FORM FOLLOWS FLOW

RE-IMAGININ G THE SKYSC RA PE R

BY JUNEY LEE
Bachelor of Arts, Arc hile<:ture (2007)
U" .... ersity 01 California. Berkeley

Submitted to the Department 01 Arc hite{ture. Febru ary 2014

in Partial Fulfillment of the Re1juirements lor the Oegree 01
Ma s!er of Arc hitecture at the Mas""chuseUs Institute 01 Tedmoto9Y
COP'lright 2014 Juney L..., . All Rights Res"r;"d
The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly
paper and electronic copies 01 this thesis document in whole or in part
in any medium n""" kn"""n or hereafter created

Signa ture 01 Author - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -0;;"" "

Jun",! lee
Oepartment 01 Arc hite<:ture
Janu ary 16th, 2014

Certiliedby _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~_~
Nader Tehrani
Prolessor 01 Arc hite<:ture
Thesis 5ul"'",;,or

Accepted bv - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -"ccccccccccccc

Takehiko Nagakura
Associ at e Professor of Design and Computation
Ch air of the Department Committee on Graduate Students

THESIS COMMITTEE
ADVISOR

READERS

NaderTehrani
Professor of Architectu rn

John Ochsendorf
Professor of Bu ilding TechrKllogy arKl CNil arKl ErnironmentaL Engirwerirl(j
Pa uL Kassa bid n
lectu rer of Civil and Ernironmental Engineering

FORM FOLLOWS FLOW

RE-IMAGININ G THE SKYSC RA PE R
BY JUNEY LEE
Submitted to the Department of Arc hite{ture. February 2014
in Partial Fulfillment of the Re1jui,ements for the Oegree 01
Ma ster of Architecture at the Mas,",,{ huseUs Institut e 01 Tedmo\o9Y

ABSTRACT
Skyscraper is a tJy-prodl.'Ct of 19th century American industrialism,
s.pir~. and disaster. The Gmat Chicago Fill! of 1871 was a catastrophe
that necessitated dense arKl Jdp4d reconstruction, both of which 1M
high- rise provided. The acddental discowl)' of this new typolcJgy
fortner ch;mged the cootem poral)' urban habitat.
!Almand reqlJirnd densil)( wtlich produced prof it. Relentless pursu~ of
maximum mass arid prof it in 20th centlJry NewYoOl City transformed
the skyscraper into shameless pu blic display of cash CfJNS for the
eUtest ilw of the cap italist society. Ens!awd t". its firkl nd"l incentrves.
the promise ~ once held was neg<lted t". repetitrve barlaUly.

Today. starch itects are desperatety prolongir.g the Ute of a typology

that has not been invested with reN thinkir.g or amMion since its

(Un ited Nations. n.d.). In 2012 alooe. U buildiflgS taller thafl 200
meters'Mlrn constructedworlwide (CTBUH . 2(13). In afl age when
eJ(ptosM! grcwth is flOt immif1lml but irnNitabie. the developing
sociebes contimre to -adopt the skyscraper as the symbotof its
modemity" IKooll\aas. 2(04). SkysCfd per is a cr~ical architectural
specimen that will flOt Ofl~ symbolize that 9 ruNth. but also
acrommodate arKJ susta ifl it.
The typology was born out of necessity. pushed to the Umits through
its fin;mcial ob}ectrves. arK! is noN polluted with ~afl ity of ce'o!brity
architecture. Too otJ;ectrve of this thesis is flOt to desigfl the .. p:l neet"
skyscraper. Rather. it challer.ges the ceflt ury-oW methods of
eflvisioning arK! desigflir.g skyscrapers ifl order to resurrect its urban
significarx:e.

inception (Kooll\aas. 2(04). Too intensification of deflsity it initial~

delivernd has beefl rnpta.ced by careful~- spaced isolation to maximize
its visua l supenority. Sky lirws of emergir.g eMUzations have become
test sites for celebrity arcMects to display their brarKJs wtlieh am more
interested ifl its pr?-ate agerKJa than greater pu bhc good.

By 2050. 70% of the worlds POPUlatiOfl will be wing ifl urban areas

Thes is Supervisor: Nader Tehrani

Title: Professor of Architectum

"","","lEE I "'-1.1. ... STEO OF

ARC"'''"","' T"E'" 201.

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF THE SKYSCRAPER

.oJ"EYUE I r.ln."'STER""A"""'T<C","'TH'SlS201'

Fig. 1 Sa",,, 01 doNnt""", Chica9<>. alter the Great Fire of Olicago in 1871

''-'OlLOWSflOW I

""~ ... ,,," ...

TtSI<";''''.I''R

BIRTH OF THE TYPOLOGY:

FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION
The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 destroys 3.3 square miles of Chicago.
A new building typology with higher density, and faster construction was needed.
At the end of the 19th centuJ)! Chicago
was Om! of the most prosperous cibes

out which ended up destroying near 3.3

square miles of downtown Chicago IBale,

of the United States. loca ted between

2(04). The prosperity came to an abrupt

halt, with much of its buildings gone with
thousands of its citizens abandoned on the
street. The city had to rebuild itself from
scratch. Quickly to meet the immediate
demands, and efficientit' to fulfill the
c<lpacity.

the unknown West and the civilized

East, Chicago played an important rote

economically and poUtically.

The rapidty grw;ing city was struck with a
colossa l disa ster in 1871, when a lire broke

A new building typology had to be invented.

in order to build denser and faster. while
pr<Niding safer habitats for people in order

to pf1M!nt arty destruction from future fires.

To meet these functional demands. the
high- rise typology was born.

... HEY l EE I

"n. ...SlER OF ARCHITCTURE THESlS2014

Fig. 2 W~ Butding Diagram5.louis Solli; ..... (l891)

"It is the pervading law of all things organic and inorganic, of all things physical
and metaphysical, of all things human and all things superhuman, of all true
manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the soul, that life is recognizable in its

expression that... FORM EVER FOLLOWS FUNCTION. This is the law:

- LOUIS SULLIVAN. from -The Tall OHice Building Artistically Considered" 118961

,.-,ou.awsflOW

"" ~ ... ,,, " ...

TtSI<";''''.I''R

Need for rapid recovery from the fire was the cause of demand for density.
To construct buildings taller and faster than ever before, new materials and
techniques were necessary. Mechanized elevator was invented and steel was
commercialized, and gave birth to the new, high-rise typology.

Fig. 3 HomeI .... ..",...,(l8&I).Chicago

Fig. 4

w~

Butding.(l89I).St l<>ois

Fig. 5 Retianre Building (1894). <hcago

t>j John Roo!. a-.artes B. AMtood

t>jAdklr& Stl.1Nan

"", .","lEE I

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Fig. 6 Vewol mOdI""", NewYori<. du~ng tile eartj 1900s.

EVOLUTION OF THE TYPOLOGY:

FORM FOLLOWS FINANCE
Demand required density, which produced profit. In New York, the typology was
pushed to new Limits with increasing financial incentives.
The steel frame office typology was
adapted by New Yorl<, where it un derwent
an explosive growth and evolution. In
Manhattanwhern plots well! small

phenomena where the street realm was

becoming engulfed by the mms! of extruded
boxes, depriving it of any daylight or life.

and tight, buildings rose as high as the

The Zoning Ordinance of 1916 prevented

buildings from becoming too box-y and

construction materials were able to

withstand. With!!'>'1!!)' site and its owner
attempting to max out its buildable air

rights. the city eJ(per;enced an urban

too bulky. and implemented strictloning

envelopes that forced buildings to step back
in elevation at upper levels. so that daylight

would reach the street lINels. This resulted

in skyscraper forms that were terraced and
variations of stepped -pyramids. Regardless
of the site corKlitions or loning rngulations,
the point of the 20th century skyscraperwas
to build as much as possible, and as high
as possible within the bourKlaries to pr<Nilie
the highest possible profit.

