t 1\
E
l3l/
+ar/
is only necessary to augment the essentially elastic
loe- sin-- E<<w
6(s,^
): -L (.*;cross section. in which the maximum energy loss is
)
; /t
LE'<<W, by the cross section for scattering with the
d
17 1
I
emissionol a light quanLumin the energy range from
-*(2.10s)
sin'?-/(rl)I,
f
L,E' to LE. The latter processinvolves the well-known
2
J
722
bremsstrahlung cross section which, of course, is the
which has a logarithmic dependence on the particle content of (2.79). This will be illustrated by the calculaenergy. The asymptotic form (2.105) is quite accurate tion of the difierential cross section for the scattedng
LE:10
of a slowly moving electron, irrespective of the final
for eirin moderate energies.Thus, with tl:r/2,
kev and tr{z:3.1 Mev, which corresponds to (?o/x) energy. TLe differintial cross section per unit solid
Xsinfl/2:S, the value of 6 computed from (2'105) angle for scattering of an electron through the angle rl'
differs from the correct value,
in which a light quantum is emitted in the energy
(2.106) range from LE' toWris
6:8.6 10 '?,
q))']'
(n(pq)'; I^::,',"
"T[,{i|l# Ir(p-
(2.107)
193
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
814
I'r performing the.integration over all emissiondirections of the light quantum, and introducing the new variable
( 2 . 1 0 7 )b e c o m e s
: ; i r t e g r a t i o n ,* : l S l / l p l ,
:a / Zq \2
f \t-^E'/w)t
;tmr/l
llf
-2r
2rdr
cos87-lc2
: (rffi**i)"
rL-[ *ffi
|:"i"!lr"
"'
31
(2.10e)
Thus the contribution to d produced by emission of quanta with energiesin the range f.rom LE' to W is
8a
dt
4IV
rJ cosrl
t I
- -F'? sin'?- (r - J) t an
csc-1.
llog*"
Z- *rr S/ 2lo8
(2.r10)
p<<
1: 6(r,rr/):
I +(o-,r),un ;
?:,'^,!rl^
*+
(2.r11)
v[-
(A.3)
]: v!.
]:(.t-1)vo:0.
v[]-v[A solutionof (A.2),in tle form
APPENDIX
In this section, rve shall 6rst give an alternative treatment of
:e polarization of the vacuum by an external 6eld, employing
::e methods developed in the preceding pages. It is desired to
::mpute the expectation value of 7r(r),
"**. ; ]
#,
v[c]:
(A.s)
Y;"1E0'
may be constructed,where
( A . 1' )
mffi:-li,a)Au@)urat,
u[- 6 ]:1.
u[o ]:.s,
(4.2)
(4.6)
ano
obeys
n'ffi : -l i,u)lu(r)
r![o],
(A.4)
(4.7)
(A.8)
\orv
+!]a.',f","' ljrru-,fo'lj,@)
/a o\
-rhence
u-'Ilaljp@)ulol:,r(:r(r)*.t-'yp(r).s)
+*I:-d.',L",,')u-,lo'fljulr),j,(a')fulc'lA"(r')
o the dght side of (A.10), one obtains the 6rst approxination
Jr placing Ulo'f:1
, acuum as small. Hence.
in a treatment
(A.10)
(A.11)
iTrtGitk'*r)yu(iryk"l
(A.12)
t - | )t,1.
x)t,*Gitk"t
of the
x)ujtk'*x)t,f:
(A.13)
(see II (2.10))
6 A summary is given by L. Rosenfeld,Nuclear Forces (IntersciencePublishers,Inc., New York, 1949),pp. 450, 454.
(A.14)
194
III
ELECTRODYNAMICS.
QUANTUM
815
;,), I
by
It is instructive to examinethe conditionsimposedo-nG"lr)
gauge inthe-Jated requirements of charge conservation and
variance.The former evidently demands that
! c',t,t : *=
dty
6r,
\zr) ' r
where
hu:kr'Jk,i',
f {ad\n""uln'"+*):o'
(A17)
'
or that
n
' ) -: f A .
: 0, (A'18)
- - d i \ ( r'a-'
J #"*tr "'In(r')do'
f c*tr tlffi
(4.22)
the value ol
Althoueh the latter integral is strictly divergent'
limttrng process,In
zero is unambiguously obtained from any
non-slngurar
which the delta-function is replaced by a surtable
In this sense, the requiremenls o[ charge conservatlon
Iuction.
the same
that
noted
be
are satisfied lt may
i"t^ri"tce
ln the unper"J*.t*"
intee-ralls encountered in evaluating lhe current
turbed vacuum, II (1.73),
ttre
in which the absenceof an integrated term is a consequence-of
future'
aiiabatic re-oval of the coupling in the remote past and
Evidently (A.18) is satisfiedin virtue of (A'16), since
T r^yrS tD(o)
\ j r(x)),:'{
*'t,
| 6*"t*;' o{a"'+
: !\
(A 19)
Gu,@):Q*1r1.
(4 21)
Eh;'6(k"2+x2)
f @n)@*"),""'"
:2f
(A.16)
!c""1,1=o.
\zt)
(A.1s)
(A.23)
of 6r,(r), andutilizetheffi;
We returnro theevaluation
byt
hh,
624)
p,u,,-*":zu2--\h,+p)T-(la+AT
(k"'lP)6(k"2*x2)'while
no contribution in view of the null value of
to simplify (A.15). The thild term,in the latter explession,makes
the
form'
of
Gr,(r)
of
contribution
produces
a
term
the seiond
(A.2s)
at x2),
<an"l""'$6(k'
! <ao
(A'22)' llence,
which must also be zero, in consequenceof
(f ffi .Y+fle+'!1"u.
G*a): h [ @k
11a*,,
P')
)-(]
- 5u,(kk'
(A.26)
t#H.'#+!
o* r)'
x))=- *[' a't ( Y "*''' 1u"'
=plp<oto"
+r)- a(*'a*
(A.27)
p", as deined by
The introduction of the new variables l, and
h;:tk,+(!,-;k)
(A 28)
hr":+k,-(e,-;k),
thenbringsGp,(r)into the form
G,,(,):-#[:do(r-t)f(dk)(dP)etb(kpk,-.6pk')6'(t+c+f;o-*l)'
(A'2e)
andfpp' hasbeenreplaced
on lt alone,termslinearin 1uhavebeendiscarded'
of thedelta-function
where,in virtueof thedependence
by lit 12,It is therebYshownthat
(A.30)
with
c(,):8a,-:-,yI'd,(L-hI@il(dp)atut(o'+*+!o-xl)'
The divergent
=
G@)
#,{
can be sepanted
(r'1
+ p)t(e)-ri},('
@
t)6'!
by a partial
integration
with
(A.31)
respect to ?'
- *t)
- ao {an)'*"
! {ao)a"Q"+ o+!<t
"(t fl !
(A.32)
t95
TULIAN
816
SCHWINGER
l:: :r.ariant, logarithmically divergent integral that occursin the frrst term of (A.32) can be expressedin three-dimensionalnotation as
il:::e
Ps:(I2lP)s'
(A.33)
(4.34)
l:: onvergent second integral of (A.32) is then obtained by difierentiating (A.33)with respectto x' and replacingthe latter by
, : _ . h ,/ 4 ) ( 1 _ 8 ) ,
' :i
these evaluations,
(A.3s)
G(r) becomes
r-i-(losP-!tr1),'(.)
rf; ll'r.,i*r io,t,ll,
cr.r: -f*
(A.36)
I ::ie
"{
orlteib
x't:
J,-
tf "dt
h\
J ld t + fpy +*,I 0 _tl.
parts to obtain
(A.38)
(A'37)
Jr(r) is the current vector that generatesthe external electromagneticfield. The expressionof G(r) containedin (4.36) thenyields
(4.39)
zero'
rurd
vierd
!<i,an*,:;^1',1*-*'1lf
7p1a,,,i"a'lfd,ala-'
(A.4o)
:0,
of (fr(r)) as
with the cuEentvectorat an arbitrarypoint.The expression
;:1cethe operatorof the total chargecommutes
:
<i,ra>
fr,ff t e@r)F*,(r')do',
(4.41)
-here
AA
F",:7A,-74,,
dxy
dtp
: formally
(4.+2)
l1 <i,a>*,
(A.43)
(A'44)
[(o",Stav*fi"<"):0.
in
Horvever,it is evident that these formal manipulations are only justified if the integrand in (A.44)-decreasessuEciently rapidly
Jirrctions, which is not ful6ll"d fo, tire field strengths'ginerated by a chargi distributio.n of nm-vanishihg total charge'
rp"l"-fif."
'
total
which-the
This difficulty can be avoided by treating the actual electrimag"neticfield as the limit of a spatially confinedfield, for
to
inducedchargeis zero. A conveniint way tio accomplishthis is to introduce a finite light quantum mass,which is eventually allowed
vanish, We thus mite the potentials generatedby the given charge distribution as
t#
At@):! f D@- r,)r u@)da,,
: r,
a<o:2y*J-dffi<aa.
(4.4s)
(A.46)
: -#
da',
<ip@))
f G@-r)n''D@' x")Jv(r")da'
:#
(A.47)
in which the secondversion involves the Fourier transforms of the functions, G(x) and D(r),
ptu'(p,+ * +f o -at)
(t - *) <o
GG):
:4*{ Ldr I
D(k):\:I#.
(4.48)
r96
8I7
III
ELECTRODYNAMICS
QUANTUM
The total induced charge can then be calculated in terms of the total external charge,
1o
which expression is independent
(A.4e)
Jlr-{)do,
Q:)
of f. Therefore,
( (d
*
lf <i rtr> r:9*o I G@k,D th)6 h) h)
:Y*oyEffi"at)r,-"
If e is placed equal to zero before evaluating
charge
(A.s0)
computed non-vanishing
induced
:
6e:X'Qrc
@Dou-o
f;o f rao a'rt +*t
(A.s1)
On the_oth_er
har.rt,if the limiting processr-0 is reservedto the end of the calculation, rve evidently find A0:0.
The implicatio',s of this limiting processmay be further indicated by noting that, in the first term ot (e.:S), fu(r) will be replaced by
Ju@)-e'cA'(x)'
(A 52)
(A.s3)
obeyed by the potential (A.45). Now (A.52) reducesto Ju@) atany point as +0. Yet the total chargecomputed from (A.52)is zero.
This is illustrated by the chargedensity associated,accordingto (A.52), with a point chargeat the origin:
li''(ai4-'l1l'
.,0
(.{.54)
fit/
We may-concludethat in the processof'vacuum polarization, a non-vanishing,and indeed divergent chargeis attached to the original
charge distributiqn, and a compensatingchargeis created at infinity.
We shall finally apply the computational methods of this paper to evaluate the invariant expressionfor the electromagneticmass,
(A.ss)
(A'.s6)
This becomes
-t
on introducing
ffi)r aw
(4.s8)
Pp: kplkp',
(A.s7)
.pr+p:0,
(A.se)
2thu)du,
*16(k,-2 lk)- 6(k)1: - Jo
|' 6'(k2'
l?k-
(.{.60)
and
uGt Q - k) - x)tt:
whence
6 mi41'@=
^.
e r.-...- rt.
(dh)(dp)Jod,ueiee/)G^rh-K)6'(hr-2rku),1'@')da',
(WJ
is equivalent Lo Lr(d/Ot/)lr
(A.61)
(A.62)
kt*kr+PFlt
ttren yields
6nc,t (D :
- 2ti1 (t - h) +2K),
(4'63)
: -
(n)
* rk) (r! u)6'(k ! au,),!,
**- J| [
(A.64)
Hence,
u*/*:-fif"'lt+u)duf @.k)6'(k
+r,uz)--fif
loulo'ro**,1+fifo'e,,+u")dudf
@k)6,,(k,+ca,),
(A.6s)
and
a*n:"ur^('sff-1.
according to tie integrals (A.33) and (A.35).
(4.66)
197
P o p e rI 8
On Infinite Field Reactions in Quantum
Field Theory
l'httts
S,\-rrrRo ]-oMoN^c^
.
lailit.t., l okro Baaliho Doieukr, 7 .kro, Jdloa
Jure r, rq$
lr.Ti::,;'SlillK'";,1il;ll'fn',,'"i'fl,'].,,*r'0.''.
No. J I (lr)txr'
.w. Pauli and M. tsierz, Nuovo Cimiento, 15.
t A. Pds. Phvs. Rev. 6E, 227 (1946)
l "; ",?5'-!:
Iii"; Lli""i il#?;"?# $'.?i\, *,. phvs.2.2t6.2tt
tt).till?r
t"-onasa,
*u
*ijTnl$tr#j;f;"*f
il
$ij*ti,:,:q,,':,:.
".
in.pros.
ll X: lli'.1'ti."il[1'f,'lli"R1'l1l;,nr, to bepubrished
umeswa E lne
I h@!. Phys. It was first Dointed.ou.lbv Sakata and
Narcva U;iversitv that the PaulLweiskopf 6eld giv6 rise.to a rFrne
to
tiva lilf-.nrd of a photon in coDtrast to a nesattve oqe auevrcum
.lrtron field and this would tsult in the comrnsaton ot tne
.fi(t mddond above
'. V- Nambu. to be Dubtisbedln Prog. Theor. Phvq
It G. Breit. Phys.Rev.72, 984 (1947).
.\'ulp oE thc Aboti Lcttt: lil rrailsmirliDg to the i'hysical
l{eview the acconrpaning review by Tomonaga of the remarkable work carried out in Japan in reent y@rs, there
is one trchnical note that may be helpful.
Tomonaga rernarks in the 6fth paragraph from the end
I that in addition to the infinite ternrs which may be recognized as contriloutions to mass and cbarge, there are other
infinities which appear, particularly in the corrections to
forrnula.'l'hese
the Klein-Nishina
have to do with the
familiar problem of the light quantum sdlf-energy. As long
experience and the recent discussions of Schwinger and
others have shown, the very greatest care must be taken
in evaluating snch self-energies lest, instead of the zerq
value which they should have, they give non-gauge'covariant, non-covariant,
in general infinite results. From
manu*ripts
r98
P o p e rI 9
of 6-functionsis first applied to the exampleof vacuum polarization, It is emphasizedthat only a regularization of the rvhole eipiession without fictoriation leads to gaugeinvariant results. It is further shown,
that for the regularizaiion of the expressionfor the magaetic moment of the electron, a single auiliary
mass is suftcient, provided that difieient functions of the same particle (e.g., the photon functions D and
f{r)) are regularizedin the same ray and that the regularization of products of two electron functions is
never factoiized. The result is then the same as that of using Schwinger'smethod of introducing suitable
panmeters as new integration variables in the argument of 6-functions,rvithout using any auxiliary masses.
L7L
199
435
RELATIVISTIC
QUANTUM
roni4n explicitly as "realistic," in contrast to "formalistic" theories, in which the auxiliary massesare used
merely as mathematical parameters which may final1y
tend to infinity. Recently the "realistic" standpoint
was extended to the problem of the cancellation of
the singularities in the vacuum polarization, due to
virtual electron-positron pairs generated by external
fields, by introducing auxiliary pairs of particles with
opposite electric chargesand massesdifierent from tiat
of the electron.6 It was shown that the signs oI the
polarization effect allow compensation of the singularities only if the auxiliary particles are assumed to
obey Bose-Statistics. Until now it was not possible to
carry through the "realistic" standpoint to include al1
possible efiects in higher order approximations in the
fine-structure constant, nor is it proven that this
problem is not overdetermined. Presumably a consistent "realistic" theory will only be possible if, from
the very beginning, all observablesentering the theory
have commutation rules and vacuum expectation values
free from singularities, i.e., difierent from the A and
A(r) functions which obey a wave equation corresponding to a given mass value. Until now, however, it has
not been possible to carry through such a program.
At the present stage of our knowledge it is therefore
of interest to investigate further the "formalistic" use
of auxiliary masses in relativistic quantum theory.
This was done independently by FeynmanT and by
Stueckelbergand Rivier.6 The latter authors use (more
generally) an arbitrary number of auxiliary masses,
rvhile the former introduces only a single large auxiliary
mass, rvhich was sufficient for his particular problem,
the regularization of the self-energy of the electron.
From the well-known expansions of the A- and A(r)functions near the light cone it can easily be seen (see
$2) that in the linear combinations:
La(r):t,;
cA(r;M r)
and
[pttr (:c): f ; c;AQ(* ;M ;),
the strongest singularities cancel, if
Ltct:o'
and the remaining singularities (finite jumps and
logarithmic singularities) also cancei if in addition the
condition
lac;Mnz:g
holds. If the first condition alone is sufficient to guarantee the regularity of a certain result, it is obvious that
a single auxiliary mass M1 (besidesthe original electron
6G. Rayski,Acta Phys.Polonica
9, 129(1948).(Onlylieht
THEORY
200
\\T. PAULI
AND
F.
436
VILLARS
!,
A(x): \n2/4r2)|
(lb)
do cosl)tm''o+(l/4")J,
Jo
where
(2)
)t: -ttpxc*,*
5*trt:l;cA6(Mr),
(3)
cA(M),
I; cr:0
(Ia)
Z; c;M;2:O'
In order to exhibit more clearly the effrcacy of these
conditions we give the development of A(D and A for
small tr (omitting all terms vanishing for tr:0):
1 t-)
A,r'(r)::l-fn,
4kt \
lllz
log11,n
t r' ) r - ^ - + "
z
2
or,r:1{aor+
(I. )"or}
,-(r):{l}
* l. thJfoilo*iog ta: ias= iJ.
for r?0.
t1
(4)
201
437
RELATIVISTIC
without factorization):
no:
THEORY
QUANTUM
anpl*1n1A(t)(K/),
ro)(();A(x,),D(())
6' :
for tr:0.
(71216)\,
Fp :
I d x p 1 r 1 F 1 A\ n( t) , D i l , ( K ) ; A ( r r ) , D ( ( ) ) .
J
Mn: 7n
Io-ou':o
On writing
the form
p(x) as 6(x-m2)+pl(K)
F:FrtFzj
fr
F R : I d K p " ( K ) F : ( x ) f* d r p o ( x ) F z ( x ) ;
JJ
n*
,
dK( plK)t
x)-0.
a)o
(81
J d
f
J
l;cilogMi
d x p ( x ) F ( A ' r ' ( xA) (. r t )
(0,
,,
droQ)log*.
(10)
n1a1: a*p1r1r-,
f
(11)
202
W. PAULI
(r")
R(0):0
R'(0):0
F.
AND
(I"a)
-f,f.-Lu'o'''
(e(o):41
438
VILLARS
s121,.*tp6):_J,."r(r).
(21)
for a?0)'
l)'A,:0,
Sr:_E
(14)
(0An/6r,)*(t):0,
(1s)
l A r @ ) , A , ( r ' ) f : i 6 , , D( r r ' )
i@vt/ail:0/2lsr,El*..')!rr.
Sz:i/2lsr,
- x')
) | : -s "a@
W"(r),0p@'
1/ a
: . 1 t , ^ - - m \I a ( r - r ' ) .
j\
lA,a1: 13-3a,
dr,
I A ,B l : A B + B A .
a:o+r[s,,o]-;[S'[s',o]l+ds,,ol
^t
o0):o(r)+rI atlu@,s(ul
J_
f
| d3xjr(x)A,(x)
:-;rla'*OG)tg,G).A,kt.
fr
ft
-+ | dl I d{,lHa')wu"
),a(t)ll
JJ
(18)
J
The solution of (17) may be achieved in successive or
approximations by a set of unitary transformations:
{/:e-ds1(t)ilrr:e-ial(,)e-tsr(t)V2: ' . .: U0)Vx,
(24)
(17)
E*u
i/21s,,Hl.
H:
Hl-
"o
i(av/at):Hv.
(23)
Then
(19)
r' ti
I
+ i I dt'l-[s,(/'1,H (t')l- H,(/),{t(t)|
JL2J
fr
- | at | (t/'lH\t")lH(t'),a(t)ll
JJ
-i
,JtlH'(t'),a(l)}.(2s)**
** f*Ut
i. this latter form a simpliflcation due to Schwinger
has been used, which employs Jacobi's identity.
203
;,i9
RELATIVISTIC
QUANTUM
f l:
k' )
-'0 @')t"S(r'"l,
- rh''t'Qc)|, (zo)
( a- { )
" ( x ') l ) , : 5 , , P u t
(27),
{{"(r),fre@)l)o:_J"r{r)(*_o/).
'.rhere
I dir.'A,,r.r-.r'rrd.\,,1.r,,r,
which requires:
0K,"(t)
:o
(33)
or,
In momentum space,where (29) reads:
K*(p).p":0.
(.33)
On writing:
K,,(1,) : K tpQ,+ K 25,,pxpx.
Equation (33') is equivalent to the condition
Kt: - Kz
(30;+xx
61 e'
An evaluation of K'
and (28) gives:
nl'
'arsn..,,1t),
j,(r)1. (31)
?F
fb
J -d( : +J- dl 4t_/\ +LJ _ d(.,
ltu
0x, 6ru
-t,(;
#-
n'^u'^).(3sa)
(fr-zr)A:
- d(r)
;
0K,,(r)
__UO,',r,rr,
(s2)
aa da(r)
3r,
(37)
F*t(lt).
dA dac)
K,,(x):-.-+-.-
- | ar I at'6a9")lH(t').j,(x)fl)nn*
-i,(x):
'JJ_
"*
-;
(3s)
(36)
(.i4)
^t
(2s)
THEORY
0r,
6xu
7 7
6(hxhxlmr)
---l 2k"k,- k"b,
, d4h-:-,( . h x -p ^ ) r l m ,
(2n)rJ
-k,p,-
6,"(- kxpxlkxkx*mr)l
(JSb)
K,,(p).p,:-'
dokku6(k^hx+nr)
( 2 r ) aJ
(39)
204
W.
AN D F'
PAULI
440
VILLARS
5ot(p):216(kxkxlm2)
rt,
dae:ytlio(hft1ln'?tl
|
(40r
J_
1
^(k): Phxkx*m2
:t
f-
(P:principal
12
x*(n:
+fz,yJJ
e(a{B)
- .,,r),,,ru,.
dadtstetu)
qA
ll
-2oF
/ oA
*,_ \ l (+z)
+a,"(,"*rp^p^_
;u) l.
xo,*,:
12
or2,yJ J
e(a*0)
dada(e,"\+'e(0
)("+Bf
,*r(oLt^o^){ff;r"*ur
l 1)
l * ' o \ r @ , e x p [ r 0 ( [ ^ a ^ * n ' ) (- 4
h,: k_ (F/"_til p
-iRl"+B)ll
ri!@j9)
qla
and wrur
Jl
f
= (ir'?/a'\e(a)
I d a f re x P l l a k ^ & n )
J
y: tlz("- il,
: - 6,,(12/ 2o3\e(a)'
l,la k k,h " e-rp(iafr^A^)
we are left
(after
symmetrizing
which give
e(a)!e($:16(2)
with
the integrand
16' lYl=r'
and 0 elsewhere;and
dad'P:llz)dzd'Y
Ka(!') reads:
12 f-t
f+*dz
f z
I
- e ( z )e x p l ; - ( l - y ' ? \ P x f x f
K a,u",: | ay |
r
*
2
4(2n)al-,
I
l-,rP
x l R(r)j(I2
1-y2
r
1l
-u,,I^a>
,xtx* n@-iR'(z)ll'(43)
n
(xrrrn-{2r,,;,.,../'d,aar&rartttttff
4o**rr-r).
: pe'(2r)-32,
(K11)3
",[r'ffi ffi,
_zrz,t
"2,c,!"ff
p,p,-l 6pPxPx)
6x'
[o,:(ft,+,4/r,7r].
It is this second term tlat destroys covariance and gauge invariance: but since it can be written as
- (r / (2r)3)D
; c;(I( - trM i')x -we see that it vanishes ou account of the two conditions
OXt
-,u,a,airi"'}
: zc,c,t
u ,;- .vtt
. { MgA.
,dxp o,u,
oxp )
,--.-/Y
(I, Ia)'
e^!
205
I
l 1
RELATIVISTIC
OUANTUM
o*1
_.a,"t
-':T)'
:inr,whi,chgives,
J-r
ttze(z)
.J-6
Ed{',:q/2T.m2/lkl
- 2in2
f',
ADDITIONAL RXMARKS
- ilf
r R(z) f
Et(P^lx\:
I / Ih I
":lY*'lfo-rt^^ll
:
together with
J dsrlA,(*). A r(r)fnn-orn:
for a photon of momentum I
n*-
,tyl
THEORY
-'htn p1
nr* J--
6G!'+*')
re): f d,h
,t
drp(*)tt*;K)(-!rA("(r.
()+d,r)(r; x)):0.
(47)
f z
y,
f*tl_
fz
I
: f{t f+'dz
-Y'tP^?^f'
* J-,0';"*nl'-rr
(4s)I *(p) - J-, o,J_. - <d *p[i(l -l)p^p^j
The first term in the expansionof (45) in powers of
21pr,
K1Q2p):6r<ot:,?xp^,Krt tn. . .
-l
1
J
.JQ
rr+* dz
-e(ztR(z\
*iPxPxl dyyl
l-
!,G)R(z).
zTr_a
JIJ^Z
(46)
x""vfio-rtr^o^f
ni*
6r: : I dxp(x)toglxl.
JTr _a
(46',)
Q1A u,^d(*).
"",,:
dsxl(i,(x)t;^aA
u , . d( r ) 1 ,n r -o n n
.lecomesthus:
(phj
e2
r: - (
",t
- i R'0)
)
"L(:++e^p^)oaxo'otf
6e:aexio':--
t*yz
l/_2
i l r l A , * d ( r ) . . 4 u " . d( r ) . l ,o r _o o n .
(48)
dtR\z)
ffl
f'f z
- tl t^t^t l
exvfltr
J_,o,J_. dze(zt
l:
]l
+f
f+^ dz
J--
f*r
^ 4 2 ) R 't( z ) dl y
Z'
dt
iz
|
t\l
-0 - f) p,p^
x;f r(/ t -..rLl) |
:2R'(0)+0:0
on account of (II"a).
[_*-*10,yr14"1*1,1
20,6
W,
PAULI
iI we put:
Ilo,/,'),1,)^{"):o
442
F. VILLARS
AND
the
If, in the second, divergent integral we introduce
regu)ator
sbecial
(49)
| /r
\l
i 'l - - r l l
R(z):1-exP
or
/a*p(*)*
t o g l ^ :l 0 .
(49')
\?@o
/ -l
-ma1d:,/-t'-t'
-";J:'t''(*o(;'TlHYT,ffiffi:I;,ffilff11$'.*:i:l'#
)-""
thecasep^pi:0 r. a limiting
to consider
morenaturat
noo-r"ro vector' than to introducethe new and thus
;;.;"i;
we
\ ozd II
):E^tl;,\
'"?$'itil$?;itllt*'ltailbrieflvconsiderttrecase.or
tm:3nal2r(lloell/"v'ol**)'
';;,
(SIl
resutt
^(1)(p),
Schwinger's
A(&),
is
;
which
r"
,h:"ffi;;-J.rt".gy.
3fir,(j;l/J;" oo**_
reads:
Aaa
op"'"to.
lt'"
;i;),li;(pi
rn rhis
L. by Feynman.T
,-t*:Hl:1ililT:'T*.t
5*:!_ J a^n6rn+*t
*' ) r+
6(Drfrr) d((&r*gr)'*ru')
a^:- ^')
(##h*uttu'*;1i'^
)
(k^lq)'*m'
"
p(x);
aresuraror
iffi)';ffi"fiff1"".1',.,1,,#j:'-duce
into
This expressionis readily transformed
(tnt)n:
Ln (x),
d.xp(x)
and
-)"-r["(?)'] .
!4"1
*:# [_'_"
[','ar3
-""
am(x)::J-,,"t-',',
t
rila r+t
f1,
"""o["(ir'+''.(?)')
*illlxl'i"".J.1.1;"'lu3;"'1l"o,tJ;i:'::i,"x"li"i
mass
qi'T:ii:,':;#1J1"''(il;
(xisadimensionress
i:t*'frlg:;*yil':""#*"',"'",i.J-i:iil:'i
,:i
the
here'
in tr'"1*""'""'la"red
x; it follows
used;
'rft:'.nfk
R(z)pieviously
iT':fit"fril'ltti:*g
tha'i
i,ffif thererore
;:-"*:'at.:;1fi::?'*":1
*"'"',-*&Tiil
#Jlp"na.n,of
-,,"*(i' +rr+(7)' )
o*(-,: + I.'o,1,
l#ili#'*stu.n'"'x{;*
"^::+i',,a-,t
:# I-'*'-sx]-1)2.(1#;h
!dr<a("*["(?)']-")
Arz shall now be written as
-me
:-.F(()
8r
- 11.
or1..
* Y [ ! <a,," o14
!*'
no regulator is
Since the first integra'l converges)
int-toau."a. With the help of the formula
f+"
- e;')
{a"/
log I a I : - t"
"l,tz)(ek'
J _^
we have at once:
- @o
t a,)fn a,a- rt r.r(7)' : s't''' /+'1
-liThl
of the evaluatton
rltu"tion is exactlythe samein the.case
r(1
1-to*+r(x);*o(x)
F(-):16
x))1'
"*--t+o(1"*-)
With the helP oI one auxiliarY mass:
,ra:ua>-u(--Y)
then
which is sufficient to satisfy (I'), we obtain
4fJ."*ull"lf
il"l#;:it;f
;:i:::x";-:?'i#"li:ii:""::
(which corresPondsto (49'))
2i ctM;tlogMi:0
is again consideredas the
is made, unless this particular ese
limiting care of a non-zero vector'
;"fi;;it;;
*:#("+.:)
207
+43
RELATIVISTIC
to the current, as
F(pxp) -.
dnq,alp+q6,u1qt
( 2 r \ a JI
1
+G(?t/l)f
^,
I a'q"1pa6rrra(q),
"(2r)al
(50)
depends on
and, Q:q,tr,,
!:q,_,1
7", and V may be written as:
"
T : 6 o* F,P,I t+ Q
",
",1
"Q,I 2
y,:e"Jz.
ln
)j,(p):
THEORY
OUANTUM
e/2m[(!u{2q,),i,(p* flu(q1
h.a(P*dttu^tu(q)l
a(q)v'pu(q):0
;,t-zi*ltztr(p)-Jr(il)ha(p+(lnru^)a.(q)+-^/p
\zrr
'
thus
yielding
.2me"
C(^h,\:_t)r
u\p^px.:
- -\:tt(f)*Jz0))
(st)
(ss)
(55a)
as:-4m'/r(2lz(0)-Jz@))(o/")'
(56)
.
The computation_of the integrals involved in 1z and J:
be carried through in difierent ways. A regular3"{
^g:- @m/e)G(o)
(s2)ffi":;j:nT.
,
,ll",ffi:"if,:ia,:1
i};;n"y"iiiTiT
cluctionof a specialcoordinate
system,characterizedb1,
p:t),
in which
e:fu,2im)
ff
or,in momentum
(writing
space
q, forp!q),
ie3
-:-to'l
(2")t
t1$:::ti:-",:L"f]#.lH..JflTjionoof
r:k/m,
I a,naS7.SSD61a,&-q)L;o(k-q,)
J
*Dt1,(k)6.(k-q)L(h-q'tlu(q) (s.t,
where
9,(k):2;p,1;n.p-m)-2i(qu,!qt)(it.k)l-tp.
23S.
r
( 1 ' ? ( 0 ) ) R-:
f,
J0
I?.-flrz 2.1_e.:rl,.r:r
--"
r'atI'''{;,"
}rss
(J,tI)JR:L
*art,r*1.
f"
2m2Jo
o'2gl'"
Let us introduce
v": a,nn,So1.
I
a;:(lfr:fp;?)l
+D\t\'t'(k-q)6,(h-q')
r,,: a'nn,n,1o1
!
pi:M;/nL, Q;:(f!p])i,
EQ.(57)in
(54)
/.,^\
(ssa)
208
F.
PAULI.{ND
444
VILL.\RS
since all terms i)0 vanish at least as cif Mi2 (compare Thus 1r(0) is immediatelyisolated:
(6)). This is not the case, however, for (58), which
ftf
becomes
/ r ( U r : . 1 | d u u r l , , , r , t ' k 6 " t k \ k ^ +u i t u : l l l l ' !t
(1,(0)) /8m'.
": "
2IzQ)- JzQ): *r/6nt'
Therefore
rvhereas
Jo
/.,\
.+u(
:- I
\M,!/" , 'r
M .2 8n2
2(1,(0))R- l,(0) : - r / 4n 2.
/"1
: 1,. I duu,_
Ja
nt'tr!|
1
"(h)L"(k-
q)t"(k- q'))
where
ag:
"/"
in agreementwith Schwinger'sresult'21
From this example it should be made clear horv
cautious one should be in handling divergent "covariant" expressions.Indeed, any decomposition, as done
in (55), is by no means "covariant," as long as the
expressionsunder discussion has not been made convergent by some invariant regularization, Once this
has been done, one may quietly enjoy of all the facilities
presented by a properly chosen coordinate system, as
rvasdone in (57).
(s8),(s8a).
(C) Finalty rve illustrate the possibilitl'of obtaining
a quite arbitrary result by regularizing.in-a difierent
rvay difierent terms of a form F(A, A(r)) Let- us just
taie, as an example,the bracket [D], rvhich lor q':q
may be written as follorvs:
1
6(A'Ai)
'"-6'tk^k^-)k^'7rr:f/t']|[/'t,1
IDf -'
(2kxqx)'z kxhx
ADDITIONAL REMARKS
(A) The various possibilities oI evaluating the integrals 1r and -f2 arise from the difierent possibilities of
rewriting the [D]-bracket in (5a), (5aa). It is easily
seenfrom the definitions(40), (41) thattor q:qi,lDl
may be written as
fr
lDl:
l duu6"(kxhx-2hxqxu).22
(60)
vn
(l Df)o:
I d u u L ; r ; 6 "t h r h t - 2 h g p a M ; 2 t . 1 6 1
: R[D]+E([r'1-
[l'l)
T h e a d d i t i o n a lr e r m sd e p e n d i n go n , Qa . " b y n o m e a l t s
zero in general, but depend on the structure of 'R
which shall be characterized by a spectrum Mt and
coemcients7;. In evaluating 1r(0) (!1), (55), as an
example,the additional terms due to ,R are:
rf 4m2(ltttu,? logpo-?),
f\?
t
r,6"\hfty-)kvqxu*M,2
(T,,to: I auu I aonn"n,2,
J
Jn
f\f
: I auuI d,krk,k,+u,q,q,t
J
Jn
-i
XIr
rnNuz*M,2). (62)
cr6"(,4r,4r*
. e v . 7 3 , 4 1(b1 q 4 8 / .
. h 1 sR
I . S . l * t i n * " rP
r ;t l [ , .
" i h i s m e r h - oi sdd u er o S c h w i n g er S
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We have to acknowledgeProfessor J. Schwinger,
Dr. F. J. Dyson, ProfessorV. F. Weisskopf,Dr' S' T'
NIa, and Dr. K. M. Case{or making their publications
accessibleto us prior to publication; Dr. G' Rayski for
valuablehelp, and ProfessorE. C. G. Stueckelbergand
Dr. G. Rivier for interestingdiscussions.
I. INTRODUCTION
electrodynamicsis characterized by
QUaNfUU
-<' severatrormat lnvanance properties,
notably rel_
ativistic and gauge invariance. yet specificcalcul;tions
by conventional methods may yield iesults that violate
these requirements, in consequenceof the diversences
inherent in present field rheories.Such di_fficultieicon_
cerning relativistic invariance have been avoided bv
employing formulations of the theory that are explicitly
invariant under coordinate transformations, a;d b;
maintaining this generality through the course of caiculations. The preservation of giuge invariance has
apparently been considered to be a more formidable
task. It should be evident, however, that the two
pro-blems
are quite analogous,and that gaugeinvariance
difficulties naturally disappearwhen methods of solu_
tion are adopted that involve only gauge invariant
quantities.
We shall illustrate this assertion by applying such a
gauge invariant method to treat several ispect=sof the
problem of vacuum polarization by a prescribedelec_
tromagnetic field. The calcuiation of ttie current asso_
ciated with the vacuum of a charged particle field
involves the construction of the Gre;n,s function for
the particle field in the prescribed electromasnetic
field. This vacuum current can be exhibited is the
variation of an action integral with respect to the
potential vector, which action effectivelyadds to that
of the maxwell field in describingthe behavior of elec_
664
2ro
66s
GAUGE
INVARIANCE
AND
VACUUi\{ POLARIZATION
j,(x):iel{,(x),
u{G)1,
where
*bu, t"\:
and
'to: -ila,
(2.1
(2.2)
(2.3) *il','JtJ.ffilffregard
element
G(r,r,) asrhemarrix
- 6.
(2'4)
'to2:1.
(2..5)
(2.6)
of an operator G, in which states are labeled by spacetime coordinates as well as by the suppressedspinor
indices:
G @ ,x , ) : ( r , l c l * , ) .
(2.15)
QIItm)G:l'
where
TIP: Pr- eAu
Q'17)
ltcorl"):i6,,,
lr,,tl,1:;tpu,,
(2'18)
o"Au
Q.19)
and
F,,:6uA"-
2tl
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
666
: -T16(zII)riI
J,
6W(n-,
@t)6A,(.r)(j,(x)):ieTry\AG
(2.21)
i1*.- (-yII)')sl
(2.31)
(2.22)
"rO7-
l. f.
I
:t+tJ
dss-rexp[-i(2,-(rn)')']1,
dt
sttt(x): liJ
f'
dss-rexp(*izr,s)tr(r.lU(s)l.r),
(2.32)
I/(s): e*01-;*tr,
-e764:6(7nlm),
(2.23)
and
where
I
G:
'y*l\+. nl
:i
f'
I dsexp{- i(7n*rr)sl,
ro
Q.24) and
ar,:iillu,
so that
y").
(2.33)
(2.j4)
ie Tr16AG
f f:61 ,
I d s s - ,T r e x p { - i ( 7 n * z ) s l
Lro
l
l,
I
(2.3s)
:J (dx)srr)(r),
where the lagrange function Sttr(r) is given by
f*
3(')(r): i I
(2.28)
(:.,tt)zf-l
:lm,(1Il121-tG tII*
: i
t
(2.29)
f'
C: (- tIl{. nt)i I
uo
n)
(2.36)
ds exp[-i(zr,-
(rl])!)sl
d se r p [ - i ( 2 , - ( ? l t ) ! ) s ] ( - 7 r t + r n )
(2.40)
2r2
INVARIANCE
GAUGE
667
POLARIZATION
G(*', *"):
Jn
X ( * ( s )F
'l illm)l*(o)")'
(2.41)
drr/d,s:2l7,,
dllu/ds:0,
VACUUM
AND
: (4r)-zO1rr, *r'1
whence
(2.42)
II,(s):tI,(0),
and
(r,(s)-*"(0))/s:2II,(0).
(2.43)
Therefore
f'
1
Jo
dss-2exp(-iza'?s)
(2.44)
since
- 2;' 5r,, 12.nt,
[*,(s), r, (0)] : [*u(0) * 2sru(0), *"(0)l :
Having ordered the coordinate opera,torsso that *(s)
everywhere stands to the Ieft of *(0), we can immediately evaluate the matrix element of 3c in Eq. (2.37),
thus obtaining
id,(*(s)'I *(0)")
: lf, s-2(r' - r'')z - 2i.s-tf(x(s)' | *(0)"),
while(r(s)'ltI(s)') is determined
by
(_ i6,'_ eAu@,))(r(s),
il(s),)
I
I]n,(.r(s),
I n(s),), (2.56)
and the normalization
condition
(2.46)
Q.al)
we note that
(r(s)'ln,(s)|r(0)"): (r(s)'ln,(0)|,(0)")
(nG)'l*G))(dr')(#(s)'lr(s)"):6(II'-n"), (2.s7)
to be
(r(s)'lnG)'j
fr''l
:(2n)-2 explieI
(2.48)
LJo
(*(s)'l*(0)")
(-i.\u'-
eA,(r'))C(r' , x")
- eAF(fi't))c(r', r"):9,
: (i,aptt
12.491
or
C(tc',x"):941*',
*"1,
fr''l
Q(r', x"):eYP1i, I
I
(2.s0)
Jn"
X expli(r'-*")Il' -iII"i],
c r-,
(r(s)'I uG)')(drl')(n(s)'
Ir(o)")
X(dr')(r(0)"lr(0)")
: (2r)-4A(*',
*"1 6n,
J
d*1,@) I'
J
(2.sr)
and
(2.59)
X I ds | @n') expli(r'-r")fr')
JoJ
X(-
(2.60)
that is,
C: -i.(4r)-2.
