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Preface
The nutritional need for fat reduction in the Western diet has been recognized for over
a decade. However, a thorough understanding of the technical complexities involved in
fat reduction in foods has lagged behind. This has constrained work in product development and, in many cases, has led to the development of less than optimal products.
Meanwhile, in response to the needs of the food industry, an extensive number of
ingredients has been developed solely for the purpose of fat replacement, using a variety
of approaches and base materials. In addition, some of the well-established texturemodifying food ingredients have been found to be effective in fat replacement. Thus,
over 200 ingredients are now commercially available, or are at different stages of development, that can be used to replace fat in foods. The sheer number of ingredients can
be seen as a measure of the difficulties experienced in matching the multifunctional
characteristics exhibited by fat in foods, and presents product development teams with
a rather onerous task. Meanwhile, the issue of fat reduction remains a priority area from
the perspective of both the consumer and the food industry.
The purpose of this handbook is to provide, in a single volume, as much information
as is practicable on the science and application of fat replacers in food products, including
the multiplicity of technological, legislative, sensory, and marketing issues involved in
fat replacement. Due care has been given to provide an international perspective and a
multidisciplinary approach. The book is intended not only for food scientists and food
technologists who wish to formulate new, low-fat food products based on an understanding of the ingredients available, but also for all food industry professionals, including
ingredient manufacturers/developers who seek information on latest developments in the
industry. Academic researchers and students of food science should also find the book
of interest. In short, we hope the book will help fill an important gap in the food science
and technology area.
Part I of the book, containing five chapters, is an overview of fundamental issues
important in the development of low-fat foods and ingredients used to replace fat. This
section includes a historical perspective on developments in fat replacers and a critical
assessment of available technological strategies, as well as chapters on nutritional implications, marketing considerations, the inter-relationships between physical and chemical
aspects of fat replacement and sensory quality, and legislative implications.
In Part II, commercially available fat replacers are reviewed individually and in detail.
In a book of this size, it is impossible to cover all the commercial fat replacers available
today. We have, therefore, selected a limited number of fat replacers each of which is
representative of a group of compounds. The chapters are arranged principally according
* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the
use of olestra in selected savory snacks.
** Views and opinions expressed by the authors of the various chapters are their own and do not
necessarily reflect those of the editors.
The Editors
Sibel Roller, M.Sc., Ph.D., is Professor of Food Biotechnology at South Bank University
in London, U.K. Professor Roller obtained her B.A. degree in Biology in 1976 from
Hunter College in New York and her M.Sc. degree in Environmental Health Sciences in
1978 from the School of Hygiene and Public Health of the Johns Hopkins University in
Baltimore. She then moved to England to obtain her Ph.D. degree in 1981 in Food
Microbiology from Queen Elizabeth College (now Kings College) of the University of
London. While remaining at the same university, Professor Roller worked for 3 years as
a Postdoctoral Research Associate on microbial fuel cells as alternative sources of energy.
In 1985, she joined the Leatherhead Food Research Association in Surrey, U.K., where
she initiated, developed, and led the research group in the Biotechnology Unit. As Head
of the Unit, she was responsible for directing numerous short- and long-term research
projects sponsored by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, the Department of Trade and Industry, the European Commission, and a range of national and
multinational food companies. In 1994, she was appointed to a Professorship in Food
Biotechnology at South Bank University.
Professor Roller is a Fellow of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (U.K.)
and is an active member of the Institutes Technical and Legislative Committee. She is
a member of Sigma Xi, the Honorary Scientific Research Society, and is a Professional
Member of the Institute of Food Technologists (U.S.). She is also a member of the Society
of Applied Bacteriology and the Society of General Microbiology. Professor Roller
currently serves on the Editorial Board of Food Biotechnology and has served on the
Public Awareness Working Party of the Bioindustry Association in the U.K.