J""E't tH I .. .n."""'' 'R Of ... c;mECTUOETHESlS2014

"

Driven by financial incentives, various innovations enabled taller buildings that generated more revenue.
BESSEMER PROCESS
Methods of rapidly producing steel, known as
the 8essefTll!(' Process, eJOlbled stool framed
building to built much morn cheap,
HYDRAULIC !ELECTRIC ElEVATOR
Instead of using steam ~ke in Elish.:i Otis's
original elevator ifM!Otion, introduction of
the IlrauUc and electric elev.>tor makes
buildings the elev.>tors much easier to instaU,
call)l more weight and alxNe all, much morn
reliable, buildings taller than six stories much
moll! practical and h.:ib4table,

REINFORCED CONCRETE
While steet frarne achieves gJl!aterheights
with far less material rts lightness and
slenderness requirns laryl! masses in its
foundation that can distribute the load
ewnlyinto the grade beleN the building's
foundation. Commercialization of concrnte
and its gJUNing use in the construction sector.
alloNed the introduction of concrete buildings
and foundation designs that stmJl!jthened the
stool framed buildings,
1916 NYC ZONING ORDINANCE
Parl< RoN building was completed in 18'19,
and triggernd the city to mact to these tall

buildings that wern straight extrusions which

began to make the building look bulkyand
cast shad1M' at the public strnet level for long
periods of time during the day, The New Yorl<;
City Zoning OrrliJOlnce of 1916 rnstricted the
building from becoming straight extrusions
frum its base to the top, Series of setback
J1!gulations at different elevations well!
implemented, which is what made most of
the buildings in New York look like hoY; they
are today with stepped masses and forms,
The two supertaU buildings built duriJl!j this
period, the Chrysler Building and the Empill!
State Building, all! good examples of direct
consequence of this ordiJOlnce,

Unprecedented heights were achieved, and the modern skyscraper was constructed aU over the world.
CURTAIN WAll 8. J-NAC
lfM!ntioo of the curtain Willl facade system
all!1M!d iocrnased a mount of glass u5a(il!,
which in result a lloNed morn naturallighting
and generalviews out from the bu ilding, But
improwd lighting andviews came at the rost
of solar hea t gain through the windoNs, whkh
farred commen:ializatioo of MEP and AC
systems in building industry,

STRUCTURAL TUBE
Structural engi~r Fazlur Kahn introduced
the idea of exo-skeleton structurn, whkh puts
all of the buildings' main vertical and lat!!!<ll
structural system to the perimeter of the

building, These structural"tubes"wern a ble

to drasticalif rndua! weight, while iJlCrnasing
the height capacity,

TUNED MASS [).II..MPlNG

Structural tubes prwed to be ~ght and stmng,
but too elastk and flexible which made the top
of the building sW<lf too much, This ca used
unOOsirable romfort levels farthe occupants
near the top floors, To help the building resist
the swaying motion as much a s possible,
heavyweight or damper is placed near the top
of the building, to add a brt morn inertia,

BUTIRESSED CORE
Putting damp:!rs that arn not only big, but
take up valuable rna l estate at the top of the
skyscraper is cOlmter productM!, and a n
ineflk;oot W<lf of using the top prime levels
of the build ing, Idea of the buttressed rom t7y
William BakerofSOM strnngthens the corn
frum the bottom up and inside out, drasticalty
iJlCrna5es the strnngth of the corn a nd the
building, while keeping the p:!rimeters clear
frum big structural members,

J .... E'ttH 1 .. .n."""'' 'ROf ... c;mECTURETHESlS2014

..

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Home Insurance Build ing

(1884). Chicago

Barclay-Vesey Building
119271. Chicago

Empire Stlte Bu ilding

(19311. N_ Yo!1o;

Chrytser Building (19301.

New York

Rockerfeller Center
(1939). New York

byCASS GILBERT

t7y RALPH WALKER

SHREVE,LAMB &

by WILUAM VAN ALEN

by RAYMOND HOOD

f-lARMON

During the early 19005, architects and developers of New York built
skyscrapers to its maximum physical capacity. With the construction
technologies available at the time, they pursued whatever means
necessary to build to the maximum extents that the municipal
Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Raymond Hood

Robert Moses

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""""".

zoning envelopes aUowed.

During the later half of the century. new materials.

breakthrough engineering and rapidly advancing
construction industry allowed skyscrapers to be built
faster. lighter and taller. Skyscraper becomes adapted as
the symbol of growth and prosperity aU over the world.

Fig. 19
M. van der ROM

Fig. 20
Fazlur Khan

Fig. 21
Bruce Graham

Fig. 14

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

Seagram Building 11958).

New Yorl<

LewrHouse 119511. New

Yorl<

John Hancock
Center(I965). Chicago

World Trade Center

11970). NewYorl<

Willis Towerll9731.
Chicago

by LUDWIG MIES van der

RQHE

t7y SKIDMORE OWING5 &

MERRILL LLP

t7y 5KIDMORE OWINGS &

t7y MINORU YAMASAKI +

EMERY ROTH & SONS

by SKIDMORE OWINGS &

MERRILL LLP

MERRILLLLP

J .... E"ttH 1 .. .n.

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11

As skyscrapers become more predominantly driven by financial

incentives, its architectural exploration and urban consequences become
less important for clients. Straight extrusions are indeed the most
profitable mass a site can produce.
Decades of investment has been made by the construction industry to find
newer ways to build taller skyscrapers in shorter amount of time. What
was once considered feats of engineering and technology, has become
an architectural commodity that is easily constructed and repeated
anywhere in the world.

"The skyscraper has become less interesting in

inverse proportion to its success. It has not been
refined, but corrupted; the promise it once held ...
has been negated by REPETITIVE BANALITY."
- Rem Koolhaas ("Content" 2004)

Fig. 22 New yon. City. USA

Fig. 25

~ Korea

Fig. 23 fWng Kong. Chi""

Fig. 26 Sao PaU..o. Braz~

Fig. V Chicac}o. I.JSo\,

Fig. 28 Vewol B<.<j KhaI.iIa ill Oubai. UJ1ite.dArab Emirates.

THE TYPOLOGY TODAY:

FORM FOLLOWS FAME
More than just a provider of density or profit, skyscrapers become urban
monuments, distinguishing itself from a sea of extruded boxes.
By the tum of the 20th centwy. skylines

its complete disregard for its visual impact

around the developed countries became

filled with se a of unJl!wgnizable
skyscrapers. Such urban landscape is a
dime! result of the capitaUst society. While
these high-rises may have provided with the

on its context became a new stimulant

for a new type of skyscraper: the "urban

real estate manmt with plenty of revenues,

monument."

As skyscrapers with visual distinction

from the mundane norm began to define

the famous skylines. its iconic prnsence

and fame became the new priority for the
clients. In today's skyscraper landscape.
what client would want to be kmM'Jl for the
-extruded box"? Whether it is unusual form,
orwerwhelming height, this generation of
skyscrapers seek for the global fame.

J .... E"ttH 1 .. .n.

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Today, starchitects are desperately prolonging the life of a typology that has not been invested with new
thinking or ambition since its ince ption (Koolhaas, 2004).