(2.52)
Therefore,
(r(s)' I *(0) ") : - i(4r)-2y (x', x'') s-2
Xexplif,(r' - x")7s1,
(2.53)
d.*,f ils:2IIu,
d'Ilrf ds:2eFu,Il,,
(3.1)
213
TULIAN
-
*"
+.i-
n^i.
f i^h
(3.2)
c(r,, x,,)
--:f ce
II(s): e?'r"[(0)'
r(s) - r(0) : [(e?"F" - 1)/ eFIII(0),
fa"'l
(3.3)
, . . i : e F ( e 2 e F s _1 ) - t ( r ( s ) _ * ( 0 ) )
F:-F,
(Fu,:-F,,).
(3.6)
',i
(*(s)-x(0))K(r(s)-r(0)),
1 1 : r n e z Fsz' n } - r ( ? F s ) .
(3'10)
(3.11)
C: -i'(4r)-'
since the limiting form of (r(s)'l*(0)")
independent of the external field.
Finally, then
(3.19)
as s-0
(3.20)
G(r', r"):;
d se x p ( - i z ' ? s )
.lo
x[- (f(s)'In"(o)l'(o)")r,
Fm(r(s)'
l*(0)")1, (3.21)
which will be given explicitly on substituting Eqs.
( 3 . 1 3 ) ,( 3 . 1 4 ) ,a n d ( 3 . 2 0 ) .
The lagrange function 3{tr(*) is now computed as
tr ln[(eFs) t sinh(eFs)].
is
(3.e) and
(3.13)
lr''l
o(.r', .v"): expl ie I dxA(t) I'
I
L J,,,
e now consider
'tlleoF:T12(s):
668
SCHWINGER
(3.15)
(3.22)
214
669
GAUGE
INVARIANCE
AND
e f f e c t i v e l yt h e s u b s t i t u t i o ns + - i s :
- -(l/32r')
"C(i)(x)
f'
Fp,+'l',:-(l/F')g,l/r,
(3.23)
we obtain by iteration:
F,xFx,{,: (F')'{,,
(3.39)
t2 finn
n*
l m z - 1 1 7 t 1 2 1 - r : I d se x p [ - ( r r ' - ( y l l ) ' ) r ] ,
uo
sin(aFtrrs)
e-I(s): (es)zF0)F{2)/sin(eFcr)s)
2(es)2F(t)F(2)
(3.25)
Fr,+:liep,x^Fxu
(3.27)
we have
(!orF )2:
lF *21!7 5F,,Fp*,
(3.28)
5:lp*,,:l(H,-E ),
or
e-tG): (es)29/ImcoshesX,
g:|FPFP*:E.H
(loF)'-2(sl76g),
f (r): __"
1r*
I
dss-3exp(- rzrs)
6T. Jo
(3.2e)
Re coshrsX I
r
xl (eslzg_---t
-Im
''
L
coshesX J
(3'44)
(3.30)
in which we have supplied the additive constant necessary to make 8(1) vanish in the absenceof a field. The
first
term in the expansionof 8(r) for weak fields is
(3.31)
e2f*
(3.43)
and pseudoscalar
, (s.42)
- F('z))- coses(F(1)+F(2))
coses(F(r)
(3.26)
t\ 2
r l1 \
J rA
where
'ts:i'Yr'Yz'ts'tt,'Ys2:-7,
(3'40)
(F')aj2s(P')z-gz:9,
(3.24)
(3.37)
FyQ,: F,{r,
d s s - je r p ( - r ' s )
ye-i("r tr exp(!eoFs),
renrccpn
POLARIZATION
VACUUM
J(r,-__
| drr-' exp(_nrs)S.
l2r2 Jo
(i.45)
(3.32)
On separating this explicitly, and adding the lagrange
function of the maxwell field,
Therefore,
: 4 Re coshes(2(S+ig))l
tr exp($eoFs)
=4 Re coshesX, (3.33)
where Re denotes the real part of the subsequent expression. Note, incidentally, that
x,: (H+iB),.
(3.35)
and
&r*Pr,*-FurFr":26p,5.
(3.36)
(3.46)
(3.34) c :
sro: _s:|(Ez_H),
fe2r'I
-11+-
1r-
d s s' e x p ( - z ' ? s ) l $
dss-3exp(- zzs!
6T r'o
Re coshesX
f
1
1- !(es)'?r
Xf (es)'-l. (3.47)
I
L
Im coshesX
215
JULIAN
Ceo')($o*r9o),
+_
- 1- 3(es)'s]
X [(es)'9(Re/Im)
lf'
+_
| dss-3exp(_p2s)
7612Jo
X [(es)'?g(1/Im)- 1*i(es)'?$]
Re coshesX
r
I
'9-1 - $ ( e s ) ' ? rI
x l ( e s )-Im
I
L
coshesX
2az (h/mc)3
'
"
: ; ( E , - H 1' + -
2a2 (h/rnc)3
:+(Er-H,)+4J
"
*_
--
(3'56)
Tula):P*P,^-Ur,rO^*'
Jo
[(E2-H')'+7(E.H)']
90 K2L4
ez
mc2-
lr'
IoT.
'
45
a2 (h/pc)3t7
mC"
x[(8,-H)'+7(E.ry'1*. . .. (3.4e)
" p i no ( r ' : -
dss*3exP(-az'?s)
6T. Jo
d s s - te x P ( - z r ' ? s )
I
Jo
6T"
| dss'exp(_z,s), (3.S3)
1r-
f : -$--
dr r-t exp(-nrs),
1r*
lr'
l2r2 Jo
yields
lr-
- : - 5-:"
dss-r exp(-g2s)
|
48rz Jo
(3.48)
e2: eo2/(1lCeoz),
C: *
|
LZT'JO
670
SCHWINGER
f-
|
48n2 Jo
* -
dss texp(-prs)S
toT'
16 (h/mr)3 \
r
)
4i"' ,*,
2 (h/mc)a
_ 6 u ,_ d z : _ _ , : ( 4 s , + 7 g r ) + .
4J
mC'
exp(-p2s)
f- dss-3
F.:
JuF(l),
f:n,*-
till.n.r-r+lr^)'s]
(rs1)rvherezu is a null vector,
LIm coshesX
nu2:0,
. ..
(J.57)
J o
"f.
/
7,,:T,,M\1-
(3.s2)
(4.1)
(4 )\
nrfr,':O'
/d ll
216
67I
GAUGE
INVARIANCE
AND
Jus*Js,*: -nrn,.
(4.4)
VACUUM
POLARIZATION
loJx,:
1
"tr"t dtl2c,eA()-nue2A2(l)
.r,(s)-x"(Q):-,
(4.6)
d$,,*n,(s))/d,s:o.
(4.7)
(tG)-i(0))
2s
and
dg*n"g))/ds:
-n,eF(l)dl/ds,
(4.s)
since
df/ds:2nTt;
(4.9)
We canfinally evaluateCuas
and therefore
d(Ju"rl"lnreA([))/ds:o,
C,: f,"fI,!n,eA
(4.10)
where
dA(o/dt:F(0.
^E(!)
-..
agTzc_e,l1E1
: l
(t(s)- t(0)), Jr(o)
- n,e,A, ([) ] n,er(01"
fl. (4.21)
In addition,
(4.11)
x,(0))
f*(x"(s)-
2s
nt
*-l
f lG)
{(s)-t(O) Jr(o)
dtea(d.(4.22)
,-"'
[f(s),
i(0)]:2r[zrr,
{(0)]:0. (4.11) ,l-lt}l",lJ;,t,?_;r'lT,J:[]5
3*;
The constantvector encounteredon integration of Eq. "".,
rr(0)]:[-2sllu(s),
(4.24)
r"(s)]-3;r.
(4.10),
fu,Il,ln,eA(():C,,
(4.15)
(nll)2'
n,e2A2(l)
+nFeF(o+oJf,
(4.17)
(4.18)
whence
Jp*D4
[rr(s),
No other nonvanishing commutator intervenes in
bringing 3Cto the form
(4.19)
,"tr'r
dfle,A,-eF[ofll
J|t , ,
J
217
JULIAN
where
t':ttrrr',
(/. rJ\
t":nutcu"
l-
- ro,1*'1
- f ,,(x'- e'),-:-(eA
ou,'
-
1
* -t
<
G')
ft'
\ I
atuAQ)
r"):0.
|
' Jrlc(x',
"f"
672
SCHWINGER
(5 1)
and
"t',
L l",
-<
J
"t,,
^+(t' - E")'F',l+(t'
+ t')1, (4.31)
Jo
- _ aao)(x)/aM,
(5 2)
according
to Eqs.(2.30)and (2.31).Thus,the efiective
s'(r): g6@)0ao(r)/aM,
rvhich clearly also follorvs directly from the proton
held equation of motion,
Lt?ia-eA)IM*c6l{:0,
(s.4)
218
673
GAUGE
INVARIANCE
AND
POLARIZATION
VACUUM
by
A pseudoscalar interaction between the spinless meson and electromagnetic field is given
neutri,l meson field and the proton field is described by
e'(r)=(s/2M)a,6@)((1/2i.)l{'(r),*t,t@)l)..
the term
: (g/2M)a,SQt)tryn,$@,*)
c6@)El0@),%Ur))
: s6@)
s' (tc)
Gli @),r{ @)l)
:is6@) try6c(,c,
*)
:-s6@)M
nI dsexp(-iM'?s)
ro
Xtrvs(*luG)lr).
-is
The transformation function (3.20)' with
stituted for s, Yields
g, : _ g6M (4r)-,
r'
I
*)1, (5.15)
+ - (g/2M)g(x)6,ftr167,G(*,
(s'8)
where the last version represents the results of integrating by parts. We now remark that this derivative
has the following meaning:
tr767,fi(x', *")
en
1-i
f^
I ds exp(-M'zs)$
Jo
:(a/r)(g/M)OI"H.
"
1S
tr767uG(r', r")
r/( t t\
:itr75|
ndsexP(-iMzs)
.to
(5' 13)
-tr1lopo
a'
I
Jo
ds exP(-iI'1'?s)
x(*(s)'l*(n,(s)*II,(0))|*(0)")' (s'18)
(s.14)
X(r(s)'lr,(0)lr(0)").(s.17)
J^
X (r(s)'lr,(s) | r(0)//)
r: -i trr,"vt'vp
I ds exP(-iM2s)
Jo
(5'11)
ds exP(-iM'zs)
Lr757r1"I
"
g':g6Q2/4r2)M
(5.16)
Jo
We shall be content to evaluate Eq. (5.18) in the approximation of weak fields. On referring to Eqs' (3'4)'
in
iS.S), ana (3.20), it is apparent that the leading term
this approximation is
lry6yrG(x', r")
- r"),Fx,Q(t', n")
: - (e/ 64r'z) try aaroox*(*'
X I
dss-zexp(-iM2s) erp[il(.r'-*")'?/s]
dss-2exp(-iM2s) expli'a@'-x")2/
sl,
(5'19)
219
JULIAN
674
SCHW INGER
dss-'?erp(- iM'?s)erp[i](r'-*")fsl
iq dpterminerl
(6.6)
(6.7)
where
hv
(6.8)
ia"Z(s): Uo-r(s)ccrUo(s)Z(s)
f'
| d.ss-,e*pUrn(x,_x,')r/sl
Jo
and
(6.e)
v(0): 1.
t*
Jo
:4i/ (x'-tc")'.
i/< ?n\
f"
f(s): 1-i I
Jo
Therefore,
try67uG(r', i')
-(ie/2r2)Q(r' , r")Fu,*(r'- r")"(r'-
(s.21)
x")
l(0,' - i,eA
u@'))-l (0,"t ieAu@"))16(x',
XF,,*(r'- r"),(r'- x")-2: i.e1(r', x")
(3.3s),
Fu,*(r'-r"),Frx(x'-r")a:g(*'-l'12,
- (e2/2r2)g Iim
,Q(x',
s't:s'112,"',
(6.12)
we oDlaln Lneexpansron
U(s): exp(-i3cs)
(a/r)(g/M)6f..H,
i'q ?(l
fl
..
: %(s)+ (- ;s) | du,Uo((l- u,)s)tcrIlo(zrs)*.
ro
VI. PERTURBATIONTHEORY
ft
(6.1)
fl
(6.2)
where
Ko: Pz
(6.3)
and
Kl:
(6.11)
dr"Llo-'{r")JcJJo(s")+....
s':s,tt,
(5.24)
f*
fo
x")
W(1):ia I
J0
ds'U0-'(s')JCrU0(s')
( 5 . 2 3 ) O n i n t r o d u c i n g n e w v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e g r a t i olnf ,,r , N z t . . . t
according to
: - (2a/r)9.
e':
f'
Jo
ds'(Js-L(s')K1IJ
+ e D'
s(s')
I,
(5.22)
}ultrysluG(x, r)f:
(6.10)
ds'LIo-t7s'lxcrUr(s')tr/(s'),
- e(pA+ Ap)-leoFle2A2.
(6.13)
(6.4)
ta"U(s): (3co*3cr)U(s).
XK:Uo(ut.' It"s)+....
: -is
fr
I dr TrFcr exp(-i(Jco*I3cr)s)l
(6.14)
Jo
220
675
GAUGE
INVARIANCE
AND
VACUUM
POLARIZATION
Thus,
Therefore
2ie2 r.
I
f
-is
(dk)
W(t\:;::
| . d s s - t e x p ( - z ' r z , s ) l J|
(Zn)aJo
t
f1
+'
fr
I uf-tda"'l
Jo
n*l
Jo
exp(-iP's)
xA,(-k)A,(k) @.P)
J
du"
f L f f
XTr[3iluo((l-zr)s)JCr.' .
XI(IUo(a..'u"s))+....
?L?f
r'
W(L):+ie2 | drr-t exp(-imzs)
Jo
t-
exp(-a'r's)l
*1(-"s)'
(6.1e)
J_1
J@'PexvGif's):-;ort-2,
tl
++(-?s)' I
J 1
(6-20)
lao T:il|,'or
"xp(-ip'z|(1-z)s)
and
: - exp(- i|ft'?s)(ts)-'@
/ ak,)(a/ak")
x
@D exp(-i|2s+i|kos)
and
@k)AF/-k)A,(k). (6.1s)
idn exvl-irlz(l-o'?)sl
fr
: 1- is|kz
|
J_l
G.23)
221
JULIAN
rn
SCHWINGER
pfraefirrohr
fhqf
676
w:J
ilkz (r - *) sf .
(6.24)
@HiF,,(-i.)FPG)
o h, f,
t 2 ( 1 - l-t 2 )
..f.
I
- | dr
Xl 1-l.
J
L
4r m2 o
ll(hr/4n )(l_72)l
(o.,tor
=3
f'
|
Jo
(6.25)
11
lim-_:p_1o;51r;,
rl
f_
ds expl-ln2l![r(1-2,)]s].
I
(6.27)
.++u t_Ie
tepresents a familiar device for dealing with real processes.We obtain from Eq. (6.30) thai
2r,,,w:+d[@brFp"(-k)Fp"(kt\a*,
I'
@k)iFp"(_h)Fp,(k),
(6.2s)
"('-{),['+
f-e'f-l
= -Lt*
a"-'t*01-'"'-,
,u'Jo
x {an)+r,t-n)n,"{n)
[
*L
k)F,.(k)
h,
f toa+r,,(fI
v2(1-Ia2\
x t db-----:--' -. (6.2s)
Jo
m,jf,kz(l-a2)
(6.32)
lo-,,t]
t- DF"(- k)FwG)
" I -r,,!11t
x( r!*t't
\ (-r)/
4 m '\
r
-\'z+
eh\)
(6'33)
(6.34)
The corresponding
result for a spin zero charsed6eld is ob.
itrJ',lilif{i'f
iilijiilili::',.??i,i.r'"",;*lfl
"?i,'r",/'ii
rr-ir,,
rD xq. (o.JUJ.
222
GAUGE
677
INVARIANCE
POLARIZATION
AN D VACUUM
regularization."
is actually positive for a pair-generating field. This time method and that of "invariant
the action integral
follows, for example, from the vanishing of the mag- The vacuum polarization addition to
netic field in the special coordinate system where &, has has the general structure
only a temporal component.
k)K!"(k,m')A,(k). (6.42)
w :
An alternative version of Eq. (6.33) is obtained by
"' [ {an).t,(replacing the field with the current required to generate
this field, according to the maxwell equations
The proper-time technique yields the coefficient
ik,Fu'(k): -J'(h)'
/ 6 ? q \ Kn(k, tn2)in the form
hFF,^(k)+ k,F ^u(At| frrFr,(A): 0.
n*
Now
K u ( h ,n ! ) l o : I d se x p ( - i n : s ) K " , ( [ , s ) , ( 6 . 4 3 )
ro
h^2F,,(- h)F,,lk) : 2k,F,,(- h\k$xp(k) /6 16)
:2J,(-k)J,G),
where K",(4, s) is a finite, gauge invariant quantity;
so thate
infinities appear only in the final stage of integrating s
to the origin. In efiect' this method substitutes a lower
z rmw:(o/\m,) [
@ktJ,(-h)JpG)
limit, se, in the proper time integral and reserves the
J -.,,>e^"
limit, so+0, to the end of the calculation. If, on the
X ( 1 - z ) a r * ( 2 * z ) ,$ . 3 7 ) contiary, the proper-time technique is rrot explicitly
introduced, K*(h, m2) will be representedby divergent
where
( 6 . 3 8 ) integrals which lead, in general, to non-gaugeinvariant
1:4m' /(_k ).
resJts. The regulator technique avoids the difficulty by
It is now appropriate to notice that the integral introducing a suitable weighted integration with respect
(3.49), representing the lagrange function for a uniform to the square of the proper mass, thus substituting for
field, hasiingularities,unless9:0, $>0, corresponding K.(k, m2), the quantitY
to a pure mignetic field in an appropriate coordinate
f'
s v s t e m .T h i s i s t h e a n a l y t i ce x p r e s s i oonf t h e f a c t t h a t
(6'44)
K , , ( h , m z ) l p : I d * p ( x ) K , , ( h ,x ) .
pairs are created by a uniform electric field' ln parJ_6
-25:
E')0, which invariantly
iicular, for g,:0,
characterizesa pure electric field, the lagrange function The "regulator" p(x) must reduce to 6(x-m2), in an
proper time integral,
approp.iite limit, and will produce gauge invariant
in this problem if the following integral condiresulti
fditions are satisfied:
g:i|z( l / 8 r ' ) | d r s - 3e x p ( - n 2 s )
Jo
rl"(6 15)
I d * P ( r ) : 0 , J,- . d R K P ( K ) : o '
X [ e d s c o t ( e E s ) -1 * i ( a 6 s ) ' ? ] ' ( 6 . 3 9 )
J-has singularities at
s:s,:nr/eE,
n:1,2,""
2ImA:-
! s"*'zexp(-ds")
4n ":r
n(s):
['*a*e-*,oe),
K,,(k,s): lt/zd
(6.46)
x),
!*.au*"Ku@,
we have
r,"@,*'D o:
:X*t,*"*,(#) (641)
s),
!-.dsR(s)K,,(F,
(6.47)
R(0):0,
R'(0):0,
R(s)+exp(-iz'?s)'
(6'48)
s) s6
s(si.
(6.s0)
223
JULIAN
S CH W I N G E R
-ef-
(4.1)
ru(s):ru(O) |2IIu(0)s.
(A.2)
II,(0) ]
@n)n,,ln) koot,(o)+2il(oh),
as'1-s 1s11et&('(o)+'tr(0)!'),
11,(0)
|
\zr )' u
(4.9)
trau,(r(s)'
I *(nls) -n,(0)) r(o)")
: l2e/ (2dlf @k)(aFp"/ ax")(il s
rt,+d!
r(0)"), (4.11)
X (r(s)'lexp[z'(&r(s)](1*r)*r*(o)](1-a)ll
in which the variable s' has been replaced by r, according to
(4.1.2)
(A.13)
eA+B:eAeBe_u^,R1,
for operators
atd
B that
commute
rvith
their
commutator
(A.15)
and
f dhtik,iat'6t
: l2e/(zi,lf
@k)eitu(aF
u,/dt,)(k)s
f,"ld.t
-t)/(az)'s'?. (4.16)
Xexpl- ik2iQ- z2)sl(
A similartreatmentappliesto
therefore
:(uu(s)f lru(0)
= t ' ( t ) r " u t o ) + , , " , ' l ' 1 a t r r , ,p 1
u
zr
\zr )- v
\zT)-
+j=
f @ptia,+"rot
\zrt' !
x../"" ar({-
;),'-'"'6'a2s'or').
(A.0)
Iim (c(s)'lr*(s)-ru(0)lr(0)"):a,
r'-,"-+0
xJ" tar(l-{)'"('(o)+'tr(oF'), (A s)
:rd
d.s exp(-im's)
X trou,(r(s)' | *(r,(s)
APPENDIX A
@k)eik,F p"(h)
ds exp(-im2s)
-iefo-
F,,(x) : lr / (2fl \f
678
lr@\
:nd
/ltl\
1,f r))- e tr-rr\* J o ds exp( - i n2s)U Gr{'rn - ut r,)
|
I
: eI- ds e"p(-;.-'s) tra,.yu(r(s)'| II,( o)l s(o)")b.,,,-".
(4.8)
(A.lg)
this reducesto
tr(r(s)' I 4(IIu(s)*II,(0)) | r(0)")1,,,.,.-,
: - l2ie / (2n)z1f 1dk)eik'(aF,, / ax,) (k),
f
XexplWe have thus obtained
dss-1expl -[z'+ifr'(1-?'?)]s],
(A.20)
224
GAUGE
679
INVARIANCE
AND
APPENDD( B
VACUU.M
PO.LARIZATION
which gives
An electronin interactionwith its properradiationfield,and M(*, r') : v0516- r') +le, / (4d\foan external6el{, is desuibedby the modifiedDirac equation,lo
.y,(-i0u-eA,(r)){,1x14 1a{a@, r),r'(r')=0.
f
(8.1)
(4il-rf-
du z explillr-/)2/tj.
(8.3)
*')Jn
Xexp[dI(*-*')'/r]t
(B.s)
xrii{-rfr+
au-
n, exp(i!eo
fl }^v1, @.6)
{-
6rr-'
(8.14)
f"
6.r-,12--
y11
(8.15)
ds
f:
r')
(8.16)
(B.ro)
(8.17)
u:l_w/s,
@.7)
(B.13)
we obtain
Xe*pL- im2(t-w)l
10The concepts
later publications.
:exp(in'w)*(rl,
n:
where
or
M (r, x') : 6061*- *') lliaz / (4r)afo(*,
'u (8.12)
tleia-eA),
|oFf:z;"rp1"or.
We now introduce a perturbation procedurein which the mass
operato! assumes the role customarily played by ttre energy. To
evaluate ;f(drt)M(r,*')9@),
we replace {(r') by t}re unperturbed wave function, a solution of the Dirac equation associated
witl tfie massz (we need not distinguish, to this approximation,
between the actual ross z and the mechanical mass uo), The r'
integration can be efiectedimmediately,
(- i.n\) *o
X exp
[ul" O,(1+)]
r -^.t ---'\
d.ss-' exp(-inzs)
'l
( _^,t-_-'\
r,exp(r]@F)].
\-ff+
dss-' exb(-iro")
which yields
225
P o p e r2 l
R. P. FevNeN
oJ Physics, Cornell, Uni,wrsity,
Ithaca, Nw
Vorh
1. INTRODUCTION
as a whole rather than breaking it up into its pieces.
is the first of a set of papersdealing with the It is as though a bombardier flying low over a toad
fUfS
I
s o l u t i o n o fp r o b l e m s i nq u a n i u m e l e c r r o ' d y n a m i c ss. u d d e n l ys e e st h r e e r o a d sa n d i t i s o n l y w h e n t w o o I
The main principie is to deal directly with the solutions them cometogetherand disappearagainthat he realizes
passedover a long switchbackin a
ro the Hamiltonian differential equations rather than that he has simply
rith theseequationsthemselves.Here rve treat simply slngleroao'
This over-all space-timepoint of view leads to conihe motion oi electronsand positronsin given extern;l
problems'one can take
.otentials.rn a secondpaperwe considertfreinteractions siderablesimplificationin many
into account at the same time processeswhich ordiof theseparticles,thai is, quantum eleclrodynamics.
The pioblem of chargesin a fixed potenti;l is usually narily would have to be consideredseparately' For
example,when consideringthe scatteringof an electron
:reated by the method of secondquantization oI the
by a potential one automatically takesinto accounl the
electronield, using the ideas of the theory of holes.
effectsof virtual pair productions'The samequation,
Instead we show that t y u *ituut. .rroi."'."a i"[t
_ r. o. .D; - D i r a c ' s , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s l h e d e f l e c t i o n o l t h e w o r l d i i n
" *nI.n; .e p
l r e l a i l o n o r I n e s o l u u o n so "r ^u,r_r a. -c:s. "e_q.u. a. ;l r, o
of an electronin a nerd,can also describethe denection
;;;;;;
whenit islargeenough
"q,;it;ii,|u.;;;';;;;;.';;iJj=
:undamentally
nomore*-pri.","a ir'"' iir'.oi'i*..;.
nerhod
ordearing
withon.",'nio,""puiiiJr...'ir,"
i"'r: ::"1"^:::'-",t1:11:::":,',:,:1,5
L o p a l r a n n l n l n t l o n ' X:ll,llf'::i:T::lt.
vuantum,mecnanlcall)'
rus creation and annihilarion oDerators in the conven-
::"":Ponl
fielrlvieware requiredbecause
the :T".Til:':rur;;"llit"XTi"lli."rl
:iunalelectron
rs repraceo
Dv rne
226
750
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
(1)
(2,
(3)
Qa/ab-H,)K(2,r):i6(2,r),
(4)
I x*\ztrQ,l
tP(1)d3x1drx,.
(5)
(7)
227
THEORY
(8)
751
OF POSITRONS
--><-7r
SdITERO
/slrLl,Lu:q^
-.
rAvL
^6rz.r,
ffii
-*t<)<:{t\
:+ffi:-==
-:SS<=
\-.........R
\ ! \ -\ . . . + \ t -
e
\
xo{4J)CffiAlls\
Yxo(?''l
?8llJi8lq:j)5
>'!
YI
|
{\tilctoENt wAvEs
SPACE
(o, FIRST ORoER,EQ p)
(bl SECONO OROER, Ea.0O)
K o , x , t " , x a ,l r * A 1 r ) * ( x a ,l 3 + A / r ) d x r .
1): -i
1{i,)(2,
r)d.rt, (9)
r,e, s)u(.3)Ko(3,
| | K o ( 2 ,4 ) I ' ( 4 ) K o ( 4 ,J )
X U ( 3 ) K o ( 3 ,\ ) d r & r +
(10)
228
R.
lJz
P. FEYNMAN
e x p a n s i o no f t h e i n t e g r a le q u a t i o n
I
II
vl
-i
(2:!), NEC.E
@*,,",
!c!'
e'
(.) VIRTUALPAIR
14>t3
t4< l3
Al/,
(11)
(r2)
(16)
Xexp(-iE"(tz-t))
for
(17)
lz1tr.
229
.IHEORY
OF
qc a nncifrnn
This therefore suggests that negative energy comronents created by scattering in a potential be con;idered as waves propagating from the scattering point
:oward the past, and that such waves represent the
propagationof a positron annihilaLingthe electron in
the potential.T
6 It has often been moted that the one electron theory apparently
:ives the same matrix elements for this nrocess as does hole theorv.
Thr problem is one oI interprelalion,eipecially in a rvay thar will
give correct results ior other processes,e.g., self-energy.
"1so
7 The idea that positfons can be represented as electrons with
roper rimc reversed relative ro true lime las heen discussed by
he author 3nd others, parricularll Ly Sttickelherg. E. C. C.
POSITI{ONS
/JJ
9P):Ix-p,1)N(1),/(1)rrt'1,
(18)
where d3Ilr is the volume element of the closed 3dimensional surfaceof a region o{ spacetime containing
,'w IW
'w"W
(b)
(c)
(d)
230
P.
/.f +
FEYNMAN
K*(2, 1)0*(1)d3xr
-;.[o1)A(3)f(s)d,",
(22)
the integral now being over-all space-time. The transition amplitude to second order (from (14)) is
l"f
- | | stz:nQtx,t2,1\A(ltJJ-)drfi12, (23)
JJ
K , Q . l ' ) p v 1 ' \ d " x 1, ' ( 1 9 ) for the particle arriving at 1 with amplitude /(1) is
scattered (,4(1)), progressesto 2, (K+(2' 1)), and is
w h e r e / 1 : 0 , 1 r , : I . O n l y p o s i t i v e e n e r g y ( e l e c t r o n ) scatteredagain (C(2)), and we ihen ask for the amplicomponents in 'y'(1) contribute to the first integral and tude that it is in state g(2). If g(Z) is a negativeenergy
o n l y n e g a t i v ee n e r g y( p o s i t r o n )c o m P o n e n tosf r y ' ( l ' )t o state we are solving a problem of annihilation of elect h e s e c o n dT. h a t i s , t h e a m p l i t u d ei o r 6 n d i n ga c h a r g e tron in /(1), positron in g(2), etc.
We have been emphasizingscatteringproblems,bur
at 2 is determined both by the amplitude for finding
an electron previous to the measurement and by the obviously the motion in a fixed potential I/, say in a
arnplitude for finding a positron after the measutement' hydrogen atom, call also be dealt with. If it is llrst
This might be interpreted as meaning that even in, a ti.*"d us a scattering problem we can ask for the
problem involving but one charge the amplitude for amplitude, dr(l), that an electron with original free
hnding the charge at 2 is not determined when the only wave function was scatteredfr times in the potential I/
thine known in the amplitude for finding an electron either forward or backward in time to arrive at 1. Then
(or ipositron) at an earlier time. There may have been t h e a m p l i t u d ea f t e r o n e m o r e s c a l L e r i n igs
no electron present initially but a pair was created in
the measurement (or also by other external fields). The
6r+,(2):-iI x*<2,1)/(1)dr(1)drr. Q4)
amplitude for this contingency is specified by the
future.
in
the
positron
a
u-plitrd" for finding
An equation for the total amplitude
fre can also obtain expressionsfor transition amplitudes, like (5). For exampleif at l:0 we have an elecdi(1)
/(1):I
tron present in a state with (positive energy) wave
tr{
function /(x), what is the amplitude for finding it at
for arriving at 1 either directly or after any number of
with the (positive energy) wave function g(x)?
t:I
scatteringsis obtainedby summing (24) over all A Irom
after
anywhere
electron
the
finding
for
The amplitude
0to@;
the
by
ry'(1)
replaced
/(x),
t:0 is given by (19) with
second integral vanishing. Hence, the transition ele, t ( 2 ) :o \ Q ) - i K * Q ,1 ) V ( r ) V 0 ) ( t r 1(.2 s )
I
ment to find it in state g(x) is, in analogy to (5), just
(t2:T, h:o)
Viewed as a steady state problem we may wish, for
example,to find that initial condition do (or better just
I u r * u na . Q , 1) 0 f ( x r ) d l x r d 3 x . , (20)
the 0) which leads to a periodic motion of ,y'. This is
most practically done, of course,by solving the Dirac
since g*: *7B.
eouation,
Ii Jpotential acts somewherein the interval between
(26)
(,v - n\/!):
V(I)t (r) '
first
order
Thus
the
K+(A).
by
0 and ?, K1 is replaced
z,
iVrsides
by
(25)
on
both
(13),
by
operating
from
is,
deducedfrom
efiect on the transition amplitude
thereby eliminating the do, and using (12) This illus- ; I a ( x- , ) t s K , Q , 3 ) / ( 3 l K f ( 3I. r 6 l t x r t d x r d " x , . ( 2 1 ) trates the relation betweenthe points of view.
|"
For many problemsthe total potential AlV may be
fixed one, Z, and another, i4'
Expressions such as this can be simplified and the split convenientlyinto a
If ,(+(1.)is definedas in
a
3-suriace integrals, which are inconvenient for rela- consideredas Derturbation.
|
23r
1'HEOltY
OF
T'OSITRONS
/ JJ
m;m
3tt2t43\tZA
5H ORFh'
(b) \/-/
Y-/
3\
A_]\
tlAl,l
v_11
l/
3\
12
\4
oR
(c)
t2
/xC\
( a )
\o/
l/
\4
Ftc. 4. Some problems involving two distinct charges (in addition to virtual pairs they may produce) : P" I K+(trJ(3, 1)K+6)(+,2)
*1{+(d)(4, 1)K+\A)(3,2)1, is the probability that: (a) Electrons
at 1 an,l 2 are scaltered to 3.4 iand no pairs arc fo.med). abt
S t r r t i n g w i t h a n e l e c l r o n a l I a s i n g l ep a i r i s f o r m e d , p o s i l r o n a t 2 ,
electrons at 3, 4. (c) A pair at 1, 4 is found Lt 3,2, etc. The exclusion principle requircs that the amplitudes for processes involving
exchange of two electrons be subtracted.
232
756
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
In addition to these single loops we have the possibility that two independent pairs may be created and
eachpair may annihilate itself again. That is, there may
be formed in the vacuum two closed loops, and the
contribution in amplitude from this alternative is just
the product of the contribution from each of the loops
consideredsingly. The total contribution from all such
pairs of loops (it is still consistent to disregard the
exclusion principle for these virtual states) is Lzf2 Ior
in Z2 we count every pair oI loops twice. The total
vacuum-vacuum amplitude is then
C":l-
(30)
l rr
LtLr:-_ | lS/[K
2J J
C,:l+L+
( 2 ,1 1 . 4 r 1 '
X KaQ, 2)A(2)fd.rj.r r.
(28)
L ' ' ) : * t i / 3 )l l
1 .' , 4 ( l '
f spt,<,(2
r t,
x 1{+(1,3).4(3)1{* (3, 2)A (2)fd r Q.r zd.
L'/2:exp(*Z).
233
THEORY
OF POSITRONS
6. ENERGY-MOMENTUM REPRESENTATION
The practical evaluation of the matrix elements in
some problems is often simplified by working with
momentum and energy variables rather than spaceand
time. This is because the function K+(2,1) is fairly
complicated but we shall find tbat its Fourier transform
that is
is very simple, namely (i/4t9)(p-nt)-1
f
KJz,l):Q/ar\
(P-n)-'exp(-if
-ru)dal,
Bl)
where
757
(a(fz- I,-
p,
I +(2, l) : (2r)-, | (f - *,1-' exp(- i p. tcz)da
(32)
since the
of momentum y'r may pick up q from
"i".r.on
the potential
c(q), propagate with momentum y'1f g
is not a matrix operator but a function satisfying
(factor (p1f q-ar)-r) until it is scattered again by the
potential, a(fz-lril,
picking up the remaining mo(
3
3
)
ZrtI+(2,1)-m'zI+(2,1):6(2,1),
mentum, !z-!rQ,
to bring the total to y'2. Since all
-[l:
:
(V,)z (6/ 0rz,) (6/ dxzr).
where
values of g are possible, one integrates over g.
The integrals (31) and (32) are not yet completely
These same matrices apply directly to positron probdefined for there are poles in the integrend when lems, for if the time component ol, say, pl is negative
We can define how these poles are to be the state representsa positron of four-momentum -pr,
l,-rr*:0.
evaluated by the rule that ,n is considered.Io hooe an and we are describing pair production if p2 is an elecinf.nilesimal negoliueimaginary part. That is m, is re- tron, i.e., has positive time component, etc.
placedby ttt - i6 and the limit taken as 6+0 from above.
The probability of an event whose matrix element is
This can be seenby imagining that we calculate K1 by
(a2Mu) is proportional to the absolute square. This
integrating on 1r first. If we call E:+(rn'+pf
may also be writ"ten (ilLMu2)(E2MilL),where M is M
then the integrals involve pr essentially as with the operators written in opposite order and explicit
*?z'*P"1,
1f exp(-ipe(tz-tr))dpn(po'-E)-r which has poles at appearanceof I changedto -i(,41 is B times the complex
pe:tE
and pa: - E. The replacementol mby. m-i6
cbrrrjugatetransposeof BM). For many problems we are
means that -E has a small negative imaginary part; the not concernedabout the spin of the final state. Then we
first pole is below, the secondabove therlal axis. Now can sum the probability over the two z2 corresponding
il t2-11>O the contour can be completed around the to the two spin directions. This is not a complete set besemicirclebelow the real axis thus giving a residuefrom cause,2 has another eigenvalue, -n. To pennit sumpole, or -Qn1-'exp(-iE(t2-t)).
the pl:{E
It
ming over all stateswe can insert the projection operator
lz-h10
the upper semicircle must be used, and (2m)- L(! zl m) and so obtain (2nx)-| (11tM (I 2+ rn)M u )
E at the pole, so that the function varies in each for the probability of transition from 101,u1, to p2 with
!a:
caseas required by the other definition (17).
arbitrary spin. If the incident state is unpolarized we
Other solutions of (12) result from other prescrip- can sum on its spins too, and obtain
tions. For example if 2r in the Iactor (f -m2)-L is con(2nL)-,5pl@ t+ n )M (1,+ rn)M)
(36)
sidered to have a positive imaginary part K.. becomes
replaced by Ks, the Dirac one-electron kernel, zero for for (twice) the probability that an electron of arbitrary
lz(lr. Explicitly the function isrr (x, l:r21,)
spin with momentum pl will make transition to pe. The
/a(x, t) : - (4r)-r6(s)* (m/8rs) H {2t(ms), (34) expressions are all valid for positrons when p's with
J
234
R,
/.! 6
P.
FEYNMAN
nesative energiesare inserted'and the situation interorJted in accoidancewith the timing relationsdisc"ssed
(''l):1
ibove. 1We have usedfunctions normalizedto
instead of the conventional (uBu):(u+u):1' On our
scale (&Bu):enetgyf m so the probabilities must be
corrected by the appropriate factors')
The author has many people to thank for fruitiul
conversations about this subject, particularly H' A'
Bethe and F. J. DYson.
APPENDIX
the Dirac
Xexp(-i'-fotHdt'). As is well known v(x, l) satisfies
i,iiff"t".tiate v(x, ,) with respectto ' and usecommuta"nrniil..
tion relaiions oI E and 9)
(42)
iavl,t)/0t:(a'(-iV*A)+/a+uB)v(x,')'
{differequation
Dirac
ihe
satisfy
also
must
t)
Consequenllvd(x,
partsr'
e n r i a t e( 4 1 )w i t h r e s p e ctto / . u s e( 4 2 )a n d i n t e g r a t eb y
at trme
That is, if 4(x, t) is thaLsolutionof the Dirac equatron
and
o*:/v*(x)4(x)d3x
r *-rti.r,l! O&) at l:0, and if we define
Oi*:Jfv*(x)+(x, T)d3x then O/*:SO*S-r, or
(43)
so*:o'*s,
be
The orinciple on which the proof will be based c&n now
just one electron
illustrated bya simple example.Supposewe have
initially and finallY and ask for
(44)
1: (1o*GSF*xo).
S using (43)'
operalor
the
through
putting
,F*
try
misht
We
w a v el u n c t r o n
sF*=F;*S, *hei"/';n p'*=7'!*1xy'(x)d3xis the
at I arising from /(r) at 0. Then
(xo*F'*GSxo), (45)
;^fGF'*Sxi : fc*(x)/'(x)d3x' C,use of the defiwhere the secondexpressionhas been obtained by
niti.n (:S) of G and the generalcommutation relation
|:
i6Y/01: E Y'
- A) +,4 4* n 9) v (x) d|x
v{.*l
.uld
l"
where fI : Jrv' (x) (a. ( rV
an electron at posirion x while V*(x) is
un op"rutoionniftifating
a siluation
We
contemplate
operator'
creation
ih" io,r".ponding
we have present some electrons in states reprein which at l:0
'.
assumed
sented by ordinary spinor functions /rtx),-/r(x),
as noles ln
orthosonal, and some positrons These are descrlbed
fill the
normally
would
which
rons
eiect
*.rgy sea. the
ii"-n-"?iit.
wati functions pl(xr. p2(xr' " " we ask at time r
;;i;-f,;;i"*
states 3r(x)'
whar is thi amplitude ihat we 6nd electrons in
. Iitheinitialand frnalstate
rruf, ll. onahoiesatq'txt.gr(xt,
we
respectively'
and
are
1,
li
i,".ior, ,aor"tan,ing this situation
wish to calculate the matrix element
GF*+F*G=
f s*$)Ie)d\,
o*:J"v*(x)d(x)d,x,
(39)
r: f c*G)ln*'$)d'r'c"
235
THEORY
OF
LK*tA)(2, 1) K +(2,1)ll,*(xr)d3xr.
(50)
(x)d3x. C,,
POSITRONS
759
exp\-
R : ( x o * ' ' ' Q r * Q r *" ' G r G 1 F 1 p . " ' * S a r * ' ' P J z ' ' ' x o )
- (xo*'''
Q " * Q t * ' ' ' G : G r S . F r ' " e " * F r * ' 'P f
z''' xd'
)xo)
:(,t
*o(-t[,'
to -udt
)xo)
X ( - a A ( x , , 0 ) + 1 , 1rxo, ; ) v ( x ) d ,xx)l ;
as expected in accordance with the reasoning of the previous sections (i.e., (20) with 1{+(n) replacing,tn).