Professor Roller has published over 40 refereed papers and patents and is a frequent
invited speaker at international conferences. Her main research interests are in the
application of biotechnology to food processing with special emphasis on developing
new and upgrading old food ingredients using enzymes and microorganisms. The enzymic modification of food polysaccharides to prepare novel fat replacers, gelling agents,
and thickeners is an important focus of her research work.
Sylvia A. Jones, M.Sc., Ph.D., is Head of the Food Product Research and Development
Department at the Leatherhead Food Research Association, U.K. Dr. Jones obtained her
B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Food Chemistry/Food Technology, including specialization
in Human Nutrition, at the Agricultural University of Warsaw. She was awarded her
Ph.D. degree at Cranfield University, U.K., following research on extrusion cooking
technology.
From 1975 to 1981, Dr. Jones was Lecturer in Food Science and Industrial Food
Technology at the Agricultural University of Warsaw, during which time she also acted
as a consultant for several food companies in Poland. In 19811982, she was Research
Fellow in the Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences at Queen Elizabeth College
(now Kings College), University of London, where she did research on the rheology of
emulsion systems. In addition, between 1979 and 1983, she acted as technical consultant
for a number of international food ingredient companies. She joined the Leatherhead
Food Research Association as Principal Scientist in 1983, and progressed through Section
Manager to Head of Department.
Currently, she leads a multidisciplinary team of 26 scientists involved in research and
development studies in a wide range of food product areas and novel processing methods.
Her department comprises five sections, namely, Food Technology, Product Research
and Development, Sensory Analysis and Texture Studies, Nutrition, and Microscopy.
Furthermore, during the last 12 years, she has been Research Manager for both the
Confectionery Products Panel and the Fruit and Vegetable Products Panel, thus responsible for undertaking research on behalf of some 400 member companies worldwide,
and has directed a number of innovative research projects sponsored by the U.K. Ministry
of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, and by the European Union. In addition, over the
years, Dr. Jones has developed and considerably expanded research and development
consultancy activities at the Leatherhead Food Research Association; at present, a major
part of her work is in the form of confidential and proprietary research undertaken for
individual member companies.
Dr. Jones is a Fellow of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (U.K.), and a
Professional Member of the Institute of Food Technology (U.S.). She has been a member
of technical committees of several food industry associations, including the U.K. Biscuit,
Cake, Chocolate and Confectionery Alliance, the Food and Drink Federation, and the
Microwave Working Group led by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Fisheries.
Her achievements in the field of food research were recognized early in her career when
she received twice, in 1976 and 1979, respectively, the Rectors Award at the Agricultural
University of Warsaw, and, in 1978, she was presented with the Minister of Science,
Higher Education and Technology Award.
The main research interests of Dr. Jones have continued to be in the fields of food
emulsions, fat reduction, food texture, food rheology, and overall structure/function
relationships in foods. She has published and presented over 70 papers and patents, and
has been an invited speaker to numerous international meetings throughout Europe, in
the Middle East and in the United States. Her first paper on fat reduction in foods was
published in 1977. Since then, she has maintained her interest in technological approaches
to fat reduction, and, for the last 7 years, her major preoccupation in research and
confidential work at the Leatherhead Food Research Association has been concerned
with fat replacement and fat replacers.
Contributors
David A. Bell
Dow Food Stabilizers
The Dow Chemical Company
Midland, Michigan
Debra L. Miller
Biobehavioral Health and Nutrition
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Stuart M. Clegg
Food Product Research and
Development Department
Leatherhead Food Research Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom
Helen L. Mitchell
Consultant Food Technologist
Kent, United Kingdom
Eric Flack
Grindsted Division
Danisco Ingredients (U.K.) Ltd.
Suffolk, United Kingdom
Jaap Harkema
Business Unit Ingredients for Food and
Pharmacy
AVEBE
Ter Apelkanaal, The Netherlands
William M. Humphreys
Food Ingredients Division
FMC Europe NV
Brussels, Belgium
Sylvia A. Jones
Food Product Research and
Development Department
Leatherhead Food Research Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom
Pablo de Mariscal
Research and Development
Dow Europe, S.A.