C oogle
I skyscrape( (.ny .t.rchl~t Mme herel
skyscr_ rem koolha
skyscrope' uha had ld
skyscrape( bJ.rk. InglH group
skyscrape( jean nouvel
skysc'_ UN studio
skysc'_ hen:oo & <Ie meuron
skyscrape( toy<llto
skyscrSjXlf MVRDV
skyscr_ SANAA
skyscr_ diller ICofldo renfro

~I

Skyscrapers of eme rging civilizations have become test sites for cele brity architects to display their brands
which are more interested in its private agenda than greater public good.

2.

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """"""O'ER

Fig. XI

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

Fig. 33

Thornp>oo, Ventulell

<>M

Zana Hadid Ai"chilects

Cctv 12(12) -Be,ng. China

Dubai Signature T""",rs

IUnbuiI1I- Dtmi. Uo\E

"''''''
Cloud 1UnbuiU) ""',

The

StOnback~~

The Lagoons T""",rs

1UnbuiU) -Dubai. Uo\E

Fig. 34

Seoul,

'"

Ren Buitcling IUnbuil1j~.01ina

Fig. :!;

Fig. 36

Fig. ";!l

Fig. 38

Fig. 39

Zana Hadid Nchitects

WS AtI<ins & Partners

Gehry Partners

<>M

One Thousand Mll5eum

T"""" IUnbu.~ - Miami.

Trump Intematiooal Hotel

Ai>d T"""" llk1buil~ - 0uba0.

'"

King StreetT""",rs llk1buil~

- Toronto. Canada

Singapore TONers 1UnbuiU)

""

""

Walter Towers 11.klboil~ Prague. D!ech IeJiliic

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21

Meanwhile, coporate architecture has taken height as its motive,

to rise above the competition to distinguish itself as the "tallest in the world."

Fig. 40
~

Finanrn Center

Fig. 41

Fig. 42

Fig. 43

Fig. 44

Rltronas TOMlrs (11'98). Kuala

Taipei 101 (200\). Taipei

fbj Khatifa 1201~. OJtJai

OJ CY l1le ~ Partners

OJ SkOOlom 0Mngs ~ MemU

-,.

12OOl1.~

"""",

OJ KOOo Rldernoo & Fox

OJ Ceaser Rll,

Kingd<rn T......... (2019).

OJ Adrian Srr;th + GorOOn Gil

Skyscrapers become monuments and trophies, more interested in its ultimate bragging rights
than contextual or urban significance.
22

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""'"O'ER

''Vanity height" is defined as

the distance between a skyscraper's highest occupiable Hoor and its architectural top,

_.

JI

--

_.

4%

14%

-- --15%

7%

29%

11 %

~- ~

--~

4%

13%

-- -- - -14%

16%

30%

8%

35%

Of the currently the tallest tower and the tallest tower that is under construction,
nearly a third of its height is a decorative, architectural spire that is not functionally usable or occupiable,

2000

2010

2020

Fig. 47 Diagram .oo,..;ngltle _ rage height 01 tile twenty talle51 buil<lir>g; ill theworld by decades. (CTBUH. 2013)

Responsibly or not, talter and talter skyscrapers continue be constructed all over the world.
The rate of construction is also increasing exponentially each decade.
If) 1906, flot shortif after the birth of the
American skyscraper in Chicago. landscape

architect H. A. Capam catled the new

build ing type -a rnvolt against the laws of
nature and e<:onomics: He claimed that the
only rationalization for buildings so tall was
revenue and ego. Looking at today's trend
of tall building around the world, maybe it is
no coincidence that the majority of the most

recent 5upertalls am highly concentrated

in the Middle East and China. They rnspond
to artificial climate more so than natural,
and am starl< and concrnte expression

of tyrarmy amI ruthlessness of modem

busir\l!Ss: (HA Capam 19'061

..

""" .. FOllOWS f LOW I RE ' _ _ THf """""""".

On the contraJ)! rather than a rewlt against

the laws of eWJlOmics, supertalls can
be considered to be very expressions of
it. UnUke the I1Yramids of ancJent Egypt,
Versailles of France or Parthenon of Gree<:e,
the supertall phenomena in Shanghai and
Oubai are direct result of the mano;et, and
not an obsessive pursuit of single monarch
or a man, While they are the monuments
and icons of modem cities, they are also a
dire<:t reflection of the capitalist wortd and
climate we Uve in today,
Aside from the economic motives, growing
urban population is the fundamental reason

for the ne<:essity of supertalls, By 2008,

more than half of the world's population
was living in urban arnas, By 2030, this
number is expected to rise to almost 5
bilUon, which is equiialent to avera!il!
growth of 1,7 milUon people per year,
IGrimond 2(07) As urban areas get crowded
and <Nailable real estate be<:omes scarce,
buildings inevitably keep getting taller and
denser to accommodate the demand,
Construction of skyscrapers continue to
increase ewryyear, and their height also
get higher and higher, It is projected, that
the twenty tallest buildings in 2020 will have

(2,717 feetl - over half a mile high. Nov;,

an avera!il! height of ooar 600 meters. Until

twoyears before the completion of the Burj
KhaUfa, such type of high-rise building did
not exist. The term "supertall: which is
used to describe buildings taller than 300
meters, is no longer the standard oran
adequate eJlOugh term to describe these
buildings.

with work set to start on-site in January

2012 for .Jeddah's 1,000+ meter Kingdom
TONer by Adrian Smith & Gordon Gill
Architecture, the height of the 'World's
Tallest Building" will have more than
doubled in just over two decades. (Hollister
2011)

At the start of the 21st century, the Petronas

TONers in Kaula Lumpurwas the worufs
tallest building at 452 meters 11,483 feed in
height. Taipei 101 took the title in 2004, at
508 meters 11.667 feed.Then. in 2010, the
Burj Khalifa set JlI!W record at828 meters

Building taller than ever before is an

extraordinary engiooering feat, but the only
criteria that receives arty attention for a
skyscraper is its height. 'Worid's Tallest"
building no longer has the awe or mystique
that it once used to, because such tall

buildings are much easierto build at a fast

rate. These tallest of the tallest buildings
are measured against OJ)!! another by it's
height forthe ultimate bragging rights.
Buildings over 600 meters tall require
tremendous amount of irnestment eoorgy
to reaUle, and that much more to keep it
functioning after its completion. Rather than
reaching for the "Worufs Tallest Building"
title, Megatall typology must be critiqued,
and re -imagiJll!d for design potentials
that all! often overtooked over financial
incentiYes.

Rather than reaching for the "world's tallest building" title,

the skyscraper as a typology must be critiqued,
and re-imagined for design potentials
that are often overlooked over financial incentives.

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

THESIS STATEMENT & RESEARCH

Rather than reaching for the "world's most

skyscraper" title, the skyscraper as a typology
must be critigued, and re-imagined for design potentials that are often overlooked over financial and
vain incentives.

flOW OF FORCES

FLOW OF CIRCULAliON

Skyscraper is urKJer tremerKlous pressu re from tr-e fofU!s of flature.

15 them a structural form that the building flatural~ wants to be?

With ta ller bu ildings afld hig her flU moor of users. the way ifl which
tr-e build ing circulates is crucial.
Is tr-e traditional ellNator system still ~iable?

The typology must be re-imagined in its totality through the fundamental re-understanding and
re-investigation of the flow of elements that make the skys c ra ~rJ:!o ssible .

FORM FOLLOWS FLOW.

J \

FLOW OF ENERGY

FLOW OF PROGRAM/ CITY

Is there a way to use the Might of the buiWir.g as a source of

erwrgy?

Instead of a skyscraper that is an indilpemJ.imt otJtect, is them a way

it coo Ld be integrated better into the urban fabric?

01 DECENTlU.UlEOCOIIE

...