The proof is readily extended to the more general expression R,
(40), which can be analyzed by induction. First one replaces F1*
by a relation such as (47) obtaining two terms
Hdl
_ r,"H
//..T\\
c"(rs)=(ro+
"*p(*,J"
J,
,,a),),
- dc,,Qo)
/ dto- - i(r,r
;
"*v(- f,
of C, the expression
n,a)
X J f " v + , x . p . 4/rox),v / x l a , x 1 ) , i 5 1r
which will be reduced to a simple factor times C,(to) by methods
analogous to those used in reducing R. The operator V can be
imagined to be split into two pieces gp." and rl".g operating on
positive and negative energy states respectively. The Voo" on xe
gives zero so we are left with two terms in the cuuent density,
vp."*B/v""s
and V""s*0.4V".c.
The latter v"us*8.4{,"os is just
the expectation value of p/ taken over all negative energy states
(minus.F"""B:4V"""* which gives zero acting on xo). This is the
effect of the vacuum expectation current of the electrons in the
sea which we should have subtracted from our original Hamil
tonian in the customary way.
The remaining term il/p."*PlV".s,
or its equivalent Vp."*0,4V
can be considered as V*(x)fo""(x)
where loo"(x) is written for the
positive energy component of the operator p.4V(x). Now this
operator, V*(x)feos(x), or more precisely just the V*(x) part of it,
can be pushed through the exp(-iJnoruil.)
in a manner exactly
analogous to (47) when /is a futrction. (Aa alternative derivation
lesults from the consideration that tie operator V(r, r) which
satishes the Dirac equation also satisfies the linear integral equations which are equivalent to it.) That is, (51) can be written
by (a8),(s0),
-^
-dc,\ro\ldro:-i\xo*.J
x *v(- t
fi
J *'txzlX.'n'tZ,tl
u a) n g7v 1x,1
ax,a"xzy)
//\
+;(x'-""0(-;..f'na)ff v-tx"ttx-,A'(2,l
-f+(2,
1)1,{(1)V(r)d'x1d'x,1s),
Paper 22
236
unambiguous,
"..
769
237
770
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
element for all real processesas the limit of that com- was still not complete becausethe Lagrangian method
puted here as the cut-ofi width goes to zero. A similar had been worked out in detail only for particles obeying
technique suggested by Pauli and by Bethe can be the non-relativistic Schrtldinger equation. It was then
applied to probletns of vacuum polarization (resulting modified in accordance with the requirements of the
in a renormalization of charge) but again a strict Dirac equation and the phenomenon of pair creation.
physical basis for the rules of convergenceis not knolvn. This was made easier by the reinterpretation of the
After mass and charge renormalizalion, tIe limit of theory of holes(I). Finally for practicalcalculationsthe
zero cut-off width can be taken for all real Drocesses. expressionswere developed in a power seriesin e,,/rr. It
T h e r e s u l t sa r e l h e n e q u i v a l e n t o l h o s eo f S i h u ' i n g e r . was apparent that each term in the serieshad a simple
rvho does not make explicit use of the convergencefac- physical interpretation. Since the result was easierto
tors. The method of Schwinger is to identiiy the terms understandthan the derivation, it was thought best to
corresponding to corrections in mass and charge and, publish the results first in this paper. Considerabletine
previous to their evaluation, to remove them from the has been spent to make these first two papers as comexpressionsfor real processes.This has the advantage plete and as physically plausible as possible without
of showing that the results can be strictly independent relying on the Lagrangian method, because it is not
of particular cut-ofi methods. On the other hand, many generally familiar. It is realized that such a descripticin
of the properties of the integrals are analyzed using cannot carry the conviction of truth which would acIormal properties of invariant propagation functions. company the derivation. On the other hand, in the
But one of the properties is that the integrals are infinite interest of keepingsimple things simple the derivaiion
and it is not clear to what extent this invalidates the will appear in a separatepaper.
demonstrations. A practical advantage of the present
The possible application of these methods to the
method is that ambiguities can be more easily resolved; various meson theories is discussedbriefly. The formusimply by direct calculation of the otherwise divergent las corresponding to a charge particle of zeto spin
integrals. Nevertheless, it is not at all clear that the moving in accordancewith the Klein Gordon equation
convergence factors do not upset the physical con- are also given. In an Appendix a method is given for
sistency of the theory. Although in the limit the two calculating the integrals appearing in the matrix elemethods agree,neither method appearsto be thoroughly ments for the simpler processes.
satisfactory theoretically. Nevertheless, it does appear
The point of view which is taken here of the interthat we now have available a complete and definite action of charges differs from the more usual point of
method for the calculation of physical processesto any view of field theory. Furthermore, the familiar Hamilo r d e ri n q u a n t u me J e cr to d y n a m i c s .
tonian form of quantum mechanics must be compared
Since we can write down the solution to any physical to the over-all space-time view used here. The first
problem, we have a complete theory which could stand section is. therefore. devoted to a discussion of the
by itself. It will be theoreticallyincomplete,however, relations of these viewpoints.
in two respects.First, although each term of increasing
r. COMPARISONWITH THE HAMILTONIAN
order in e2fhc can be written down it rvould be desirable
METHOD
to see some way of expressing things in finite form to
all orders in e2fhc at once. Second, although it will be
Electrodynamics can be looked upon in two equivaphysically evident that the results obtained are equiva- lent and complementary ways. One is as the description
lent to those obtained by conventional electrodynamics of the behavior of a field (Maxwell's equations). The
the mathematical proof of this is not included. Both of other is as a description of a direct interaction at a
rheselimitations will be removed in a subsequentpaper distance (albeit delayed in time) between charges (the
(seealso Dysona).
solutions of Lienard and Wiechert). From the latter
Briefly the genesisof this theory was this. The con- point of view ligbt is consideredas an interaction of the
ventional electrodynamics was expressed in the La- chargesin the sourcewith those in the absorber. This is
grangian form of quantum mechanics described in the an impractical point of view because many kinds of
Reviews of Modern Physics.6The motion of the field sourcesproduce the samekind of efiects.The field point
oscillatorscould be integratedout (as describedin Sec- of view separates these aspects into two simpler probtion 13 of that paper), the result being an expressionof lems, production of light, and absorption of light. On
the delayed interaction of the particles. Next the modi- the other hand, the field point of view is less practical
fication of the delta-function interaction could be made when dealing with close collisions of particles (or their
directly from the analogy to the classical case.2This action on themselves).For here the sourceand absorber
a Schwinger,?hys. Rev. 74, 1439 (1948), Phys. Rev. 75, 651 are not readily distinguishable, there is an intimate
J.
(1949L,A proof of this equivalenceis given by F. J. Dyson, Phys. exchangeof quanta. The fields are so closely determined
by the motions of the particlesthat it is just as well not
Rev. 75. 486 (1949).
6 R . P . F e y n m a nR, e v . M o d . P h y s . 2 0 , 3 6 7( 1 9 4 8 )T. h e a p p l i c a .
to separate the question into ttyo problems but to contion to electrodynamics
is descrihedin detail by H. J. Croenewold,
sider the process as a direct interaction. Roughly, the
Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademia van Weresrhannen.Pro
ceedings
Vol. LII,3 (226) 1949.
field point of view is most practical for problems involv-
238
Q Li.\ N TU X{
E L E CT R O D Y N A N,I CS
of }fuisen-
77r
for different observers in relative motion the instantaneous present is different, and corresponds to a
different 3-dimensionalcut of space-time.Thus the
temporal analysesof different observersis different and
their Harniltonian equations are developing the process
in difierent ways. These differencesare irrelevant, howe v e r , f o r t h e s o l u t i o ni s t h e s a m c i t r a n y s p a c et i m e
frame. By forsaking the Hamiltonian method, the
wedding of relativity and quantum mechanics can be
accomplishedmost naturallY.
We illustrate these points in the next section by
equationfor nonstuclyingthe solutionof Schrcidinger's
relativistic particles interacting by an instantaneous
Coulomb potential (Eq. 2). When the solution is modified to include the efiects of delay in the interaclion
and the relativisticpropertiesof the electronswe obtain
an expressionof the laws of quantum electroclynamics
(Eq. 1).
2, THE INTERACTIONBETWEENCHARGES
We study by the samemethodsas in I, the interaction
of two particlesusing lhe samenotation as I' We start
by consideringthe non-relativisticcasedescribedby the
Schrridingerequation (I, Eq. 1). The wave lunction at
a given time is a function /(t., xu, l) of the coordinates
'Ihus
catlK(x", x6,t',x"t,xb',l')
xo and xoof eachparticle.
the amplitude that particle o at xo' at time I' will get
to x" at t while particle b at xb'at l' gets to xb at ,' If the
particlesare free and do not interact this is
K(x", x6,I ; x o', x6', l') : K p"(x t ; x t' ) K ot(xt,I ; xt', t' )
"',
",
where Ko" is the ](o function for particle a considered
as free. In Lhis casewe can obviously define a quantity
like K, but for which the time I need not be the same
f o r p a r t i c l e sa a n d b r l i k e w i s ef o r t ' ) ; e . g . ,
( ')l .
K o ( 3 ,{ ; 1 , 2 ) - K a . ( 3 , 1 ) K o D 2
(l)
239
i72
R.
P. FEYNMAN
o'
+{4,6)
6*(
+ (5 ,l )
ELECTRONS
Fro. 1. The fundamental interaction Eq. (4). Exchange of one
quantum between two electrons.
6-(.):
ro
id,Jd r-lim
c-u
(ri)-r
-:6(r)+(rirr-r.
(j)
J_i
240
Q U A N T U N { E L E C T R O D Y N A X ,I C S
emit a quantum (longitudinal, transverse,or scalar once (either in emission or in absorption), terms like
(f, Bq. (t+)) occur only when there is more than one
"y.u)and then proceedto 3 (Ka(3,5)). Meantime "0"
goes to 6 (K+(6, 2)), absorbs the quantum (ryru)and quantum involved. The Bose statistics of the quanta
proceedsto 4 (K1(4,6)). The quantum meanwhilepro- can, in all cases,be disregarded in intermediate states.
ceedsfrom 5 to 6, rvhichit doeswith amplitude 6n(su6:). The only effect of the statistics is to change the weight
We must surr over all the possiblequantum polariza- of initiai or linal states.If there are among quanta, in
tions p and positions and times of emission5, and of the initial state, some z rvhich are identical then the
absorption 6. Actually if li>fu it would be better to weight oi the sta.teis (1/n l) of what it would be if these
emits but no attention quanta were considered as dilTerent (similarly for the
say that "o" absorbs
need be paid to thesematters, as all such alternatives final state).
are automaticallycontainedin (4).
PROBLEM
3. THE SELF-ENERGY
The correct terms o{ higher order in d or involving
largernumbcrsof electrons(interactingwith themselves
or in pairs) can be written down by the same kincl of
reasoning.They will be illustrated by examplesas rve
proceed.In a succeedingpaper they rvill all be deduced
f rom conventionalquantum electrodynamics.
Calculation,lrom (,1),of the transition element between positive energy free electron states gives the
M6ller scattering of trvo electrons,rvhen account is
taken of the Pauli principle.
The exclusion prinr:iple for interacting chargcs is
handled in exactly the same*'ay as for non-interacting
charges (I). For example,for two chargesit requires
o n l y t l r a t o n e c a l c u l a t eK ( . 3 , 4 ; t , 2 ) - K ( 4 , 3 ; 1 , 2 ) t o
get the net amplitude {or arrival of chargesat 3 and 4.
It is disregardedin intermediate states. The interferenceeffectsfor scatteringof electronsby positrons
discussedby Bhabha rvill be seen to result directly in
The formulasare interpretedto apply
this formr.rlation.
to positronsin the manner discussedin I.
As our primary conccrn rvill be for processesin which
the quanta are virtual we shall not include here the
detailcd analysisof processcsinvolving real quanta in
initial or 6nal state,and shall content ourselvesby only
stating the rules applying to them.8The result of the
analysisis, as expected,that they can be included by
the same line oI reasoningas is used in discussingthe
providedthe quantitiesare normalized
virtual processes,
in the usual manner to representsingle quanta. For
example, the amplitude that an electron in going from 1
to 2 absorbsa quantum whosevector Ilotential,suitably
normalized,is cuexp(-i,t r):Cu(r) is just the expression (I, Eq..(13)) for scattering in a potential rvith
,4 (3) replacedby C (3). Each quantum interacts only
(srt')' (6)
XKa(3, 1)dr3d'rn6.
It arises becausethe electron instead of going from 1
directly to 2, may go (Iiig. 2) first to 3, (Ka(3, 1)), emit
a quantum (.yu),proceed to 4, (Ka(4,3)), absorb it
("yu),and finally arrive at 2 (K1Q,.Q). The quantum
must go from 3 to + (6+(sca')).
This is related to the self-energyof a free electron in
the followingmanncr.Supposeinitially, time lr, \1.ehave
an electron in state /(1) rvhich we imagine to be a positive energy solution o{ Dirac's equation for a free particle. After a long time /:-lr the perturbation will alter
-'
at,lorgh
in the expressions stemming from (4) thc quanta are
virtual, tlis is not actually a theoretical limitation. One rvay to
deduce the correct rules for real quanta from (4) is to note that
in a closed system ali quanta can be consiclerecl as virtual (i.e.,
they have a knorvn source ancl are eventually absorbed) so that
in such a system the present description is complete and erluivalent to the conventional one. In particular.
the relation of the
E i n s t e i n , 4 a n d B c o e l l i c i e n t sr a n b e ' l e , l u c e J . A m o r e p r c c t i c r l
direct deduction of the expressions for rcal quanta rvill be givcn
in the subsequent paper. It might be noted that (4) can be rewritten as describing the action on a, K(I)(3, l):if
K*G,5)
1)d"e of the potential,4 u(5) : e'?-lK+(4, 6)6+(sro'])ru
X l(5)r+(5,
-A'zAp:4rju
arising from Maxwell's equations
XKa(6,2)dr6
from a "current" jr(6\:e2K-(4.6r7u4-r6.2r
p r o r l u c e r Jb y p a r ticle D in going from 2 lo 4. This is virrue oi rhe facr thal 6+
satisfies
- trl6a(s'11'?):{'512' 1;'
(5)
e These consideratiorrs make it appear unlikely that the conRev. Mod. Plys.
tention of J. A. Wheeler and R. P.-ieynman,
17, 157 (1945), that electrons do not act on themselves, will be a
successful concept in quantum electrodynamics.
241
114
P.
FEYNMAN
f -
I f / ( 2 ) B K ' r ) ( 2 .l 1 B l ( 1 t r t 3 x f i 3 x 2 .
(7)
JJ
L E : e 2" f| , (_u 1 u K , ( 4 . 3 ) 1 u r ) e x p ( i 2 . . r q r ) 6( s, r J ) d r r , ( a )
M O M E N T U pM- k ,
F A C T O(R9 - k - m
K,
MOMENTUM
FACTORk-2
TNTERACTTON,T
p
MOMENTUM
fl0)
242
QUANTUM
I lJ
ELECTRODYNAMICS
//
,"fr n-il,'-"
1,,.\,
t,-tt
lP'
a. Eq.lz
,K1
t'-ov
lt'
f',
b. Eql3
c. Eq.l4
Frc. 5. Compton
space.
r or more precisely
I, Eq. (3a). The ft-'?means (ft'[)
tile limit as 6+0 of (&'E+tD)-r. Further da& means
(2r)-2dkflkzdhdftr. If we imagine that qxanta are pariic1"s of ,".o mass, then we can make the general rule
that all poles are to be resolved by considering.the
massesof the particles and quanta to have infinitesimal
scattering,
Eq
(15)'
s)-\
"t,(P,- h- m)-r s(P'- r-
k'
uk-2da
(rz)
243
776
R.
er(ltl
P.
FEYNMAN
(15)
f6
(ft-,-(ft,-trr)-r)G(I)dI,
Jo
.,*.r':(2')'f
v k':o
I sinlAnlxrlr
X c o s ( K .x ) d A a d 3 K g (kk).,
c(h'):
(6(ft'?)-6(ft,-I?))G(I)dI,
Jo
rtere f-G(tr)dX:l
and G involves values of X large
:ompared to az. This simply means that the amplitude
*.This_relation
is given incorrectlyin A, equationjust pre:eding 16.
c(h\:
I:-),'(ft'?-x)-r6i1;41'
o7)
.f"
x,c1x)ax:0.
(18)
This condition will also be used in discussingthe convergence of vacuum polarization integrals.
The expressionfor the self-energymatrix is now
(e\/rit | 7u(p-h-mt-11ph 2d4kclh?\, (lq)
J
rvhich, since C(ft') falls off at least as rapidly as l/hr,
convergs. For practical purposes we shall suppose
hereafter that C(ft,) is simply -Xr/(ftr-X!) implying
that someaverage(with weight G(I)dX) over valuesof
X may be taken afterwards. Since in all processesthe
quantum momentu.m will be contained in at least one
I representing
extra factor of the form (tr-k-*)
propagation of an electron while that quantum is in
the field, we can expect all such integrals u'ith their
convergencefactors to converge and that the result of
all such processeswill now be finite and definite (excepting the processeswith closedloops, discussedbelotv,
in which the diverging integrals are over the momenta
of the electrons rather than the quanta).
I noting
The integralof (19) withC(e:): -Xr(ftr-tr)
that P2:1n2, X)za and dropping terms of order tnf )r,
is (seeAppendix A)
(e'z
/ 2r) l+m (tn(\,/ n) * il - ! (.tn(x/ n) -l s/ +)1. Q0)
244
QUAN T U M
777
E L E CTRO D Y N A M I CS
4ro-l
| atanadalc
Lan20Jo
I
120
*-(qa4m
aq)-tra,
sin20
a(!'-m)
(22)
|b,
(2s)
(27)
-r(p4)a(p'-ry)-LS.
(28)
245
i78
P.
FEYNMAN
(.1-ir(p''))b.
In the limit, then, as 0'2--+tn2the net
effect on the scattering is -|ra where r, the limit of
(assuming the integrals have an infrar(f'2) as f',-m'
red cut-ofi), turns out to be just equal to that given in
(23). An equal term - |rc arisesfrom virtual transitions
after the scattering (14) so that the entire zc.term in
(22) is canceled.
The reasonthat r is just the value oI (12) when q'?:0
can alsb be seenwithout a direct calculation as follows:
Let us call p the vector of length m in the direction oi
p' so that il p'z:1r111r12 we have p': (1f e)1 and we
rake e as very small, being oI order ?-l where I is the
time betrveen the scatterings b and a. Since (p'-m1-t
- (f' * m) / (P'"- m'z)- (p{ m) / 2m'?,the quantity (25)
rs o{ order e-r or T. We shall compute corrections to it
only to its own order (e-t) in the limit e+0. The term
, 27) can be written approximatelyraas
o.
"it
tyu(p-h-n\
I a(p'-nD
X t,(!' - m) t 6 fz ia P(l(h2),
using the expression (79) for Lm. The net of the two
efiects is therefore approximatelyrs
- ( e 2 / r i 1| a l ! ' - m t ' t , l f - h - n )
lef(!-h-
m\-'
Xt ,(P' - m)-rblr2d4kc(k2),
a term now of order 1/e (since (0'-tn)-'=(P+m)
\(2nf e)-t) and therefore the one desired in the limit.
Comparison to (28) gives for r the expression
,:7 * n / hn)
(29)
tt Th*pr"rrior
of Aft
is not exact because the substitution
r v t h e i n t e g r a l i n r l a t i s . v a l i d o n l ) i f , o p e r a t e so n a . s t a l e b u c h
'ha1
t can be rcplacerl by u. lhe crror, no$ever, ls ol oruer
rvhich is a',t I erp-m^P*m)
a p')n1-tgt-ni11t'-zl-ib
'zm-a.But sincef :12?, ne havePQD-z)
X(Glt)t'*m)!(2e+e)
*n(b-m):
=
(f- z)1
so the ne t result is approximately
arcl is not of order 1/e but smalier, so that its effect
a(!-m)b/4nP
irops out in the limit.
td We have used, to lirst orcler, the general expansion (valid for
any operators ,4, 4]
A-t_ A_|BA t+A 181 tB.|-t_...
ulB)_t:
.,ri1a tr:p-k-m
to expand the difierence of
ancl B:b'-l:e!
t and (b-h-n)-1.
'b ' - k - n \
'u The r.normaliz-ation terms appearing B, Eqs. ( 14 r, (15r wbcn
;ranslated directly into the present notation do not Sive twice
29) but give this expression witi the central rrrt-r factor replaced
'y n1a/Et where E1-pru lor p:4. 1yL"n integraled it thereiore
n)/2nor ra-ra(ntt/Et''(11erves rclQfr I n)/2n\(n1a/fr\
u h i c h g i v e s j u s t r s , s i n c ei t u t : m i l t '
S i n c ef 1 1 a f 1 4 f 1 : 2 E r )
246
QUANTU
"-
m)'
a,'
m)-'7 u)daP.Y2C (q'?';
(30)
(31)
4ri r: J ,,a,,
m)-'t,fdo ?,
(32)
779
iVI CS
po+ !
247
780
P,
FEYNMAN
(32')
J,"':
'
I
J0
lJ,,1rn'))-Ju,(m?+\')]G(X)dI,
8. LONGITUDINAL
WAVES
G(tr)satisrying.__J*6!
therunctio.
)11:,t"1tl [:?,f;"?1;*J':'1"j"'#3ffiJi,'j.}'.(j#,*]i":i
l-G(r)r'dx:0. Then in 'h"
are *ccesconsiderations
rangeof p integration*4"
:]p1:i:'."-",]31,11,i^
llll
of the equation
lury for *e aredealingwith thesorurions
jntegral now converges.The"ll::9"1"t?ilnltY-::.*:
result oI the integratlon "-l)tAu:4ni'
rvith a current i' which is couservec
ur
of
uvs(d(\)
s\/\/
'Br4r
u'ul\
on dl over
using this method is the rntegral
(see-Appendix
c)
iJl"3:;i.,,1;iliJjl::::t.i];::'#;l!:!tt.':u
""0
To show that this is the caselve consider the amplif,,P:tude for emission(real or virtual) of a photon and show
'lhe
that the divergence oI this amplitude vanishes.
t
h
ep
i
n
p
u
h
r
i
z
e
J
p
h
o
t
o
n
s
t
1
l
o
r
l
o
r
e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
amplirude
l 4 n 2 + 2 q 2/
\
lf
-l -rji)
(1-lll
d i r e c t i o ni n v o l v e sm a t r i x e l e m e n r so f 7 u . T n c r e f o r e
rang'/ 9J)
L 3qt \
w h a t w e h a v e t o s h o wi s r h a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i t tmga t r i x
elementsof qr"yu:Q vanish. For example' for a first
wit]n q2:4mz sinz9.
order effect n'e would require the matrix element oI q
The gaugeinvarianceis clear,sincequ(quq,-g?6u):0.
Operating (as it always will) on a potential of zero b e t w e e nt w o s t a t e s p , a n d p : = P r * q . l J u t s i n c e
:
divergence the (qpq"-6p,q2)o,is simply -qzau, the Q: Pz- f t and (uzpttt'r) - tn(uzu1) (a, ! 2ut) the matrix
D'Alembertian of the potential, that is, the current pro- elementvanishes,rvhich proves the contention in this
(essenducing the potential. The term -!(ln(),'z/m'z))(q,q, case.It alsovanishesin more complexsituations
-16r)
therefore gives a current proportional to the tially becauseof relation (3'1)'below) (for example,try
current producing the potential. This would have the putttng e2:q2 in the matrix (15) for the Cornpton
sameeffect as a changein charge,so that we would have Effect).
To prove this in general,supposeat' i:1 to -V are a
a difference A(e'?) between e2 and the experimentally observed charge, e2!L(e2), analogous !o the dif- set of plane wave disturbing potentials carryulg moferencebetween m and the observed mass' This charge menta gi (e.g.,somemay be emissionsor absorptionsof
the same or different quanta) and consider a mrtrix for
depends Iogarithmically on the cut-off, L(e2)fe2:
- (2e'z/3r) ln(>,/m). After this renormalization of charge t h e t r a n s i t i o nl r c m a s t e t eo f m o m e n t u t nf o t o 1 r s u c h
is made, no effects will be sensitive to the cut-off.
2 T h e r e c r t l o o p s c o n r t , l c L . l yw i l h o u t c x t e r n e l i n t e ' r c t i o n s F o r
After this is done the final term remaining in (33), e x a m n l e ,a p a i r i s ' c r c r t t i v i r t u r l l y r l o n g s i t h a p h o t o n N c r t t h e y
a
n
n i h i l a i e , i l r s o r l ' i n g t h i s p h o t o n S u c l r l o o p s a r e ' l i s r e g a r ' { e do n
contains the usual effects2lof polarization of the vacuum'
and lrc
c2llx'z
( q u g , - 6 u , 9 ' )- l- l n
T\3m2
248
QUANTU
E L E C T R O D Y N A 1 4I C S
NI
(p;{q-nr)-tai(lrlq-m)-r
o" fI
78L
Flolvever,
+ar
II
;:t
(p;-ttt)-ta;-ay
II
Q+q-il:)-tat.
i:t
(35)
249
782
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
I lV\)aI)(2, 1)/d.t1u
- (0,1,lxr) t
I',,
I
12, 1)ltil,,(1)(i3
(as is readily shown by the usual method of demonstrating Green's theorem) the integral being over an
entire .3-surfaceboundary of the region (with normal
vector 1y'r). Only the positive frequency components of
/ contribute from the surfaceprececlingthe time correspondingto 2, and only negative frequenciesfrom the
surfacefuture to 2. Thesecan be interpretedas electrons
and positronsin direct analogyto the Dirac case.
The right-hand side of (35) can be consideredas a
sourceof nelv wavesand a seriesof terms written down
o{ increasing
to representmatrix elementsfor processes
order. There is only one new point here, the term in
Autlrby which two quanta can act at the same time.
As an example, supposethree quanta or potentials,
o u e x p ( - i q " . r ) , D ue x p ( - i q o ' * ) , a n d c , e x p ( - i q " ; r ) a r e
e2f
to act in that order on a particle of original momentum
- : I
p ' , , p , , "p . , 2 m
and lrF"lqa;
the final mo- J , " : ^
po1so that !.:/olq"
| L , p " " rf " , ' r I
J
Itlm
mentum being p":p6!q". The matrix element is the
sum of three terms (p2: pr'p; (illustrated in Fig. 7)
X (trr' - m') t - 6,,(f .t - nt't) t
(! cl pt. c)(1t' - m'z)| (Pb'b+ P b)
tld'P.
-6,,(lu'-nf)
"'
".
x (Pa'- m'z)-t(Pa' a! ? o' a) (.16)
t(b'
- (p.' c+
a)
grvlng,
Pu'c)(P* m')
- ( c 'b )( p - m " ) ' ( ? a l ! o 'a ) .
"'
"'
'
t
o'l,.'"'l'
T h e f i r s t c o m e sw h e n e a c h p o t e n t i a la c t s t h r o u g h t h e J , " " - " . ' . v , r , , 6 " , q " JIl' n I - ,
).|,
t
t
O . r uT. h e s eg r a d i e n t
3gt \
trrun,/l
p e r t u r b a t i o ni 0 ( A , , 1 ' \ A x , l i l " O t
r
Lo n2
operators in momentum space mean respectively the
momentum after and before the potential ,4u operates. the notation asin (33).The imaginarypart for (,q')t>2m
The second term comes from D, and a, acting at the is again positive representingthe lossin the probability
same instant and arises {rom the,4u,4u term in (a). of frndingthe final state to be a vacuum,associatedrvith
Togetlrer bu and a, carry monentum qouf q", so that the possibilitiesof pair production. Fermi statistics
or lu
would give a gain in probability (ancl also a charge
alter b.a operatesthe momentum is lolq"*qt
'l'he
final term comesJrom cu and bu operating together renormalizationof oppositesign to tirat expected).
in a similar manner.The term rlrz1uthus permits a new
type of processin which two quanta can be emitted (or
absorbed,or one absorbed,one emitted) at the same
time.'Ihere is no a'c term for the order a, D, c we have
assumed.In an actual problem there rvould be other
terms like (36) but with alterations in lhe order in
which the quanta d, D, c act. In theseterms a'c rvould
ei
/r_o
o.u-.)r
o- r
appear.
I
I
As a further example the self-energyof a particie of
\"
\s"
\e"
momentum 1u is
A'U"
i'
I',"r,
- *21..t
(e"/ z,;m) ]z p - k),((P- P1z
[
o.
,/'-"
'(
\'
,/'"
o1/
/v"
hC.
250
QUANTU
hQ
Other types of meson theory result from the replacement of 7, by other expressions (for example by
with a subsequentsum over all ,uand z
i6n,-tt)
for virtual mesons).Scalarmesonswith vector coupling
result from the replacementof 7u by p-1qwhereg is the
final momentum of the nucleon minus its initial momentum, that is, it is the momentum of the meson if
absorbed,or the negativeof the momentum of a meson
emitted. As is well known, this theory with neutral
mesonsgives zero for a[ processes,
as is proved by our
discussionon longitudinal waves in electrodynamics.
mesonswith pseudo-vectorcouplingcorrePseudoscalar
sponds to 7, being replaced by ['luq while vector
mesons with tensor coupling correspond to using
(.2p)-t(trq-qt).
These extra gradients involve the
danger of producing higher divergenciesfor real procFor example,76qgivesa logarithmicallydivergent
esses.
interaction of neutron and electron.25
Althoush these
divergenciescan be held by strong enoughconvergence
?5M. SlotnickandW. Heitler,Phys.Rev.75,1645(1949).
I CS
783
251
t-84
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
9, satisfy
3 e"f l-tr) - p2eu: -1rs
u,
'.rhere sr, the source for such mesons, is
the matrix element of
_
p
r
o
r
o
n
.
o
[
s
l
a
t
e
s
n
e
u
t
r
o
n
a
n
,
l
Bv taliinc the,livereence
!-,elween
?Jr, df,, so'rhat
i J r r . o i b o t h s i , l e s ,t n n c l u r l e t h a t . 0 e , a r i : 4 r p
'ie orlglnal equallnn
can I'P reqrrllen aS
E' p p- p' p p: - 4n(s u! uao / or r(os,/ 6t,)\.
T\e riqht henLl side givcs in 6o."n,um
represcltation ?l
- p a q u g , r , t h e l c f t y i e l J s r h c ( q " - u , r t t n d , f in a l l y { h e i n r c r a c ri o n
g
i
v
e
s
t
h
e
L
a
g
r
a
n
g
i
a
n
i
n
thc 1p on ahsorl,rion.
-ou
Proceetling in tlris ray rintl gcnerally rhet prrticlcs of spin one
r n b e r e p r e s e n r c r lL y a i u u r - v e c l o r u , l s h i c h , I o r a f r e e p a r r i c l e
i momenlum g srlisfies g.l-0r.
l'hc propagrLion of virlual
q from state r to p is represented bv
rarticles of momentum
rq,o;)
rullil,lication by the 4 4 matrix 1or tensor/ -fr,:(6!,-p
,..(q2- F2)-t. The 6rst-or,lcr inleracrion (frorn the Proca eouaiion)
: ' i r h a n e l e c t r o m a g n e l i c l o t e n l i a l d c r o ( - i A . . r ) c o r r e s D o n d st o
rultiplication hy the mairix
.Eu:tqz.o1 qt. d)6p-qzya!-q1p,
'lhere qr and qt:qt+h
are (he momenta bclore anrl after the
:rteraction. Finally, two potentials o, b may acr simultaneously,
aith matrix E'u,: -(a.b)6",*b"a,
252
QUA N TU M
E L E CTRO D YNA M I CS
J'tu@"
ta(!1-h-n)-t^vuk
h-n)
2d1kc(h2),
in
(1a)
1 and
-I'(h'-tr2)
where rve shall take C(ft'z) to be typically
We first rationalize the -factors
d{} means (2r')-2dhdhzd.hika.
: 1O- h* m) ((l - h)' - n')-1 obtainins,
@ *-n1-'
f
h* n) a(!1-
t y@,-
hl
x) v uh-'d.'hC (h2)
X ((Or-
(2a)
arARtr:
Expressions between tlvo'y/'s
tion. Particularly useful are
can be thereby
(3u)
reduced by induc-
1 p " lp : 4
-24
tpAlt:
auARTr:2(ABIBA)=aA'n
tPABCT'= -2691
Qa)
n) t pJ r- f1 p1
1! m) v,
"a(!
! 7 u(!z* m) at ot rfJ zl t fi
"at
n pJ z,
Q;h,;h,k.)h
(7a)
Lt:mt2-!]t
etc., and we can consider dealing
*here A:n2-!2,
rvith cases of greater generality in that the different denominators
need not have the same value of the mass z. In our specific problem (6a), p1':12r s6 that Ar:0, but we desire to rvork rvith greater
generality.
Now for the factor C(h2)/k2 rve shall use -I'(ft'-I')-tft-'!.
This can be written as
-\2/(h,
. )\2)k2: h 2C(k2t: -
O rrUr- ,rn.
J'o^t
r8a)
where by (1; k'; k'k,) we mean that in the place of this symbol
either 1, or k", or kok, may stand in difierent cases. In more
complicated problems there may be more factors (h'?-24'E-A;)-r
or other powers of these factors (the (P- L)-2 may be considered
Ar:Z)
and Iurther
as a special case of such a factor rvithy'r:0,
factors like io,['lr. . . in the numerator. The poles in all the factors
are made definite by the assumption that r, and the A's have
in6niLesimal negative imaginary parts.
We shall do the integrals of successive complexity by induction.
We start with the simplest convergent one, and sholv
J'a'n&r-
tt 3=(8iz)-1.
(10a)
where the
For this integral is f (2r)-2dkd3K(ta?-K'K-Z)-3
vector K, of magnitude K: (K. K)l is ky kz, kv The integral on
lr shows third order poles at h: * (f'+ l,), and k4: - (K'+ L)'.
Imagining, in accordance rvith our defrnitions, that Z has a small
negative imaginary part only the first is belorv the real axis. The
contour can be closed by an infinite semi-circle below this axis,
without change of the value of the integral since the contribution
from the semi-circle vanishes in the limit. Thus the contour can
be shrunk about the pole .4a: { (K'?fZ)} and the resulting h integraiis
2zl times the rcsidueat thispole.Writing Ar:(l('*Z)l*e
3:e 3(el2(K'*L)l)-3
in powers of
and expanding (h4'-K'-L)
e, the resicluc, belng the coellcient of the term e-1, is seen to be
5 so our integral is
6(2(K,l
Qr1
- $i / 32").1'-1" K'zd
K (K' + L) 6t': (3/ 8i)(r/ 3L)
from
in the
the symmetry
(11a)
$ t J ' ( ; k , ) d ' k ( h - z ) - 3 :( 1 ; o ) r - l
(6a)
That is for -Ir the (1; [d; lo]') is replaced by 1, for "/r by.t", and
lor Jtby h,k".
More complex processes of the first order involve more factors
a corresponding increase in the number
like ((?a-&)'-zf)-rand
Higher
of 4's which nay appear in the numerator, as k"k"k,"'.
ortler processes involving trvo or more virtual quanta involve
instead
similar intcgrais but Eith factors possibly involving A*f
of just &, and the integral extending on h 'zdlhc(h2)ht4d4k'C(k'2).
'l'hey
can be simplified by methods analogous to those used on
the first order integrals.
The factors (p- p1z-roz may be written
(P-k1z--z:Pz-20'U-^'
f o , a " ,n , a , ) a , a v - L ) 4 ( k , - 2 p 1 . k -^ t ) - l
X ( k 2 - 2 P z . k -L r ) t , ( 9 a )
cstablishing (10a).
L)-3:0
We also have fkddtk(HI space. We rvrite these results as
zd4kc(h,)
/' (.Qz- h1t -,,r21-t1(fi 1- k)2 - m2) t.
(5a)
where
Ja;,;i:
/65
.)
'. (13a)
o '6-,:
,,
(14a)
fo'd,r(ar*D(1-r))
h-J,t
(1sa)
respect
with
2\h2-2pth-Lr)'
t,
(l6a)
253
;86
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
-'rite, using(15a),
t
- 2p k - t
2"d.r1lc
k,- 2Ft k - L r)n (H - 2! t. k - t,1-t:
f
".
"1 ",
$, f 0; k,)FC(E)d4k(h'-2p-k)-l
:(rnft+r,n(t#-))
'here
and
!.:rprl(l-r)!z
(a{:
t'
(17a)
a,:ra'111-t;6r,
(1;p,.)2xd$(l),,+^,)t,
(18a)
: -
Lt)a(H-2p,.k-
L2)-2
(19a)
rf *p,p,-|a".(*f
fo' 0t .i
X2r(l
B. Corrections
l,r,))
(20a)
A, Self-Energy
(e'/rlfau(j-k-m)-tarkad.akC(k2),
(22il: -
or performing
- {sil n,n,n-,a'
(k2- 2pI k)-t(H- zp,-k1-'
nc(h2)
f
: fo'!,"!o,!;'dt-4a.,J" avnlx'p,-)+i6"' (2sa)
The integrals on I give,
0 ; {t * r) r
(22a1
(19)
so that it requires that u.e find (using the principle of (8a)) the
integral on I from 0 to tr?of
Qra)
,_r^t",)-,a,nc,,_^^,,"7!,pr7;:r!,
_(sr/(ft
'
to Scatlering
x)dt(fl2-lA,)-'.
rro,
using (4a) to removethe ?p's. This agreeswith Eq. (20) of the text,
and gives the self-energy(21) when f is replacedby z.
B l f 1 0 j h- '" i h- " h , t d 4 h t h , - I ) , \ h , 2 p - k - L ) z
J
: -
I in (19) is
")zutx((l
- x)2m2
| r L) t,
k)-,
$i) f o; k.)d4kk4c(w)(k,-2p.
:..i['tt; rt -rr1,)z
a, n-\",!!:,u!4
*
\t
xrm'
F
z\:4(n2
f' b,.-rdrln(b..rX-,^
-)
. . . . -sin2
. . - t ) - r l t l n ( uI - i ; ' )
Jo ru
l
-Jo atan.da]'
fo'fu,ru-"or:u{-2sin20)-r(!u*?2,),
fo' !,o,P-!undt
(26a)
(27a)
: 0(2m' sin2l)-t(p ul
J'ot orrnl^"p,-,;:tn(|,z/n*)r2(t-0ctng).
(29a)
254
QUANTUM
C. Vacuum Polarization
The exirressions(32) and (32') lor Ju, in the vacuun polarization problem require the calculation of the integral
J,,(.\
: -:i
(32)
x ((l- tq)z- ilP)-t(Q* iq)'- n')-\,
rvhere ne have replacedI by fi'trq to simplify the calculation
somewhat.We shall indicate the method of calculation by studying
the integral,
- n2)-t.
I (,n ) : I p
!(@- rq)'- m')-t(l+rq)z
"p,d'
atd p2!p'q
The factors in the denominator,F-?'q-n'++q2
- mr*tqt are combined as usual by (8a) but for symmetry we
(1-r):{(1-a)
and integrate r; from
substitute ei(*n)'
-1 to+1:
*,'
(30a)
p, p,a' ! (12-,t f ' c - m' I f,q')adn/ 2.
t 6") : f
But the integral on y' will not be lound in our list for it is badly
diversent. Ilowever, as discussedin Section 7, Eq. (32') we do not
We can
wish I(2,) but rather JiilI(m')-I(m'*X')lG(I)dI.
by first calculating the
calculate the difierence l(n2)-I(n2j\2)
derivative f'(m'*L) of I with respect to m2 at m2lL and later
integrating L lrom zero to tr'. By difierentiating (30a), with
respect to 42 find,
where we assume tr2))z? and have put some terms into the arbitrary constant C'which is independent of \' (but in principle could
depend on 4') and which drops out in the integral on G(I)dI. We
have sel q2:41n2 9in20.