Horgen, Switzerland
1996 CRC Press LLC
Guy Muyldermans
R & D Laboratory
Tessenderlo Chemie n.v.
Tessenderlo, Belgium
Beinta Unni Nielsen
Copenhagen Pectin A/S
Hercules Inc.
Lille Skensved, Denmark
Sibel Roller
Food Research Centre
South Bank University
London, United Kingdom
Barbara J. Rolls
Laboratory for the Study of
Human Ingestive Behavior
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Norman S. Singer
Ideas Workshop, Inc.
Highland Park, Illinois
Jane Smith
Legislation Department
Leatherhead Food Research Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom
Barry G. Swanson
Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington
John N. Young
Market Intelligence Section
Leatherhead Food Research
Association
Leatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom
Contents
PART I: FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES
Chapter 1
Issues in Fat Replacement
Sylvia A. Jones
Chapter 2
Implications of Fat Reduction in the Diet
Debra L. Miller and Barbara J. Rolls
Chapter 3
Market Considerations in Fat Replacement
John N. Young
Chapter 4
Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Aspects of Fat Replacement
Sylvia A. Jones
Chapter 5
Legislative Implications of Fat Replacement
Jane Smith
PART II: FAT REPLACERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Chapter 6A
Starch-Derived Fat Mimetics: Maltodextrins
Sibel Roller
Chapter 6B
Starch-Derived Fat Mimetics from Potato
Jaap Harkema
Chapter 7A
Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Microcrystalline Cellulose
William M. Humphreys
Chapter 7B
Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Methylcellulose Gums
Pablo de Mariscal and David A. Bell
Chapter 7C
Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Pectin
Beinta Unni Nielsen
Chapter 8
Microparticulated Proteins as Fat Mimetics
Norman S. Singer
Chapter 9
The Use of Hydrocolloid Gums as Fat Mimetics
Stuart M. Clegg
Chapter 10
The Role of Emulsifiers in Low-Fat Food Products
Eric Flack
Chapter 11
The Role of the Bulking Agent Polydextrose in Fat Replacement
Helen L. Mitchell
Chapter 12
The Use of Blends as Fat Mimetics: Gelatin/Hydrocolloid Combinations
Guy Muyldermans
Chapter 13
Low-Calorie Fats and Synthetic Fat Substitutes
Barry G. Swanson
Appendix
Classified List of Fat Replacers and Their Applications
Sylvia A. Jones
Part
Fundamental
Issues
Chapter
Issues in
Fat Replacement
Sylvia A. Jones
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nutritional Background
1.3 The Functions of Fat in Food
1.3.1 Nutritional Functions of Fat
1.3.2 Physical and Chemical Functions of Fat
1.3.3 Sensory Functions of Fat
1.3.4 Overall Implications for Fat Replacement
1.4 Terminology and Classification of Fat Replacers
1.4.1 Terminology
1.4.2 Classification
1.5 Fat Replacement Strategies
1.5.1 Direct Fat Removal No Compensation
1.5.2 Formulation Optimization
1.5.3 Technological Approach
1.5.4 Holistic Approach
1.6 Developments in Fat Replacers
1.6.1 Olestra and Its Impact
1.6.2 Maltodextrins and other Starch-Derived Fat Mimetics
1.6.3 Microparticulates
1.6.4 Fat Replacers in the Context of Functional Foods
1.6.5 Recognition of the Role of Established Food Ingredients
1.6.6 Development of Combination Systems
1.6.7 Replacing Standard Fats with Low-Calorie Fats
1.6.8 Improving the Quality of Fat Replacers
1.7 Important Considerations in the Development of Low-Fat Foods
1.7.1 Product Quality/Consumer Preference/Marketing Drive
1.7.2
1.7.3
1.7.4
1.7.5
References
Knowledge of Ingredients
Microbiological Implications
Legislative Considerations
Pricing and Marketing
1.1 INTRODUCTION
With over a decade of fat replacement activities in the commercial world behind us, it
is appropriate to take a comprehensive view of the principal issues involved, and examine
the mechanisms and the directions of the progress made, in order to gain a better
understanding of the developments and draw conclusions for the future from the learned
experience.