' ' '. . '''' ....noN " ' " " ......" " " _ _

-"'--"'

"--.~

FLOW OF FORCES (1 of 3) : MULTI-CORE

Break the convention of the singular centralized core, to increase the overall
stiffness of the tower with the same amount of core area and mass.
Service cores of the buildings are rarely

soUd bundle. Byvirtue of it being a saUd

located at the periphery of the skyscraper.

Rightfully so, since it is prnlerrnd to haw
occupiable spaces at the perimeter of
the building where daylight and ~Jews are
maximized. The corn of the building is the
spine through which the main circulation,

vertical mass, the core serves as the

main lateral and vertical structure of the

seJ'/ices and meaJlS of egrnss am enclosed.

These elements are packed tighHy into a

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE ' _ _ THf """""""".

skyscraper.
Conceptually, skyscrapers are soUd "sticks"

encased with peripheral voids. For a

building typology in which structure is such
an inteqral part of the building. does placing

aU the soUd and the strongest elements in

the center of the building footprint make
the most sense? The easiest w<lf to make
a linear structural member stronger. is to
distribute material to the periphery. This
is evident in the sectional profiles of most
commonly used structural members in
practice: hollow sections (tubes) and wide
flanges II beamsl.

A tower structure is essentially a

cantilevered beam or column with the
ground plane acting as a fixed support. The
critical force acting on a cantilever is the
lateral load. The lateral loads can be caused
bywind or earthquakes. Upon loading.
the members ability to resist bending is
considered to be its bending stiffness:
In engineering. the bending stiffness can
be expressed mathematically in terms of
a moment of inertia: Moment of inertia
(I) is defined as "the planar area about a
gNen axis that describes haN difficult it is to
change its angular motion about that ax is"
(Hibbeler. 2(07). Mathematicalit'. moment of
inertia can be expressed as:

...... sc ........ ..

where.
~ =

moment of inertia around axis/plane "x

y = the perpendicular distance from x"
dA = an elemental area

Basically: the stiffness of a cantilever is

a function of its cross sectional profile
(shape of the plan for a skyscraper) and
the distribution of structural material (how
much material is located ;may from the
bending axis/plane). This me ans that for an
arbitrary bending plane. stiffer and stronger
profiles will have materials distributed as
faraw<l( from the bending plane as much
as possible. Placing the material closer
to the bending plane does oot imprwe
its stiffness or strength. This is alsowt"ty
all structural systems are almost a!ways

placed at the periphery of the building (see

members colored in red in Fig. 49 and Fig.
50 next page).
Below (Fig. 48) is an illustration showing
the effect of ~arious configurations of the
core with the same footprint in planThe
blue plane shaNn is the bending plane x:
Distance".,. is the perpendicular distance
from the centroid of each element to the
plane "x: It is a mathematical fact that
placing the core at the center is structurally
the worst possible scenario. This certainly
does oot mean that the entire exterior of
the tower should be cwered with heavy
structural material. However. smarter
distribution of the core may drastically
improw its structural performance. without
increasing the amount of materialorcost.

1.385.1km'

I. 1 5.1km'

CAHT ...... ED . ... ..

x2.2 stiffer
Fig. 48 Comparat>.oe aoaIy;is oIvarious core

x5.1 stiffer

""outs 01 the same floor area am mass. and its moolfug efuel on the snllne.. 01 the!<>Mlr
J""E"t tH I .. .n."""'' 'R Of ... c;mECTURETHESlS2014

..

Centralized core configurati on is

th e unquesti oned default design
conditi on of th e skyscraper.
Th e obj ecti ve of th e secondary
stru ctural systems [typica lly
at th e periph er y) has alway s
bee n to sup port the ce ntraliz ed
core, and push th e ce ntu ry- old
model to its limits. Ove r th e pas t
century, structural innovations
for the skYscraper have always
been add-on systems to the
centralized core. and never
manifested into newer models bv
integrating itself with the core.
Diagram to tM right is the chronology of
tM structu ral systems of the buildirlgs in
tM past ce rltury that was once the talles t
bu ildirlg in tM world. TM IMlra ll structural
systems of tM building Icolornd in red). have
been different. and unrelated solu tions-- as
opposed to an IN olutiorl of a solutiorl. to
re infore e tM centra l core. What remai ns
COrlsta nt in all the to'MH"S. rngard less of
its shape. height or slerlderness. is tM
ce ntral corn. w hich is colored irl gray. The
-buttressed core" model of the Surj KhaUfa
is tM only system that is close to beirlg a
more directly integrated system with the
core.

~ _M

----

--_.-"--"-

,._ ,.
=

,---"

III

tHl

10

._-- --- .._-- _..

-- ---- -"
-- ---- --.
----

_.,--

Fig. '9 "World's TaIIe5\ Buitdir>g- Tit'e Holders ISinoo 191J -

~"""t)

A
".-,~

--'

Diagram to the le ft sl'lo.Ys the eig ht

buildings that will be tallest in the wortd in
theY)l9<lr 2020. All but three are variations
of the -cOI8-and-outngger- model which
IS probably the most widely used In Pr.lcti<:e
due to Its e<lse 01 construct-ability. It is
apparent that skyscraper are seeking
the easiest olOd the cheapest 5OIutlOll,

f'&9iIrdl9ss of Its shape. context or program.

The reluctance to explore f'leYII structur.1l
ode.7ls have brought typ:>Iogy ,nto a stanlt;tlll,
lacking 0Ir,r signs 0/ evolution or new
opportunities.

Skyscrapers t hat are projec t ed

to be tallest in the worLd
over the next decade, utiLize
structuraL systems that
are most co mmonLy used
throughout the world. Clients
are more inclined towards us ing
previously proven systems

'ii'
=

+:..:.c -"-'
"=j"

--.
------"
_.. -.
----- - - ~

---

to decrease risks, increase

construclability and reduce
overall building costs. However,
the economicaLly obvious and

safech9ice may not aLways be

the most structurally efficient
architecturally interesting...
contextually ap2ropriate. or even
performativeLyoptimal.

Same core area = Smarte r configuration/distribution = Higher performance

R, . O.25iJ t

R, . D.W t
29.8".,

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Fig. 51

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Iliagrarno; "hoNing lhe detailed elfIlcl5 01 various rom conligurn\iorn . 10 all options .00,.,., aOO.oe. coms 1.00,.,., in dari\er grnywi!h lhid<er ouliioel M.oe
""act the same area. The <><D..Ipial*' floor are3 also ",mains oorn\anl in all optioos.

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""'""".

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

n...I'!'I"I -

01 IlAINlAlN IlSAllE LJ.SE DEPHIS

...._-,-""
......... ........ -

II.1 IJ.RGEBUTOIHIISEOBASE
~

.,-"""

FLOW OF FORCES (2 of 3): SMART TAPERING

Refine the inevitable "pyramid" profile, whiLe maximizing floor area at the tip,
where the demand and the real estate value is the higest.
Stiffening the skyscraper/rom the inside
by~arying the configuration of the core is
effedive, assuming the building is firmy
fixed to the ground. In rn aUty. this is not true.
Inste ad, if the buiWing is assumed to be a
detached, rigid mass sitting on the grourKl.
its beha'lior around the base is of concern.

The ldteralload will cause a n overturning

moment. and push the mass to rotate

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE ' _ _ THf """""""".

around an edge of the base, and tip over.

The mass, with the help of its Win weight.

will naturally resist the l1>'ertuming. The

forces required at the base of the mass, is
a pair of coupled forces in both tension and

compression, at opposite ends of the base

about the bending ax is. The easiest solution
to rnsist the IM!rtuming. is to incrnase the
si ze of the base lsee Fig. 52 JlI!Xt p.:l!il!I.