In a very similar way the integral with u' in the numerator can
be worked out. It is, of course, necessary to dif{erentiate this z'?
also when calculating I' and 1". There results
- m2)-l
- $l
n a^ pgp- !q)2- nz)-t ((I+ Eq)2
f
: 4n2 (1 - 0 ctnl) - q2/ 3 I 2 (\2 * n2)ln(1" ma + D - C' |)\'),
1
I " (rr" + L) : 3I : r' p ? dn! (.,!'- nI q - n2 - L + L q2)- d11
"
(31a)
+'
- tr6 D-r)d.rt
: - (8ilt
(Lrr2q"q,D-z
f
",
convergesand hasbeen
(whereD: |(a'- 1)q2lnzlL),whichnow
evaluatedby (13a)with/:4nq a\d L:m2+L- 1q'' Now to get
1'we may integrate 1" with respectto t as atr indeinite integral
ttdwe may cltooseany convenientarbi'trart constanl.Thisisbecatse
a constant C in 1' will mean a term -C\2 i\ I(n'z)- I(m2+)\2)
which vanishes since we will integrate the results times G(tr)dr
This meansthat the logarithm appearingon
atrd /i-r,G(\)d^:0.
integrating , in (31a) presentsno problem. We may take
r, (tu + L) : (8il1 f:' l\n q.q,D-'*tt,, rrDfdn* c6.,,
a subsequent integral on Z and finally on 4 presents no new
problems, There results
- @D f
dj prc) - *d' - n')' ((t+ id2 - mz)-L
f "t
4 t n ' z - q ' ( .' d \ , , , \ ' l
- t q 4 q t - r^d t q"' ft tl ' ) itn,ril
3o, \r ,^n011
n-2 + 1)- C']\'),
- @i) (\
f
'I'he
m') (l r w n))
n,) (!z- n,) (f
"* m rnz)(Pt e- ntm)
= (f r. i2I
- lP t Px- nn) (! z'! t- mztn)
* (f t. lr n'mo)(!r !t- mzm), (36a)
Complex
Problems
p - = p .- q
7v
p^ +k
X
/
/1
/
q.
(32a)
(33a)
with another unimportant constant C". The completeproblem requires the further integral,
* d",[(I,*zl)ln(I'
787
ELECTRODYNAMICS
\
\/
/-< \
n.
\
/
/
l.
255
;88
R.
P.
FEYNN,IAN
means that one adds with cqual weight the integrals correspoDding
:-g, to the Compton scattering, and the interaction of a neutron
,.ith an electromagnetic 6eld.
to each topologicaily distinct ligure,
scattering, consider two electrons, one in state
To this same order thcrc arc also the possibilities of Fig. 8d
Ior the Mlller
,: ol momentum ,r and the other in state a2 of momentum .202. which give
-1ter they are found in states a3, p3 and ua, pa. This may happen
:rst orcier in e2/hc) because they exchange a quantum of momen1- h- m)-t11rt)
@/., f @r,(fu- tu- n)-\-yuNp
in the manner of Eq. (4) and lrig. 1.'lhe
:;n q=pr-pz:pa-pz
x(n41!1tr) h-,q-,d!k.
:r3trix element for this process is proportional to (tratrslating (4)
space)
: r momentum
(iqpu2)(hapur)q-'.
(37a)
k-
ei"1,,(p,-
m)-t^1,u,) (uaa,(pz! k-
n)-t\
. h ,(q-
4r,)
h)-,d4k,
(38a)
r.i is clear from the figure and lhe general rule that electrons of
between inter-r -.mentum , contribute in amplitudc (j-z)-1
r::ions .yA, and that quanta of momentum ft contribute &-'z, In
::egrating on d{& and summing over p and /. we add all alterna.es oI th tlpe of Fig.8a. If the time of absorption, ?!, o{ the
.irntum A by electron 2 is later ttran the absorption, a,, of q- k,
being a positron (so
::: corresponcls to the virtual stale fl*k
:t (38a) contains over thirty terms of the conventional method
: analysis).
ir integrating over all thcse alternatives s'e have considered all
::siblc distortions of Fig. 8a which preserve thc ordcr of cvcnts
, ::rg the trajectories. We have not included the possibilities
: ::responding to Fig. 8b, however. Their contribution is
,. ,il
h-m)
@"t,@,-
X (no r(lz*
11uur)
q-
m) tyur)h
k-
,.(
j,
,/
"/
/)^
L l L t ' *))
-/:./
o.
* 7 vll
,/.d . c
-t
b.
c.
/-&
^t
*J
,/
",/"',al
r*
tl
,/
g.
*,
,/
fr
h.
t rQr-
h- m) ter(Jpt+ qt-
h- m)-ts rQpr- k-
m)-17 uh-2dah,
to
(40a)
256
789
O U A N T U IVI E L E CT R O D Y N A M I CS
momentum 11 before the collision to that chalacteristic of an
electron moving in a new direction !z after the collision.
The complete expression for the correction is a very complicated
expression involving transcendental integrals.
As a final example we consider the interaction oI a neutron with
an electromagnetic 6eld in virtue of the fact that the neutron may
emit a virtual negative meson. We choose the example of pseudoscalar mesons rvith pseudovector coupling. The change in amplit) determines
rude due to an electromagnetic 6eld A:aexp(-iq
rhe scattering of a neutron by such a 6eid. In the limit of small g
qa-aq
interaction
of a patwhich
represents
the
as
ir rrill vary
ticle possessing a magnetic moment. The first-order interactiotr
betNeen an electron and a neutron is given b)' the same calculation
b1'consiclering the exchange of a quantum between the electron
and the nucleon. In this case o, is g-' times the malrix element of
7a between the initial and 6nal states of the electron, the states
differing in momentum by g.
The intcraction may occur because the neutron of momentum
,r emits a negative meson becoming a proton which proton interacts with the field and then reabsorbs the meson (Fig. 10a). Thc
matrix for this process is @r:fr*{),
{",n"){I,-
n,-
M)-1(v5h1)(h22X(kz'a*kt
p2)-\
a)(h?-
p2)-\dahy
(42a)
where we have put tr: ftr*9. The change in sign arises because
the virtual meson is negative. Finally there are two terms arising
from the'yoc part of the pseudovector coupling (Figs. 10c, 10d)
J', G^h)Q"-
A- V)-ttv
!a)(h',- F\-'\dth'
(43a)
and
f
G"o)(t,-n-tt)'(7.h)(h2-p2)-1d1h.
('14a)
ilEUTROi
grri
K!'l
"\o:-T4 x9.
\-\\/
,/ 2"
7sh( .
IN,
XESON
k
D
- t -- rkl .I
to
| '/-
val
75\t f
\l
fr, b.
/P"
%-!.fir
%e*Y
'tp
c.
7.9-\
,.-k!
,/,_
' ' - v )!
hd.
P o p e r2 3
Mathematical
Formulation
257
fnteraction
r. INTRODUCTION
258
1'HI]ORY
OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INTERACTION
441
lr
: -L L ((PK('))'z+ k'z(qK('))')
" 2r, ,:t
Lf p L If , LLtf
| !.
Lf r/Ir
I
Lo:!1" m"ri,
(2a)
Lr:D" e"x'".Lt'(x")
L : LLs. I, ((4K(")
)')
)' - [' (qK(d
"
L.:-iL"l^e"e,"/r^".
(2b)
(2c)
(2d)
259
t la
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
ff
) ^ + ( q( , ) e x p i ( S o * S o { . S r )
| | x , , , * G , , ,e
' e"@/){ ( (r t)dx {'dr Ldq('dq I Dr(t) Dq(t)
(7)
I q(t)'y(td,,
(s)
Qu'e^lllt,
(9)
c^":(,^l*vi ilt)ilt)atl,c-)
[
,,
:
I
:
v ^. (t,) e*pi:;l+,-'
'p
ta-td(12'''a-rdqi
"(rlo)dqoa-td.q
(10)
k
t" qo,r'),p^(qo\d
qodq
^*
;
": JI' 'e" ' k ) 1q,, ;
(11)
(12)
, . -^ - ^ I. q)dt
So* Sr:.,1r .(iQ'
1.,q, t
:
t
r f rLA" l-'q' | 1 Qtd I f \lr'? ib?Y'ir
.',|
So lSr:0
l'ttU'1-+@')P)dt
riOl,f *t,(i.f
k1q;, ! " ; qs,t' t : r x1t
t
).
rt u,-.'1,d,)D),(/
The factor following thc expiQ is thc amplitude for a frce oscillator
I and does not thereto proced lfom y:0 at t,:tI Lo !:O at l:l
260
oF
THEoRY
o:
;;r,,,
- nf
INTERACTION
ELECTROMAGNETIC
443
ff
I : 1 i @ ' t | | e x p ( - i o l r - s l ) r ( s ) r ( / ) d s d (r 1 5 )
JJ
*2::
*4
-
!,,'"
[,,'"
,al sina(t-t,)dt
- t)rtt
ta) sina(t"
) [,,"' [,,',
<,lr(s)sino(r"-r)
Xsin,(s-l')dsdr].
c* : *p ( - 1,-,
"
iklr-s])(e,.x'"(r))
exp(^, :Y++ I I e,e^
*,:.*(-_1I:I
Xexp(-iolr-sl h(hft)dds)
t',:iLL
i
ft'
nJ.,
f('
dt I
J,'
d sI e " e ^ e x p ( - i i l f - s l )
,l
x -(,))l
x'"1r))(K'
x t*'"tl' *-trl - P-r16'
. c o s ( K '( x " ( , ) - x - ( s ) ) ) d , K / 8 r ' z h . ( 1 7 )
26r
114
R..P.
FEYNMAN
..r.here
16u,"1"o1
(18)
f
exp(_illli)
I
cos(K.R)d3Kl8r,A
fl"rt"r
R:-iLLl
a
ill
mJ(
f*
dsle,e^
J!
: I
'lO
exp(-ifltl) sin(kr)dk/2rr(22)
exp(-iA*)dA:
lim (-t(.u-ie)-r)
ro
and
: -ir-t
ft"
/":-|I
n
n J (
/'
I atle",^
(20)
-,
I co.(K. R)drKf4#k2 J o
J
& r ) - , s i n ( k r ) d k / r- ( 2 r ) - l
Xl I
r6+(x)
l16(r):
r d3K
| ^
+7"R"
J: - (arr)-t((ltl -/)-1-
(lll +/)-,)
r l(_l r ) _ a ( | r l * r ) )
f (a;z)-'(6
(23)
a(lil f r))
lexp(- ih(r."-r1)cosK.(x,(1")-x^(//)
IJr
r+- r+r,e-(l-x
x
f
I
"(t) ,(s))
Z n m J - 6 J _ 6
X d+((r- s),- (x
"(t)
- 2 exp(-ih(t"-r')) cosK.(x,(l')-"-0',))l
l.
I
e1)
'O,*
obtain the 6nal result, that the total interaction is
just R, in a formal manner starting from the Hamiltonian from
which the longitudinal oscillators have not yet been eliminated.
There are for each K and cos or sin, four oscillators qlK corresponding to the three components of the vector potential (p:1,
2,3) and the scalar potential (p:.1). It must then be assumecl
that the rvave functions of the initial and final state of the K
oscillators is the function (&/z) exp[- ]&(q1sr*c:rr]-qrdqn:rr)f.
The rvave function suggested here has only formal signi6cance,
of course, because the dependence on qng is not square intcgrable,
and cannot be normalized, If cach oscillator were assumed
actually in the ground state, the sign of the q{K term would be
chuged to positive, and the sign of the frequency in the contribution of these oscillators l,ould be rcversed (they l'ould have
negauve energyJ.
r0 The classical action for this problem is just,t2+R'where
R'
is the real part of the expression (24). In view of the generalization
of the Lagrangian formulation of quantum mechanics suggested
in Section 12 of C, one might havc anticipated that n would have
been simply 1l', This corresponcls, horvcver, to boundary condilions othcr rhrn no quanla l)rFscnt in past an'l Iuture. It is
hardcr to intcrpret physiealll. For a systcrn cnclosedin a light
tight box, hot'ever, it appears likely that both R and R'lead to
the same lesults.
262
THEORY
OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INTERACTION
445
can also be evaluated directly in terms of the propagation'kernel K(2, 1) [see I, nq. (Z)] for an electron
m o v i n g i n t h e g i v e np o t e n t i a l .
(2s)
so
r,lexPi'Rlt1'
',)
\x
The term x',.x'1 in the non-relativisticcaseproduces
under tlie action .5, of the particles, excluding inter- an interesting complication which does not have an
action. Expression(24) for R must be considereci
to be analog for the relativistic casewith the Dirac equation.
written in the usual manner as a Riemann sum and the We discussit below, but for a moment consider in
expression(25) interpreted as definedin C [Eq. (39)]. further detail expression (26) but with the factor
(1-x'".x') replacedsimply by unity.
Expression(6) must be used for x'" at time l.
The kernel f(2, 1) is defined and discussedin I.
Expression (25), with (24), then contains all the
effectsof virtual quanta on a (at least non-relativistic) From its definition as the amplitude that the electron
systemaccorclingto quantum electrodynamics.It con- be found at x: at time t2,iI at \ it was at xl, we have
tains the effectsto all ordersin e2/hcin a singleexpresK(xz, tz; x1,t) : (6(x-xr),, | 1 | 6(x-x,),,) I e (27)
sion. If expanded in a power seriesin e2fhc, the various
terms give the expressionsto the correspondingorder that is, more simply K(2, 1) is the sum of exp(rSr) over
obtained by the diagrarns and methods of trI. We all paths which go from space time point 1 to 2.
illustrate this by an examplein the next section.
In the integrations over all paths implied by the
symbol in (26) we can first integrate over all the x;
5. EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION OF EXPRESSION (25)
variables corresponding to times l; from l' to s, not
We shall not be much concerned with the non- inclusive, the result being a factor K(x", s; x,,, l') acrelativistic casehere,as the relativistic casegiven below cording to (27). Next we integrateon the variablesbeis as simple and more interesting.It is, however,very tweens and I not inclusive,giving a factor tri(x1,l; x", s)
similar and at this stageit is worth giving ar.rexample and finally on those between , and i" giving
to show how expressionsresulting from (2.5)are 1o be K(xy', t" ; x1, l). Hence the left-hand term in (26)
interprcted according to the rules of C. For example, excludingthe x'1'x'" factor is
consider the case of a single electron, coordinate x,
either free or in an external given potential (contained -e
a, a'
t")K(xy,,
t, ] x,,t)6+((ts)z
for simplicity in So, not in't R). Its interaction rvith
I I I V*(xy,,
the field producesa reaction back on itself given by R
- ( x , - x " ) ' ? ) . K ( x r , l ; x " , s ) K ( x " ,s x y , t ' )
as in (24) but in which we keep only a single term
;
correspondingto nl:n. Assume the eflect of R to be
Xt(xr, t')d3n,'d\xfi3xd3xy (28)
small and expand exp(ift) as 1*iR. Let us find thc
amplitudc at time l" of finding the electron in a state
ry'rvith no quanta emitted, if at time l' it rvas in thc which in improvcd notation and in the relativistic case
is essentiallythe result given in II.
samestate. It is
We have made use of a special case of a principle
@ t , l I + i R l , l ' ( ) s o : \ { r ' l l l V r ) s e + i ( , ,t , , l R l V) s e
which may be stated more generallyas
where (,y',,,| 1 1ry',,)s,:gvp[- iE(t:'-t)l
if l? is the
( x u , l F 1 * t , \ 1 x 2 , t 2 ; ' ' ' x 7 ,t 6 ) 1 , ! y ) s ,
energyof the state, and
ft"
f/'
, , 1 , ,R
',l,l',)s":-[,'1I dtt
Jr'
J(
J s ( / , .( 1 - x , . x
"r
x.6r,)x(*r,,
t " 1 x 1 , 1 1K) ( x 1 , t . ; x 2 ,t 2 ) .. .
263
116
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
element of
(*"1[,or,,tlat
! v61s1,oo,ir,,)
arising, say, in the crossterm in U and 7 in an ordinary
secondorder perturbation problem (disregarding radiation) with perturbation potential U(x,t)*V(x,t).
In
the integration on s and I which should include the
entire range of time for each, we can split the range of
.r into two parts, s<l and s)1. In the first case,s(1,
rhe potential I/ acts earlier than U, and in the other
range, vice versa, so that
t lr
r
| \
( x,,'lI u(x,,t)dtI v(x",s)dsll,,
)
\
lr
nltt
: I
^t
at I as I yx(xy,)K(xy,,
t,,;x1,t)
J!'
Jr
ii
X[4(x;+'-x)*](x;-x;-1)l.B(x;,
+ |
J(
f{'
dt I
JI
(31)
(32)
xH)
. K(x", s x y, t'
;
)tlt (x y) d.3xy, d|x sdax dsxy
ft"
r).
l/1
td\
i |xt/
/ lr
r
| \
( x , , , 1| x ' ( t ) ' A 1 x ( t ) , |t )*d' (t ' ) . 8 ( * G');,a ' l / , , )
\
lJ
arising say, in the cross term in A and B in a secondorder perturbation problem for a particle in a perturbing vector potential A(x, l)*B(x, t). The time
integrals must first be written as Riemannian sums, the
velocity (see (6)) being replacedby x':|e-I(x;..1-x;)
so that we ask for the transition
*ie-r(x;-x;-r)
d\
r).- I
- | . -.8(x,, s)+-B(x,,
2m\i
6x"
0x"/
"trl,
t) . B (x(t), t) dt
264
THEORY
OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
i r'"
f
| d / | x * ( x , , . ) K ( x , , ' ,! " i x 6 / ) A ( x 1 /, ) ' B ( x r , r )
.K(t t, t; xr, t'){'(xy)d3x1,,d.3x1d3xy.
(33)
. r y ' ( x ) d 3 x s d 3 x 1 . . . d 3 x(p3 4 )
where for exp(iSr) we have written Oo, that is more
precisely,
(Do: fI;,4-r expiS(x;a1,x).
As discussed in C this form is related to the usual
form of quantum mechanics through the observation
that
n-t
"xp[4"!(x;a1,
x)]
447
(or 4trX4il if we deal with ly' electrons) but the expression (34) with (36) is still correct (as it is in fact for
any quantum-mechanical system with a suftciently
general definition of the coordinate x). The product
(36) now involves operators, the order in which the
factors are to be taken is the order in which the terms
appear in time,
For a Dirac particle in a vector and scalar potential
(times the electron charge e) A(x, ,), Aa(x, t), the
quantity (xr+r I x').(1) is related to that of a free particle
to the first order in e as
(x;11j x).cir : (yr+r I x;).tor expl- i(eA ag., t ;)
_ (x;a1_x;). A(x;, t;))f. (37)
This can be verified directly by substitution into the
Dirac equation.r3It neglects the variation of A and ,4a
with time and space during the short interval e. This
produces errors only of order e?in the Dirac case for
the expected square velocity (x;a1-x;)2/e2 during the
interval e is finite (equaling the square of the velocity
of light) rather than being of order l/e as in the nonrelativistic case, fThis makes the relativistic case
somewhat simpler in that it is not necessaryto define
the velocity as carefully as in (6); (x;11-x)/e is
sufficiently exact, and no term analogousto (33) arises.]
Thus iDo{erdiffers from that for a free particle, iDrto),
b y a f a c t o r I I r e x p - i ( e , 4 r ( x ; ,l ) - ( x ; 1 1 - x ; ) . A ( x u , l ) )
which in the limit can be written as
(fl
expl- r I lA ^(x(t),4-x'0).A(x(r),
Dldr| (38)
l.tl
(x;11 | x).:
INTERACTION
(3s)
(3s).
Qr,lexpiRlg"):
xfl(o",
-;;fiiJ*tiu"ly,.ote
. . . d|x,'@)
d3xt"- c@)
"(0)d3x,,,(n)
'exP(zR)ry'(xt'rtr,
x"(2)' ' ')
(39)
265
4-18
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
There ar:1,
TolB):(xu,l""piPl*r)
(40)
(41)
where
P: -L
^J
/)-x.t"'().8(xt,,(t),t))dt
| [ao1xr,11;,
I Blr,(il(t))iFtil(t)dt
"J
where ra(!):, and i4:1, the other values of p corresponding to space variables. The corresponding amplitude for the same processin the same potential, but
i n c l u d i n ga i l t h e v i r t u a l p h o l o n sw e m a y c a l l ,
T"zln):|r",1"o(iR)
exp(iP)lt!v).
(42)
::ii:hli*tl
ll,*i:?I',:*;;';i::?!;dr"ztBt/d(e'?1:(.''l-;++
I.fd,,,,u'"'1,;*u'''
(43)
a,tpQ)
6a
@"h)(t)- " ",,)
e.r;tn+rtl*,,)(44)
where r". r is the field point at which the derivative with
respect to Bu is takenrs and the term (current density)
-L" I dti F(")(t)Ba(x"t"t
(t) - x". 1) is just 6P/ 68 FG).
The function 6a(x.t"t-*",t7 means 6(rr{"r-rr,t,
la In changing thc charge e2 u'e meao to vary only the degree
to which virtual photons arc important. We do not contemplate
changes in the influcnce of the external potentials. If one wishes,
as e is raised the strength of the potential is dccreased proportimes the charge e, is held
tionally so that -Bs, the potential
consran[.
16The functional derivative is defined such that if ?[B]
is a
number depending on the functions Bu(1), the 6rst order variation
in ? produced by a change from Bp Lo Bp+ABF is given by
68p(1))LBy(r)dt1
rlB + ^Bf- rlB):
J GrlBl/
r*r.
overall four-space
tie integralextending
266
THEORY
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
/lrr
: -( xr,lLL I d/ | dsi!(n(t)i,(-)(s)
\
I"-J
. an6.a:t(t)- x",r)64(n:r(")
(s)-#p, t
xe*p;(n+P)
lP,,).
tf
Comparison of this with (43) shows that
ff
: i;
68 68
dr "zlBl/d(e'z)
J J G'zr"zlaf/ Fg) FQ))
X6+(sn2)d.rdrz
(45)
INTERACTION
449
267
150
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
(46)
The evaluation of 6lFft]1, directly from the dedni:ion of the operation ol lo is not necessary. We can
dve the result in another way. We first note that the
lperation is linear,
,lpldll,:J,+ f ,e)nlA,(\lndr1
I
+
I
r
r
\l
l - i A N @e x p\ ( - ir t j " 0 ) A " ( r ) d/ l,o, l l
ol
: - ir'
ff
(s0)
J J f,,0,2)olAFQ)A"(2)lsdrd'r2r-"'
6a(qa2)j,(l)dr a
(s1)
x""v(- +;", i.rtli,rrlu.au,)d,d,,).
[ [
Settingj,:Q
giv".
oI -4,(3)I o: 0.
Differentiating (51) again with respectto j,(4) and
settingT,:0 shows
. "*v(-;I irrt)Are)d,,)|,
ie25p"6+(su2)
ol A J3)A
"(4)l o:
(s2)
="-n(-+;e
(48)3iod;ilJ,Tl"l;ti:m5f;;"*:::;i:T
;,ffi1j:
J J.iue)j,(2)6agn)d,Ld,,)
/
^-r^^
/f\
16[8]:exp( -i t jp(r)Bp(l)drrl
(s3)
\J/
*ol-,I i "otu"(t)
d,,f.(s4)
., r.,",,,.,,
J
Jt\r)AF\L)arr
+ | | f,"(1,2)A/r)A"(2)drtd,,*...
JJ
differential equation (45) is linear, if Z0[B] is a superposition of exponentials, the corresponding superposition of solutions (54) is also a solution.
268
THEORY
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
{+J I
INTERACTION
(ss)
s(X,Y):L-I,"G^"X^Y"(m!nt)-t
xexpl[oqo'-
(2a)tqo)'f
and
n!
tnl
-' (n-r)''rl (n-r)lrr'
xrtUB*)*-.(iil"-' (s7)
where Goois given in (14) and
?'
rQ)exv?i,t)dt'
B:Q,1-t I
"
"
f'
0*:(2a)-,r tIt
(58)
u'
t(t) exp(+irt1a4
269
452
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
f'
exp(-iftl)
J,,
Xexp(lK.x"(t))e . x.
(Ss)
"(t)dt
in the transition element (25). The density of states in
momentum space is now (2T)-3d3K. The amplitude
for emission is just I times the complex conjugate of
K.x))
(ar"zln)/aB,())AnPH(r)dr1
(60)
J J
( a ,r a t n ) / 6B , ( t ) 6B , ( 2 \ \A p pHt ( 1 )A , pH ,( 2 )d r L dr z ,
270
THEORY
453
INTERACTION
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
expi,ls (x, a t e) f
APPENDD( A. THE I(IEIN-GORDON EQUATION
(3A)
' c(x', u)dart(2ti'e)-l(- 2tt)J
In this Appendixwe describca formulationof tlte equations
:
d
t
dt i
dx,'
dxz'
rules
(r*
/
the
(r"
x
X'
obtain
firsl
used
to
rr')
\,.
was
(rrr"')' means
r'
where
foia particleof spinzerowhich
"'
ue ''
siven'inII for suchparticles.The completephysicalsignificance and the sign of the normalizing factor- is changed tor ln lrs
hasnot beenanalyzedthoroughlyso that it may component since the component bas the reversed slgn
3i theequations
our
be orefeiableto deriveIhe rulesdirectlyfrom the secondquantr- ou"irutia coe{hcientin the exponential, in accordancewith
otl* for-ulatioo of PautiandWeiskopf'This canbe donein a Jummation convention atbt= atbt- stbr- azbr-c#r' nquation
-nnn". nnttogou*to tle derivationof the rulesfor the Dirac iiA), * *n b" u"tified reaiily as describedin C, Sec' 6, is equivaformulatiod i.nt'io At.t ota.t in , to Eq. (2A). Hence, by repeateduse of this
eiu"n-inI or fromtheSchwinger-Tomonaga
rB
"ooniion
equation the wave function at 40:l can be representedln terms
in'a mannerdescribed,for example,by Rohrlich The formulation
qiven here is tberelore not necessaryior a descrlpuon or sprn of that at z:0 bY:
iero oarticlesbut is givenonly for its own interestasan alternatrve
r ^-- t.3 f/"":--""r)'
e\x".",u\):Jexp-Zlrl\-.,/
to the formulation of secondquantization'
We start with the Klein-Gordon equation
(1.A')
(i'd/aq-Ap)2'!'-m2,
+ e-r(r h i- r h i -) (Ar(a) +'ar(''-') )]
for the wave function ,y'of a particle of massz in a given external
ootential,4u.We shall (ry to renresenlthis in a manneranalogous
io the fotniulation of quanlum mechanicsin C' That is, we try
point.to
io ,"nr.r"nt the amplitudefor a particle to get from-on
^.otb". as a sum over all trajectories of an amplitude exp(tJ)
*i"i" S it the classicalaction lor a given lrajectory' To maintain
the relativisticinvariancein evidencethe idea suggestsrtselt.ot
d.t..ibing a trajectory in space-timeby giving the-four variables
,,ir) ut fin.tiont of somefrfth parameterr (rather than expressing
which
tl)"r, ,r i" lerms of J{). As we expect to rePresentpaths
iltemselvesin time (to representpair production'
-lu-t"t"o"
u. i" I) this is certainly a more convenientrepresentation'
"i..
ru(u) may be consideredas functions of a
iot-'"ii lout'tu".ti""s
.ter u (somewhat analogousto proper time) which increase
iira
i. *" go utong th" trajectory, whether the trajectory is prueeding
t*i"ia
ta"^ia">U or bactward (drq/du<0) in time'Ie We shall
rs F. Rohrlich (to be Published).
i
,^':*:flF$i'i,tml:"J;:!"it"'*:$i:,:Jl:i:'1,":18!'.'iTf
L';
:'iT:
Hii:tif'f
f::il'ii;:'l^z:rt::
;?:l'ilt,i,:yB("|
(1e37).
(7A)
271
154
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
:
-
f
f-,
.J o
,,
" u o,
" i)-1
. . _ , exp - t i ( n2 u o* u o- | (r
d u s(4 n2
r-
x r' 12) (8 A)
@ rP u o'i)
-'
pr2)
- i
] : orc) [r (u)) e\p
I"'
(9 A)
f"'duk<ot
- = ;. p . A * A . n ) .
for the case of no photons in the initial and final states, in the
prcsence of an external potential Br, the amplitudc that a particle
proceeds from (t',0)
to (tr,us) is dre sum over all trajectories
of the quantity
"*
i?L""'"'(L#)'o*+>!^'"'d"rl"'nu@,<*t(u))du
a
- .-.'t n t - . 6 ' d x y t ^ ( u \ d r y t . \ ( i l t )
latl
l
z ^nvr
du
du'
(u) - srt^: (z/)),)dudu',
X 6l(rr("t
where rr(")(z) are the coordinates
particle.z
The
solution should
(11 A)
exp(- |irn22 , ao{")) Actually, knorvledge of the motion of a single chargc implies a
great deal about the behavior of several charges. lor a pair
which eventually may turn out to be a virtual pair may appear
in the short run as two "other particles." As a virtual pair, that
is, as the leve6e scction of a very long and complicated single
track we know its behavior by (10A). We can assume that such a
section can be looked at equally well, for a limitcd duration at
least, as being due to other unconnected particles. This thcn
implies a dehnite law of interaction of particles if the self-action
(10A) of a single particle is known. (This is similar to the relation
of real and virtual photon processesdiscusseclin detail in Appendix
B.) It is possible that a detailed analysis of this could show that
(10A) implicd that (11A) was correct for many particles. Thcre
is even reason to believe that the lalv of Bose-Einstein statistics
and the expression for contributions from closerl loops could be
deduced by iollorving this argumcnt. This has not yet been
analyzed completely, however, so we must leave this formulation
in an incomplete form. The expression for closed loops should
come out to be C,:exp*Z
where Z, the contribution from a
2 T h e f o r m ( 1 0 A ) s u g g c s t sa n o l h e r i n r c r e s t i n q p o s s i L i l i t y f o r
avoirling the divcrgences oI qucntum clcctro,lynrmies in 'his
case. The divergences arise from the 6+ function wlrco u:u',
We might rcslrict the intcgration in the doul,le inlegral such that
qhere 6 is some finite quantily, very small comprrcd
lu-u'l>6
with m 2. More generally, rve could keep the rcgion u:u'
lrom
contributing by including in the integrand a factor F(u-u')
(e.g.,
where I(r)+1
for r large compared to some 6, and I(0):0
(Another way might
F(r) acts qualitatively like 1-exp(-e?6-,).
be to replace a by a discontinuous variable, that is, we do not
use the limit in (4,4) as e+0 but set c:6.) The idea is that two
interactions would contribute verv little in amnlitude if thev
followed onc anolhcr too rapidly in r. It is eesily veri6ed rhit
this makes the otherwise divergent integrals finite. But whethcr
the resulting formulas make good physicai sense is hard to scc.
The action of a potential rvould now rlepend on the value of a so
that Eq. (2A), or its equivalcnt, woulcl nol be separab'e in a so
that ]rz'woulcl no ionger lrc a strict eigcnvalue for all disturbanccs.
High energy potentials coulcl excite states corresponding to other
eigenvalues, possibly thercby corresponding to othcr masses. This
note is mcant only as a sDcculation, lor not enough work has
been done in this dircclion to makc sure that a reasonable physical
theory can be developed along these lincs. (What little rvork has
been c.lonervas not promising.) Analogous modifications can also
be made for Dirac electrons,
272
THEORY
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
singleloop,is
L: 2
J
"where l(ao) is the sum over all trajectories which close on themselves(r,(zo):*r(0)) of exp(zJ) with S given in (5A), and a
final integntion dt.67 ot rp(O) is made. This is cquivalent to
puttrng
(r, uo; r, 0) - k@(x, uo; r, o))dr'
t{uo):
f &<At
The term l(0) is subtracted only to simplify convergenceproblems
(as adding a constant independentof Ap Lo L has no elTect).
APPENDIX
INTERACTION
455
273
+56
R. P. FEYNMAN
C. DIFFERENTIAL EQSATION
ELECTRON PROPAGATION
F'OR
274
457
but,p.2 is the amplitude at a given instant that there happens
to be tro photons prcscnt. As we have sccn' a complete knowledge
of this functional rvill also tell us the amplitude that the electron
arrives at r and therc is just one photon, of form lrPH(1) present'
r) / 6B u$)) A pPIt (l) dn.
It is, f rom (60), I $,b
"218,
Higher numbers of photons corrcspond to higher functional
derivatives of Q.z. Thcreforc, 6,21]),r) contains all the inform&tion requisite for dcscribing the state of the electron-photon
sl stem, and we may cxPect to frnd a dillcrential equation for it.
Aciually ii. satisfies (V:7udl<1su, B:yuB),
( iv - n) Q,zlB, x):
B (r) o
"zlB,
xl
(iv-nr-B(t))o"zlB
' t)
- i*1,J'a ' rs,r'rla<',zlB, rf/
68t!\drr
in
for f.z[B]
also selisfics Eq. (45) by sul,stitu-ring-C.zfB..rl
sutisfics ('15).IIcnce if
r45) and usinc the lxct thxl 6"zfB,xl
also change for at the first position r we may have had a photor
that it was emitted &t another point 1 is
present (amplitude
6O.2/68r(1)t which was absorbed at r (amplitude photon released
at 1 gets to , is 6+(i,r2) where s,r2 is the squated invariant distance
Efiects
from I to r) acting as a vector Potential there (factor
"ts).
of vacuum polarizrtion are lcft out.
Expansion of the solution of (1C) in a pouer serics in B and d
starting from a free particle solution for a single electron, produces
a series of terms rvhich agree with the rules of II for action of
potentials and virtual photons to various ordcrs, It is another
matter to use such an equation for the practical solution of- a
problem to all ordcrs in d. It might be possible to represent the
ielf-energy problem as the variational problem for u, stemming
from (1C). The 6a will first have to be modifred to obtain a
convergent result.
We ire not in need of the general solution of (1C). (In fact,
r]
we have it in (46), (a8) in termi of the solution folts]:oL[B,
of the ordinary Dirac equation (iv-m)aofB,rf:BaolB',).
knowledge
for
complete
The general solution is too complicated,
of the motion of a self-acting electron in an arbitrary potential is
essentially all of electrodynamics (because of the kiod of relation
of real and virtual processes discussed for photons in Appendix B,
extended also to real and virtual pairs). Furthermore, it is easy
to see that other quantities also satisfy (1C). Consider a system
of many electrons, and single out some one for consideration,
supposing all the others go from some definite initial state i to
some definite frnal state /. Lel Q"zlB, tl be the amplitude that
the special electron arrives at t, thcre are no photons present'
and the other electrons go from i to / whcn there is an external
potential Bu present (which B! also acts on the other electrons)Then o"2 aiso satisfies (1C). Likewise the amplitude with closed
loops (all other electrons go vacuum to vacuum) also stislies
effects. The various
(1C) inclucling all vacuum polarization
problems correspond to different assumptions as to the d-ependence
of *"zlB, xf on B, in the limit of zero d. The Eq. (1C) without
Iurthei boundary conditions is probably too general to be useful'
Poper 24
275
I. INTRODUCTION
disI S a resultof the recentand independent
I I coveries of Tomonaga,l Schwinger,2and
Feynman,s the subject of quantum electrodynamics has made two very notable advances.On
the one hand, both the foundations and the
applicationsof the theory have been simplified
by being presentedin a completely relativistic
way; on the other, the divergence difficulties
have been at least partially overcome. In the
reports so far published,emphasishas naturally
been placed on the second of these advances;
the magnitude of the first has been somewhat
obscuredby the fact that the new methods have
been applied to problems which were beyond
the range of the older theories, so that the simplicity of the methods was hidden by the complexity of the problems. Furthermore, the theory
of Feynman differs so profoundly in its formulation from that of Tomonaga and Schwinger, and
so little of it has been published, that its particular advantages have not hitherto been available to users of the other formulations. The
advantagesof the Feynman theory are simplicity
I Sin-itiro Tomonaga, Prog. Theoret. Phys. 1, 27 (1946);
Koba, Tati, and Tomonaga, Prog. Theoret. Phys. 2, 1di
198 (1947); S. Kaneswa aid S. T-omonaga, Prog. Theoret.
Phys- 3, 1, 101 (1948); S. Tomonaga, Phys. Rev.74,224
(1e48).
'Julian Schwinger,
Phys.Rev.73,416 (1948);Pbvs.
'I
and easeof application, while those of omonagaSchwinger are generality :rnd theoretical completeness.
The present paper aims to show how the
Schwinger theory can be applied to specific
problems in such a way as to incorporate the
ideas of Feynman. To make the paper reasonably
self-contained it is necessary to outline the
foundations of the theory, following the method
of Tomonaga; but this paper is not intended as a
substitute for the complete account of the theory
shortly to be published by Schwinger. Here thc
emphasis will be on the application of the theory,
and the major theoretical problems of gaugeinvariance and of the divergencies will not be
considered in detail. The main results of the
paper will be general formulas from which the
radiative reactions on the motions of electrons
can be calculated, treating the radiation interaction as a small perturbation, to any desired
order of approximation. These formulas will be
expressed in Schwinger's notation, but are in
substance identical with results given previously
by Feynman. The contribution of the present
paper is thus intended to be twofold: first, to
simplify the Schwinger theory for the benefit of
those using it for calculations, and second, to
demonstrate the equivalence of the various
theories within their common domain of applicability.*
* After this paper was written, the author was shown 2
letter, published in Prosress of Theoretiel Physics 3, 295
(1948)'bv Z. Koba anii G. Takeda. The letter is dated
'ivlav
22.i948, and brieflv describesa method of treatment
of ridiative problems, similar to the method of this paper.
486
276
487
RADIATION
I H(r)drlan,
(2)
THEORIES
I t(r)H(r)dr loo,
(3)
-o(a)f/v
277
F , J , D YSON
field qqantities at. any given point of space are
independent of time." This statement is plainly
non-relativistic, and so (4) is, in spite of appearances,a non-relativistic equation.
The simplest way to introduce a new state
vector V which shall be a relativistic invariant is
to require that the statement "a system has a
constant state vector V" shall mean "a system
consists of photons, electrons, and positrons,
traveling freely through space without interaction or external disturbance." For this purpose,let
f/(r):rI (r)f/fi(r),
(s)
where IIs is the energy-density of the free electromagnetic and electron fields, and Ii is that of
their interaction with each other and with any
external disturbing forces that may be present.
A system with constant V is, then, one whose f1r
is identically zero;by (3) such a system coriesponds to a iD of the form
o(c):71n;qo,
488
I n,@)a"
(7)
(r(o))-rfl(r)I(c)v.
(8)
vI
ol
[^ r,{*)o*,!- ,,{*)o*
are denoted integrals over the whole volume to
the past of aoand to the future of o0,respectively.
Consider the operator
Lt: u(od :l
/r'o\
1 -li/hcl
\
./"r
H,(x)dx I
/
v(o): Y1"1Eo'
rvith Vo any constant vector'
(r2)
278
489
RADIATION
(10) in
ascending
(- i / hc)'z
THEORIES
small perturbation as was done in the last section.
Instead, I1i alone is treated as a perturbation,
the aim being to eliminate -FIi but to leave H" in
its original place in the equation of motion of
the system.
Operators S(o) and S(o) are defined by replacing Ht by Ht in the definitions of [/(o) and
I/(o). Thus S(o) satisfies the equation
.... (13)
,,(*,)r,(*,)o*,t
" I__*,f'*"
ihclaS/ao(xs)f:.Hr(tro)S.
(i/hc),
u-1: O: r+61n4 u$xt)d.rt1.
J^
" I_":., I*"
(17)
v(o) :51";s1")'
. .. (r4)
Ht(xz)Ht@)dxz*.
H{xs):71t1*i*H"(xi,
(15)
Hi(xs):-lt/cfj,(xs)A,(xo),
(16)
(18)
Bv (9), (15), (17), and (18) the equation of motion for O(o) is
ihcl\o/ ac(x)l:
(S(o))-'Ir"(ro)S(o)o.
(19)
(S(o))-'H'(ro)S(a)'
(20)
279
F.
J.
DYSON
490
:
rrr(xo): rri(xi t 1's(so)
!"u*)lrr* r r* . (22)
", ",
280
491
RA D I ATIO N THEORIES
(23)
" I_:.,[__"i
['
n, 6,1d.x1t(-i/ hc),
p,1x,1H,q*)d.xz*.
. ., (24)
satisfactory
agreement with experimental
results. In this paper the development of the
Schwinger theory will be carried no further;
in principle the radiative
corrections to the
equations of motion of electrons could be calculated to any desired order of approximation from
formula (25).
In the Feynman theory the basic principle is
to preserve symmetry between past and future.
Therefore, the matrix elements of the operator
H7 are evaluated in a "mixed representation;"
the matrix elements are calculated between.an
initial state specified by its state vector O1 and
a final state specified by its state vector O2'.