As a point of departure, it is useful to address first the principal question: is fat
reduction a passing fad? To address this question, we need to look at the nutritional
background to this issue, and, in particular, to assess the recent developments in nutrition
science. After all, it is the consumption of fat in relation to the etiology of cardiovascular
disease that triggered the sudden interest in food products with less fat (or even zero
fat), both within the food industry and among the public at large. The challenge has been
to produce low-fat variants with physical and sensory characteristics that resemble as
closely as possible the full-fat standard products to which people were accustomed. The
food industry during the last 10 to 15 years has invested considerable resources and
effort into the task.
One problem has been that, often, product development has been carried out without
a full awareness of the different consequences of removing substantial quantities of fat
from a particular product. In order to combat that, and hence develop successfully lowfat variants, it is essential to understand the multiplicity of functions of fat in foods, and,
in this context, to examine the particular food matrix in which the fat is to be replaced.
Because of the crucial role played by fat in foods, it quickly became obvious that the
development of low-fat variants with matching quality of the full-fat counterparts
depended on replacing the fat with alternative ingredients. Hence, many ingredients have
been developed for the specific purpose of fat replacement. Others are food ingredients
that have been used for other purposes before researchers realized that they had a role
to play in fat replacement. The result is that over 200 ingredients now exist (either
commercially available or at different stages of development) which can be used in fat
replacement. The sheer number of ingredients is quite outstanding, but it well illustrates
the difficulties encountered in matching the functionality of fat. Indeed, fat can be seen
as a gold standard similar to sucrose in the case of sweeteners. However, sucrose
replacement can now be seen as a relatively easy task compared with fat replacement.
With the increase in the number of ingredients available, new terms have been introduced,
causing some confusion. Thus, steps need to be taken toward a more systematic approach
to both terminology and classification of the ingredients developed for the purpose of
fat replacement.
Another issue needing consideration is what are the different strategies that can be
adopted in product development and how these have evolved and why. A holistic approach
to fat replacement needs to be considered, and will be exemplified in Chapter 4 where
physical, chemical, and sensory aspects of fat replacement are discussed. Meanwhile,
the development of fat replacers has gone through a number of different stages. It is
appropriate now to put these developments into a historical perspective and provide a
logical framework by identifying the constraints and particular problems of fat replacement,
and the driving forces behind the developments. This will therefore set the scene for the
detailed discussion on the different fat replacers or categories of fat replacers given in
Chapters 6 to 13.
Last, but not least, when developing low-fat foods, a number of important considerations need to be taken into account. These need to encompass technological, microbiological, and legislative implications, together with marketing aspects, while keeping a
watchful eye on changing consumer preferences.
approximately 30% of total energy in the diet. In most cases, the goal was set to reduce
fat consumption to the recommended level by the year 2000.
In 1992, the U.K. government issued a set of targets to reduce the incidence of
coronary heart disease (CHD) in the White Paper The Health of the Nation: A Strategy
for Health in England (Department of Health, 1992). One target was to reduce the number
of premature deaths (in people under 65 years old) by 40% by the year 2000 (using 1990
figures as a baseline). Dietary targets were set on the basis of the recommendations given
in a second report by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy on dietary
reference values (Department of Health, 1991), which, in the case of fat, was that it
should not exceed 35% of total food energy in the diet (the same as in the COMA Report
of 1984), with the consumption of saturated fatty acids no more than 11% of total food
energy (4% lower than in the COMA 1984 Report). At the time, the average fat intake
of the British population was at 40% of total food energy and 17% of food energy was
derived from saturated fats.