Some of the tallest buildings in the world

including the Bur] Khalifa. are based on
different ~ariations of the tapered massing.
With the sa me base dimensions. the
taperod form is inhenmtly more stable
than the straight extrusion. H<M'ewr, the
taperod massing has two problema tic
consequences. Up to a certain height. the
taperod massing is effective. When the

,t

\
w

W-

M. W ' y

--

h/b _ lO

'1 l'
T _ C_

T! : lc

T _ C_

"

"

T_ C _ ~

T _ C_

!!

Fig. 52 The o;ertuming moment is the global. "fleet that the lateral. loa<i<; M.oe 00 the skys<:raper NarroNer the base. the higher cooJU>g forres 01 tens"", ITl and
rompre55ioo lei is neooss:ary 10 rn,,;& the o.oerturniog momool. Wider the base,loY.er the roupling 1oIms., aM hoooo sma\r struct..,,( members reqUrnd.

height increases, the length althe base

must increase as well. This results in floor
depths thaI are too deep at the base for arty
practical use, due to lack of daylight and
long travel distances. Also, the thinning of
the mass at the upper tip results in floor
depths thaI are too shallow, and hence
unusable for arty meaningful program or
floor layout.

Tape red form is inherently more stable than a straight extrusion, due
to its wider base and lower center of gravity. At extreme heights. the
tape red form becomes problematic. because the floor depths at the
base become too deep. and too shallow at the tip. While more stable,
the tapered form causes a significant amount of floor area to be
unpractical and unusable.

Increase base dimensions = Increased OveraU Stability = Deep Floor Plates

= TO'INer is too bulky and mostly unsuable

---

1:7.3
Fig. 53

---

1:5.7

1:10

1:5

1:3.33

1:2.5

Diagram.ooMng the "file! of incm,.,ing ,.,pee! ratio on l<>Ners 01 the same heq1t The t""",,," will naru-att; be more.!abe with -MOOr base. which msdts
in a laoyer,.,peeI ratio lhe~ "..." the fTl3)(irro.m klngth at base) HoY.e.oer. the depth<; 01 the floor plates berome so <Je.ep that ren!ra( ""'3 01 the t""",r
becomes unprncticat due to tack 01 <lay!q1l ";.,,...,; and long trn.oe( oo\anre5

Tapered massing = Decrease floor depths at upper levels = More usable averall

= Mostly unoccupiable soace at top (where floors are the most valuablel

Q ". -

---

.. . - _... -

1:7.3
Fig. 54

1:5.7

... -

1:10

... -

1:5

1:3.33

1:2.5

n;agram.ooMng the "file! of incm,.,ing tapernd ma5f>ir>g. While maintaining the same ,.,pee! rntios. floor Jiates can be made morn JI"'cIicaI. am usabe
t tapering the massing and thernt rnducing the floor depths. Howeo.oer. the tapering strate!l'l becomes a parado<. because the Dp 01 the t""",,"" become
uno<Xl.Ipiabe due to .t.aU<>N floor depths.

01

_--

++--:- W1NOPAS~THRU5
..........." ............
,--

++--

11.1 ROUCHXPOSUI!HACES

FLOW OF FORCES (3 of 3) : WIND CARVING

Split tower into smaller masses for: 1, more feasible floor plates; 2, minimize wind
pressure, the largest external force imposed on the tower.
For high rise buiWings,lateralloads
imposed on the building due towind is more
critical than the ~ertical gr.Nity loads. When
the building"s height becomes far greater
than its width at the base, wind load is the
most influential force in designing of the
<M!raU building structure. Wind velocity
and pressurn also incrnases expornmtialty
with incrnasing altitude, which makes wind

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""""".

loading even more critical for extremely tall

and slender towers.

Structurn of these slender tONers must

be able to transler eJlOrmous lat!!!<llloads
vertically dONn to the base of the building
where it meets the ground. Comb4nation
of translerring the lateral loads to ~ertical
loads. and shaping the tower mass into

an aero<tynamic form makes the shape of

the structural system to be the dominant
/actor in determining the shape of the tower.
Hence, for taU stender tONers, structure of

towers naturally is the architecturn.

.
".......
-.

-..

- --- \

..........-,-"'-,... ,.
- -"' ...............
"'_
.. ..... ..,-"'_
.-........
,. "_'N
~

~- -

--

.. t,-

_.

'-.

"

~ ~

~---

Wind velocity increases exponentially with rise in altitude. At 1600

meters abave ground. wind velocity is nearly five times faster than it is
at ground level. In theory. and according to most building codes used
throughout the world. the wind pressure is a function of atmospheric
air density. times wind velocity. times the square of altitude. Hence.
the wind pressure at 1600 meters in altitude. is nearly ten times as
much as it is at ground level.

Fig. 55 !/Ibo.oe) Diagrams in OO;OOoo,.ooMng

the efle.ct of attitude 00 wioo wOOty and
p""" ....... Basewioo """,d at 10m heig>l: is
asoumed to be 25 rrls. AU otherval.ues and
"'IllaOOrn are based 00 the rngionaI. ...;.-.d
code IOtm M~ty. 2013)

J .... E'ttH 1 .. .n."""'''ROf ... c;mECTURETHESlS2014

.,

Engineering of the skyscraper

has always been an effort to
resist and withstand wind forces.
Therefore, the final architectural
massing of skyscrapers are
always direct translation of its
structure. By using splits and
gaps as integrated features of
the building massing, the wind
pressure can be reduced, while
providing more opportunities to
explore unconventional massing
strategies.
The wind can h<Ne two major effe<:ts on a
skyscraper: 1, the dire<:t pf1!SSurn on the
windward side; and 2, the indirect pf1!SSure
on the leeward side that causes side-toside swaying motion, or othe!' unexpected
dynamic behavior, Taday's engineering of
skyscrapers arn focused on optimizing
the massing of the skyscraper as a single
entity, and optimizing its structural beh<Nior
against wind, Instead of tlYing to engineer
against the wind, could unfornseen
opportunities be discl1>'ered by tlYing to
engineer with the wind? Can wind pressure
be used as a design tool, to break the
conventional massing strategies instead of
simply rninforcing it?

42

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW 1 RE ' _ _ THf """"""O'ER

D
.

.<1
0..

.M

t> D.

'"

,. ,.,.,,

.~

... ..,.,.,..,

D
..
0
- t> D
.. ..........
<1
M

. .,.,
D

0
"

0..
0

0..

-.-

o
o

DO
DO

-_..-

o
o

0
0

--

.- -- ~ - .

Fig. 56 0iagr.Ims in pial>, .oo,.,;,-,g lhe efleet 01 vanatiro in ge-omelry and orientatiro on resulling wind
JI"'SS'-'""" Forms 01 inle",sts are I, Drag ldimcl....;.-.! press.....,l; 2, SWAY I",sult of indirect press """
such as vortex shedding); 3, Thru-wi nd IHaII"""", and Partners, n.<l_1

Fig. Sl

Autodesk FaIron Computaliooal. Ruid

Dynamics """"",is in Jiao. oIvariation<; of
a >quam 10Mlr.

Fig. 58 At.todesk Falcon Computational. Ruid

o,..amics anaiy;is in JIlan. ofvariatioos of
a cirrular 10Mlr.

Fig. 59 Aulode5k FaIooo Computational Ruid

Dynamics anav.;s in Jiao. olvariations 01
a 1000rwith rrUtiJ*> slils.