The matrix element of 1{r between two such
states in the Schwinger representation is
(26)
f'
Hl(r)dx*(-i/hc),
Ja
f"
drr
,,d
x I
Hr(xz)Hl(xld.x,f.' .. (28)
"o(r)
The physical meaning of a mixed representation of this type is not at all recondite. In fact,
@
a mixed representation is normally used to defo('d
f'(rr)
Hr@o):D Q/nQ"I
dx, I
dx,. . .
scribe such a process as bremsstrahlung of an
u-0
.t _d
.J _6
electron in the field of a nucleus when the Born
ro(xn-r)
approximation is not valid; the process of
dx*XIHI(x^), 7'.., IHI(xz),
X I
bremsstrahlung is a radiative transition of the
(2s) electron from a state described by a Coulomb
IHI(ry\, }1"(ro)ll...ll.
wave function, with a plane ingoing and a spheriThe repeated commutators in this formula are cal outgoing wave, to a state described by a
characteristic of the Schwinger theory, and their Coulomb wave function with a spherical ingoing
evaluation gives rise to long and rather difficult and a plane outgoing wave. The initial and final
analysis. Uslng the first three terms of the series, states here belong to different orthogonal systems
Schwinger was able to calculate the second-order of wave functions, and so the transition matrix
radiative corrections to the equations of motion elements are calculated in a mixed representaof an electron in an external field, and obtained tion. In the Feynman theory the situation is
281
F,
J.
analogous; only the roles of the radiation interaction and the external (or Coulomb) field are
interchanged; the radiation interaction is used
instead of the Coulomb lield to modify the state
vectors (wave functions) of the initial and final
states, and the external field instead of the
radiation interaction causes transitions between
these state vectors.
In the Feynman theory there is an additional
simplification. For if matrix elements are being
calculated between two states, either of which
is steady (and this includes all cases so far
considered), the mixed representation reduces to
an ordinary representation. This occurs, for
example, in treating a one-particle problem such
as the radiative correction to the equations of
motion of an electron in an external field; the
operator Hp(xo), although in general it is not
even Hermitian, can in this case be considered
as an effective external potential energy acting
on the particle, in the ordinary sense of the
words.
This section rvill be concluded rvith the derivation of the fundamental formula (31) of the
Feynman theory, which is the analog of formula
(25) of the Schwinger theory. If
F1(rcr),
F"(x")
(2e)
will denote the product of these operators, taken
in the order, reading from right to left, in which
t h e s u r f a c e sd ( x l ) , ' ' . d ( r . ) o c c u r i n t i m e . I n
most applications of this notation F;(r;) rvill
commute with F;(r) so long as .."rrand Jci are
outside each other's light cones; u.'hen this is the
case, it is easy to see that (29) is a function of the
points 11, . ' ., r" only and is independent of the
surfaces o(rr). Consider nou. the integral
t^:I_'-^,..J-"a*-rs"6s,
IfI(x),
H'(x")).
492
DYSOn'
rd(ro)
I^:ntll
i-r
.t _-
?o(
_6
d x , - t . . I.
x I
ttx,
a*,.. 1
J
dx,xlttlx,)"'
ud\x,)
"d(xo)
HI (x;)II"(xo)H'
(.30)
:L,en/r,)"lr/nt
[_'.dx,I:."
XP(H"(xs),
H'(x")).
HI(x),
(31)
J_-
a/-6
282
493
RADIATION
(33)
that is to say, the interaction energy of the electron-positron 6eld with electromagnetic potentials,4.,t(rs) which are given numerical functions
of space and time. Second, matrix elements will
be consideredonly for transitions from a state .4,
in which just one electron and no positron or
photon is present, to another state B of the
same character. These restrictions are not essen.
tial to the theory, and are introduced only for
convenience, in order to illustrate clearly the
principles involved.
The electron-positron field operator may be
written
THEORIES
integral of (31); let it be denoted by P". From
(16), (22), (33), and (37) it is seen that P" is a
sum of products of (n-11) operators {", (n+l)
operators {* and, not more than n operators .A'
multiplied by various numerical factors. By 8i
may be denoted a typical product of factors ry'",
{", and Au, not summed over the indices such
as a and p, so that P" is a sum of terms such as
Q", Then 0" will be of the form (indices omitted)
(xt)''''1, @;)'l' @;
Q" : 0 @d V@to){'(x;),1,
")
XA(xi'..A(xi^), (39)
where do, it, . ' ', do is some permutation of the
integers 0, 1, . . ., n, and ju ' ' ' , i^ are some, but
n in
not necessarily all, of the integers l, "',
some order. Since none of the operators ,y' and
)ry'commute with each other, it is especially impbrtq4t to preserve the order of these factors.
'fector
of Q* is a sum of creation and
Each
operators by virtue of (34), (35)'
annihilatioh
283
F.
J.
"'
DYSON
(41)
D,(x) : -li/2,\
I"
expliax2lrla, (42)
(43)
(44)
ao(r) : -l.i/
2rl
expliax2- i rs2
/4alda. (45)
I,
(46)
The single factors f (rr) and ,!t(x,1,) are conveniently left in the form of operators, since the
matrix elements of these operators for effecting
the transition ,4+B depend on the wave functions of the electron in the states A and B,
Moreover, the order of the factors 'l@r,) and
ry'(r'p) is immaterial since they anticommute
with each other; hence it is permissible to write
P ('{,(x*),*(x,r)) : n(xo,x,r){(xn)!(x,i.
Therefore (46) may be rervritten
M : e' II (*Sr(rr -r'))fJ
,lk
t ;P (* - y),
n: j h c 6u "I D < t a
|
494
with
( l l t c D p ( x "I - x t) )
t
X{(xn),1'(x,r), (47)
e' : ell4(x;,x,;).
i
(48)
284
495
RADIATION
THEORIES
ing section it will be shown how this solution-inprinciple can be reduced to a much simpler and
more practical procedure.
'0@it@,0)...9@){(tc,")
(4e)
'L@o){(xi"'0@){(x"),
(s0)
lines."
Through each point of a graph pass two electron lines, and therefore the electron lines together form one open polygon containing the
vertices rck and'tcth, and possibly a number of
closed polygons as well. The closed polygons will
be called "closed loops," and their number
tn
denoted by L Now the permutation tn, "',
of the integers 0, ' ' ', a is clearly composed of
(l*1)
separate cyclic permutations. A cyclic
permutation is even or odd according to whether
the number of elements in it is odd or even.
Hence the parity of the permutation ro, ''', rn
is the parity of the number of even-number
cycles contained in it. But the parity of the
number of odd-number cycles in it is obviously
the same as the parity of the total number (z* 1)
of elements. The total number of cycles being
(l+ 1), the parity of the number of even-number
Since it was seen earlier that
cycles is (l-a).
the e'of Eq. (47) is determined just by the parity
of the permutation
rs, "',
285
F. J, D YSO N
ment yields the simple formula
496
e,: (- 11t-"
286
RA DIAT I ON THEORIES
497
Suppose,for example, that the line tr in Go with Rr an absolute constant. Therefore the sum
leadsfrom a point rg to the edgeof the diagram. C(f) is in this case just C'(Go), where C'(G6) is
Then C(Go)is an integral containing in the inte- obtained from C(Gs)by the replacement
srand the matrix element of
(s6)
{'(xi+R&(xs).
0"@,)
/c?\
g(x")+Rf,!(xs).
xP('i,"@a),HI(y), . . ., H'(y")).
P(0"@z),,l,p?c))
(s4)
(se)
i"er/nd^lr/n\f'_ay,I-:t"
XP({,
Hr (t),''',
"(x),,1,e@n),
HI (y")), (60)
(61)
By the methods of Section VI, (61) can be expanded as a series of terms of the same charf*
acter as (47) ;'tnis expansion will not be disKi"8(1ti-xt)YB\)d'y;,
Z
I
" : L i J-n
cussedin detail here, but it is easy to seethat it
leads to an expression of the form (61)' with
function
Ki
is
a
fact
is
that
where the important
So'(x) a certain universal function of the 4only of the coordinate differences betrveen y,'
r. It will not be possibleto reduce (61) to
vector
(53),
that
this implids
and *a. By
a numerical multiple of (58), as Z" was in the
(ss) previous case reduced to a multiple of f"' InZ":R"e@)Yp(4),
stead, there may be xpected to be a series exFrom
considerations
with R independent of ra.
pansion of the form
of relativistic invariance, R must be of the form
S"o"(r) : (R:* or(!'z - Koz)
+ a2(a2- Ko2)z
(P,t
6a"Rt(P\ *
) e"Rt(f2) ,
'
'
)
S
r
p
"
(
*
)
*
(
b
t
*
b
z(]'z- x0')+''')
*'
where p2 is the square of the invariant length of
X(7,1d / ax,l- rs)BrSr'1"(r), (62)
the 4-vector p. But since the matrix element
(53) is a solution of the Dirac equation,
p, : -hrro2,
(?n )p"Yp:,ih*oY
",
Z":RtY"Qci,
287
F. J. DYSON
498
L,{- o/r,)"1,
t,nI _'jy,. [_'-or,
X P ( A N Q c a ) ,A , ( , c ) , H I ( t l ,
. . ., t{(y")),
(66)
. .)D r(x).
(67)
288
RADIATION
499
THEORIES
tion phenomenon is described by a change in
the form of this potential from Sr to Sr'. Therein
fore, the phenomenon may be pictured
physical terms as the inducing, by a given
element of Compton-effect density at a given
point, of additional Compton-effect density in
the vacuum around it.
In both sorts of internal vacuum polarization;
the functions De and. Sr, in addition to being
altered in shape, become multiplied by numerical
(and actually divergent) factors Ra and Rr; also
the matrix elements of (31) become multiplied
by numerical factors such as RrRr*. However, it
is believed (this has been verified only for secondorder terms) that all z'th-order matrix elements
of (31) will involve these factors only in the form
of a multiplier
(eR2RJ)";
this statement includes the contributions from
the higher terms of the series' (62) and (67).
Here a is defined as the constant occurring in
the fundamental interaction (16) bV virtue of
(37). Now the only possible experimental determination of e is by means of measurements of
the effects described by various matrix elements
of (31), and so the directly measured quantity
is not e but aRrRrl. Therefore, in practice the
letter a is used to denote this measured quantity,
and the multipliers R no longer appear explicitly
in the matrix elements of (31) ; the change in
the meaning of the letter e is called "charge
renormalization," and is essential if e is to be
identified with the observed electronic charge.
As a result of the renormalization, the divergent
coefficients Rt, Rr, and Ra in (56), (57), (62)'
and (67) are to be replaced by unity, and the
higher coefficients o, b, and c by expressions involving only the renormalized charge e.
The external vacuum polarization induced by
the potential /u" is, physically speaking, only a
special case of the first sort of internal polarization; it can be treated in a precisely similar
manner. Graphs describing external polarization
effects are those with an "externai polarization
part," namely, a part including the point rcq
and connected with the rest of the graph by
only a single photon line. Such a.graph is to be
"reduced" by omitting the polarization part
entirely
and renaming
with
289
F,
J.
500
DYSON
(68)
in a sequel to the present paper a similar evaluation of the function Srf; the analysis involved is
too complicated to be summarized here.
IX. SUMMARY OF RESULTS
In this section the results of the preceding
pages will be summarized, so far as they relate
to the performance of practical calculations. In
effect, this summary will consist of a set of rules
for the application of the Feynman radiation
theory to a certain class of problems.
Suppose an electron to be moving in an external field with interaction energy given by
(33). Then the interaction energy to be used in
calculating the motion of the electron, including
radiative corrections of all orders' is
:L,t-o/ra,u/nt[_'.a*,
I_:."
XP(H"(xi,
Hc(x), "',
Ht(x")),
(70)
290
RADIATION
501
THEORIES
(7r)
llrc6u,Dr' (x !) ,
tS'ra"@-Y)
-la/l5rxn')A'A
u"7*)
u"@)
(73)
RADIATIVE
-lt/cfj,(xo)A,"(xi.
g4)
r*
r"
r'(r0).
Jr: ietI dxt I dxrPr.0"(xo)(v^)"p/r(ro)l
J-a
.t-6
&,(x')(t ) 'tL{x)A p(x),
Q"@,)0 ) <{ r (x,)A " (x,)).
Next, all admissable graphs u'ith the three
fi2 are to be drarvn. It is easy to
vertices :tn,'"$1,
see that there are only two such graphs, that G
shown in Fig. 1, and the identical graph with lu1
and rg interchanged. The full lines are electron
lines,the dotted line a photon line. The contribution K(G) is obtained from Jz by substituting
accordingto the rules of Section IX; in this case
l:0, and the primes can be omitted from (71)'
(72), (73) since only second-orderterms are required. The integrand in K(G) can be reassembledinto the form of a matrix product,
suppressingthe suffixesot, "', (. Then, multiplying by a factor 2 to allow for the secondgraph,
the complete second-ordercorrection to (74)
arising from Jz becomes
r(x,-xz)A,"(xo)
L: - iles/vhcl
!1.' I-!.,D
@)'
x{(r,)r,Sr(ro - x )t,S r (xz * o1r,9
A'
Uehling,
(1935);
E'
49
a8,
Rev.
Phys.
RJJS"rb"r,
Phys.Rev.48,55(1935).
-l
29r
F.
J.
24r (1947).
and R. C. Retherford,
DYSON
502
292
P o p e r2 5
I. INTRODUCTION
probrems'5
scattering
t* t:^1:::^:'method
evaru-[::i:,lliJi,-lilitr",tT.it"u"tL".1,lt'"Tii"T."liiT;
lF
Dvson, Phvs Rev T5'486 (1949)'
J'
2 S i n - l r i r o T o m o n a g a , P r o g . T h e o r . P h v . . l , 2 7 ( 1 9 1 6 ) ; cnite; to verify this, it will be necessary ro repear
li
the analysis of the present paper, keeping all the
Koba, Tati, and lo-monaga] Prog. fhe6r. pil..
z, loi
(1947) qnd 2,-198 (1947); S. Kanesawa^and.S.-Tomon_aga, time closer to the original Schrvinger
theory than
P r o g . T h e o r . P h y s . 3 , 1 ( 1 9 4 8 )a n d 3 , i 0 1 ( 1 9 4 8 ) ;S i n - I t i r o
Tomonaga, Phvs,Rev. 74,224 Qa-48);Ito, Koba, and ro(1946); Nature, I53, 143 (1944); phys. soc. cambridge coomonaga, Prog. Them, Phys. 3, 276 (1918); Z. Koba and ference Report, 199 (19+i); E. C. C. Stueckeiberg-and D.
S.-Tomonaga,Prog. Theor. Phys.3, 290 (1948).
Rivier, Phys. Rev. 74, 218 (1948). Stueckelbergan'ticipatecl
. I J-qlia3. Sg!,Ilngql, Phys. Rev. 73' 416 (194$; 7a, 1439 seyeral feaiures of the Feynman tireory, in partiiular the use
(194-8);75,_651(1949).
of the function Dr (in Sru;ckelberg'snotutioi pc) to represent
a Richard P."Feynman, Phys. Rev. 7.4,1430 (1948).
retarded (i.e., causally transnriried) electronagnetii inter6The idea of using standard elecLrodynamicsas a- starting actions. For a revierv-of the earliei part
of this work, see
point for an explicit calculation of the S matrix has been Gresor Wentzel, Rev. N,Iod.Phvs. l9'. 1 (1947). The use of
previously_developed
by Q Q. G.S!reckelberg, Helv. Phys. masi renormalizationin scaLteringp.oble-" is due to H. W
A c t a , 1 4 , 5 1 ( 1 9 a 1 ) ; 1 7 , 3 ( 1 9 4 1 ) ; 1 8 , 1 9 5 ( 1 9 4 5 ) ; 1 9 , 2 4 2 L e w i s ,p h y s . R e v 7 3 , 1 7 3 ( 1 9 4 8 ) l
l 73 6
293
r737
NIATRIX
IN
QUANTUM
ELECTRODYNAMICS
HI(x)*II"(x)
(s)
(1)
Q)
held, where Vr and Vz were the asymptotic forms
of the ingoing and outgoing parts.of a wave function
V in the V-representation of I (the "interaction
representation" of Schwinger3). Now the timeindependent wave function V' corresponds to a
t i m e - d e p e n d e n tw a v e f u n c t i o n
expl(-i/h)Etlv'
in the Schrodinger representation, where -E is the
tbtal energy of the state; and this correspondsto a
wave function in the interaction representation
v:expl(li/h)l(110-E)lv',
(3)
u@:Ea *l_'.*,[_'^d""
xP(I1r(rr), . . ', n'@")). (4)
"
ur4: ^t:,
.t,(;)* o I_-*,
f-
x I
I
(6)
Ur:Gi/hc) |
Hr!)dx,
A)
J.*
294
F.
J.
(8)
U(*):
*loJ^
1738
DYSON
(9)
tsra"@-Y),
(10)
(11)
295
1739
MATRIX
IN
QUANTUM
ELECTRODYNAMICS
(14)
(15)
296
F.
J.
7740
DYSON
(20)
*ol6*((pu')rl *or')
(22)
(2i)
to each vertex of G;
(t) u zu operator, surviving from Eq. (8), corresponding to each vertex of G at whic.h there is a
,, @):
(16) photon line.
e-- u'.a*(pz)d.p,
* f
The important feature of the above analysis is
that all the constituents ol M are now localized and
t?
associatedwith individual lines and vertices in the
S"(r) :rof
| e-'',,,llipuy,graph G. It therefore becomes possible in an
4rr J
or
X6*(p2! xn2)dp, (17) unambiguous manner to speak of "adding"
"subtracting" certain groups of factors in M, when
where 16 is the electron reciprocal Compton wave- G is modified bv the addition or subtraction of certain lines and vertices. As an example of this
length,
p2:pppt:ptr+pz2+pt2_p02,
( 1 9 ) method of analysis, we shall briefly discuss the
treatment in the S matrix formalism of the "Lamb
and the 6a function is defined by
shift" and associatedphenomena.
Suppose that a graph G, ol any degree of com11r^
plication, has a vertex rr at which two electron
k
'
d
z
.
an(a) .,ra(a){^-:(
1
9
)
| e
lines and a photon line meet. These three lines may
ZTIA
ZT J n
be either internal or external, and the momentum
S u b s t i t u t i n g f r o m ( 1 6 ) a n d ( 1 7 ) i n t o M w i l l 4 vectors associated with them in M may be either
introduce an F-fold integral over momentum space. pi or kil these 4 vectors are denoted by tt, t2, t3 as
Corresponding to each internal line of G, there will indicated in Fig. 1. The factors in the integrand of
297
S
I t4l
MATRIX
iN
QUANTUM
-Lpo1'l I lap,ap,ap'
NC
JJJ
n(*'i4
i4,tt, - *o)n
I dpltx(*i(po*tot)to-
ELECTRODYNAMICS
xit,
x(+i(p"+t,'h, - ro)yrl
x d+((P+t)'+*o')
Ko')6+(2).Q6)
X6+((P+t'z)'z+
Here o is the fine-structure constant, (e2/4rhc) in
Heaviside units. The operator Zu can without great
difficulty be calculated explicitly as a function of
the 4 vectors t\ and t2, by methods developed by
Feynman.
In the special case when Fig. 1 represents the
graph G in its entirety, M is a matrix element for the
scattering of a single electron by an external potential. Figure 2 then represents G'in its entirety, and
M' is a second-order radiative correction to the
scattering of the electron. In this case then the
operator Lu gives rise to what may be called "Lamb
shift and associated phenomena." However, the
tr, t2),
(27)
298
1742
F. J. DYSON
rv. FURTIIER REDucTIoN oF TIIE s MATRD(
It was shown in Section VII of I that, for the
one-electron processesthere considered, only connected graphs needed to U""tuL"" i"tt account' In
no
constructing the S matrix in general, .this is
loneer the case; clisconnectedgraphs give matrix
0(t))>(W,1t)Sr(11).
(31)
5.(1r)I/(t1)Sr(11)
f _ : S r ( / r ) 2 q J dp l t x ( * i t , l P , * / o ' )
- *o)r^l
6+(1')'sr(r1). (28)
x a+((2+,1)'?+ Ko?)
G by
In the same way, if G' were obtained from
then
part
tr/'
self-energy
any
line
li
the
in
irr".titg
*ouid b" obtained from M by replacing Sr(") by
l.|,1,
(2e)
S"(l'))(W, 11)Sr(/'),
W and tl
where ) is an operator dependent only on
rvere an
line
11
if
the
Moreover,
G.
on
not
and
line of G, then ,41'would be obtained from
":tt".not
i
!+,
i'
t'. ----rr- Pt
":t]->--tr --"-
4---^---.-a'
Frc. 3.
--'\
A,(t3)t,stplItt(W' , t3)DF(t3);
(34)
g-aug.e
these hor.vever are zero in consequence of the
will
l'31u3
in
terms
Similar
,4,.
by
satisfied
.o"ai,lo"
case
rlro opp"". with the expression (32); in-this
the extia terms can be shown to vanish in conof the equation of conservation of charge
;;;t;;."
satislieclby the electron-positron lield The functions
selfn ( W ; , r " 1 d e s c r i b e t h e p h e n o m e n o no f p h o t o n
a n . l t h s " v l c u u m p o l r r i z a t i o n o - f- t h e f i r t t
"l n
. i"nrJr .:r; o f S t c t i o n Y l l l o f l . F o l l o r v i n g5 c h w t n g e r '
tr." .1o". not explicitly subtract awal' the div-ergent
pt oton ..tt-"n"ig1 eff"crs from the Illl/" tr)' but
o n e t s s c r l s l h r t t h e s e c f f c tl s a r e z c r o a s a c o n s e oi the gauge invariance of electrodynamics'
ou""."
'-it
S".tiot Vff of t, it rvas shown how self-energy
be systematicatly eliminated from all
p".i. -tfa
299
I l+J
MATRIX
IN
QUANTUM
ELECTRODYNAN,{ICS
w h e r e . A , u ( llr:,) i s t h e s u n t o f t h e ^ u ( V , t r , l 2 ) o v e r
all proper vertex parts I,'. The matrix elements of
t / ( o ) t v i l l b e c o r r c c t l y c a l c u l a t e d ,i f o r . r ei n c l u d e s
contributions only frorn irreducible graphs, after
n . r a k i n gi n e a c h c o n t r i b u t i o n t h e r e p l a c e m e n t s( 3 5 ) ,
(36),(37),(38).
To calculate the operators -{u, 2 and II, it is
necessarl,to ri'rite dorvn explicitll' the integrals in
m o m e n t u n s p a c e ,e x a m p l e s b c i n g ( 2 6 ) a n d ( 2 8 ) ,
corresponding to every self-energy part W or
proper vertex part I/. \\'hen considering effects of
higher order than the seconcl,the parts l,tr/and I/
rvill therlselves often be reducible, containing in
their intcrior self-energy and vertex parts. It will
again be convenient to oilrit such reducible I/ ancl
W, and to include their effects by n.raking the substitutions (35) (38) in the ir.rtegralscorresponcling
to irrcducible V and W.ln this u'ay one obtains in
general not explicit formulas, but integral equations, for l\u, ) and II. For example,
A': a1'('\' )' II)
(39)
Lu(.tr, t2) ,
(38)
300
1744
F. J. DYSON
conjugation, provided that the sign of a is at the
same time reversed (this is the well-known charge
symmetry of the Dirac hole theory). It is clear
from (8) that the constant, appears once in M for
each of the p loop vertices at which there is a
photon line; at the remaining vertices only the
constant 6zzis involved, and 6ru is an even function
of e. Therefore the principle of charge-symmetry
implies
(40)
M:(-r)eM.
(44)
*,1,
F(p)
- Po'+c')
( pt'+ pr'+ P32
(43)
Dr(D):
2ri((pt)'z*)()
30r
t74s
S MATRIX
IN
QUANTUM
ELtrCTRODYNAMICS
defined in (47). In view of (43), we take the integration variables in (48) to be real variables, with
the exception of a which is to be integrated along
a contour C deviating from the real axis at each of
the 2F poles of R. As a general rule, C will detour
above the real axis for c)0, and below it for a(0;
the reverse will only occur at certain of the poles
corresponding ro denominators (49) for which
(p't)'z+(prt)'+(pto)'*p,{.(cu)t.
(51)
Such poles will be called "displaced." The integration over a alone will always be absolutely convergent. Therefore the contour C may be rotated
in a counter-clockwise direction until it lies alone
the imaginary axis, and the value of 11 will be
unchanged except for residues at the displaced poles.
Regarded as a function of the parameters &i
describing the incoming and outgoing particles, i4
will have a complicated behavior; the behavior
will change abruptly whenever one of the ct has
a critical value for which (51) begins to be soluble,
for pti, Pzi, Pti, and a new displaced pole comes into
existence. This behavior is explained by observing
that displaced poles appear whenever there is sufficient energy available for one of the virtual Darticles involved in M to be actually emittecl is a
real particle. It is to be expected that the behavior
of rl1 should change when the processdescribed by
M begins to be in competition rvith other real
processes. It is a feature of standard perturbation
theory, that when a process .4 involves an intermediate state ,I which is variable over a continuous
range, and in this range occurs a state 11 which is
the final state of a competing process, then the
matrix element for .4. involves an integral over .1
which has a singularity at the position 11. In
p qi : ipsi :,iar ni,
(47) standard perturbation
theory, this improper inte:nd the integration over a is performed first; sub- gral is always to be evaluated as a Cauchv prin:3quently, integration is carried out over the c i p a l v a l u e , a n d d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e u n y r " r i d i . , " r i n d e p e n d e n t p r i , p r i , p " i , a n d o v e r t h e gence into the matrix element. In the theory of the
i(F-nll)
present paper, the displaced poles give rise to
ratios of the r6t. ,LI then has the form
l-z)
similar improper integrals; these come under the
heading of singularities of type (i) and will not be
ff*
M : I d p t ; d p z t d p t i d r o,i
R a F - " d q , ( 4 9 ) discussedfurther.
u
J-If pri, Pz;, p:t satisfying (51) are held fixed, then
:'here R is a rational function of a, the denominator the value of p4i at the corresponding displaced pole
is fixed by (50). The contribution to M from the
': rvhich is a product of F factors
displaced pole is just the expression obtained by
(Prt)'l (P"t)'I (Pti)2* p2- (oro;lci)2.
(49) holding the 4-vector 2t fixed in the original integral
Il[, apart from bounded factors ; since ,41is primitive
:lcre the constants roi, ci are defined by the con- divergent,
this expression is convergent. The total
::tior that
contribution to M from the I'th disolaced oole is
pj:.ipni:i(arsilci),
j : 1 , 2 , . . . , F . ( 5 0 ) the integral of this expressionover th; finite sphere
(51) and is therefore finite. Strictly speaking, this
lius the ct corresponding to the (F-af
1) inde- argument requires not only the convergence of the
:cndent pd are zero by (47), and the remainder are expression, but uniform convergence in a finite
:ear combinations of the ki; also (n-l) of the 16, region; however, it will be seen that the convergent
:-e linear combinations of the independent ret integrals in this theory are convergent for large
302
t746
F. J. DYSON
momenta by virtue of a sulllcient preponderanceof
large denominators, and convergence produced in
thii way will ahvays be uniform in a finite region'
,41is thus, apart from finite parts, equal to the
,z;a
in (48) and
integral ,11'obtaincd b1' replacing a by
(49). Alternatively, M'is obtained from the original
by substituting for each pot
integral ,i1,1
iPtil (1-i)ci,
(52)
i n c l e p e n d c n t1 u ' ,
anclthen treating the 4(F-z*1)
p : 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , a s o r d i n a r y r e a l v a r i a b l e s 'I n ' t I ' t h e
denominators of the integrand take the form
(.pl)' + (p,i)' + (! {)" t p' t (Pni- (l I i15;'12, (53)
and eire uniformll' large for large values of p"d'
The convergenceof ,il/'can now be cstimated simpll'
by counting powers of prt in numerator and denominator of the integrand. Since M' is knol'n to
converge whenever one of the 2iis hcld fixed and
integration is carried out over thc others, the con,,".g"r." of the whole expression is assured provided that
K:2F-F"-4lF-nl1l)1.
(s4)
n^,,,{u',k', h3,h4,Pt)d'P",
(s7)
303
1747
S MATRIX
IN
QUANTUM
'p(h')>(w,hr)v@\,
(60)
hr)AP&t)'
(61)
(62)
ELECTRODYNAN{ICS
pieces joined by a single line. In Section IV it was
shown that to avoid redundancy the operator .{,
should be defined as a sum over proper vertex
parts I/ only. By the same argument, in order to
make (35), (36), (37) correct, it is essential to
define 2 and fI as sums over both proper and
improper self-energy parts. However, it is possible
to define Sr'and D7l in terms of proper self-energy
parts only, at the cost of replacing the explicit
definitions (35), (36) by implicit definitions. Let
>*(pt) be defined as the sum of the 2(W, pi) over
proper electron self-energy parts W, and let II*(pi)
be defined similarly. Every W is either proper, or
else it is a proper W joined by a single electron line
to another self-energl' part which may be proper or
improper. Therefore, using (35), Sr' rnay be expressed in the two equivalent forms
S F '( p t ) : S F ( p t )+ S F ( p t ) z +( p t )S F '( p t )
: sr(pu) * s.,(2 t12+(.pt)sr(pt).
(63)
Similarly,
D e'(pt): D e(pt)+D F(pt)il*(pr)DF'(pu)
: D F ( p t )+ D F ' ( p t ) n * ( p t )D F ( p t ) . ( 6 4 )
It is sometimes convenient to work with the ) and
II in the starred form, and sometimes in the unstarred form.
Consider the contribution >(W, tt) to the operator
)*, arising from an electron self-energy part W. It
is supposed that W is irreducible, and the effects of
possible insertions of self-energy and vertex parts
inside I,/ are for the time being neglected. Also it
is supposed that W is not a single point, of which
the contribution is given by (31). Then I4l has an
even number 21.of vertices, at each of which a
photon line is incident; and >(W,fr) will be of the
form
p;1ap,,
e,'f n1t,,
(6s)
/aR
\
+r-,(--(0,D l*n"1t,p,7, (66)
t dlr,
t\r'
ri
''TtJ'
'i
k:i \{
r*i:" l*1
tY
/L<-{
i''*
;ki
k"\
ib
ui\, ir
Frc. 4.
L4\\
304
1748
F. J. DYSON
and for large values of the | 2"il the remainder term
R" will tend to zero more rapidly by two powers
of lputl than R. Therefore, in complete analogy
with (58),
2(w, t'1:
",t7a+B&Fl+2"(W'
tl)f'
(67)
(68)
- ro',
tutyr:ixo.
(69)
It is convenient to write
>"(W, t 1: a'18'(t,17,-ixn)
+ (tpti F- iio) S(W, tt),
(70)
t1),
(7s)
(76)
(r')':0
C(tt),+ (tt)rD
"(tt),
(77)
F' (r)
1
D r',(tt).
+ D FQt)+-D
2ni "(tt)
(78)
M:A'
J
I A,(x)Au(x)ilx,
(79)
pr,
++,1,;(#,(0,p,l) +n"(r',
305
1749
S MATRIX
]N
QUANTUM
(81)
t )
(82)
ELECTRODYNAMICS
qL
a!
s__--->-,
-\-4-l-
L'
Frc. 5.
306
F.
J.
1750
DYSON
(83)
Sr':ZrSrt'(et)
(84)
Dr':ZrD"r'(er),
(85)
307
775r
MATRIX
IN
QUANTUM
-2n;6xrSr
Z rZ z*le12,
and the remaining factor of >o(trU) i. explicitll' a
function of e1and not of e. Therefore (90) is
Z122-t2{W, e),
Sr)*
+z,-,(.ne)s,+!; a* !; "r,>),(s8)
(90)
Z.tZzZ3>o(W,
where )1(trU, e) is the expression obtained by substituting the operators fu1(e), Srr'(a), Dpt'(e) into
>(W, t').Thus the )+(tl), obtained by substituting
from (83)-(85) into (65), is identical with the result
o f s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e o p e r a t o r sl u 1 ( e ) ,S 4 ' ( e ) , D r t ' ( e ) ,
and afterwards changing e to er and multiplying
the whole expression (except for the constant term
(87) in 616)by Z1Z2'r. More exactly, using (88), one can
say that the )* obtained by substituting from
(83)-(85) is given by
ELECTRODYNAMICS
"A)
(8e)
7
Sr''(e): Sr* ^ S"(e)Sp''(e).
(87',)
: - 2ri6roSr
/l1r
+ Z z - ' l A ( e ) S r * - B ( e , ) * - & ( ? r )l . ( 9 1 )
\212n/
Sr':Sr*Sr)*Se'.
(93)
ZT
(88)
ZT
1
6ro:
Z'-tO"''
'
(94)
2r'i
(se')
In a similar way, the Dr' obtained by substituting from (83)-(85) into the integral equations
E q u a t i o n s ( 8 7 ) - ( 8 9 ) , ( 8 7 ' ) - ( 8 9 ' ) , d e s c r i b ep r e c i s e l y can be related with the II1+(e) of (89). This Dr'
the way in which the lpr(a), Sv1'(e), Dp1'(e), when will be identical with (85) provided that
substituted into the integral equations, reproduce
1
themselves with the addition of divergent terms.
(95)
Zs:l|.C(e,).
And from these results it is easy to deduce the
2m
self-reproducing property of the operators (83)-(85),
Finally, the Ip obtained by substituting fronr
rvhen substituted into the same equations.
(83)-(85) can be shown to be
Consider for example the effect of substituting
from (83)-(85) into the term 2(W,11), given by
7u:7u! Z;l.Lrt(e),
(65) with l:1. The integrand of (65) is a product
of one factor lu, one 7r, one Sr', and one Dr'.
with -r1,r(e)given by (87). Using (87'), this l, will
tTx
308
f
(96)
t7 52
DYSON
(97)
(ee)
(100)
(frr)' I 0' (
] 101)
J
309
f/JJ
.'
MATRIX
IN
ELECTRODYNAMICS
QUANTUM
(102)
s",'r,t:Ir-5"k1]s",
(88,,)
o,,'at:lt_.!n"at] o,.
(8e,)
3IO
F. J, DYSON
1754
"i
3ll
I/JJ
MATRIX
IN
QUANTUM
ELECTRODYNAMICS
3r2
P o p e r2 6
Quantum mechanics\ryasbuilt up 0n a foundationof analogy with the Hamiltonian theory of classical mechanics.
This is becausethe classical notion of canonicalcoordinates
and momentawas found to be one with a very simplequantum analogue,as a result of which the whole of the classical Hamiltonian theory, which is just a structure built up
on this notion, could be taken over in all its details into
quantum mechanics.
Now there is an alternative formulation for classical
dynamics, provided by the Lagrangian. This requires one
to work in terms of coordinatesand velocities instead of coordinates and momenta. The two formulationsare, of coursc,
closely related,but there are reasonsfor believing that the
Lagrangian one is the more fundamental.
In the first place the Lagrangian methoclallows one to
collect together all the equationsof motionand expressthem
as the stationary property of a certain action function. (This
action funrrtion is just the time - integral of the Lagrangian).
There is n0 correspon.lingaction principle in terms of
trre eoordinates and momenta of the Hamiltonian theory.
Secondly the Lagrangian method can easily be expressed
lelativistically, 0n account of the action function being
a relativistic invariant; while the Hamiltonian method is
essentially non - relativistic in form, since it marks out a
particular time variable as the canonical conjugate of the
Hamiltonianfunction.
For these rcasonsit would seemdesirableto take up the
questionof what correspondsin the quantum theory to the
Lagrangian methotl of the classical theory. A litile considerationshows,however,that one cannot expectto be able
3r3
P. A. M. Dirac, The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics.
65
ds
oq.r,
fD
y :_ _
ds
dQr,
(1)
i,hm",
lN'e have here m, expressed explicitly as a function of nt,* and mu, bat
we can give no meaning to its partial derivative with respect to rnn
or rna.
314
P. A. M. Dirac,
66
(2)
(q'Ip,l Q'): - ih
!4;{n,Ia,)
(3)
@)
(5)
r]")dq"(q"i Q')d,Q"
@'i f@)s \01 Q'): I I fr' 1f@)'t
Q' l s (ql Q')
: f (,t')g Q') @'I Q').
X ' u r t h e r ,i f f * ( q ) a n d g n ( Q ) , ( k : 1 , 2 . . . , n t ) d e n o t et y o s e t s
of functions of ghe q's and Q's respectively,
(q' lrn f,,(q)gu(q Q') : Er frc(q')u*(Q').@'I Q).
Thus if a is any function of the dynamical variables and u'e
suppose it to be expressed as a function a (qq of the q's and
- orclered" wB,f, that is, s0 that it consists of
Q's in a ,,wr:11
a sum of tenns of the form f(q)g(Q), we shall have
(6)
315
The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics.
67
, g q.
P,: - du
dQ' '
316
P. A. M. I)irac,
68
? to /. In the quantum theory the Qt, pt will still be connected with lhe q7, pr bY a contact transformation and there
will be a transformation function (q.rlqr) connecting the two
representations in which the 8r and the q7 are diagonal respectively. The work of the preceding section now shows that
,i
(8)
where -L is the Lagrangian. If we take T to differ only infinitely littie from l, we get the result
(9)
to expli'Ldtlhl.
corresponds
(q.t+arlqr)
The transformationfunctions in (8) and (9) are very fundameutal things in the quantum theory and it is satisfactory
to fincl that they have their classicalanalogues,expressible
simply in terms of the Lagrangian. We have here the natural extensionof the well - known result that the phase of
the wave function conespondsto Hamilton's principle function in classical theory. The analogy (9) suggeststhat we
ought to considerthe classical Lagrangian,not as a function
of the coordinatesand velocities,but rather as a function
of the coordinatesat time / and the coordinatesat time t + dt.
in this section
tr'or simplicity in the further d"iscussion
although
freedom,
we shall take the case of a singled.egreeof
the argument applies also to the general case. We shall use
the notation
t
rfl
e x p[ i
Ldtlh]-t(tr),
(10)
a(tT) - a(tt*) a (t*t*-i . .. a (trt')a(tJ).
Now in the quantumtheorYwe have
(q.rlq.t)d,q,,(qt
q.*-r)dq.*_'...
(q.rlq.r):l@rlq*) dq^(q.*l
lqr), (tt)
317
The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics.
69
tm_t
t;
3t8
P. A. M. Dirac,
70
to F ield' Dynamics.
'W-e
may treat the problem of a vibrating medium in the
classical theory by Lagrangian methodswhich form a natural generalisationof those for particles. We chooseas our
coordinates suitable field quantities or potentials. Each coordinate' is then a function of the four space- time variables
fr, !/, H, t, conesponding to the fact that in particle theory
it is a function of just the one variable /. Thus the one independentvariable / of particle theory is to be generalised
variablesfr, U, H, t.l
to four intlepend,ent
1 It is customary in field dynamics to regard. the values of a field.
quantity for two different values of (n, y, z) bat, the same value of f as
two differeut coordinates, instearl of as two values of the same coordi-
3r9
The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanic:i.
7l
320
72
Poper 27
32r
367
322
368
P.
Fi.:\'NN{.\N
(1)
323
NON_RELATIVISTIC
OUANTUM
Pa*
Q)
P6":leul',
and P".c:le*l'.
(s)
is replaced by
go":Z
gotg,,",
(5)
MECHANICS
369
324
370
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
,,"r:14'..r*"0...r,
(6)
:
frrr...
325
NON-RELATIVISTIC
QUANTUM
MECHANICS
371
326
372
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
velocities, we can show the mathematical equivalence of the postulates here and the more usual
formulation of quantum mechanics.
To interpret the first postulate it was necessary
to de6ne a path by giving only the successionof
points r; through which the path passes a(
successivetimes l;. To compute $:f,L(i,x)d,t
we need to know the path at all points, not just
at rr. We shall assume that the function r(l) in
the interval between t; and,t6,r1is the path followed by a classicalparticle, with the Lagrangian
-L, which starting from ru; at ,i reaches x;q1 dt
l;+r. This assumption is required to interpret the
second postulate for discontinuous paths. The
quantity @(...tn, x+y ...) can be normalized
(for various e) if desired, so that the probability
of an event which is certain is normalized to
unity as e+0.
There is no difficulty in carrying out the action
integral becauseof the sudden changesof velocity
encountered at the times ,d as long as Z does not
depend upon any higher time derivatives of the
position than the first. Furthermore, unless Z is
restricted in this way the end points are not
sufficient to define the classical path. Since the
classical path is the one which makes the action
a minimum, we can write
S:E
S(*+r,r),
(10)
where
f';+r
S(xrar,rr) : Min. I
.,
ti
li
dx;rtdxi
xexnf-E,.s1'"',r.)J.'.
A i-
, (12)
327
NON-RELA'IIVIS'TI
C QUANTUM
i\,{ECHANI CS
J/J
)-ll,:,,r
ti*
c*pl _ I
I
S ( r ' + ' ,. t ) |
328
374
R.
P.
FEYNX{AN
r" anddifferent
L;;;;;;;il;;;;;;
region,
to give the same 1s*(x,t) ttia Eq. (16), as does
region R", then no matter what the preparation,
r/, Eq. (1a) says that the chance of finding the
system in R" is always the same as finding it
in r". The two "experiments" R" ar^d r" are
equivalent, as they yield the same results. We
shall say loosely that these experimentsare 10
determine with wh:at probability the system is
in state 1. Actually, this terminology is poor.