- - 01 GI!OUPCOI!ES aT

IIS(R

TWES

,
I SINGlH NTl!T ,

----

- - D2 NUlTIPU EHTl!T

FLOW OF CIRCULATION (1 of 3) : MULTI-CORE

Instead of a singLe core shared by aLL users, distributed cores that are dedicated to
specific user types will increase overall efficiency and reduce redundancy.
All users of a skyscraper enter through the
same entrance at the ground level Forlall

Unless the base of the building keeps

growing with the increasing footprint of the

skyscrapers, the number of users incrn ase,

and consequently incrn ases the rnquire<l

corn, the lower lINels of the skyscraperwill

INentually be filted up with elevator shafts
with increasing height of the building. By

number of elevators to service the building.

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE ' _ _ THf """""""".

diffusing the singular core into smaller,

user- specific bundles of elevators, the
efficiency could be drastically increased,
and wercrowding and redundancy could be
reduced.

500+ M: PRACTICAL LIMIT OF THE CABLE ELEVATOR'

..1_

--

Fig. 60

J_
--, --

l
1
-- --, --

",..-

--,

-- -_._---'-

Diagram<; i"elewOOn, r.hoNing the neoossaryelewt,... configurntioo for \"""'J'S 01 the same base di""""""", witt> increasing height 8.oen witt> the rompvter
asGisted, - destinat"", system- thaI has become the norm today, the oomber 01 neooss3ryele;ators and """Its start 10 taI<e up a suOOtantial amount alfloor
area. and therefore increasing the lease-abe ""!"'ciIYol the k>Mlr. AI lower '""""'" the \<>Ml' .. mootV JU5I
(/r<;cher,201 1)

""""'torn.

J""E'ttH I .. .n."""'''ROf ... c;mECTUOETHESlS2014

..

1+1-1--- 01 "lIOULEYARO"
~
""""N'''"",

1 CENTl!I.UZE08TOE~Ul.T I - - - t

,
'ALLEY"

FLOW OF CIRCULATION (2 of 3) : HIERARCHY

Establish a hierarchy of circulation, and layers of "vertical streets." Transfer levels
can be infused with public programs, and create" city plazas."
Cable elevators h<Ne a pt"tysicallimit on hUN
high it can travel, because the length and
the weight of the cable JlI!a!ssal)l become
too great with iJlCreasing height. Therefore,
the users of the upper levels of a skysc raper
must take an express elevator to a transfer
level, and switch onto a local ekNator to
reach the destination, The express and local
elevators am bundled into a single mass,

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """"""O'ER

and are often stacked on top of 000 another.

For an extremely tall skyscraper. where the
number of users am significantly higher,
the variety of prog ram types more diverse,
and number of elevators exceeding a
hundred, the intfU>'erted circulation system
within one vertical mass may become
problematic, It causes vertical separation
between various programs, and complete

disrngard for interaction between users,

which becomes an important variable as
extreme skyscrapers evolve from buildings
to true "vertical cities: An organized
hie rarct"ty of "vertical stmets" and platforms
will subdivi de the building into more wable,
city-Uke conditions, and allow various parts
of the skyscraper to haw reiationshipwith
one another. Uke an urban fabric does,

1----

+--1----

111 -

----

01 DECENTlIAUZEODlTS

D2 AlTRNAnYEMOOES

D3 ROUNDANCT

FLOW OF CIRCULATION (3 of 3) : EGRESS

Multiple means and methods of egress and escape routesj PLace vertical egress
corridors away from the center for increased redundancy.
COfMlntionalty: emergency egress stairs
and elevators are also incorporated into
the centralcore. With taller towers with

comprumised, hIM' woud the users exit out

of the building?

increased capacil}( the central corn would

house multiple eqress stairs to meet the

With a large number of people needing

capacity. In case of an emergency, all users

would congregate to the center, and exit
through the same vertical axis. If the central
core becomes structurally orfunctionatly

of the building, distributing the secured

and sale egress corridors thruughout the

to travel down the long staircase and out

footprint of the building helps decrease

the "bottlernKk" effect and a morn even

distribution of the egress traftic. Multiple

egmss corridors also means that them is a
mdundancy in the system. and ensures that
them is a!ways an alternatNi! W<1of out of the
building. if one corridor becomes unusable.
Distributed corridors also forces users
aw<lf from the center of the building to the
periphery as opposed to cOfMlrging them to
the same crowded location.

---""_
......... .......
...

I AODOHS'

- --;jt

---

,,"""
""" ....,"'
,_m_,-

1--- 01 SlIT I HEIGHT 5OUIICEO EHERGT

--

- - 02 INTEGl!ATEDCEHERAllOH

FLOW OF ENERGY (1 of 2) : HEIGHT AS ENERGY

Instead of add-on, "eco-blings" that are mere decorations without any significant
energy output, height itself can be used as source of consistent energy generation.
Skyscrapers consume trnmendous
amount of eoergy and rnsources to sustain
itself. Recent sustainabiUty movement
has inevitably made the typology morn
conscious and sensitive to its impact
on the emironment and the urban grid.
New strategies of reducing consumption
arn iocorporated into the design of the
skyscraper. and in some cases. featurns are

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """"","!'E"

added to geJll!f"ate poNer. More often than

not. these are add- on PHlCes that arn placed
after most of the design worl< has alrn ady
been finished. and function as decorations
rather than meaningful sourres of energy.
In addition. these elements are turniJle5
drM!fl by wind. or pootl1>'olt<lic p;lJll!ls
heated by the sun. Outputs of these featurns
are hea'l ily dependent on the unprndktable

and uncontrollable weather conditions.

Instead of using attachments that do not
even generate arty useful amount of power
output. can the height itself be used as an
energy sourre?
Height has been used before invemacular
arrhitecturn as erwironmental features.
Wind- towers of the Middle East are JlOtable

, .... '<
, .... '<
, ... '<
, .... '<

:n.,... OAOI'

' 7.01 '<

,u. '<
' UI '<

" ." '<

" ." '<
.~,

" ... '<

,~ "

'<

, ~,

" ... '<

""" '<
...TO '<
~,

.. '<

,~

-- ._- ..Fig. 61 I/I.bo.oel Traditional wnd-t"""',.. oIltle

Middle East region

Fig. 62 I/I.bo.oe righ~ Efilcl 01 rning altitude 00

all"flO&!lheric a ~ tempera! ...... and densi\)!
aa:onling 10 Atrnoc.pIleric Properties
Calctbtor based 00 Itle US Standard
Atmosphere 1976 Verr.ioo 2.lA. rnklase-d in

AugI..o;t 2(ffi I/Ierospaooweb."'1I. n.dl

,U. '<
If.''' '<
,

..

examples of this. using the natural stacking

of hot and cool air to passi.-ely ventilate the
buildings. Cool air tends to sink. and warm
air tends to rise. Within a skyscraperwhern
height is alrnady aYdilabte. this stacking
effect can be accentuated to extract energy
from the resulting air rrKM!ment. In a
generally warm climate. using stacking
effect as a power source is more reliable

. .,. .,.,...
. .,.,...
.......", .,.,.,.,......
.. ..'", .,.....
.,.,...
."

'1.,... 0001'

"'",...."

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....... ,"""',...."..

.-nuT'"" I"""' OI.ITIOIII

'

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.... .,,.,.,.,........

................. ....

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."

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than the traditioml wind turbines Iwhich

only wor\( on windy days) and poot<NOltaics
Iwhich do flOt work as well on cloudy daysl.
Turbines can be place at the base of the
tower where the vertical mowmeot is the
strongest. to generate clean energy around
the clock to service the tower itself. and
potentially its neighboring buildings as well.

J .... E"ttH 1 .. .n.

....... "

ROf ... ",mECTUOETHESlS","

..