The system is really in state ry'.The reason we
can associate a state with an experiment is, of
course, that for an ideal experiment there turns
out to be a unique state (whose wave function is
y@, t)) for which the experiment succeedswith
certainty.
Thus, we can say: the probability that a
system in state ry'will be found by an experiment
whose characteristic state is 1 (or, more loosely,
the chance that a system in state ry'will appear
to be in 1) is
t),t@,
lf ur., Ddrl.
t'
rx
9(x*+rtte):J., *oL;,I-
s("'*"
"l
dx* d.r*-r
*n
o'-..(15')
llr)
rfi-l
: |
t)dxr1A. (18)
:S(rr+,,x,,)l,l'@r,
J L h"*pl
I
'fhis
(r7)
329
NON_REI,A'I'IVISTIC
QUANTUM
375
MECHANICS
o':a)'
iJL'lr:1".:','J#
J,:"1xl1T;T:i""
fi,:l1"J,ff
:
(x,+,,,
e
*
*
)
- L :l
Z t 2!/
\
*l
|
J "
isaquadratic,butperhapsinhomogeneous,form
e
/
in the velocities i(r). As we shall see later, the
paths which are important are those for which
xi+t- x; is of order ei. Under these circumstances,
it is sufficient to calculate the integral in (11)
- I/(r:r1r)
AoUo. frrl
l]vf*r,
overthe classicalpath taken by aJrie particie'lr Let us call ***t:x'i and r1E1-rc4:f so that
Then (23) becomes
the path of a free x*:x-t.
In Cartesiancoord.inatest2
particle is a straight line so the integral of (11)
imt,
f
can be taken along a straight line. Under these t!(x,l-te):
I expJ
e'2lt
circumstancesit is sufficientlvaccurateto replace
rule
by the trapezoidal
the integral
-ieV(x)
Jt
."*pQ4)
h-'PQ-t,t)i.
e /x;a1-x;
\
S(rrpr,xJ: Ll-,xivrl
2\
e
/
The integral on I will converge if t@, t)
falls off sufficiently for large r (certainly if
- '',
*,) (re) f 9*@)'!(x)d.x:1). In the integration on {, since
ri r.(')"
e is very small, the exponential of.itnEz/2heoscil/
2\
t
lates extremely rapidly except in the region
about f:0 (f of order (he/m)t). Since the funcor, if it proves more convenient,
tion ty'(*-f, l) is a relatively smooth function
of f (since e may be taken as small as desired),
/X;+t-X;,rilr+Ji\
rr) : ,Ll S(xr+r,
l. (20) the region where the exponential oscillatesrapidly
\e2/
will contribute very llttle becauseof the almost
complete cancelation of positive and negative
These are not valid itr a general coordinate
contributions. Since only small f are effective,
system, e.g., spherical. An even simpler approximay be expanded as a Taylor series.
{(x-t,l)
mation may be used if, in addition, there is no
Hence,
vector potential or other terms linear in the
1-ieV(x)1
tl'(x,t-le):*o(
velocity (see page 376):
u
/
/x;+t-x;
\
--:, x,*r
S(x,ar, .r;) = cLl'-:l.
t
\
e
.s(r.1
; a,x , ) = ; ( = - a
X;"
f
x)exp
Ql)
,*%)lro,D-YYl?
.:'J#-
.fotro.(2.5)
Now
f-
-,v.,,,,).
(2thci'ln)t'
(zz) J -"e"oQnt'/2he)d|:
r' * f , 2he){d| : o,
[ -*.*"*r
I
(26)
330
376
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
actually enct
S(*;11, *;) for arbitrary c for eses in which the potential
does not involve * to hieher powers than the second
(e.g., free particle, hamonic osiillator). It is necessary,
however, to use a more accurate value of l. One can
define ,4 in this way. Assume classiel particles with l
degrees of freedom start from the point ri, ti with unifom
density in momentum space. Writti the number of particle
having a given component of momentum in range dp as
p
dp/?owith 1o conslant. a6sn tr:(2rhi/po)bt2p-r,where
is the density in I dimensional coordinate space ri+r of
these particles at time l;ar.
33r
NON_RELATIVISTIC
QUANT'UM
MECHANICS
377
remarks of
332
R.
378
P.
FEYNMAN
The equation can also be compared mathematically to quantities appearing in the usual
formulaiions. In Schroedinger'smethod the development of the wave function with time is
given by
-h
at
:w,
(31)
fi i-r
s)l
Xextf-! Stx;+r,
i3t
which has the solution (for any e if H is time
independent)
(32)
,!'(x,t* e): exp(-iell/h){(x' t)'
dxo d.h
dx i,r
x'l'@',t')TT' A,
(r5)
:t" -t'
where we ptJt xn=vt arrdx j:-tctt where je
no reassume
we
(between the times t' and t"
striction is being put on the region of integration) '
This can be seen either by repeated applications
of (18) or directly from Eq. (15). Now we ask, as
y'z+0what values of the intermediate coordinates
ri contribute most strongly to the integral? These
will be the values most likely to be found by exoperator equation
periment and therefore will determine, in the
ii-it, th" classicalpath. If h is very small, the
(33)
(ieH/h).
x' :exp(ieE/h)xexP
exponent will be a very rapidly varying function
the positive
The transformation theory of Dirac allows us to of any of its variables:ct.As ri varies,
exponent
the
e)
of
t*
e
'
contributions
'
timetl
negative
at
,rlt(x'
and
considerthe wave function
rcicontributes
which
at
region
representation
The
in
a
nearly
cancel.
state
a
representing
as
-in
phase of the
which r' is diagonal, while 'y'(r, l) represents the most strongly is that at which the
is exponent varies least rapidly with *; (method of
r
which
in
representation
a
in
state
same
in the exdiagonal. They are, therefore, related through the stationary phase). Call the sum
relates
(*'lr).
which
s;
function
Donent
traisformation
these rePresentations:
f
l'(x',tIe): J
5:
a*'
{*'l*),,1'{*,t)
S(r4r, r).
(Jo,
i-0
s:
I ,,'
L(*(t),x(t))dt
(37)
333
NON_RELATIVISTIC
8. OPERATORALGEBRA
Matrir Elements
QUANTUM
MECHANICS
379
334
P.
380
FEYNMAN
I x t,,* e-
t)x'!(x, t)dx
I x*(t,
iei
h,-t
r'
: ( r , , , l F e x pL
- U l x , t, ' ) l V/ rs> $ 2 )
which is obtained from (39).
Incidentally, (41) leads directly to an importan.t perturbation formula. If the effect of [/
is small the exponential can be expanded to first
order in U and we find
Q,'lFW,)u
:
(40)
* .\xr'll
is the matrix element o", * ., ,t-" l:l* between
hi
from
t
at
time
r
develop
would
which
{
state
the.
Of particular importance is the case that xt" is a
at t' and, the state which will develop from time I
matrix
element
the
state in which ry's,would not be found at all were
therefore,
lt'tsi
t".
at
to Xt,,
it not. for the disturbance,{/ (i'e., (xr'1t1,1,,'1u
of x(l) between these states.
:0) Then
the
Likewise, according to (39) with F:r*+r,
transition element of rp;r is the matrix element of
1
x(r* e). The transition element of F: (x*+t x*) / e'
-lQr,lL
(44)
) r) sl,
e t l ( s r ,t n W
or oI
h2i
is the matrix element of (x(if e)-x(t))/e
as is easily shown from (a0). We
i(Hr-xE)/h,
is the probabilityof transitionas inducedto first
can call this the matrix element of velocity i(l).
orderby the perturbation.In ordinarynotation,
which
problem
second
a
we
consider
Suppose
differs from the first because, for example, the
(x ," I eU(xa,
t) l'ttv)s
T
potential is augmented by a small amount U (' xt) .
rt r
l.
Then in the new problem the quantity replacing
: | { | xt,,*e-titDE(t"-t)ge-(itilII(t-t')tltydxld.t
S is S':S*I
ie[J(xt,l). Substitution into (38)
'
J IJ
leads directly to
so that (44) reduces to the usual expressionlT for
\ x v ' l r l 9v )s '
(41)
: (",1*r;t' u@n,r,rl,a,)".
9. NEWTON'S EQUATIONS
The Commutation
Thus, transition elements such as (39) are important insofar as F may arise in some way from
a change 6,5 in an action expression. We denote,
by observable functionals, those functionals F
in
which can be defined, (possibly indirectly)
terras of the changes which are produced by
possible changes in the action S. The condition
be observable is somewhat
that a functional
similar to the condition that an operator be
Hermitian. The observable functionals are a
Relation
In this section we find that different functionals may give identical results when taken
between any two states. This equivalence between functionals is the statement of operator
equations in the new language.
If F depends on the various coordinates, we
0F/0xa
can, of course, define a new functiotal
tt Pi. it4. Dirac, ThePrincipl,esoJ Quantum Mechanics
(The Clarendon Press, Oxford,1935), second edttlon'
Section47, Eq. (20).
335
NON_RELATIVISTIC
MECHANICS
QUANTUM
381
by differentiating it with respect to one of its potential, or force. Then (47) becomes
variables, say cc*(0(& ( j). If we calculate
h dF
f
/xt+t-xt
kr'laF/axelgr,)s by (39) the integral on the
Fl -ml
'i6x*s L
right-hand side will contain |F/Ex*. The only
\
-T)
-iQ''l'fflr'\,
("l*l'-),:
(4s)
(46)
0.: --l
s
e \
-,v,(*)] (4s)
--
- l-'(.rk).
the symbol
emphasizing
f d S ( x p p 1 ,1 6 )
'i 1xt s
arl
dS(x*, :c*_r)l
+-
Ext
l. ({7)
'Ihis
equation is true to zero and first order in e
and has as conrequences the commutation relations of momentum and coordinate, as well as the
Newtonian equations of motion in matrix form.
In the case of our simple one-dimensional
problem, S(rc+r, rui) is given by the expression
(15), so that
dS(rr+r, x*) / 6x*:
- rn(xaa1- x4) e,
/
and
0 S (x*, tcx-) / 6x* : * rn(xr- x t-r) / e- eVt (x r");
where we write
of the
xt, r* f*-r\
- ;lt? ' t -| m t /. -xr,+t.)-u
''(.j,]
* (r:a,). ^- * (Yi:-:).,,
r". (4s)
In order to transfer an equation such as (49) into
conventional notation, we shall have to discover
what matrix corresponds to a quantity such as
:rhtck+r.It is clear from a study of (39) that if F is
set equal to, say, f(x)g(x*+),
the corresponding
operator in (40) is
e - ( i t i l ( t , , t , z ) Hg ( x ) e r;t n t , uJ ( 1 )e ( i| i l ( t _ t , r l J ,
the matrix element being taken between the
states 1,,, and rlty. The operators corresponding
to functions of *1a1 will appear to the left of the
operators corresponding to functions of 11, i.e.,
the order oJ terms in a matrir operator product
corresponds to an order in time of the conespond.ing
Jactors in a functional. Thus, if the functional can
and is written in such a way that in each term
factors corresponding to later times appear to the
336
R.
382
P,
FEYNMAN
9r-xP:h/i
where we have written p for the operator mir'
The relation between functionals and the
correspondingoperators is defined above in terms
of the order of the factors in time. It should be
remarked that this rule must be especially carefully adhered to when quantities involving velocities or higher derivatives are involved' The cor'
rect functional to represent the operator (i)2 is
actually (xt"+t-xt")fe' (x1,-x1"4)fe rather than
as
l(xx+t-x*)/e)2' The latter quantity diverges
lf , as ,-0, This may be seen by replacing the
secondterm in (49) by its valuex4tm(x*at-ecx) /e
calculated an instant e later in time. This does
not change the equation to zero order in e' We
then obtain (dividing bY e)
(:y=)""_*;
(s0)
x) / elz*h/2ei'
(52)
/xr.r-xr\/r*-rr-r\,...,,
t<u.:L.z\-)\
(rr/
(51)
337
NON_RELATIVISTIC
QUANTUM
(s4)
where
fl
L(i(t), x(t))dt,
(55)
[2\l'+r-li/
functional
:l:l
tl
I m /x;a1-x;\'
383
MECHANICS
I7h:I
l -v(x+')l(r+r-l);
0h
(56)
f/*
is defined
(58)
2i(th+t-t)
::(T:)' *
(x
"r
# ^* v *,,),
which is just the sum of the kinetic energy functional (52) and that of the potential energy
V(x,,+r).
The wave f unc tion { 5@,t) represents,of course,
the same state as rl(x, t) will be after time d, i.e,,
{t(r, t} 6). Hence, (57) is intimately related to the
operator equation (31).
One could also consider changesoccasionedby
a time shift in the final state 1. Of course,nothing
new results in this way for it is only the relative
shift of y and { which counts. One obtains an
alternative expression
dS(*1a1,fua1irc;,ta)
h
I7*: -----+__.
dln+t
2i(tpat-l*)
(59)
338
R.
384
P.
FEYNMAN
339
NON-nELA'frvrsTrc
QUANTUM
MECHANTCS
395
: t "'I
JJ
p^"(q)x,"*\*t)
.'r" 9. . .d2.
AoAa
de,-rd*
re,. (61)
340
386
R.
P.
FEYNMAN
Sr(lc;11' 'r;)
i _ r ; - e, z q | a r _ 9 , \ 2
.Su:tl
lj:--|*-9","1
;-oL2\
e
.,1
- 2qilo
n* aT)(qi' * qo')
;*rf
*+[,',,
tQ) sina(t-t')d't
.?:
f ,:
-:
['
1Q)sina(t"-t)d't
I,:
* r ' * \r )G ^,,
: \ x r ' I G * " W, ) s o
which now contains the coordinates of the
particle only, the quantity G;," being given by
E rrqi
i-0
Q(qi, qo):
,.*'(j,)*,,(*i+!:rd*,
"'
- t)
r(r)r(s) sinct(t'"
I
X sino(s- l')dsdl
l.
It has beenwritten as though 7(l) were a continuous function of time. The integrals really should
rf
G^,,-- 12rih sinuT1 u1-t | | e** @)
JJ
Xexp(i.Q(qi,qo)/h) e"@o)dsiso.
Proceeding irr an analogous manner one finds
that all of the oscillators of the electromagnetic
field can be eliminated from a description of the
motion of the charges.
14. STATISTICALMECHANICS
Spin aud RelativitY
Problems in the theory of measurement and
statistical quantum mechanics are often. simplified when set up from the point of view described
here. For example, the influence of a perturbing
measuring instrument can be integrated out in
principle as we did in detail for the oscillator' The
statistical density matrix has a fairly obvious and
useful generalization. It results from considering
the square of (3S). It is an expressionsimilar to
(3S) but containing integrationsover two setsof
variables d'x; and. d'ri. The exponential is replaced by expi(S-S')/h, where S' is the same
function of the *t'as S is of ri. It is required,for
example, to describe the result of the elimination
of the field oscillatorswhere, say, the final state of
the oscillators is unspecifiedand one desiresonly
the sum over all final states zr.
Spin may be included in a formal way. The
Pauli spin equation can be obtained in this way:
341
NON-RELATIVISTIC
QUANTUM
MECHANICS
J6/
ee
(xr+r - xr)' A(x)
2c
f'
f
-(x;1t
-an)
. A(xrar)
2c
| (e/ c)(d.xu
/ dr) A
f(dxr / d.r)'z
"f,
342
P o p e r2 8
I. INTRODUCTION
(a'l):(v(a'), v),
(1'1)
@'D:[@'lB)dP'@'l),
wherc -fd|'indicates
integration
and summation
(r.2)
over
914
343
THEORY
915
Therefore,
(1 . 3 )
r.,,"
| \q'l1')dB'(p'i|7'),
@'ll'):
F IELDS
OF QUANTIZED
(1.4)
or
(h/i)6(q'l): | (o'lFlo")da"(q"l),
( 1.13)
(1.14)
[1llt"]]"1tili'.]1:,iHrui'u'i#H.:]:'.1'jil1".'ll;
rawortransrormation
themurtipricari,".oipo.i,ion
setsc and into a-6o and
the two commuting
functions.
The set of commuting hermitian operators
a:UaU-t,
(1.5)
f"::15"4:"ri*,two
rrom
a withtheaidorthearbirrary
isobtained
which
unitary operator U, has the property that its eigenvalues are identical with those of a, and that its
e i g e n v e c t o rasr e g i v e n b y
v(a'):Us1r''),
(1.6)
where d'and q'are the sameset of eigenvalues.Conversely, two sets of operators that possessthe same
eigenvalue spectrum are related by a unitary trangformation. Noti that the tiansformation function (d'l a")
may also be viewed as the matrix of [/-r in the original
eigenvector system,
(6'Ia'.): (UV(a'), V(c")): (v(a'), U|V(a"))
: (at lU-rlatt).
The unitary
B-dB,
B
infinitesimal generating operators
a<"'ls'llflfffi,riJi]'ilfirtr'' u*(fl)
(r.rr)
or
(h/i)6(d'l7'):
f
("'lr"l q")dd"(a"l9')
|
t"'1fl')a|"@"lFBlB).(1.16)
operator
(2.r)
(1.e)
where
344
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
(2.4)
(2.5)
9t6
theinlinitesimalgeneratingopcratorssatisfyanadclitive
law of compositiin.
our basii assumptionis that dllr1, is obtained by
variation of the quantities contained in a hcrmitian
operator l/rz, whi& must have the general form
IV,,: 0/ d
f
(dt)slxf,
"',,
(2.r2)
(2.1s)
or
6 I V1 : 6 t Vy l 6 W6 ;
l a g r a n g e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s i m p l e s y s l e m s u s u a l l y e o n s i d e r e da r e
(2.rr) no
more than quadratic in the comDonents o[ indir idual field".
345
917
THEORY
OF
The evaluation ol 6Wv involves adding the independent efiects of changing the field components at
each point by dod'(c), and of altering the region of
integration by a displacement 6r, of the points on the
boundarv surfaces.Thus.
6Wt : (r/ c)
I
wnere
FIELDS
QUANTlZED
fru:
(2.2r)
5Yr,
where
6*r: er- eui$u, er": - e,u:016r,,
(2,22)
6os
"",,(d'c)
(2.23)
Therefore,
o"' @)- o"@.): a,Q"@)6*,* (i/ h)\e,"s u,"0$0(r), (2'24)
and
d,@e/a0,"):ae/a0".
(2.16)
(2.18)
From the resulting lorm of 6Wu we obtain the infinitesimal generating operator F(o), which acts on eigenvectors associatedwith the surface r,
where
(2.27)
cIl,":6 s166u".
(2.28)
and obtain
(i / 2h)tt f S\,"8 083 s6r,= J,y"0 x6r
"
":
dr(/,r,6*)a axf4,6x"'
(2.29)
(2'2O)
r(o):
I do,[n!"6d"+(1/c)7,,M,f,
(2.31)
where
(t/ c)7,,: (l/ c)s6 p-IIy"e""-
lxfxp,
Q.32)
(2.s3)
346
IULIAN
918
SCHWINGER
(2.s1)
generating operator is
161(o):
-(ie/hc)
f
| da,Tlu"e"g"6\
Jo
(r/c)QG)6\,
wnere
implies the constancy of the corresponding generating
oDerator. The mechanical conservation laws for an
Q@): (r/c) do,j,
)
isolated system are derived by considering a rigid
displacement of the entire field, or equivalently, of the and
jF: _(iec/h)IlN"c"O".
coordinate system, which is described by a common
infinitesimal translation and rotation of the surfacesor
The implied conservation law,
and o2,
(2.35)
6*r: eu- eu"x", Epe:- GtpT
QG)_QG)=0,
(.2.46)
(2.4i)
(2.48)
()
LO\
combined with the field variation 6d":0. The dis- is that of the total charge in the system.
It is important to notice the ambiguity in the
placement generating operator is then given by
lagrange function that is associated with given equa(2.36)
F u ( t ) : 2 , P , 7 o 1 { . l e , " J, , ( o ) ,
tions of motion. Thus, two lagrange functions that are
where
related by
e"6):1t/)
[,a,,r,",
(2.37)
and
(2.38)
Mar,: xrTp-rcuTst.
Accordingly,
P"(a)- P,(oz):o'
and
Ju,G)-J,"(a,):0,
'E(6",0,"):
s(0",6,")+cAf
,@",O,f) (2.s0)
w,":w,,+(1,,I,)*r"
(2.s1)
fr,,!l-(,)-F("t,
l
which are the conservation laws for the energy-momen- wnere
tum vector, and the angular momentum tensor, respec(2.s3)
0"r,.
F: Ftbu. ':
tively. Since the surfaces rr and 12 are arbitrary, we
[
conservation
laws,
difierential
infer the corresponding
(2.4r) Hence, augmenting a lagrange function by the diver0 u Tu , : 0 ,
gence of an arbitrary vector does not affect the equaand
(2.42) tions of motion, but modifiesthe infinitesimal generating
0xMxr,:O,
operator associated with a given surface o. However,
,vhich, in conjunction, imply the symmetry of the stress this ambiguity of the lagrange function corresponds
precisely to the possibility of subjecting the commuting
tensor:
(2.43) set of operators bn o to an arbitrary unitary transforOxMt*:T*-7"':0
mation.
The conservation law oI charge can be obtained from
We verify this statement by specializing the general
the required invariance of the hermitian lagrange func- transformation theory to unitary transformations on a
phase
multitransformations-the
constant
tion under
given surface. Let us introduce i, a new set of complication of mutually hermitian conjugate pairs of field
muting operaton on a, which are obtained from f by a
components by exp(+ir). We consider infinitesimal unita'ry transformation,
phase transformations and, for convenience,write
(2.54)
!t,(i,, o):9E11,, o;,
(2.M)
7:Q/hc)6\,.
where tl is characterized by an infinitesimal hermitian
Thus, we postulate the invariance of t under the generating operator 62, according to
infi nitesimal transformation
(2.S5)
6,u_t: (i/ h),tt_tiw.
66": - (ie/hc)e"6^0",
Q.45)
As the analog of Eq. (2.8) we have, therefore,
where e' is characteristic of the field component C",
(2.56)
6(f', o| 1", i)= (i/h)(l', ol\wl9",
and may assume the values 0, or :t1. The associated
"1;
347
919
THEORY
OF
QUANTIZED
FIELDS
but
(2.si)
do u:
(2.s8)
(2.59)
n pI7p"
(2.60)
(2.6i)
(2.68)
A"n":(1/c)@s/ae")-A,;rf,
(.1/c)(A
a/dOa): A*tFA
(2.61)
(2.6e)
wlrich enablesthe constraintequationsto be written
(r/c)(0 s/064):
(2.70\
E|,ro;1,:-6|,ton"4"
JJ
:-
[0,6"u0"+6n"c9, e.64)
so thal
ror:
Ia,rcw",
ron:- a,awo",
f
(27r)
F':Far:-
348
JULIAN
920
SCHWINGER
(2.73)
J"
g'(.r) jr = o,
fao'un o1.r'i;601r''),
where
(2.7q)
where 66Gmeansthe changein G produced on increasing
IA, B)_: AB- BA
6" by 6Q". This simply expressesthe fact that replacing and
(2.80)
lA, B)+: AB+BA.
O" by O"-60" in both G and f leaves the relation
between them, and t}terefore the matrix, unaltered.
Since the 6f' and 6II" are quite arbitrary, we have
We thereby infer the commutation relation,
derived the fundamental commutation relations,
(2'74)
lG, n'r1:;7'5t6'
[4'(r), rlb(r')]a : ih6"$,(x- r'),
(2.81)
n'(r')]*:6.
[0"(*), d'(*')]+:[n'(r),
with its evident generalization in regard to the field
coordinates, including, in particular,
Here d,(r-a') denotes the three-dimensionaldeltafunction, which is defined by
(2'75)
lG' F5"1:;7t5"6'
Of special importance are the results oblaine(l from
Eqs. (2.74)and (2.75)with G:dd and IId:
tfl
I o ' ( r ) , I d 6 ' I r b ( r )' 6 o b ( n ' )l : i h 6 o " ( x ) ,
J.
L
I
Q'76)
I
r
i
I n"{r), I do'n'(r)Dd'(r') l:0,
J"
I
L
and
{"a,
a,1r-r')t1r'):J@),
(2.82)
f r
I
| | a " ' o n a 1 x ' 1 6 r ( r ' )r,I . ( . r rl : ; i a n " { . ' ; ,
o"(r) and I-I"(r), on q, except when both o and, b in which a is not altered. Now the characteristic
designatecomBonentsof fields that possesshalf-integral property o{ an integral spin lield is that d@"commutes
spin, in whic\ event they anti-commute. Accordingly, with all dynamicnl variables and can therefore be
the commutation relations of Eqs. (2.76) and, (2.77) treated as a number, The representation involved in
349
921
THEORY
OF QUANTIZED
50/c) @6,rfi-tlo,r"&)
J
:
we obtain
(h/ i) (6/ 66"'Qc))(6', ol) : (6', o | il'(r) | ),
FIELDS
l
ldo"xrAx$l 1"dS')- do,r"d1(Irr"6d")
(2.87)
and similarly,
ih(6/ 6fid (x)) $I', a l) : (rr',
6"@) l).
"1
We shall make further application of the general
commutation relations (2.74) and.(2.75) by successively
placing G:P,, Ju", and Q. According t9 Eq. (2.30),
the Iast term of Eq. (2.32) makes no contribution to
P,, so that
P":-
ff
, don"a"6*0/c) | d.o,s.
doxk*a,- r,dJ(I[r"dd")
J
(2.88)
(2.89)
JJ
+ | @6il,"-do,npr6o"
J
- *,a")
(n.6d9
a's{*,u,
Therefore,
Q.g4)
(1/t) | do"6t:
JJJ
6J-:
.f
+,
: a,o"tt"to't,
I
d6 l ( n , a , - ' t
(2.e0)
.J
(2.e1)
('c,(h/la
r"(h/ | a)6*
"J
Itt", u,l= @u(h/i)a,- r:,(h/la;)rI"-
S,,"lf ,
n]s/,b,
(t''o)
t,,: -
- Q /h ) T I b S
B,b'
whence
5P,:ldo@"il"do"-Dlr"d,d").
" a) n '
6',x,e-do,s,t). (2.e3)
of orbital and spin angular momenta. The third equation of Eq. (2.96), the statement that IId=0 is a
property independent of the coordinate system, has
already been employed in Eq. (2.68).
According to Eqs. (2.47) and (2.48), the charge
operator is given by
O: - U?/h\
I
rorTocata.
(,2.97)
3s0
IULIAN
0:6.G(6)-(i/h)lG(o),F6.f'
(2.10e)
lc(o),P,):(h/i)5,G(a),
(2.110)
whence
( 2 . 1 0 1 ) and
(2'100)
922
SCHWINGER
(2.103)
lc(a), t *l:
(h/i)6,,G(o).
(2.1rr)
(2.112)
and
16" @), J, "f : (r,(h / i) 0, u(h / il a,) 6" @)
fS,""BSd(r),
(2.113)
6"(Prer(a)): - e,,P,e'(o)'
(2.106)
( h / i ) 6/ r "
, l),
| ( g ' , o l P , ( o ) l ( " . o \ d ( " ( ( "o
and rotations,
( h / i . ) 6 , " ( l ' ,o | ) : ( f ' , o I J
:
",(o)
Therefore, we have
(2.11s)
(2.116)
lP,, P,):0,
and
lPx, J -f:ih(6;P,-
6,rP).
(2.117)
where
Our last example, G(o):1^,r^<r11o)a.{2)(o),
( 2 1 0 7 ) both e;{t)(q) a,nde,@(o) are arbitrary vectors rigidly
attached to o, is actually an extension of the type of
operatorunder consideration,since
l)
J s^es(t)p,\2) :
f
(1 / c) | d o,lxxe x(') T,^e,(2\
"
-r,e.c)fprdr(r)] (2.118)
(2.11e)
35r
THEORY
923
Eq. (2.118), d$(o)
not rotation) of a,
OF QUA NTIZED
: (erP. - e,P1)s^{t)e.tz).(2,120)
0,(J peatt)6,<z))
On combiningthis with
(2.121)
2,tzt) : - e,J *e e,e\- epJ x ue{r'e
6 pe stLt
"Q',
"Qt
"(J
we again obtain Eq. (2.117), and'
FIELDS
5(L'2\rr:er(t'2)-el"(t'z)&v,
r pl) (2.123)
6f 6ttro)-v(f" o)
: -(i/DFn\,v((" o).
0.124)
.
slnce
e.l\i\
Fo'(t2t:eatr'2\Pp+rer"02)J!,,
- e
,,0) e,Q)I
euoQ)
e,Q)
_ ( _ eu^O)
5^,tzl1 cul(2)er,0))*,
:6"1r2)-6u,U21x6,
(2.128)
(i/ hd
(o*)(r,', o1l6 slrfl Y2",
I,",,'
or),
(2.r2e)
or
6 ( : ) 6 ( 1 )o( il,l,y, ' , , , o 7 ) : ( i f l t o f . ' , , ' u . r l l I r , , ( l , " o , l l . ' o ) , 1 1 , ( 1 . ' 6 ] 6 r r r ! [ r ] l f z " ' a z )
+
Cl,orl 6(I)a[ir]lfb,o)dtb6('?)(l',
"ldi', "t]
oz)
(2'13I )
Gk)B(r')),:
Gllli""".nl",
xolro'
(2.ri2)
H. \\ eyLThe Theoryol Grorlt and euanhrtn l[ echanics(E. P. Dutton end Company, Inc., Nerv York, 1931),p 1?7.
3s2
JIILIAN
SCHWINGER
924
(2.133)
(6/66"(r))w:
-n'(rr),
6 p Q ) 7 , 9 : _P p ( q 2 ) , ( 2 . 1 3 5 )
( a / a r ( t , ) ) W : - ( a / a x ( D ) n $: P , - G / a t ) W : f / 2 , ' .
r\ccording
66'-
t").
3s3
e23
THEORY
OF QUANTIZED
FIELDS
\Q):0/c)
| dc,(j,):(1/c)
JJ
| d.o(j]
(,4v)..:1-v'.
(3.3)
(3.7)
(,4v)':E'7t,
Iio-*-0"*.n,al
(3.8)
R*, cat
The transformation
that represents time re8ection, {':
be obtained from its equivalence with a rotation through the
Accordingly,
angle r in the (45) plane; R: exp?rtro*):ias.
.9,,9,=9tn-tyon{:-W,
W={11ft,0ot9,
and
1"
L .-,
J *..
354
JULIAN
namely,
t1-
t.T
(3.9)
!["+V;:i{r"-'
The efiect of Eq. (3.10) is indicated by
( a l a ) :v " - v r : v ; v ; ' : ( 6 l a ) ,
926
SCHWINGER
E:(+)er(e"r, A,O.r),
( 6 1A r I e ) .
(J.2J)
where the (+) sign here refers to the fact that the
structure of the lagrange function, for half-integral
(3.11) spin ficlds, can be maintainedonly at.the expenseof a
change in sign. We now see that if
and
( a l A l b ): v j A * a : v ; , 4 i h ' :
(3'22)
(3.r2)
(3'24)
355
927
THEO,RY OF QUANTIZED
FIELDS
356
P o p e r2 9
tfHE
6W"fi:6W"8;
the infinitesimal operators 6trV"0are Hermitian.
The 6W"p possessanother additivity property referring to the composition of two. dynamically independent systems. Thus, if I and II designate such
systems,
(ot' au' IAt'Fn' ) : (ar' I f.r) (ar' I 9n'),
and if 6ll"pr and 6IV
are the operators characterizing
"6rr
ininitesimal changes of the separate transformation
functions, that of the compositesystem is
@'1ts')*:@'1"');
dll
-i(d'l6w
or
611'"rtr517"utr.
"6:
Infinitesimal alterations of eigenvectorsthat preserve
the orthonormality properties have the form
6{,(a): -iG.V(q'),
ffI,(a')I:iV(d')1G",
(a'),
")v
can be characterized as an eigenvector of the operator set
a: (l - iG a(1 * iG.) : q- 6a,
")
wrtn ule ergenvalues
d . Ilere
Ea: -ile,
G"l.
This infinitesimal unitary transformation of the eigenvector V(a/) induces a transformation of any operator
F such that
(a'IFIa"): (a'|FIa").
-i(B' l6w
"plp')*:
"ptla')
:i.(9'l6Wp,l q'),
357
JULIAN
714
SCHWINGEIT
must have the additive form
c : f a o c , o ,J{I"^a,' :, c , r , 1 ,
J,
6(('oli'c):i.(l'ol6wl('o).
(5)
(6)
When the transformation function connects two different sets of operators on the same surface, which are
subiected to infinitesimal transformations generatedby
C ana G, respectively, we have, referring to (5),
oI
6W.rr:2 6W"aa'.,,
a modification of the
where 6tr4/,16",, .hu.".r""iir..
transformation function connecting infrnitesimally differing complete sets of operators on the infinitesimally
separated surfacesa a.nd of-d'a' If the choice of intermediate operators depends continuously upon the surface, we shall have
5W
".,:0,
and, referring again to the dynamical independenceof
phenomenaat points separatedby a space-likeinterval,
with the consequent additivity property, we see that
will have the general form
6W
"+a",,
Votdc
(dr)ac(rt.
6W,va".,: |
Therefore
'al
6tvu: |
,
(dr)6JG).
(s)
''
6w,r: 6,- 6r* f
1r*;u"ir,,
(7)
6w:G-G.
which involves dynamical variables on the surlaces o1,
o2, and in the interior of the volume bounded by these
points
on
a
spacephenomena
at
distinct
Since physical
the
like surface are dynamically independent, a generator G surfaces.On the other hand, we can write this as
358
THEORY
OF
QUANTIZED
7t5
FIELDS
intaor'l
?61
'ar
It',,: I
J",
(r.r.
id.r;"e
frn:If
6ll r' -
1 d . r t 6 lr . r r ,
n'here 6A:6(J),
ancl thc numerical parameters are thc
object of variation. This lorm is in agreement rvith (8).
For a fixed dynamical system, tr/12 can be altered by
displacing the surfaces 6b q2 and by varying the dynamical variables contained in the Lagrange function.
'Ihe
transf ormation function ({ r' o rl l r" o r) describes the
relation bets'een two states of the given system so
that a change in thc transformation functior.i can oniv
arise from alterations of the states on or and or. Hencc,
for a fixed dynamical system we must have
--ff*
yields
*u.
\ras suggestediry H. J. Bhabha, Revs. ]Iodern
P h y s . 2 1 , 4 5 1( 1 9 4 9 ) .
n'hcrc
n.
n".h
,"- (tTrWz),
(9)
.".f"""
ff
r:ldo,l,-ldoJo.
t-
J 6
. \ c c o r t l i r r g l l ' .t h c . t r L i o n a r y a c t i o n p r i r r , i l ' l c f o r [ - 1 :
is satisfied if it is obeyed b.v ltrl12,since
6W":Gr-G.
Here
6 l l ' , : 6 : , , G , , 6 l lr : 5 . . t ; r ,
dehne dr and dr, rvhich are new generatorsof infinitesimal unitary transformationson 01 i1r]do2Jrespectively. The latter equationspossessthe form (7), and
thus characterizetransformationfunctions connecting
trvo different representationson a cornrnon surface.
Indeed,rvith a suitably elaboralenotalion) t'e recognize
in (9) the additivity property of action operators,
r) : 1l'(iror, fi or)* IIl ((,o,, l ro
"o
")
llt;(ist,
rvhere,{or example,
II/ (f s', i
i:ot),
I t r ' r - 1 Y 1 7 t o r ,f r o r ) : l l " ( f r o r , i r o r ) ,
and
lVz:IL'1.1,or,7rorr.
To be consistentwith the postulalc of local action,
the field equations must be differential equations of
linite order.One can alwaysconvertsuchequationsinto
systemsof iirst order equationsby suitableadjunction
o{ variables.\Ve shall designatethe fundamental dynamical variablesthat obey first-order field equations
by x,(r), which {orm the componentsof tire general
lield operator x(.D. With no lossin generality,rve take
359
7t6
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
K(Lil:K(i,
(10)
and if
/irs)lI
-$l
(1J)
Note that ?Iu" and $* also obey Eqs. (12) and (13),
respectively, and that these equations can be combined into
Z-'($ r?I,)Z:r,,(S t?I,),
in view of the nonsingularcharactero{ $.
For an ininitesimal Lorentz transformation,
'
ep,:
tr:'r_
'rr'r*
ep,
The derivative terms have been symmetrized witl.r respect to the operationof integrationby parts, a process
the matrix I can be written
which adds a divergence to the Lagrange function, and
L:l_iie*Sr,,
is thus without efiect on the structure of the dynamical
systm. In order that S be a Hermitian operator, the where
generalfunction JCmust possessthis character,
Sr,*: -Sr,1 u' v:0,
rc(il1:3c(il'
and the numerical matrices ?L,; p-0, 1, 2, 3 (ra:ixs,
? t 4 : t U o Jm u s t b e s k e r v - H e r m i t i a n ,
2 l p 1 : ? I r h x :- \ p t
p:(), 1,2,3.
(12)
Lr"WuL:ru,4,,.
lhe same
\\'e shall supposell)at the source possesses
transformation properties as the field. The condition
for the source term of the Lagrange function to be a
scalar is then siven bv
cvpt
(14)
3.
(15)
Su,t
or
(ss!,)1: ($s,,),
360
THEORY
OF OUANTIZED
^f
fanc^r
: +(?1,a,+?{,du).
?{(ua,)
68 : 6x?lrapx- d"x?1"0x- arc+ I (dxSt+ f$6x)
*6rui (xsauE+ a,t$il * a"[] (x?{u61- 61?[u1)].
Hence, on applying the principle of stationary action
to coordinate and field variations, separately, we obtain
(18)
6?,C:6xaplpx- A,x2lu6x++(6xst*f$6x),
G-
-DxU*r)*1,,6r,]l
| do"[ (\U"6x
J n
(dr)[6f+(d,6.r.,)r,,1
d,
fol
6(Wn\: |
Ql)
rvhile the surface terms yield, on oy and o2, the infinitesimal generator
and
6 ( d , x ): d u d ( x ) - ( 0* 3 r , ) 0 , y
iL(auor,)s",x,
6(f):6*ud,{.
717
FIELDS
(dr)[6"c-6.r,a,ru"lou(7,,6x"\f,
J n,
where
T * : s,6* - t Q\I'1no,1v-o pa{',1v)
-ii(g$S,a-15",t$f)
*lldr[x(9lr,sx,r*sr1,i?I,;)1], Qo)
G:
I rlo,[19i,01f I",6i',]
(2',2)
f a",l-aer,,1f
?u,6r,1.
6ilu:
fot
J o,
(d:)D$r:
fol
{a';1559.
Jo'
36r
718
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
p,:
I rtouT'r,,
J u,: I doxMx,,.
J
So:21,ru"u,r,rr,
G:G,*G,,
lvhere
c,:
f"ao,y\t,a": ["rto,6ylr,a,
and
do,T,,a*,:e,P"lle,,J u,
G
": f
of the restriction
The latter form of G, is a consequence
6{v,,:
Gx
d.oa2Iqo16x:
"
362
THEORY
OF qUANTIZED
719
FIELDS
decomposition
?I,:?J*tr)f!1,{:r,
?lro)t- -?IP(t),
E:S(t)+S('?),
$ori.:9u,,
s(2)h: -s(2),
2lP(2)r-?l!(2)'
Evidently there is a discontinuity in 6rx, on crossing
the surfacedistribution 6f, which is given by
The matrices of the first kind are real (p:6, ' '3;,
and those of the second kind are imaginary. We shall
-2116y61.
2?lrordrxl:
not write the distinguishing index when no confusion is
In the retarded description, say, 6g1is zero prior to the possible.
According to this reducibility hypothesis, the field
source bearing surface, so that the discontinuity in 6g1
is the change induced in 1 on (the positive side of) o. equations in the two equivalent forms
Thus, the surface variation of the external source
2?1,0,a: (agt /Ax)-EE,
simulates the transformation generatedby G", in which
-2?It"a &: (A'tc/Ax) -E "t'
on o is replacedby
?[<orx
?Iror
*?Irord
i : 2Irorx
*
:2lrorx- 12[<ordx.
(2s)
221u6
uq: (arclad)-Sf,
and
Gfic/aV): - (a,K/a{').
221,6u{: (afic/a,!)-En,
Furthermore, the generator
G,:J
f-f
d"vU,q6r:J do( U.",t'6rtv,
Q6)
f
-.
od
G ^ : I d o 6 2 ( ,D
JJ
f
l do{?{'0,6d)d.
Q7)
cu:
' J J la,g\ts,a{,:I dor_ltu6,l,t{.
,
lF , C,l:;15n7,: i15P
lx' G,f:iLax.
Of course,one must distinguish between these variations, in which only the ?lrorxare independent,and the
independent variations of all components of 1 which
produce the equations of constraint from the action
principle.
In order to facilitate the explicit construction of t-he
field commutation relations, we shall introduce a reducibility hypothesis, which is associatedrvith the
Lorentz invariant process of separating the matrices
?[u,S into symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts. We
require that the field and the source decomposeinto
two sets, of the first kind lttr:6, (r):f, and of the
secondkind, x@:V, tQ):n, as a concomitant of the
* Note addedin
hool:-Further discussionof this point rvill be
found in a paper submitted to the PhilosophdcalIlagazine.
@),66@')f : 0,
lo @),6oG)l : 1,1,
provided the source components are included,
[l(r'), 6d(r')]:
["r(r), ad(r')] : o.
363
720
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
rr('),De(r')t:{n@),6te)t:0,
coI;:11i.":?1i:Y:::?ISL"J#:o"i*Jf
insures compatibility with the field equations. We have
now obtained the explicit characterization of the class
of variations to which our fundamental postulate refers.
Let us also notice that
"'ra.rlt$"agr*.
rat
-Jd'
'u!'\\us'^'
f
r,r
6twrr: I
td'rq$ag:
'
r".
into6rwnt6,w12,
lvhere
crecomposes
f"t
f"'
6 r l lr : : I
J o t
and
r d . r r 4 t l a EI :
rd.rtr$69'6.
(dr)r/864- |
rtxll-Sta,g.
J o ,
*:H:i'::J'-:,il,1i'?li,.'J^^",:1';.:1'J,1
:l:1*T,i:fri':;:lL:i'.it"::lffii:Lthe
'
6"1',,: f
assump-
txq:
-14,
tatr:ao,
'x: Ltx'
such that
Lqr.l(tLr- -lI4
La'"!loLr:s5
r,
(2e)
and
ZI"SZ4:E,
K(Lq):K(i,
364
THEORY
observing that an imaginary Za is characteristic of halfintegral ipin fields. We can prove this by remarking
thaiall the transformation properties of Z4 are satisfied by
-riS'+)lr,
L+: exp(- tniSu)1-r exp(irrSu) : exp(
where Zq is the matrix describing the reflection of the
irrst space axis. The latter form is a consequenceof
721
FIELDS
OF QUANTIZED
we have
f"l
J *ro1t-J r,(o2\: |
(dxl'Ir51'.,r,-x,d,*i'su,){
Jot
Zr-1S1aZ1:-'!t''
The essential point with regard to the reality oI Ir is
that Su:iSro is a real matrlx, whence
6 a P , G 1 t -:
(dr')a,YSDt.
Jat
and
exP(2riS u) L t'
f"
( d . r tl r u d , - . t , 3 , * i . s " , ) \ 5 6 { .
6 2,J, r o r t : - |
say'
as.9r2'
same
eigenvalues
Now S1amust possessthe
Joz
spin
field,
which implies that /-r is real for an integral
and imaginary for a half-integral spin field. The re- The consistencyrequirement
quiremenl of time reflection invariance thus restricts
fol
(d.rr(6\)$6t:6'G,'
(6Gr),=|
fields of the first (B.E') and second (F.D') kind to
This
corre.
t
.
t
spins,
respectively.
half-integral
integral and
lation is also satisfactory in that it identifies the doublethen demands that
valued, half-integral spin fields rvith fields of the second
- (6x),: ,,0"x|!er'@,0
x"0 u-liS,,)x, (30)
kind, of which I is an even function.
"We have introduced several kinds of generators of
which is indeed true in virtue of the equivalence beinfinitesimal transformations. A criterion for consistency
tween (d1(*)),, induced by the displacement 6f!, and
of
the
evaluations
alternative
the
from
is obtained
' x @ ) - x @ ) , i n d u c e db y the coordinatetransformation
generators,
such
commutator of two
'*r: rri_6xu.
- i (6Gi.
(6G
Alternative forms of P, and /n, are convenient {or
i
G
t:
bl:
lG ",
")
the consistencYof G. and Gr. The following
testing
namely
(6G,)b+(6Gt.:0.
relationsderived {rom (16),
Ir* : exp(riSr) h:
G.:
and
fo'
G=
J
T. : S6r-
(d'r11$56.
o,
where
f"'
J.,
syu,: -suy,:if,1(2?I1"Sra*2Srr,i?Irr _
-?|S",-S,,i?[)x,
and
t,1.r\3.1",
r*o,a,rra.ttx),
/"' tr'o+
P,-
"",
1,,:
(dr')[r"3^rr,
- r,01TsulT,"- ' r
(1U"a,v- a"r?l,r)*p",1.
| d ou l s : 6 , , - |
but doesenter in
(dx)0xLIx,,
f
: |
Since
and that
J r,(or)-J r,(or)-
- r,o,l i'9,,)
a ^l- ix}Ix(:c,a,
x
"
!!
(r,0,- x
"0,*iSu)1?Lx*runr,+
r,Pxpl
ra',.*,- tlo,x,\!.
[
365
722
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
system are
3"(r-r')
and therefore vanish when multiplied by
x1p1*fr1*1t
. Furthermore,
p,o,:
-x?I,*,dt,x- I (t8xix$t)],
I dafK
J
(31)
P 1a ,:
y?I1o'd,*'1{p,6'1p,].
while those oI J,
arc
f
| dor1a,[JC | (19{,,,d,r,t
J
f
I dolJ
J r o , r * r: * ( n , P m -
and
f
I do1(2l,ouS1o,ar*Sror.rrtlror)1, (.i2)
i 6 ^ ( e , P , f l e u , J , , ): -
faofa*),?t,o,a*.
or
I o tt,:
6\P,:
I do6"y22lq,6x,
- r1i;p1o;11;].
f r1t;p1oy17y
The quantity p", is closely related to the infinitesimal
expression of the scalar character of 3C,
K (y- ii eu"S,,y) -cc (x) : 0.
6\ J u , : ,
CHARGEDF'IELDS
pp":0,
if 3C is no more rhan quadralic in the components of
various independent lields. We shall also prove this
without the latter restriction, but, for simplicity, with
the limitation that there are no equations of constraint.
The commutation relations equivalent to (30),
la, P,l:
lx, J -f:
-ia,y,
-i(x,\'-xd,JiS,")v,
imply that
[x, tr'u,]:S,,x,
where
N r,: J u,-*uP,!x,Pu.
6i:s6s-1,
($a;t:55'
[6, E-l?I,]:
[6, S,,]:0,
3(.(x-i6\Ex)-K(i:0.
We now write the general variation as
6() : 6y - ii @,6x,) Su - i6r.Ey,
"a
366
THEORY
OF OUANTIZED
(33)
a,jF-i+(tEEx-xE8$,
and yields as the phase transformation generatror
f
I dol*6\:Qdl,
f1:
J"
QG,) - QG,) :
[,','
(d.r)diQ8 6t - t8 8x),
723
FIELDS
(36)
(37)
and
}
{?Iot! e>@), {c+r (o',)?Iror
:{2t,0),y'1_;(r),/1-,(*')U10,}:0,
(38)
{?I<o
tt u t Qc),! et (r')?Itor}
: lldatl e{x), 9111
(*')2l1oy): i?I1ot6,(n- r').
(ditdi$61
J oz
:ilQ@),Gi'
W'rence
lx,Ql:Ex.
This commutation relation also follows directly {rom
the significanceof G1, indicating the consistency of the
latter with Gs.
We shall supposethat the matrix $ is an element of
the algebra generatedby S-121* and Sr,. It follows that
$ commutes with 6, and therefore that the latter is
explicitly Hermitian,
Et: E.
and
te>E:,1,18:0.
to:{,
,r:(? ;r),
, ^
. r
tL!^t ,, xdpV)-
i . . ^
' l
iLxd tY"t t, V ),
e+10'Yr'!l'
(3e)
and
: I0 @)rtot'/(r"')r<or} : 0,
0 <.il @), t tot{@)l
r40)
:
b <u*@), 0 @')t tttl Y rct6'(* *' )'
To express the now slightly obscured symmetry between positive and negative charge, we call ry'1; the
'charge conjugate field
{": (-s.-').F,
(41)
the matrix 6 exists and has the form (with the same
partitioning)
r* """'- o'
/ 0" _ i ", l
(35)
s: r(
)
\i
0 /
This describes a charged field, composed oI particles
with charges +e, the Jigenvaluesof 6. If threi similar
i.:.ttionrlte{", ee-e.
T h e m a t r i c e s" l p i P : 0 , ' ' ' 3 ,
obeY
'Y'i:E7*t-t'
and
?ut':
-S7rS-r,
(42)
367
724
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
THE ELECTROMAGNETICFIELD
The postulate of general gauge invariance rnotivates
the introduction of the electrornagnetic field. If all
fields and sources are subjected to the general gauge
fra nqfnrm
c tinn
C " ^ r : i U u , A p l - I { F w , . 0N A , - 0 , A u l
++FN'2+JpAp,
(43)
which can be deduced directly from the Lagrange function derivative term (39). Associated with the freedom
of altering the Lagrange function by the addition of a
divergence, are various expressions for generating
operators of changesin the field components. Thus, we
have the following two simple possibilities for the
derivative term and the associatedgenerating operator,
+lh* id,vl,
Ghl'):i
J
and
I d"{to,6*,
-+lidih,"1'f,
_f
Ghlr\: - i I do6,l,tp,{.
+ { a p F P "A, , l .
We write the general variation of ,4" in the form
6 ( Au ) : A 1 , - 1 6u ' r " 1 O ,
:6A u- l(3 uin,- A,6r,)A |(0,6t,t 3,5r)A,,
"which ascribesto ,4, the same transformation properties
as the gradient of a scalar, thus preserving the possibility of gauge transfonnations under arbitrary coordinate deformations. In a similar way,
5(F ) : 5Pu,- (dudir;)Fr,- (d,irJF"x.
(,1,)
(,1'),
c ({',,r): +G
+ +G
which indicates the origin of the factor (1/2) in the
generalEq. (26).
6 r ! { . r ' ): ,
Gx \ 6 t G ' \ / 6 A , ( r ) ) d l
"(r).
(4s)
368
THEORY
OF QUA NTIZED
p,
FIELDS
(46)
(47)
6J':0'6M"'
M":-M'u'
(s3)
where
^61
6tW,,:
|
Joz
(d)'\LbMpr,,,
a,ir: -i+(ttb'x-x$49,
(54)
cn: -
ao,n,"aa,:-
(s1)
a'a<o;ro16,4sr,
ff
do,oF,,A":
dabFo,,r,Aur.
(52)
5rw,,:
I', @.r)EJ,A,.
(56)
369
726
SCHWINGER
JULIAN
Th ic viAl/le f ha fnrm
Qp: I do)2F6s8266.
: 3pOx6M,x-0"3x6Mux, (59)
fr'r
6rF,,(r): if r,"G), |
[ F 1 1 ; 1 aG, r ] : 0 ,
Gp]: idFlo)1ly,
[F1q)11y,
f . .,"
d o l i \ n 1 nD
, F G t1 1- 16 mo , 1 1 , . F 1 0J y. 1 0 ,
J
(s8)
Thus,
0e) (6Fo a)- 6Mrorro)= - dordlr 116 | Os16M61pl,
d l o y D F q r:; 1d71; 4 D F 1 s-y 1d;1y1 ; 6 F 1 e 1 1 r ) ,
the
on
c,rrfare
6 F 1 e ; 1 4 ]d- 1 r ; 6 r u 1 r r o ,
6 F& 1e ) f : A( D 6 q o ; 1-r yd 1 r ; 6 m 1 0 y 1 4 .
In the retarded description, these discontinuities are
the actual changes in the field components on o. On
referring to the general formula (23), we obtain
661tn 61s1: ilFrorrzr,G-],
- dlrydm : ilF
d14dzz1o;1ry
G^].
<ot
ut
Lrt'.tt,
In view of the arbitrary values of 6zt' on o, these equations imply field strength commutation relations, which
are identical with (55) and (57).
We give a related procedure which also illustrates the
possibility of evaluating commutators of field quantities
at points in time-like relation. The two field Eqs. (47)
and (58) can be combined into (we incorporate E,
with j,)
- 0x2F
,": 6,1i,4-J ,) - a"(i r+J ,).
( d x . , ) ! 6 M 1 , ( r , ) q y e _x , 1 i
XIF -,(r),1"^,(r')1,
and r11is the discontinuousfunction
fdt
(s7)
gM u,:6m,A(rp),
rrnscino
(dr')l6M^^(jr )!.'^^(r') |
Jot
dpF,r+A,Fr!+dxF,,:0.
Jot
^
G^ :
d,/bjr J I
(r')]: g,
[Frnrro(r), l'1,,;1"1
lFcorr.r(r), F utot@')l
: i ( d 1 1 ;d11a- 1- 6 o rr . rd < u ) 6(,r - r ' ) .
na(r- x'):1,
:0,
5 0 2* o r
fio<r.o'.
(61)
1'n1'o'
r:o(ro',
and the advancedsolution of (61) rvould appcar. Subtracting these trvo results, we find
ilF,,(x), F^"(r')l
: ( 6 , r d t s a _6-, ^ a r d r - d , 1 d , d " f6 g * 3 , d 1 ) D ( . r : - . u , ) ,
in which D(r.-x')
provided by
370
THEORY
OF
141
FIELDS
QUANTIZED
'I'he
kinematical relation between the electromagnetic The resulting commutator
lield and charged 6elds, on a given o, is most clearly ilA
t?r
61 @), F10)1a (irl)]
indicated in a special choice of gauge, the so-called
:3ruut6"(x- r') - 0*16si D'(rradiation gauge,
:
(611y1n6"(r;r'))(r),
(62)
3o>Ao>:0'
r')
.,1ro (r) :
-'
(r') ),
f a"' o " (* *' I Uror(*')*J,0,
(")
(r')] : 0'
:
lA 6 Q),,4 1a(r')] [F.,,0, (r), Florcl(")
Jt
rvhere
D,(x-
f6l
P,(qr)-P"(o)-
U*ll" 'lAfi"J^7,
Jcz
ff
doF oxtf)6A o,
daF s0t16Aut: G^: J
J
and
5o:
f
J
6,t. (" ) : -
^-1*ua"- r "0u)Fx,
1a*174tM
[:"'
d o 6 F < o t t t t A -o . | do6F'o"u's'A'r"
J
*6M x"Fr,-6MxrF,xf.
When expressedin terms of the generator
"
fF1ol1*r(t),Ge]:o'
lArrt,Gr]:0,
fFqoylo("),Grf:i6Fo>ots),
restrictions
the
into
d.ccount
on taking
: 0,
dtll6.4rlr : dr6DF(o)(*)(")
*:
I.',,'
(dx)|6M
x,Fx,
I<tl: - d<*lD'(r-*')'
P\o\:
- J <t>A
(0)-+(Sx+xSf)l'
<*t*L(i p)+"I(0))'4
371
728
JULIAN
SCHWINGER
and
.'
P@:
dol+l\ 0.114(r),
F1*rrrr)-xglrordr*rx].
ln arriving at the expressionfor p1ny,the noncommutivity of lrol with 1 must be taken into consideration,
but producesno actual contribution, A variation of each
ar,:
a"7arru1111e)0sA1p1-6.111116,1,,1n111110)
-6y2[610p1al'
which confirms the consistencyof the translation generator with the various field variation generators.
P o p e r3 0
372
The Connection
Between
W. Peur-r
Physikaksches Institul, Eidg. Technischen Hochschule, Zilrich, Switzeildnd
and Institilte for Adtanced, Staly, Princeton, New Jersey
(Received August 19, 1940)
In the following paper we conclude for the relativistically invariant wave equation for free
particles: From postulate (I), according to which the energy must be positive, the necessity
ol Fermi-Dirac statistics for particles with arbitrary half-integral spin; from postulate (II),
according to which observables on different space-time points with a spaceJike distance are
commutable, the necessity ol Einstein-Bose statistics for particles with arbitrary integral spin.
It has been found useful to divide the quantities which are irreducible against Lorentz transformations into four symmetry classeswhich have a commutable multiplication like *l, - 1'
* e. - e with e2: 1.
(e.g. Sr:iSo,
the digit 4 among the i, k, "'
Sr*: lSo*).
the requirements of the relativity
QINCE
Dirac's spinors u rwith p : 1,''', 4have always
u theory and the quantum theory are fundaa Greek index running from 1 to 4, and uoa
mental for every theory, it is natural to use as
means the complex-conjugate of ao in the ordiunits the vacuum velocity of light c, and Planck's
nary sense.
constant divided by 2zr which we shall simply
Wave functions, insofar as they are ordinary
denote by Z. This convention means that all
vectors or tensors, are denoted in general with
quantities are brought to the dimension of the
capital letters, [J;, (J;n.... The symmetry charpower of a length by multiplication with powers
acter of these tensors must in general be added
of. h and,c. The reciprocal length corresponding explicitly: As classical fields the electromagnetic
to the rest mass rn is denoted by r:mc/lt'.
and the gravipational fields, as well as fields with
As time coordinate we use accordingly the rest mass zero, rtake a special place, and are
length of the light path. In specific cases,how- therefore denoted with ,the usual letters pi,
ever, we do not wish to give up the u.se of f ;p: -fm, arrd gik: gki, respectively.
the imaginary time coordinate. Accordingly, a
tensor I;r is so deThe energy-momentum
tensor index denoted by small Latin letters r, fined, that the endrgy-density trZ and the morefers to the imaginary time coordinate and mentum density G7,are given in natural units by
runs from 1 to 4. A dpecial convention for de- W : - T a r a n d ' G * : - i T * a w i t h k : 1 , 2 , 3 .
TENSoRS. DsrrNrrrox
$2. InnenucralE
oF SPINs
Lx*':x'-xo'
..tr'Jri5iiil'"'"s5il;;'i;;;;"
-since "been 1e3eand in whichslight
imorovements have
made. In view of lhe
uniavorable times, the Congress did not take place, and
publication
of the reports has. been postponed for an
the
indehnite lengtl of time. The -retation befreen the pr.esent
discussion of the connection between spin and statistics,
and the somewhat less general one of Belinfante, based on
the concept of charge invariance, has been cleared up by
W. Pauli and F. J. Belinfante, Physica 7, L77 (1940).
k:r
:
rnvariant
and
in
condition
that
they
addition
to
have
the
that
satisfy
determinant
the
*
716
373
SPIN
I Ll
AND
ui:
(2i+1\ (2k+1)
L,"u",
l:1
then U*(k, j) transforms according to the complex-conjugate representation rl*, Thus for k:j,
.{*:d. This is true only if the components of
UQ,k) and U(k, j) are suitably ordered.For an
arbitrary choice of the components, a similarity
transformation of ,t and A* would have to be
added. In view of.$1 we represent generally with
U* the quantity the transformation of which is
equivalent to A* if the transformation of U is
equivalent to A.
The most important operation is the reduction
of the product of two quantities
U{jt
k').Uz(j,, kz)
STATISTICS
components, with
374
W.
PAULI
718
(1)
LVU-:LU+.
Lku+:DU-,
This typicalform shallmeanthat theremay be
as many different terms of the same type present,
as there are quantities [/+ and U-. Furthermore,
among the (J+ may occur the [/+ as well as the
([/+)*, whereas other [/ may satisfy reality conditions [/: U*..Finally we have omitted an eaen
number of & factors. These may be present in
arbitrary number in the term of the sum on the
left- or right-hand side of these equations' It is
now evident that these equations remain in-
integral spin.
variant under the substitution
-Ei-*u*"-transformal
- t r a n s f o r m a t i o nion o[ the frrstkind" rveunderU- { ct" U+* U*c-i" wirh an
s t a n d -a
[J++(J+,
ht+-k;.,
[(t/+)*+(I/+)*];
arbitrarvspaceandtime functiona. By "gauge-transformaU-+-U-,
l(U-)*--(U-)*1.
tion of ihe secondkind" we understanda transformation
(2)
of the tYPe
l.da
,pr-et--r6it
a s f o r t h o s e o f t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i cp o t e n l i a l s
a T h e g e n e r a lp r o o f f o r t h i s h a s b e e n g i v e n b y X [ . F i e r z .
Helv. Phvs. Acta r3, 45 (1940).
6 See for instance W. Pauli in the article "Wellenmechanik" in the Handbuch der Phvsik, Yol, 24/2, p. 26O'
375
719
SPIN
AND
STATISTICS
T-LU+U++LU-U-a2Lr+ku-,
(3)
s_uu+ku++Lu_ku_+LU_ (4)
and hence change the sign under the substitution
(2), S+-S.
Particularly is this the case for the
current vector sd.To the transformation k;+-h;
belongs for arbitrary wave packets the transformation xi--xi
and it is remarkable that
from the invariance of Eq. (1) against the
proper Lorentz grolp alone there follows an
invariance property for the change of sign of all
the coordinates. In particular, the indefinite
character of the current density and the total
charge for even spin follows, since to every
solution of the field equations belongs another
solution for which the components of s6 change
their sign. The definition of a definite particle
density for even spin which transforms like the
4-corfponent of a vector is therefore impossible.
We now proceed to a discussion of the somewhat less simple case of half-integral spins.
Here we divide the quantities [/, which have
half-integral j-tk, in the following fashion: (3)
the "*e class" with j integral A half-integral,
(4) the " - e class" withj half-integral A integral.
The multiplication of the classes (1), . ' ., (4),
follows from the rule e2:1 and the commutability of the multiplication. This law remains
unchanged if e is replaced by -..
We can summarize the multiplication
law
between the different classes in the followins
multiplication table:
Lku,+Lh(u1,)* :lu+,ll1t1-'7*,
(r.)
(u-,)*+i(u,)*.
..
u,--iLI
,t\
\u/
+L(U+,)*ku+,*l(u-,sxp1u+r*+
u-,)*+>(u+r*(u*r*. a)
I ({/-.)*(
Furthermore, the tensors of odd rank (vectors, etc.) must be of the form
x1 2 u-,(g-,sx
s -, u+,ku+"+ L u-,ku-,+ L u+"u-,+ L u+,k(u-,)*+ L u-,k(u+,1
+ >.u+,(u+,)tt
+ L (u-,)*k(u-,)** L tu*,1*,(u+,)*+ r, (u-, *( u+.)*. (s)
376
W.
PAUL I
720
377
72r
SPIN
AND
STATISTICS
In
(r2)
D(x,0):9;
it
follows
114
D{x, xn):- - -FJ.r, xi
4rr 0r
general
f o r x o > .r
lNoli(t{or-rr)+)
F J r, x o): 1 - iH o\I)li K(rz- x o2
)',f f o r r l x o > . - r
for -rlxo.
llroJ"l*oL r=;+;
(#)^=":'o,(13)
(18)
378
w.
PAULI
Since the D function is even in the space coordinates odd in the time coordinate, which can be
seen at once from Eqs. (11) or (15), it follows
number
from the symmetry of X that X:even
of space-like times odd numbers of timelike
derivatives of D(x' -x" , xyt - K1t'). This is fully
consistent with the postulate (19a) for halfintegral spin, but in contradiction with (19b) for
integral spin unless X vanishes. We have therefore the result lor inlegral spin
t)f
)
l(l(,) (x', xn'), U*t (x", xo'
l l U t > ( x t t , x o t t ) ,U * k ( x ' , r i ) ] : 0 .
(21)
722
lA, s1:a313a
with the * sign. By insertiag the brackets with the
! sign into (20) tae haztean algebraic contrad'iction,
since the left-hand side is essentially positive for
x':x"
and cannot vanish unless both Uc) and,
I/x(') vanish.*
Hence we come to the result: For integral' spin
the quantization according to lhe excl'usion princ'iple
is not possible. For lhis result,it'is essential, thatr
the use oJ the DlJunction in place of the D Junct'ion
be, for general reasons, d'iscarded.
On the other hand, it is formally possible to
quantize the theory for half-integral spins according to Einstein-Bose-statistics, but according to
the general result of the preceding section the energy
of the system would not be posiLiae. Since for
physical reasons it is necessaiy to postulate this,
we must apply the exclusion principle in connection with Dirac's hole theory.
For the positive proof that a theory with a
positive total energy is possible by quantization
according lo Bose-statistics(exclusionprinciple)
for integral (half-integral) spins, we must refer
to the already mentioned paper by Fierz. In
another paper by Fierz and Paulill the case of an
external electromagnetic field and also the connection between the special case of spin 2 and
the gravitational theory of Einstein has been
discussed.
In conclusion we wish to state, that according
to our opinion the connection between spin and
statistics is one of the most important applications of the special relativity
theory.
417-*(llexo[;{ -(kxt+froro}]}.
-452
PHYSICS: J. SCHWINGER
PROC. N. A. S.
(1)
Here is the Lagrange function operator of the system. For the example
of coupled Dirac and Maxwell fields, with external sources for each field,
the Lagrange function may be taken as
= -..1/4[P, 'Y;(-ip - eA>)P + m+/] + 1/2[4, 'i] +
Herm. conj. + 1/4F,P2 - 1/4{Fp,, )A, - 6A} + J,A,X, (2)
which implies the equations of motion
'Y;&(-ib - eA,u)# + mi = 71.
= J, +ji,,
F,, = 6g.A4 - ,A,;,
(3)
=
where
j;&
e'/2[l, y4].
(4)
With regard to commutation relations, we need only note the anticommutativity of the source spinors with the Dirac field components.
We shall restrict our attention to changes in the transformation function
that arise from variations of the external sources. In terms of the notation
=
= exp iW,
2,
'2)
(F(x)),
(5)
PHYSICS: J. SCHWINGER
453
(dx)(bc(x)),
(6)
where
= (k(X))5ii(X) + "(x)(#(x)) + (A,(x))6Jp(x).
The effect of a second, independent variation is described by
l(b2(x))
i .J '
(7)
6v(+(*
))=
and
(4/(x))(A;(x'))]5J,(x'). (10)
although one may supplement the right side with an arbitrary gradient.
This consequence of the charge conservation condition, 6AJ;, = 0, corresponds to the gauge invariance of the theory.
A Green's function for the Dirac field, in the absence of an actual spinor
souree, is defined by
=
(dx') G(x, x')56(x').
J,0
(12)
xo'l
PHYSICS: J. SCHWINGER
454
PROC. N. A. S.
i[((A,(x)A (x'))+)
The differential equations obtained from (16) and the gauge condition are
+ ie tr 'y(6/5J,(x'))G(x, x),
-b)2S;,(x, x') = (x-x)
bA9;v(x, x') = 0 (= 6'x).
(18)
More complicated Green's functions can be discussed in an analogous
manner. The Dirac field Green's function defined by
= 0
PHYSICS: J. SCHWINGER
455
In all of the work of the preceding note there has been no explicit reference to the particular states on 01 and 01 that enter in the definitions of the
Green's functions. This information must be contained in boundary
conditions that supplement the differential equations. We shall determine these boundary conditions for the Green's functions associated with
vacuum states on both o1 and a2. The vacuum, as the lowest energy state
of the system, can be defined only if, in the neighborhood of a1 and U2,
the actual external electromagnetic field is constant in some time-like
direction (which need not be the same for a1 and a2). In the Dirac one-
(26)
exp [iPo(xo - Xo)]4I(X) exp [-iPo(xo - Xo)],
where Po is the energy operator and X is some fixed point. Therefore,
x -- or: G(x, x') = i(4/(X) exp [-i(Po - Povac)(xo - Xo)];(x')), (27)
O6(x)
456
PROC. N. A. S.
(33)
(x,Yr(;)jx')
yp5(x -
)(x - x').
(34)
t2A +(t)
J(Q)
+ ie Tr [y(t)G+],
(35)
-at2q+(t, {')
(- ') + ie Tr [-y()(5/6J(t'))G+]-
(36)
PHYSICS: J. SCHWINGER
457
r(a)
-(61beA +Q))G+-I
- (5/beA+(Q))M.
(37)
ef (d{')G+F(t')G+S+(t' t),
(38)
a()
Thus
(6/5J(Q))G+
M= m+
ielf(d))(dt'),yQ)G+rw)9+Q1, 0,
(39)
and
-aZ29+Q, {')
f(d t)P( , `)
With the introduction of matrix notation for the photon coordinates, this
Green's function equation becomes
(k2 + P)9+
= 1,
[,, k^] =
(41)
(42)
M = m + ie2 Tp [yG+rS+],
(43)
where Tp denotes diagonal summation with respect to the photon coordinates, including the vector indices.
The two-particle Green's function
(44)
= 112,
(45)
p - eA +,
thereby introducing the interaction operator 112. The unit operator 112 is
defined by the matrix representation
7r =
X2')
6(xl - X2')5(X2
x'). (46)
458
PROC. N. A. S.
PHYSICS: J. SCHWINGER
9;AV Q, 0'
6,D +(,i)
(49)
and the Green's functions that appear in these formulae refer to the 0th
approximation (M = m, P = 0). We also have, in the first approximation,
(50)
(51)
(,rr + M)# = 0,
and the two particle wave equation
0,
(52)
459
tions have been performed that we deal with wave equations that involve
the empirical mass and charge, and are thus of immediate physical applicability.
The details of this theory will be published elsewhere, in a series of
articles entitled "The Theory of Quantized Fields."
1 Green's functions of this variety have been discussed by Stueckelberg, E. C. G.,
Helv. Phys. Acta, 19, 242 (1946), and by Feynman, R. P., Phys. Rev., 76, 749 (1949).
The measurement of the absorption of soft x-rays, 8 to 12 A in wavelength, in biological structures makes it possible to determine the total
mass (dry weight) per unit area of cytologically defined areas in a biological
sample. Knowing the thickness of the sample or structure being analyzed
the percentage of dry substance can be estimated. For theoretical and
technical details see Engstrom' 1950.
Dry substance is an accurate basis upon which to express the results
obtained with other cytochemical techniques, e.g., the amount of specifically absorbing, ultra-violet or visible, substances.
The present investigation is an attempt to determine the- dry weight
(mass) of the different bands in the giant chromosomes from the cells in
the larval salivary glands of the fly Chironomus. The structures to be
observed, however, are just on the border of the resolving power of the
x-ray technique for the determination of mass. The results reported,
therefore, must be interpreted with care.
The specimen intended for x-ray investigation is mounted on a collodion
film circa 0.5 micron thick. This film supports the object in the sample
holder, a brass disk with a slit about 6 mm. long and 0.5 mm. wide. In
the first experiments salivary glands from Chironomus were isolated on a
microscope slide and the chromosomes transferred to the thin carrier
membrane on the sample holder. When examining the x-ray picture of
these chromosomes no details at all could be seen due to shrinkage effects
when the chromosomes were dried.
For the x-ray determination of mass the specimens must be dried before
they are introduced to the high vacuum of the x-ray tube. The water
must also be taken away for another reason: The high absorption of soft
387
P o p e r3 2
I. INTRODUCTION
'fHE
848
388
I C
E L E C TRO D Y NA N'1
849
D I SP LA C E M E N T
tion of nonreiativistic intermediate states, lvhere the and satisfy the difierential equations
Coulomb binding cannot be ignored, must then be
eA1,@)*ieal6J rQ))*ml
obtainedin a mannerreminiscentof the first treatments ly r(-i0 uof the Lamb shift.'g This rvill not be necessary in the
XG-(x' r'): a1a- ,"'7 (2'aa)
present paper since rve shall be concernedwith the and
hyperfine (spin-spin)type of interaction to tvhich only
i 0,1 eA+ r@) - ie6/ 6l r@))I mf
relativistic intermediate states contribute to the re- ly,(quired precision.ro
y6+ (t, xt): 6(x- n'), (,2.4b)
The practical goal of this v'ork is to obtain the splitting of the singlet-tripletground-statedoublet of posi- with the outgoing wave boundary condition. They are,
tronium correctto order a3 Ry. Previouscalculations,6-8 of course,relatedby the matrlr C:
accurate to order a2Ry, have included the lowest
(2.5)
G " B + @ , x ' ) : - ( " " , C t B B , G p , " ' - ( rt )' ,.
order contributions of the ordinary spin-spin coupling
arisingfrom the Breitlr interaction (the analogof rvhich
We shall now introduce matrlr notation for the
in hydrogen is responsible for its hyperfrne structure) combinedparticle coordinatesand spinor indices,and
and of the one-photonvirtual annihilation force, char- the combined photon coordinatesand vector indices.
acteristicof the systemof particle-antiparticle.The ex- Becausethe formulaswill get quite involved, the matrix
pressionfor the energyshift given in Sec.III, Eq. (3.6) indices will be erpressedas arguments, by numbers for
yieids these again in lowest approximation and contains l h e p a r t i r l e sa n d b y
! . f ' , " ' f o r t h e p h o l o n sa. n d t h e
as well the matrix elementsof all interactions which summation convention n'ill be understood. Functions
can contribute to the required accuracy.
ol one coordinateare to be diagonalmatrices; quanti
SectionIV is devotedto the detailedevaluatiorrof all ties alfixed with only one matrix index are to be vectors
the matri-r eiementsthat may be looked upon as general- with respect to that index. The arguments of the Dirac
ized Breit interactionsbecausethey dependpurely on matriceswill refer only to the vector and spinor indices
the exchangeof photons between the two particles. of these quantities; they will be unit matrices in the
In Sec. V we consider the annihilation interaction coordinates. Similarly, functions of the coordinates
peculiar to the electron-positronsystem. Fiually, the alone must be understood as multiples of the l)irac
comparisonlvith experimentis given in Sec.\iI.
unit matrix.
As an example, Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) rvill be tranII. THE WAVE EQUATION
scribed rvith the symbols I and S+ standing for the
A discussionof the one-particleelectronand positron
functional differentialoperatorsin Eq. (2.4):
Green'sfunction associatedr.viththe vacuum state will
a(r,;);
serueas an introduction to this section.If the notation
Q.a'a')
3-(rz)G-(23):
of reference1 is extendedto include the positron field
(2.4'b)
;
[+(rz)c+(23):6(13)
variablesQ'@), {' (") , and their sourcesthat are related
to the electron variablest@),0@), and their sources
G+(t2): _C(Lt')C L(22,)G_(2,1,). (2.5')
by the usual chargeconjugatingmatrix C,
II the mass operator M(12) is defined in the usual way,
cic-t: -t.
c: -4.
c'c:1,
() 1t
(2.6)
M+(lDGrQs):1n+Q2)C;t(2j),
,tr':C,l',,tt':C',1r. n':Crt, r'-C )n.
operator
where !J? is the functional difierential
the Green's functions are defined by the vacuum exDlt(r2): m6(12)+ie7c, 12)6/6t (0 ,
Q.7)
pectation values
^ o\
6l/(r))ol-o:
,l oz
and
fo'
ecch
(lrcpn'c
frrnefinn
G-(*, r'):i((!(x){,(x'))*)0.(r,
r')
(2.sa)
a.nd
(2.3b)
(G+(r2) )-1
: (6/ 6eA+(0)F+(r2)
(2.8a)
(2.8b)
389
R.
KARPLUS
?ot
Joc
A.
KLEIN
850
",.r
fol
anri I
AND
dnh,G-(rfiz,rih,)
: - F+(22')lyn-Qt')-
Jaz
M-(r|'))G--+(L'2" 34)
XEq(x1')6n'(x2'). (2.9)
-L
+ ie^/(8, | 3/) c (s'2)c (44,) (6/ 6J (0)G (4,s),
G+(rp2, *1'12')
- iey 22')C(2'1)C-'(33')(6/6"r(
Q,
t))G+(3'4). (2.17)
"
'I'he
( 2 . 12 )
wnence
G'y5+(rp2,
-
34)
: i e'?
t (t, 11')9+(f, ')t' +1.v,22')G' + (I' 2', jl)
_
_
ItJn- ( r, ) = M (1r' )lF + (22,) G-+ (1'2" 34)
*i.e'7(1, 13')C(3'2)g+(t, t')C-t(2' 4')
xt-(t"
I(12,l'2')G+(1'2"
(2.18)
r1'r2')
- Cp
o,C-t t yG.;
: G
and
F+(22')3-01')G+ (1,2,, 31): 6(13)
6(24)
(2.20)
390
851
ELEC
TRO DYNA
M I C
I(7"2, s'4')
XG-+(3,4,, j,,4,,)16/6eJ(l)f
XIF- (3" 3)F+ (4'' 4)l:
- ie,l^y(E, 7''s')
D I SPLA CE M ENT
tFt\12),
(2.25)
rvith
l-*(x, *'): 6(r.- r')17 u(- i0,'teA+ u@))*mf. (2.20)
We may now introduce the interaction
Iqrz,s+7:e-aB/r)r(r2,3e,e.27)
which enters the equation of the usual form for the wave
function,
lF- (l t )F+(22,
) - I (12,r'2,)1,t,
Q,2,) : O. (2.28)
To find the energy levels of the system, we seek
solutions of the form
{(rp2):
rz), x: rrxz,
(2.29)
(2.30)
(2.31)
+
(2,32)
+^A(r(1_' f-3)
l F - ( l 1 ,) F ( 2 2), - I ( t 2 , 7 '2 ') ) , 1(,t ' 2 ') : 0 , ( 2 . 2 4 )
andr2,13
related to Eq. (2.16).It is important to realizethat the
operators-F(12)alsocontainelectrodynamiccorrections. g+,"(t, t): Ql qA/2r)D+(E, t',)6Thesemay be obtainedfrom the corrcctionsto the one*D+Q(t, E')iF", Q.33)
particle Green'sfunction G(12), ol rvhich Ii(12) is the
inverse.IzFor the nonrelativisticstatesin which rve are
13Note that
r2R. Karplus and N. lI. Kroll, Phys. Rev. 77, 536 (1950).
,r:|i,Dr,,
Da=!iDy, D+@:+iDFo.
391
R.
KARPLIIS
AND
,{.
8.52
KLE]N
they become
tn: _ t. an*an*'p"(r)
f
X
l",tr,
{
*/rrat"(x,
(x, x,)
r')l I y21(t,x')l I a2po)
t')l
f
I d a x ' t d a t ' t ' Ix r ( x , x " )
(2..35)
III. PERTURBATIONTHEORY
Salpetere has discussed a method for finding the
eigenvaluesof the total energy of a two-particle system
describedby an equation like Eq. (2.30) if the interaction function does not differ greatly from a local
instantaneousinteraction of the form
6(r-r')6(l)/(r)
(x,:r, t;
i:1,2,3).
K!:
( 0 ,K o ) .
(3.7)
(3.8)
whence
AE: Ko- Koc.
(.3.1)
'Ihe
(3.e)
392
853
DISPLACEMENT
ELECTRODYNAMIC
dLtc"d4x"'I
Ktn(x,x")
, r')>
XIF vc(x", :c")l-Ll KIBQ"'I
r
-il p0(0)| rJ daxdar'(I
*'17.
orutr>,1,
l(e-&a
(4'1)
to evaluate AErr.
The spin matrix
simple,
has now
quite
become
X c r . c r ( l * c , . k , ,/ 2 m ) ( l * a z . k ,/, 2 m ) l
+(at . o2k2- o\ .kc, . k)+3(or . cr)[t,
2qr
(2r)3J
(4.4)
( 0 | . a t . k '/ 2 r n ) ( 1 - a 2. k ' / 2 m )
d'a
x,Ja
x' Pc(x)I x rs(*. x' t,p6(*')
:-
element
| d4xd4k\oc(x)eik.
''T'
'
f T' \'
'to''vo'ko'1
"Yo'll'ko'
;_
8,,"
L k,,
*
lpc\x), \+.2)
k;nk,,
R;'ft"'J
(4.5)
and the
since the 0-function implies that k'-k":k,
integrand has the necessary spherical symmetry. The
&6 integration with the usual treatment of the poles
yields
Sarl ,po(O)
l'? r
AEBr:
(2n)am2 J
nt2
( P 'zj
dle
,to't^:t"-ikte
nf
-6(k-k,+k,)
|2
! a 2n 2 ) 2 ( k t + I a , m 2 ) 2
:!r!!!f,.,a>)(43)
" (,"eolff
i\n"xmtl
since
the
denominator
never
vanishes.
'fhe
(4.7)
energy
393
R.
KARPLUS
z
X f ,Jk,/k',1k"6(k-k'ali'11p':
FLa2mzl1(E'fm)(E"!m)
'
ltnqz/ trzl-'?1
h.
mz-E'E"
k
X,
2E'8"
. (E'-m)(E"-nr)
at
d l x d o xe' - i K " \ x- x ' ) d X
kaE'1p"
k
I
-l.
kIE'*D"_l2ml
4EE"
854
: - i l,ps(0)l' (4nia)'
LE Bz(2)
4E'8"
h*E'lE"-2m
KLE]N
A.
'l'he justification
X(k"2
AND
(+.8)
"'G'
"<Q;Y##",)
|
X (h'2+ +q2n 2)-2(kt 2+ I d2nt')-2
{ ((k - E' ) / 2mE kk'') 6(k-k') (k'' 2+ ia2m2)-2
"\
x(,",!s!:?-'
\
F.,-(n-ko)r
2r
. ( u , . o .i )l t "' l e o ( u ) Il !l -l
J
4a
r
2q
r
\ZT)'
"')
G !" - ! -l (T'
"!