---...-_--_......
"""

Fig. 64

.1

1Rq1~ ~r ootpuI ""!'OCiIies of solar

updraft ("""'J'S alvarious heq1ts and
"""s. A tONer thai is a kilometer tal!
can poIenti~ generate e""'-4> poNer
to SU5taOll200 tMusand households
lEb>schaert, LOO9)

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """""""".

POWER OUTPUT

DIAMETER I AREA

TOWER HEIGHT

50kW
40MW
10MW

0.25 km I 0.05 km'

200 MW (2ook householdsl

3.4 km /38 km'

195 m
750m
1000 m
1000 m

1 km/3.5km'
2.5 km /20 km'

-=1~f1't='--- 01 OI!IIHfTEQ INTAKE

.""-.....
--. -._
.. ...............
.""-"'

" " ' .. "

--

1 HOIIIZONlAlOUCTS 1

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--

,-1-

'"

. . . CMU . . . . . . . .

11.1 OI!IIiNTEIIEXNAU5T

- . ,,,.,

-" .......... -=-......

FLOW OF ENERGY (2 of 2) : TOP-DOWN M.E.P.

Air is cooler, cleaner and lighter at higher altitudes, meaning less fan energy is
required to circulate the air.
COfMlntionalty. the mechanical system of
a skyscraper is a nemork olvertical and
horizontal ducts. Central core feeds the
floors vertically with clean air. and then the
air is ventilated through horizontal ducts.
Natural\l. airdoos not mow sideways.
which is why buildings need to depend
on fans to ventilate air throughout the
build ings. Since the natural mowment of

air is up or dwm. could the horizontal ducts

and fans be eliminated by using diffused
vertical ducts?
Air is also coole!" and light!!!" at highe!"
altitudes. lighter air means that less fan
energy is required toventilate it. Cooler air
means less dependency on airconditioning
to cool the air dwm to a desirable

temperature. It also means that from the

point of intake. the air can be fed into the
building by letting it naturally sink into the
building evenly. instead of converging it
into a single source then redistributing it
horizontally. Vertical void elements in the
building can be used for dirty. warm airto
rise up and exit out of the building naturally.

J""E't1H 1 N.lT.""""ROf"'O:><"ECTURETHESlS2014

..

"""".

- - 01 DlSTRlBUTEO SlACKS

...

1 SINGlE STACK " .- _.

,"

'.,

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/'

. .....

"".

""

--

" ......... """'"

FLOW OF PROGRAM (1 of 2) : SUBDIVIDED STACK

Subdivide the skyscraper into smaller segments, and distribute program into
smaller stacks that are more appropriately scaled to form a livable community.
Skyscrapers typical!; have multiple program
elements. These prog ram elements am
stacked on top of each other to make a
mixed- use building. Different programs
types have varying criteria for the ideal
floor shapes and depths. For example.
laf"!il! continuous floors desired for offices.
physically do JlOt worll for residential and
hOlellayouts. where shorter floor depths

12

FOI<N FOllOWS fLOW I RE ' _ _ THf """"""O'ER

and proximity of each unit to perimeter of

the bu ilding is desired.
COflSequeotly. prog ram types are almost
a!ways grouped into single 10Jll!S. and are
rarely distribuled throughout the height of
the building. With rising height and groNing
numberof floors. This method of stacking
becomes problematic. A huoomd floors

of msioontial sitting on top of a hundred

floors of holel and a huoomd floors of office
causes inlernal isolation of each of the
program types. With the large numberof
people in the building at aroygiven type in
a building of this magnitude. scaling dwm
the internal organiz ation to a more human
aoo ""Wable" neighborhood scale must be
addmssed.

TypicaHy, skyscrapers are singular stacks of programs, with each stack having no
relationship with one another.

"

-ij-

-"

-- --

~--

~-

-- ~

Fig. 65

_I-----#-_

.-

--

- "[N"

n;agram; i"elewtioo. fohoNing the program stacking aoo di5tribt.600 01 the talle5t 13 building bythe)'l'ar 2020 ICTBIJ1. 20131.

As the building gets taUer, so does each program stack. With more floor area and users, it becomes
increasingly more important to distribute the program stack in a more appropriate scale and order.

__... ...

01 DHl'USE D .... , .

r
I

... . ....... ....

-....

U ~ I TED S Tll H TP!1ESE NCE '

" "" .,,, ""'"

"'''"._'''" ""

01 _AN fAB RIC INTEGRATIOtI

FLOW OF PROGRAM (2 of 2) : DIFFUSED BASE

Diffuse the base of skyscraper, for more distributed entry. More surface area along
the street also improves its integration to the urban fabric.
Modern supertall skyscrapers are rare~
fourld tight~ packed irlto a rl eJ(istirlg urbarl
fabric . Proportiorlal~. the area of entry of a
skyscra per is t iroy compa md to the <M!rall
size arid Might 01 the build ir>g . Because all
users 01 a skyscraper enter the bu ildirlg
from tM /irst lew floors . the first few floors
..

R>RN FOlUM'S FUM' I OE' _ _ THE""""","PER

01 tM skyscraper am all ded icated lor

entrance lobbies.lrl order to accommodate
tM massrve a mount 01 people entering arKJ
exiting in arld out 01 the build ir>g. arld onto
tM grourKJ p<anl! around the bu ild ing. large
plazas arKJ opl!rl a reas are rwcessa ry. Bases
of skyscra per are bottlenecks with Uttle

regard lor its impact on the su rrourld ing

street scape or u rb;m cont irlu ily. irlstead 01
a fl()(lal presences Orl the street lewl. the
physica l d ilfusiorl 01 the base could improve
oot on~ its structural stabiUly. but a Lso its
integratiorl with tM u rba n fabric .

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

PROJECT PARAMETERS & TARGETS

The strategies researched and explored in the previous section win be tested through the design of a mile
high tower. Designing at such extreme height wiU reveal both the limits and opportunities of the research.
Recent trends also show that the idea of a mite high tower is not a guestion of if. but when.

,,'."..a'- _.
,>

II'

--

_.

--

492.

508.

530.

-- -541.

Fig. 66 Total. ~ hei!tot 01 tile 13 tallest boildiJl95

.1

_.

c-

~-

530.

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf

"""""'">'E.

555.

597.

632.

tywr 2020 (CTBlA-I. 2013)

636.

_.

660.

828.

838.

1007.

1600.

Skyscrapers consume an enormous amount of resources for its construction and maintenance. Mounting
empty spires for the sake of obtaining the tatlest in the world status is not only vain, but also glaringly
irresponsible in an age of sustainability. The proposed tower witl have target vanity height of less than five
percent of its entire height.

"

II

-- -- -

-Fig. 67

I'

II II II
4%

14%

15%

7%

29%

11%

4%

13%

14%

16%

30%

.%

,5%

Total. mty he~1 01 the 13 taIIe5I building; bJ)'I'ar 2020 ICTBUH. 20131.

J .... E"ttH 1 .. .n.

....... "ROf ... c;mECTUOETHESlS2014

..

Target FAR iFloor Area Ratio) will be somewhere between 90 and 100.Actual FAR depend on local site
conditions and regulations. and is an educated estimation for this project. It is used as a design guide to
determine the approximate volume of the entire project. and is not necessarily an accurate constraint.

. . .=. . . . ------..oc::::::
........:::.;::
.......:::::::o::.
................................. .

'.

~
....

,,,
,,
,

,
:
...j~, :, ............
,,,

"".

-123.1

42.4

&3.0

99.5

84.6

84.5

95.4

Fig. 68 Total. FAA of the lJ taIIe>t buiI.<lir>g; bj)'l'ar 2020 ICT8UH. 20131.

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""'"O'ER

87.5

75.8

84.6

43.6

167.4

131.2

90-100

Skyscrapers of such extreme heights are possible only in specific geographic locations with social,
economic and cultural atmosphere to accommodate them. With the 2022 World Cup scheduled to be held
in Qatar. what is already a booming real estate market win see an even more explosive of a growth over the
next decade, and mega-construction projects in that country wi(( be imminent.

--

Fig. 69

-- -- -

Locat>oo of the 13 taI.le5t buil<lir>g; bj)"".r 2020 (CTBUH. 2013)

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Fig. 70

..

Citj 01 Doha. Qatar IGoogie Earth. 2013)

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""'"O'ER

Fig. 71

lusai Qty Oe.oe~t Doha. aatar Ilusai leal Estate

Oe.oelojmeot Comparoj. 2013)

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

..

""" .. ""-'-"""' FUM' I OE_' ",""",_ THE """"""PER

DESIGN PROJECT

SELF WEIGHT

!
I

,".,.".,"C<>mIO
'''''''
mo.""

01 WIND LOADINGANDTHE EXPOSURE

SURFACE

02 OVERTURNING MOMENT WILL FORCE

THE TOWER TO TIP OVERAROUND

03 SELF WEIGHT WILL RESIST THE

OVERTURNING

Skyscraper's overall proportion, and the dimensional relationship between its height, base size and its
resultant volume, determine its basic stability under lateral loads.

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_'",""",_ THt """""""".

1/2

04 SUBDIVIDE THE TOWER INTO BLOCKS

TO ANALYZE USING JUST SELF
WEIGHT AND LATERAL LOADS

05 OPTION A, WIDER FOOTPRINT, MORE

SELF WEIGHT AND LARGER MOMENT

06 OPTION B, TAPERED MASSING TO

REDUCE WIND EXPO SURE

ARM

Form is directly related to its stability, It is a function of its height, base, self weight, and exposed surface
of each subdivided block. With a form that changes in elevation, the shape of the pieces abave it also has an
effect on the piece abave and below it.

J""E'ttH I .. .n."""'''ROf ... c;mECTUOETHESlS2014

..

1 : 16

1 13.3

--

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Fig. 72

..

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110

1 : 8.9

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(Part 1) oIvari0u5 fomlS using Grn>shopper Ym'Ie me ...... IIle block i<; .!abe. 0at1<er the blue. more ul'6table ~ is.

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""""".

1 :8

1 : 16

--

---

1 13.3

--

1 : 11.4

--

Fig. 73

---

1 : 8.9

=-.-

1 :8

.---

.--

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-=.-

=:-

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110

---

=:-

--

Parametric ana;G (Part 21 oIvari0u5 fomlS using Grnsshopper Ym'Ie me ...... Itle block ...!abe. Oarl<er the blue. more ul'l5table ~ is.

J""E'ttH I .. .n."""'''ROf ... C;mECTUOETHESlS2014

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1 : 16

,.,

..

Parametric

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1 : 11.4

110

_.
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Fig. 74

1 13.3

_.

1 : 8.9

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(Part 3) oIvariou; fomlS using Grn>shopper Ym'Ie me ...... IIle block i<; .!abe. 0at1<er the blue. more ul'6table ~ is.

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE' _ _ THf """""""".

1 :8

._.

._.

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116

1 13.3

1 11.4

110

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-Fig. 75

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Parametric ana;G (Part 4) oIvari0u5 fomlS using Grnsshopper Ym'Ie me ...... Itle block ...!abe. Oarl<er the blue. more ul'l5table ~ is.

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"

01 IDEAL SLENDERNESS &

ASPECT RATIO

02 MAXIMUM VOLUME =
MAXIMUM AREA

VOLUME 15,6b3,420 m'

""'''','_'M"
",-.-,
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....

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03 SINGLE I CENTRAL CORE =

DEEP FLOOR PLATES

,,,.,..
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05 CYLINDRICAL CO RE ..
UNUSABLE INTERIOR

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""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """"""O'ER

06 RADIALI SPLIT CORE =

MORE EFFI CIENT

..

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04 LARGE ATRIUM ..
INEFFICIENT FLOORS

-- .... .

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'"

.)

OPTIMIZED DOUBLE
LOADED COR RIDOR S

'".,..,n,._'"
-,..-.-<,,.,,.....

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08 VOID CENTER FOR PUBLI C,

GAPS FOR THRU-WIND

09 STAGGER WING MASSES =

PROGRAM VARIETY

10 TORSION DIAPHRAGMS ..
PUBLIC "SQUARES"

11 DIFFUSED BASE ..
STREET INTEGRATION

_.""""', ""'" '"

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..,,.,.._-,'
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-,..-.-<,,"',

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14 'TOP"DOWN"M,E.P.
SYSTEMS

15 USE OF CENTRAL VOID ..

MAIN CIRCULATION

16 USEOFCENTRALVOID=
SOLAR UPDRAFT TOWER

,,.,..,' .... ,'m"'

"_"'-',,,",.''''

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13 CARVEOUTSOUTHFACING
MASSES
'''-,'""M o'

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12 SOLID BASE ..
STABILITY

_..

VOLUME; 15 025 352 m'

,-]

"
I

01 BASE MASSING

74

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """""""".

I
02 200m SUBDIVISIONS

.
03 PUBLIC PLAZA LEVELS

,!

04 GENERAL PROGRA ... ORGANIZATION

05 SUBDIVIDED STACKING

06 PROGRAJr04 REFINEMENT

J""E'ttH I .. .n."""'''ROf ... c;mECTUOETHESlS2014

..

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..

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""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """""""".

"PLAZAS" - PUBLI C TRANSFER PLATFORM LEVELS

RSlOENT'Al

OFFICE

':ALLEYS - LOCAL ELEVATOR S

MULTIPLE CORES, EACH DEDlrATED TOA USER TYPE

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EXPIlSSCORES J
EXPIlSS I3-DCKI HV.A.TORS

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LEVELS 1F - 33F

I.

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """""""".

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EXPRESS CORES J

EXPRESS I3-DECKI HW"TORS

loco,lCORES 3
loco,l HVATORS

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LEVELS 34F - 72F

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11

..I
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iii

lffiJ

EXPIlSSCORES J
EXPIlSS I3-DCKI HV.A.TORS

lOGO.lCORES

lOGO.l HVATOR5

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LEVELS 73F - 150F

12

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """""""".

..I
..

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EXPIlSSCOR5 J
EXPRESS I3-DECKI HW"TORS

loao.lCORES I
loco,l HVATORS

LEVELS 151 F - 350F

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.J

TRADITIONAL SYSTEM, VERTICAL CORE + HORIZONTAL DUCTS

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """""""".

STRUCTURE I ELEVATOR INTEGRATION

STRUCTURE I ELEVATOR / VERTICAL DUCTS INTEGRATION

OCCUPATION BASED ON ENVIRONMENTAL ORIENTATION

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SITE PlAN

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GROUND LEVEL PLAN

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TYPICAL LON- RISE OFFICE LEVEL

II

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TYPICAL MID -RISE HOTEL LEVEL

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..

TYPICAL HIGH -RISE PlAZA LEVEL

..

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TYPICAL HIGH- RISE RESIDENTIAL LEVEL

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Typical 200m Module

..

""" .. FOllOWS fLOW I RE_' _ _ THf """"""O'ER

Typical 200m Module

Cross Section at the Base

..

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JONEr.H I ~J.T."'ST""OF""C"THW"ETlSIS"'14

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

APPENDIX

Fig. 76

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, ..

Bibliography
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Ascher. Kate. The Keg iths: Anatomy of a Skyscraer. TM Peng uin Pruss. 2011.
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Cluckman. Ron. -How High Will They Build?" Popula r Science (2003).
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