T t - ? u ' ? u 'P u
I '1r,"r't
E2- (n- ko)2
tnl
In the 6rst term both k' and k" are of the order am, in
the secondk'-m, and in the third k"-m. A cutoff ft,,
has here been introduced as a lower limit on the final
momentum integration. Its presenceshows that some
contributions of order a2| ,pr(0)] , to AErr do arise from
small values of momentum, contrary to expectation.
It will be seen, lrowever, that the direct interaction
I xzxQ)'and the second-orr'lereffect of 1{r, also cotrtain
c o n t r i b u t i o n sf r o m s m a l l v a l u e so f t h c m o n t e n t u m : r s
represented by the appearance oI ln(m/2k,,). Just as
here, these are being treated incorrectly because of
the assumption of free intermediate states that is
implicit in the derivation of the interaction operator.
t'(iKC lk)-n
[r-
@+ W
\
),
(4'l | )
where, as before,
Iiz:k2lm2-ie
(e)0),
};Kna>m
(1.12a,)
it nrl
hu't- Pz-Put-1,
(4.121t)
394
855
ELECTRODYNAMI
C DISPLACtrMENT
integration,
t!
lr
ir
\7
Y
ir
Itr I
b
(4.17)
(.5.1)
2
X l(kzf m2u2)2- (k2J m2u2
| L2(l - tr))
- 4m2(1- u - lu2) (h2+ m2u2)-3l
:ln(tr/m)!1a*1n(m/2k,,),
(.s.2)
* J.C'.lVr.a,Phys.Rcv.78,182(1950).
16R. P. Feynman,
W. PauliandF.
Phys.Rev.74,1430(1948);
Villars,Revs.ModernPhys.21,434(1949).
395
R.
KARPLUS
AND
A.
Tr[C-17;e1(0)]
:ll-
o'opt(o)
"'
h2dk{-?n2E-t(4k2/3} 2n2)
(5.3)
where
(C-\)
-1f1.
+ (tnz- + L2)k-2E
p'=TrlC-tttpt(O)l
Here
E _(h2+L2)r,
=lr- (a/zr)B
Trll d.k(rn,/
E)
^12"(2")-,
I
X (h2+ iq2nt2)-2| (l - r. k / Zm)
t
XC-tt i0* r.k/ 2m)l C-t^yft2/ 4*rl
eo0)
l
+ (i/zr)
(5.5)
(5.6)
in the second set of terms, which came from the regulating expression. One can observe that these reduce
to the first set when h:O il am there is neglected with
respect to fr. The integrations are similar to the ones
encountered in connection with Eq. (4.9) but made
more complicated by the regulator. If one erpands the
result in porvers of (m/L)'and keeps only the leading
fprm
nne
nhtqinc
Tr[C-r7;e1(0)]
:ll-
856
X I
X(C-\ ) y
"',p{o)",0,,
KLEIN
(d/2r)B ^l Tr[C-\2;,po(0)]
t(iK" - h))tol
(5.2), whence
Xlk p'zl-tlE'- (tn+ ko)'f-Lla, - (m- ho)rl-L,po(o) with Br given by Eq.
LE a1: - (r a/ mr) (1- 4a/ r)
XTr[po(0)zF]
Tr[C-r'y;e6(0)],
(5.8)
- (n- fr0),1,e0(0)1.
(s.4)
XlEz- (m I ho)zl-'lE2
I
In writing the contribution of the regulating term,
the last in Eq. (5.a), we have taken advantage of the
fact that a very short range potential has no bound
state so that the scattering picture describedby Fig. 1
is applicable. The total energy has been approximated
by 2m everywhere except in the correction to the
Coulomb wave function, rvhich comesfrom Eq. (A.9)
evaluated at the origin. Only a spaceJikepair-producing
Dirac matrix need be taken in Eq. (5.3). The trace is
evaluatedrvith the help of the facts that the Pauli wave
function has only largecomponentsan<1that the chargcconjugating matrix C is an odd Dirac matrix. After
integrating over fro with the usual treatment of the
poles and after spherical averaging of the momentum
C:C-L:
(5.9)
"to"yz
po*(0)
"B
a po,l,po(0)y
X [86"",68p,+]o
"""
"'
:-
Ieo(0)l'(s'),(s.10)
a'z).
( s .1 )
We then obtain the known effect of the virtual annihilationrs plus a large correctionof relative order a,
6 E " ' : ( r a / m 2 ) \ S ' z ) l , p o @ ) l ' 0a- a / r l .
(5.12)
396
857
ELECTRODYNAMIC
DISPLACEMENT
We norv turn to the contribution of the second-order prevents them from contributing. Since the wave funcsinglequantum annihilation,
tions in which the spin matrix elements are evaluated
have only large components,Eq. (5.18) can be simpliaE ^2(\, iTzd2m-,TrIpo(0)roC](C-tr)
Iied to
X[Frc(0, 0)]-'(z,c) Tr[C-I7;e6(0)],
(5.13)
ia2
A E d r ( r ) : - l 9 o ( 0 )l t
?
I d[hk!21k"2+L2l-a:ir2/3L2,
ar
xl
Jo
x((t rltGKc-k)-m)y"C)
| 9r(0) l,
FL
Nt | "a*7*12-y1'-4(r-y)-ief-r
.ro
(i KC - k) mft
"
- k) - nl1,\,
(S'rs)
(5.22)
I C-\,6GKC
(5.21)
3k,z(z-521.
T.
KC - h) \'z+ m'?l' l- L
X Ihe2(K c - k)
"21(+
(5'20)
(5.t4)
x (- C-' t,lt
7s:'Yt"t2"l3"fot^ls2=- l.
(s.23)
(5.24)
'I'he
f 2(s'- 2)(1-ln2)).(s.2s)
- h)^t* *,1,l-,
, d 4 k ath2 ( K C k ) , r l ( i K "
VI. SUMMARY
:6
'I'he
ftftf
J^
dependenceof the 1tS and 13S stales in positronium on the spin of the system is obtained by the
addition of Eqs. (,1.16),(a.17),and (5.25):
tE:
}a/ rf
brings the
tk x'((t n
-lJ.
397
R,
IiARPLUS
AND
A.
APPENDIX
The operator [tr.(13)F+(24)]-1:G-(13)G+(24), the
n o n i n t e r a c t i n gl w o - p a r t i c l eG r e e n ' s f u n c t i o n ,a n d i t s
F o u r i e r t r a n s { o r m sa p p e a r s o f r e q u e n t l y t l r a t r h i s
appendlr will be devoted to a discussionof someof its
properties.
fn connection with the second-ordereffect of the
virtual annihilation, there appears the tensor
_
t
dok"ou o'
-. /.{.4\
l m - t t ( i K-c l h ) ) L n' -t-t G K c - h-) f
x- ki'?)
(+Krc
t E2- (LKoctha)zllE'z-
LWh: (2.035+0.003)
105Mc/sec.
Theory and experiment are thus in satisfactory agreement.
We are grateful to V. F. Weisskopffor calling this
p r o b l e mt o o u r a t l e n l i o n .T h e a u t h o r s a r ea l s o
lne
l : db l , e d
t o t h e m e m b e r so f t h e I n s l i t u , t . e , I o r . A d v a n c S
ludy
Princeton,for an informative discussion'
858
KLEIN
i;Ji.IfTJ;.,ilJ.ilIi:,.T]''Jil':,Y;
iltimecoordinafts
,
lFxc(x,r'1f
':i(2r)-3
f
dkr;t r'-"r
J|
X.(hrllqrmr)Filt-t'),
(A.6)
where
(C-1tl)lFxc(0,0)l-'(ry,C)
:,
t
F o Q ) : L 7 s - o t u _ m ) )+t e _ i ( E + n ) t t t )
f2E
d 1x ' e - i K ( x- x ' ) ( c - L ? ; ) " " . G " , s , - ( x ,x ' )
f/
k'l
o,.k\/
o,.k\
|/
Xl I l+l l t * 2* m I
2m / \
[\
/
t h a t a p p e a r si r r t h e v a c u u mp o l a r i z r t i o nt e n s o r . rh2
i s e q u a tl o
(4o;tt"""
otk\
t)l
tt
I !le-ttz-^> t - ri(E+m) 1
x T r t l p - ; . x , ) t , G - ( x , , x ) 1 ,( A . 1 )
l yeq u r n t i t y
b y E q .( 2 . 5 )T. h i si s .h o w e l epr r, e c i s er h
i
--l^..lKc\2-K.cK
o'k\/
xlll+-ll1--l+-l
2 m' l 4 m 2 J
2 m/ \
L\
r
X G " p + ( X , X ' ) ( t , C t ul d, u
n :x ' r - ' n ' * - * ' '
k, /
;,\t*
c\
'
I cr.k-a2.k\l
l't
)l
(A'7)
v,(1- +vr)(Kc),I
xlza+["'dv
m2lf,(KC)'(1_V2) ].
Koc:2m-ta2m.
(A.2)
'#','(;-^-::)
(A.3)
(4.8)
eg\):
(2a/(2n)2)
f
| dketk'n
P o p e r3 3
OF
ONTHEMAGNITUDE
CONSTANTS
THE RENORMALIZATIOI\
EI-.ECTRODYNAMICS
IN QUANTUM
BY
GU){NAR KII,LI'N
\I
lith the aid of an exacl forntulation of the renoimalization method in guantum electrodynamics which has been developed earlier,it is shown that not
VV
all of the renormalization constants can be finite quantities' It must be stressed
theory.
that this statement is here made rrithout any reference to perturbation
Introduction.
In a previous paperl, the author has given a formulation
of quantum electrodynamics in terms of the renormalized Heisenberg operators and the experimental mass and charge of the
electron. The cor^sistency of the renormalization method was
there shown to depend upon the behaviour of certain functions
(II (p'), Dr(p') and Xr(p'z)) for large, negative values of the argument p'. If the integrals
(rr (- o\
\)a)a
de,
f3, (- o)
\
"
do
(i:
1,2)
(1)
399
4
Nr. 12
n'rr(- o).
f},(-")
da, \..
V
o0,
(2)
Jq',)a"
appearing in the renormalized operators, do converge.No discussion of this point, hov.ever, r'ill be given here.
Ir (p') : :+
1- 1;wt').r;
) , | <oli,1'S 1z
"y-
(3)
p\'): p
(4)
ofrp
In Eq. (4), (0 ljrlq, g') denotes a matrix element of the current (defined in I, Bq. (3)) between the vacuum and a state with
one electron-positron pair (for no>- co). The energy-momentum
vector of the electron is equal to g and of the positron is equal
to q'. The sum is to be extended over all states for which q + q' : p.
We can note here that, if we develop the function Z (pr) in
powers of e2 and consider just the first term in this expansion,
only the states included in (a) will give a contribution. For this
case, the sum is easily computed, e. g. in the following way:
400
Nr. 12
(5)
'lhe
for large
function Z(0) (p'z) has lhe constant limit
,{n,
'of values
Oz. This corresponds, of course', to the rvell-knorvn
for
the first-order charge-renormalization.We shall see,
divergence
however, that with the assumptions we have made here the
Iower bound for the complete If (p'), obtained from (4), is rather
similar to IIo (p').
An Exact Expression
Element
of the Current.
(6)
- r"
rp(B)idar"' .
I;,!,i ) vnlirt*),
(Cf. I, Eq. (5a).) The last commutator can be computed without difficulty if we,introduce the following formula fot ir(*)
ieNz
i r @ ) : =E,slr)
0 2A " . @ )
+ r _ Ltaiffi-
rvith
6:
6pit- L6r+6i,*
L6p+lAn(r) (7)
(7 a)
and
:
(r)).
s7@)
f;fO<"1,yrp
(7 b)
The expression (7) is rvritten in such a way that the second timederivatives of all the Ar's drop out. With the aid of I' Eqs. (4)(7) we norv get
401
6
Nr. t2
(r),
Lir(,rl,vG11*-,-*:
,'?, utlrt rp(3)l I
: -
-i"')
-=r7,TaT1"V(r)d(F
(8)
t i r @ ) , t t o r ( r ' ) J: - N ) j . ( 1 3 ) [ . r p ( ' ) ,f ( 3 ) ] d
-
pIV
t _ tfulS(t
(e)
t)y;rp(x).
9,,7a
1e;+ Iili l si ( 3 2 )
(11)
and, hence,
( o l l i r @ 1 ,{ 7 ( 0 ) ( 2/ () 3
, ) } ll o l :
# r ^ t ( 3 2 ) ( 0l t i r { O , A i ( 3 ) l 0 )
+ u'Iljf'u(ol.jp(*),{/(e),7<+>>ll
0)s (42).
(12)
oUl
(r}l
L i , , @ ) , ? t o r ( 2: ) Jn - ) j 7 , ( r ) , f ( 4 ) l s ( 1 2 ) d r l v 1
, L _r O G ) y t s ( * z ) E ^ p
and
t i ! -. <
. t 3 ) d x " ' ( o 1 ( F/((' ): ), ) l o 1: - ( 0 1 { o( r ) , t p ({ r, t' )
* 5 " ^ :B" -) ty n , p ( r ) d . r " ' ): l or >
s(r ) -*,]
[t
I
tt*'
j
Nr. 12
Collecting (12), (13) and (14) we get
( 0 | {[J& (0), ,p(o)
(r')), y{o)(r")) | 0 )
i+]+2(N-1)l6r1s(1 r)vf
(r2)
pI
-,
(15)
a-h
,.J
-"')jf
FI"'
( / ( B )f, < + l )l lo ) s ( + z )
U f ' " s ( 1 s )< o l l i p ( r ) ,
(0 | li
:
0) dr lv
r , @) ,A ,.(3| 0
)l) ta o {a +l1 oI h1,@) ,i 7@\l
:
ap,'ot''u(p)lptpt- oz6rtJ4\P\
-;t\
(16)
t''"1'[
L'
dPPin,*\w'')
e ( r 3 ) l ( o l t T r ( r ) ,A i ( 3 ) ll o l :
5tr+
e,r). )
(1i)
@(*) :
Obviously, rve have
,,
\-'"/
"fa\a l
dpeip'
u( p)n q') .
(18a)
@(3r):0
ryP:
( 1 7a )
-in(o)d(t-;"')
(18b)
a#+9
e '( * B ) o e u o f r l - T
- f r l ' [ e ( r B ) @ ( B r+) ]2 i n ( 0 ) d u * 6 7 . * d ( r 3 )( .t e )
o r:,^r o
403
8
Nr. 12
u u ' ;t ( l 3 ) z l s ( s z ) : o '
weger
(ol
-'
: -
(20)
I ine(p)rI @')l
d;f\o*"'too"o*u'(l')7"s(zz)lnQ'z)
(21
t i6r+f-sQ *)yns(r2).
Introclucing(21) into (1b) we obtain
( O| {[7, (r), yt(o)
(ct')], 1p@
(x:,,)>| 0>
nn
t
: re rr"' r - d p i ^ , y e r 3)yps(82)i - rr
er)
\a ' u \ (iLn'nr'or*",s(l
+n@)-ine(p)n(pr)l
-"'
c.r
al-
Pr"'
(r.r\
- r ' \ 0 r , , , \ d . r r v s ( 1 (30) l { f G ) , [ i r G ) , f f + 1 1 1 , 1 0 ) s ( 4 2 )
'-a'*z"g7fr1s(1
r)y,s(*2).
The first ter-m in (22) describes the vacuum polarization and is
quite similar to the corresponding expression for a weak external
field (cf. I, Appendix). The remaining terms contain the ano_
malous magnetic moment, the main contribution to the Lamb shift
etc. Introducing the notation
ie
nn
<z'"Ar\\
L'J
arar'tto'',r'+i,(x4tAp(p', p)
(23)
404
9
Nr. 12
o(*):]tt+u(n)1,
( 2 3 a)
(ol;r,lq,q,>
|
_
- ( 0 l 7 ; l' rq , q ' ) - Z < < n- t q ' ) ' ) +_z ( o-)i n l r ( ( q * q ' ) ' )
lt
*, i _-l I * ie( 0 l,t@l,t') Ar (- q',q)<01
v(o)
| q) .
|
(24)
L)
This is the desired formula for the matrix element of the current.
r'r'
I
(3t'1-ip(r4\
1 s 2 0{ ( r 3 ) 0 ( . r a ) ( 0 1{ / ( 3 ) ,
d*" r'ip'
! \d*"'
[,ru,
U o @ ) , 1 ( 4) )l o
l 1 - 0 ( r 3 ) 0 ( 3 4 ) ( o tl " r r ( " ) , { f ( s f) (, 4 ) i l | 0 ) } '
We treat the two terms in (25) separately. The first vacuum expectation value can be transformed to momentum space with the
aid of the functions
(26)
(27)
(28)
(2e)
ii:,,=i,
u1,;(
ffi
(3r)+ipr'+}Af)
rip'
@" p)
..
-'iP'(34)
nf)(P"
P)
:,:f.',:( :!.J^i!,'
r';,,.r';;-"
(30)
405
Nr. 12
10
Our discussion started with the assumption that all the renormalization constants and, of course, all the matrix elements of
and /(r) are finite. As this'is a condition on
the operators jr(r)
the behaviour of, for example, the function II (p') for large values
of -p2, and as this function is defined as a sum of matrix elements, it is clear tirat we also have a condition on the matrix
elcments themselves, i. e. on the functions A and B defined in
p ' ) d .T o g e t
and -(p(26)-(29) for large values of -p2,-p'2
more detailed information on this point we consider the expressi<ln
<r l l j p ( d , A f () * ' ) l l , )
L ozD (rc'- r)
_ r,,) D (r, * r,,)
: -' . -d*,,p,,.(*
*'
l L-o xro x,, +f ,\
(31)
u'ith
Frr(r-r")
(32)
(cf. I, Eq. (A. 8) and the equation of motion fol Au (r)). Supposing, for simplicity, that I z ) does not contain a photon u'ith
energy-momentum vector 1c, we have
("ljp(")lz, k)
t'-*r*,(
\Vriting
rrt (n)
dp"io@-*")
(34)
: *"5 41,i,<*^-*"')
(35)
dpein'-t"){FpQ) + inFri.@))
(36)
we get
.J
with
F6@) : e \ * r a ( p , p o *i .
(37)
(33)
406
Nr. 12
1l
t)\- t:
I)'-,+ p
p'-t-D
I::.It(P'Po):
Putting p :
A:
o'
( 3e)
( 3e)
lim )
|(
lirn )
"
(.i0 a)
po:>a Dt:'):p(.)+ p
and
Po )
Pl''):
(40 b)
('ljolz')l' : 0
- l i m' t|+ a
(41)
tP\-'-P\o'
if none of the states lz) and lz' ) contains a scalar or a lorrgitudinal photon. Because of Lorenlz invariance which requires that
Eq. ( t) is valid in every coordinate system, it follows, horvever,
that (41) must be valid for all kinds of states. If lve make a
Lotentz transformation, the "transversal" states in the new
coordinate system will in general be a mixture of all kinds of
states in the old system. If (41) were not valid also for the scalar
and longitudinal states in the old system, it could not hold for
the transversal states in the nerv system.
1) The case in which the integrals converge without
will be discussed in the Appendix.
407
Nr.12
L2
From equation (41) rve conclude that
lim Al+)(p,,p) : o
@2 a)
-(p-P')"+a
lim B[+)(p,, p) :
(42b)
__pr_>a
(a2 c)
It is, of course, not immediately clear that the sum over all the
must vanish because every term vanishes.
terms in (26)-(29)
What really follows from (40) is, however, that the sum of all
must vanish. If the limits in
the absolute values of (zlirlz')
performed
in
such a way that p2 and p'2 are
A and B are then
one of the p2's are kept fixed
kept fixed for ,4 and (p-p')'and
for the B's, equations (42) will follow.
To summarize the argument so far, we have shown that if
we write
(tP
rz 116\ \dpap'
tim F1(1,, P ):
p) (43)
r'o'Gr)+ip(r4)Fk(p',
o.
(44)
Pa.
,_rr,o)
Fu(p',p) : \:; FkQ
(a5 a)
-(p*p')'>
Introducing
the notations
ar
and
(45 b)
\(p',il:\+r.(p',pter)
With
lim Fo(p',p) :
-(p*p')'>
(46)
408
Nr.12
t3
0 ( r c 3 )a G a ) ( 0 J{ / ( 3 ) , l j o @ ) ,l ( 4 ) l ) | 0 >
-r
:,r1'"\
fi'
ip(r4)
apap,.'n'(3r)l F - * @ ,p, l
\
tl
(47)
al a)
lim tIo(p', p) :
(48)
o.
-(p-p')'->@
0 ( r 3 ) 0 @ a{)f ( 3 ) , l i r @ ) , 1 ( 4 -) 0
l )( * 3 ) 0 ( 3 4 )l i r @ ) , { f ( 3 )f,( 4 ) } l | , . .
) (49)
: 0@a )0@3 ){ f ( 4 ),l l
r@),r(3 )l } 0(r a )0 G3)lj p( ,) , { f( +) ,/( 3) ) l
and the canonical commutators. Eq. (4g) can aiso be usecl to
prove the formula
t, u')
(50)
which is, hot'ever, also evident from (24) and the charge invariance of the formalism. From the Lorentz invariance it follows that we can r,vrite
Ar(P' ,p)
* pt,Ga'a
Gr n'* ^)a' lypFa'a
t p*gt'el Qyp * nr)e (;t)
:f
g' : 0,1 p: 0,1
lvhere the functions .F., G and ,FI are uniquely defined and depending only on pr,p'r, (p-p'),
and the signs e(p), e(p,) and
e(p-p').From
(50) it then follows
409
t4
Nr.12
pes'(- p,p) : Fe'p(- p,, p)
(52 a)
(52 b)
- @ + q ' F+ r
* ( q + q ' ) '+ o
(54)
The equations (53) and (54) are the desired result of this paragraph.
Completion
of the Proof.
liry.(
{lIi,l
q,q') -: ( oITtor
I q,q')jI + n( 0)+ 2'I-r
r
r -Ll I I
-(q-q')'+q
(55)
:(olffrlq'q')E
Oul inequalitl' (a) nov' gives
n Q\)+
q+q : p
' .'*'
ZI <oI#'Iq'q')t,(?ry-1),
q+q': p
: n(D(
pz)
(#)
Except
e2 and
Lt- l
"r"
(56)
(T=-;f
of l/ being exactly
of
| (irra"p"naent
'we have then proved that, if all the renormaliza-
4to
Nr. 12
t5
1
I
and
are finite, the function
(1 _ Z)
N
oo. This is an obvious
II(p') cannot approach zero for -p,contradiction and the only remaining possibility is that at least
one (and probably all) of the renormalization constants is inIinite.
,1
The case ,A/:
; is rather too special to be considered seriously.
tion
constants K,
O, pr is an arbitrarily
Appendix.
It has been stated and used above that: if
f("):
where /(r)
and fulfills
,\:H-
(/(0) :
0)
(A.1)
lf (*+u)-
f (r)l(Mlc I
for all c
(^.2)
4il
l6
Nr.l2
anrl if the integral converges,both /(r) and l(r) u.ill vanish for
large values of the argument. This is not strictly true, and in
this appendix we uill study that point in.some detail.
We begin by proving that if the integral in (A. 1) converges
absolutely and if
lim logrl/(r)l:0
(A.3)
I->A
it follows that
lim l(c) : 0.
(A.4)
c->t
o"
(Note that the integral \ =+
is nof convergent ancl that the
n-tog_
e
J
vanishing of f (r) is already implicit in (A. B).) To get an upper
bound for f(c) v'hen c ) 0 we rvrite
:"5,9,,
: (J:"ffn1y,.,,
(A
r)
r(*)
('n
",..,
/f
t'
(? r'
(The limit
o is simpler and need not be discussed explicitly.) The absolute value of the first term in (A. b) is obviously less than
, ('l'
, f"l'
i\trrolldv(const
1\,ffr.*0.
uo
ll
(A.6)
Uo
The last term can be treated in a similar way and vields the
result
It'--,.
I o?-..'
I Ji,n
I uetp
l\#qoul=\l/(Yrlds-0.
"l:l
rru_r
UIB
(A.7)
,\P,.,1:
c)-.r(r-r,,1
\"*,,"*
.Fl'"*y)-,I.5"f
r(,
l,o.,,
|.!:+1,,,-,,
(A. {t)
412
Nr.12
t7
In view of (A. 2) and (A. 3), the three terms in (A. 8) vanish
separately for large values of c. It thus follows
lim l(c) :
t>4
q.e.d.
f(') :
ds;f Q) : o for yS o
+q
-'-
"\. ) 0 "
(A.e)
will follow
(A.10)
r(r):-#"\Pr'
where both /(c)
Note that
and f(c)
are finite.
r "fl---er)(z-c)
n2'
#\
-,o-,
I
)!z--
utuz
a',"* * '' tz' "-iw'lx-iw11t
l-t*rl
(A.1t)
.P
:
;\
dwrsi"(u-'):
d(y-c).
Dt'a,- [!14(')J a,
fT-qtu.r<
llclc
AU
413
18
Nr. 12
t /(r.) '
\'"'
,U
in many
Indleveret
I.'erdig
414
P o p e r3 4
I. INTRODUCTION
24r(re47).
388
H:H,^alH*"r*I1i'r,
(2)
u"^:Iax'LNtxhclkl,
(3)
415
389
SELF_ENERGY OF A BOUND
l1-*-I
lcs.;.pti0;mc2+V(rc)1,
e)
1.:1
n/
Hn": -L
nr'nr'
e s ,A
. (r)ti
t L
"r/,o;.
(5)
":(:
,:(;
;)
-:)
(6)
A(r):- rtP*1fat |
tr:l
(hc/k)rbw.eux
X exp(lk.r) f conj., (7)
| a x r t r * 1 x ;{ c a . p l B n c 2 l
lz(x) lrl:(x),
(8)
H inr+ - | dxq+1x)eo.A(x)t(x)
ff
* | | dxdx',1+6),1,9)(e'/lx-x'l)
JJ
Xt+(x')t(x') :Hr*Hc,
ELECTRON
(9)
I cr
:t
t(x):I
a"u"(x),
(10)
I ZEA"uda"+opafo'6,
aFt6
where
1rr
A.tut:- | | dxdx'u"*(x)u6@)
2J J
X (e'/ I,x-x'l)ur*
(x')u6(r'),
(12)
416
N.
for the states represented
functionals
M.
KROLL
AND
by the Schrtidinger
E.
390
JR.
D A <r><ot<o>tr>
(r) (r';
(13a)
A<,,>ato't<,'t,
*D
(r')
(13b)
a8+6
(r) (p)
(')
G)
* Ort,"r,")(')- 2
:
*
A <"tt"t<,tt,t,
L +A""""+L +A"""":Ws*Wp.
The static term
Aoo,o+L A""oo
I A c><ot<e>t'>,
E lot,rr"rro *E
G) (r)
LAMB,
and obtain
L
o(1.0",1r),6(0,1,), firstpicture,
O*(1"0,,1,) |
w.
(14)
/v^9rs
rP
r I\ -L \ - ,L .rl 'd d o p
- ILLF \ -L ./L .p .f . f . o .
Ws:L
P r'
rf
=+ ? *; J dxdx'u"*(x)u"(x)
X (e,/ lx-x' l)u**(x')u"(x'),(15)
r |r \! - L/
lrdapp
-\-/
L
*o"*
nF
by
"*2EA""oo,
use of a Fourier
representation
for
l/lx-x'l
_:
lx-x'l
and
tf
zLapta
'
:L
+4""""
(1/zr'z) t dk exp(zk.(x-x'))/k2,
r
(16)
may be written as
w s: e,/ao,)
f
d!
T + [ an.*rxl
X exp(ik'x)2,(x) d'x'u^*(x')
f
XexP(- ik' x')u"(x'). (17)
The polarization
tetm WP(a)
w,(o):T-o*-:;
a61+a61a61+a1rl.4t.lrplr"lcrl
(D(0aoy01"111",y),
xl
r'
ezr
axlu"lx)lz
dx'
_I+lz"(x')1'?,
Ix-xln
(18)
417
OF
SELF-ENERGY
39T
may be written
as
BOUND
ELECTRON
gres ls
?
Wptu): I dxlu"(x)l'ett(x),
(1e)
- l df 2k r
- E"))
( | (/k IH, Io) l' / (8,1-hck
[t
-5-
charge densityT-e
*2 I ((aIH' I ak)(pkiEtlp)/tuk)f,
(20)
which
induced in the vacuum by the external electrostatic 6eld. The energy trZp vanishes for a free
electron.
The second-order electrodynamic self-energy
Wn@) of the electron in state o, according to the
electron picture, is given by the difference of the
energy Wo(1"0,,1r) for the electron in state o
plus the vacuum electrons and the energy
Wo(0,1,) of the vacuum electrons alone. The
vacuum energy Wo(0,1r) is given by second-order
perturbation theory, and involves the virtual
emission and re-absorption of a light quantum of
wave vector k and polarization type tr. There are
two types of terms, representedby the following
transition schemes:
,/o+r*k1
I
landl
\rlk-p/
may
be written
as
fz
- | dk E tE (+ | (nkllJtla)l'/
J
r-r
( l E " l + h c k + E " ) ) + 2Z , ( ( a l I { r l a k )
x(pkllJrld/hck)1.
affects only
Symmetrization
and gives
f2
wo@):-ld.kLL
J
x:t"
/p-p+k\
\ofk+o./
1'
+fdktE
Jr-tn
X (+ (alHr lak)(nkllJrlnt/hch).
In the caseof the energy WDQ"0,'1), there are
added
which
the
transitions
additional
some
The last term can be written as
electron can make, and some of the previously
presence
prevented
by
the
are
allowed transitions
f2
(dk/h,)u L
of the atomic electron in state o. One has then
|
J
r:rn
the following types of transitions:
,zo+r'tk1
\r, |-k-p/
t,|
1a+r*k\
\r1-k-a/
/o+o*k1
/n*n-|k1
I
t,|
L
\a*k-a/
\o*k*o,/
r1a+ai-k\
l
\Pfk+P,'/
The difference of the two corresponding ener? See reference a, Eq. (40).
8 E. A. Uehlins, Phys. Rev' 48, 55 (1935), W. Pauli and
M. Rose. Phvs. Rev. 49,462 (1936), and V' F. Weisskopf,
Ksl. Danske Vid. Sels. Math.-Fys' Medd 14, No. 6 (1936).
i R. Serber, Phys. Rev. 48, 49 (1935).
ff
J J
(21)
dxdx'u"*(r)o'errz.(x)
X exp(ik' (x - x'))2"*(x')a'erran(x'),
'rvhichwill be zero if the polarization currentT-e
j(x'):el
+u"*(r')uu"(x')
(22)
is zero, In the absenceof an external vector potential, this current is in fact zero' so that the
last term in Eq. (21) will henceforthbe dropped.
It should be noted that two physically different
k-spacesare involved in the expressionsEq. (17)
and Eq. (21) for Ws and Wo'
418
N,
M.
KROLL
AN D W.
E.
LAMB,
392
JR.
| dxu"* (x)
|
NJ
ik.x')u"(x'),
(23)
where
H:a.p*AlV
Q4)
r.
(e2/4r2)
| (dk/k'z)
h>>(al
lpl la),
exp(tu.x)u"(x)
: exp(tu. x) (H / | H | )y+pu
"(x),
419
393
SELF_ENERGY
OF
BOUND
ELECTRON
where
Eh: (r+k')\'
no: lHl -E*,
)r_n
Do+:BrSP-t,
w":E"-1.
(31)
(s2)
(33)
(34)
t lr
r/ H
x{l-*1
/
l/(lHl+h-E')
(3s)
(36)
t\lr1l //
r,r
.(#,-') / tH|+k+E")
|"*;."-^1,)
(r/ lHl)*r:r/(E**^)
(r/(lHl +ft+8,))r+p
:l/(Dk++Lk+w"):1/Do*
-(a*+w")/(D.+)',*' ' ',
(r/lEl)t+o
and (r/(lHl+k+E"))k+,'
420
N.
M.
KROLL
AND
(32)
".(:),
V ) ) " . p * Z * 1- E ) 4 :
@ : ( r/ ( 1 + E - V ) ) " . p 0 ,
E.
LAMB,
394
JR.
__ | dx6"*p,e"
2J
-i@lp"la),
(40)
since l-E
and V are of order (v/c)2, and
f dx+"pn6" and (a lpa lo) differ only by a quantity
of order (a/c)6. One can therefore simplify the
final result Eq. (73) by expressing all operators in
terms of certain arbitrarily
we have taken to be
0 , u ' p , V , d 2 V ,B a ' n V ,
Vp2,pa, and V2.
Our reduction is obtained by using the following
relations betrveen expectation values
1+Bf |c.p-$pa{f,pa.dV,
(41\
p'-,r.p**pn*ttsa.zrV,
( a?\
. p p z+ c . p f
|Pc.nI/,
(43)
BV+V-lVp'z-i]r.nV,
(44\
0c'P-0,
//.c\
p2V+Vp2,
(46)
dV'p+-|22V,
(47)
s.rV+0,
148)
'n.-VXp-!a."1't!r2V,
\/s.pnVp2{,ils.*V,
B V a . p +- l B a . n I ; ,
a'PP'+P',
(49)
(s0)
(s1)
(s2)
0pn*pn,
rv.
s,
133;
(3e)
rq4)
BV2+V2,
w : H - t_+tc.p+ 7++p'-+Ba. rV,
(55)
(56)
ze,r-lpr* Vp"+Vr.
(57)
421
SELF-ENERGY
395
OF
BOUN D
ELECTRON
is the induced charge density calculated by various authors. To the order required, this is found
to be
pqx):(e/6n,)v,Vl
/f\
i+ | G,dk/Ek') |
\.-rt
l(e/60r')vaV,
* * c . p * 3 c . p f t ; ! f , P an. V - ( $ l o g ( 1 / E )
(63)
- ! tog2
| 1r/ 72)",v1"). (s8)
lf\
- (2e'z/3r)l l*
Wp(a):
In order to compute the low i contribution of
the term involving Dr+, it is convenient to take
advantage of the essentially non-relativistic nature of this region and to make use of the previously discussed large and small component reduction Eq. (37). One then readily finds that the
resultant expression has, to the order required,
just the form of the non-relativistic self-energy,
so that Bethe'st calculaticlr may be used up to
the frequency k;. The contribution is
| &'dh/Ef)
\J/
(64)
-1/4n I dx'vzV(x')/lx-x'1.
I
(65)
p(x',x") : - (e/Z) |
: * (e/2)
us++)a
wstwo: @/d ("1(;{,- row
*(".p/6)*i,6a.rV-
u"*(x')(Hi lHt)u"(x")
44
:-(e/2) I t t @/lgl),,
/l
| * log\E
- ! tog2
rrl /7r)"r1"),
*u"* (x')u"(x")
r:l
Y:l
\,u^r*(x')u*,(x"),
(66)
(60) un,
E u"u*?')u",(x"):6u,6(r'-x"),
(67)
we obtain
(68)
where
p(x'): (e/2) t + l u " ( x ' ) P
422
N.
KROLL
AND
TesI-p I.
2tsv,
Ouantity
VY
iPs.VV
-1t)
State
2tPVt
22P./,
0
r/6
0
-r/12
and find
p(x',x"):(l/8r3)
dk exp(-lk'x')
: (t /8r3) dk exp(lk.(r"-x,))
J
X (Spur//l1/l )r+n.1(x"), (70)
when1(r") is a constantequalto one.Since
p(x'):p(x,,x,),
E.
LAMB,
396
JR
(7r)
/e) -log2
+(23/24)-+7'(74)
we obtain, finally,
Yf,,E9#/i;],ii:i'l#ii;:;,i,".-,',J
p(x,):_
(e/,6rs)
X f akg
' p' u r 1 l l . 1 7 l ) g 1 r . 1 ( r , ) .
J
W.
(72)
(Spurf/|f1|)tlolutevalueoftheself-energyforastate,itis
convenient to attemDt a phvsical interoretation
in the manner used for the evaluation of the ofthetermsinvolvei.
In thiscontext,ltshould
static and dynamic terms.
be observed that even if the coefficients of the Z'
rv.rNrERpRErArroN
oFRESUr.rs il1'tt'JTff:*T;?.'i-":f::l'::$::#1T:
fact that
w(a)
=@/")("1(:
I aurcsnt)u
-(? awnta,,r++)2,
[
* @ . p / 6 ) - ( i / 4 ) 0 s . vv
+ (* rosfr/O- ] log2
rsl v
+ ( r t/ 72 )-rrU
)v, l a ),
( / J,
themselves as a
423
397
SELF-ENERGY
OF A BOUND ELECTRON
modification in the real charge and mass of the our self-energy expressionmust be found to give
electron, and thus be included in the observed a covariant expressionfor the free electron. We
charge and mass. We shall assume that these proceed by subtracting some free electron operterms have been so included in the observed ator from the operators contained in our selfcharge and mass and drop them from the self- energy expressionsuch that the self-energy of a
energy expression.The term in dpeu'vlzis just free electron is zero, thereby regarding the total
of the form of the interaction of a Pauli-type self-energy as contained in the observed mass.
Such a procedureis, of course,not unique: we
intrinsic magnetic moment with a static potenmake the simplest subtraction, examine the
shall
as
implying
interpreted
be
thus
tial I/ and can
an additional electronic magnetic moment of resultant expression, and then investigate the
a/2r-Bohr magentons, while the term V27 im- nature of the lack of uniqueness.Thus if one
plies a correction to the external potential, or, simply drops the (a/&r)o'p term from the selfmore specifically, an additional short-range inter- energy,one obtains
action between the electron and a point charge.
2e)
:
The term in a 'p is not subject to a direct physical W @) (d/ r) (al iA"' v lry4 + (+ log(1/
interpretation, and, in fact, must be regardedas
(7s)
+ ( 1 1/ 7 2 -t ( r / r s )
having no physical significance. Thus if one ap)
v
v
l
a
)
'
plies the self-energy expression (73) (with the
This expression can be interpreted as arising
B- and V' terms omitted as explained above) to
in the magnetic moment of the
a free electron of momentum p, only the term from an increase
2r'Bohr magnetons and an addiaf
of.
electron
yielding
for
self-energy
the
in c.p contributes,
given by
(a/.6tr)lp'z/(l-lp')il. Now if the electron is to be tional interaction potential
/
\
relativistic
connection
particle,
the
regarded as a
-(r/1s) tvv. (76)
6v.ff:
- I + los(l/2)+(1r/72)
between the momentum and energy of a particle
/
\must be retained, so that the self-energy should
contribute 68 and 983 Mc/sec., respechave the momentum dependence appropriate These
to the level shift.
tively,
-l/(l*p')'
isrs
that
to a mass correction,
with our subtraction prescripIn
accordance
corresponding to the term in p already subhowever, add any linear combinawe
could,
tion
non-covariant
term
of
the
tracted. The presence
operators of order up to
(a/6tr)lp'/(l-lnz;+], which is reminiscentof the tion of free electron
(u/c)a whose expectation value is zero for the free
be
can
self-energy,
stress terms in the classical
electron. There are seven such operators,\6 uiz.,
traced to the fact that the total self-energy is
l, P, p', 9p', a'p, p', Bpn. The condition that a
of
the
in
case
the
infinite. and can be avoided
linear
combination gives zero to order constitutes
free electron by paying proper attention to the
constraints, so that there should be four
three
k-spaces.ra
in
the
various
domains of integration
independent combinations giving zero
linearly
That is, in order to keep the total self-energy
free electron. A possible choice for these
for
the
over
a
finite
integrate
finite it is necessary to
is the following:
region of the light quantum space and the elec(76a)
a
integrates
over
If
one
st":l - 9-tp'-c'P*6P'*8Pa,
tron momentum space.
region which would be spherical for an electron
(76b)
%:pr-Bp,-*Pa,
at rest, a covariant result is obtained. One can(76c)
sl":pa-Fpa,
not, however, apply this prescription to a bound
electron, so that some other means of modifying
-0P2.
(76d)
Oa: a.p
13The enersv of a particle of mass z and morentum p
is (mzlpz)t. If z,is irodified by a quantity 62, then the
energy to nrst oroer rn ou rs
(m2! P2)r! 6m / (mz! Pz)|,
as is appropriate for
and the correction term with n:1,
the electron, is of the form given.
nA. p"is. Verh. d. K. Ned. Akad. v. Wet, Section 1,
19, No. 1 (1947).
The expectation values of phe above combinations are all zero for the lfree electron. Their
effect upon the self-etergy of a bound electron
depends upon their expectation values for a
-lfooFtor"
424
N. M. KROLL.{ND
\\:. E.
L.{MB,
lR.
398
moment correction indeterminate, while-the correction to the potential is left uniquely determined. Now a purely magnetic measurement of
the correction to the magnetic moment of the