It would appear, therefore, that relatively little progress has been made in achieving
the targets suggested by NACNE and COMA in the mid-1980s, despite the concurrent
increase in sales of low-fat foods (see Chapter 3). Dietary fat in the American diet is
considered to account for 36% of energy content (Buss, 1993), indicating that greater
progress in adopting dietary recommendations has been made on average compared with
the U.K. However, the analysis of a nutritional survey among British adults (Ministry
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994a) found that 10% of the adult population had
less than 35% of their food energy derived from fat, thus indicating a significant segmentation in consumers response to nutritional guidelines. The extent to which consumers might be compensating for low-fat intakes when consuming low-fat products
remains to be established (see Chapter 2). If that is so, a further point of interest would
be to find out the extent to which the process was a physiological, as opposed to a
psychological, response.
Meanwhile, scientific research oriented toward understanding better the relationship
between diet and health was a major growth area. One noteworthy study was that carried
out by Watts et al. (1992), which was the first to support the hypothesis that a low-fat
diet can actually prevent narrowing of the coronary arteries.
More recently, the complex relationship between diet and heart disease has been
reviewed by Ashwell (1993). While it is acknowledged that CHD is a multifactorial
disorder, it is considered that diet is one component which can be modified by everybody.
The report concludes that the development of CHD can be viewed simplistically as a
three-stage process starting from an initial arterial injury that is followed by atherosclerosis and the formation of a blood clot which eventually blocks the artery thus causing
a heart attack. Each stage can be influenced by several physiological conditions (e.g.,
high blood pressure, high levels of plasma lipids, and low levels of antioxidants), and
these can be affected by controllable factors, including diet. A round table model was
derived to elucidate the relationships between the stages of the disease, physiological
conditions, and dietary components. The level and composition of the fats consumed is
shown to be of importance at all three stages, and overall the dietary advice given includes
reduction of fat intake through the consumption of low-fat products and increased intake
of fish oils.
There is a general consensus that the type of fat consumed is of importance in relation
to the aetiology of chronic diseases. In particular, increasing the proportion of polyunsaturated fats in the diet, e.g., through the consumption of oil-rich fish, appears to play
a protective role against CHD, as evident from the fact that Eskimos subsisting on a high
fat diet based on fish are less prone to heart disease and thrombosis than people on high
fat diets based more on saturated fats (Dyerberg et al., 1978; Dyerberg and Bang, 1979).
The crucial factor, it seems, is the effect of consumption of different fats on the proportion
of serum cholesterol associated with high-density lipoproteins (HDL cholesterol) vs. that
associated with low-density lipoproteins (LDL cholesterol). Thus, consumption of fats
favoring a higher proportion of HDL cholesterol and/or a lower proportion of LDL
cholesterol, such as diets in which a higher proportion of fats consumed are polyunsaturated (e.g., from fish or certain vegetable sources) or monounsaturated (e.g., from olive
oil), tend to reduce risk from CHD (helped also by the consumption of dietary antioxidants such as Vitamin E, which blocks the oxidative modification of LDL). Conversely,
a higher proportion of saturated fats in the diet tends to increase the ratio of LDL
cholesterol to HDL cholesterol, thus increasing risk of CHD (Grundy, 1994). However,
it is now evident that different saturated fats and dietary sources of saturated fat vary in
their influence on the level of LDL cholesterol (Richardson, 1995). For instance, butter
and other dairy products, which are high in myristic acid (14:0), appear to strongly
increase levels of LDL cholesterol, whereas beef fat, containing palmitic (16:0) and
stearic (18:0) acids does so to a lesser extent, and cocoa butter, with a high proportion
of stearic acid, increases LDL cholesterol only slightly.
In addition, there has been increasing concern and controversy on the consumption
of trans fatty acids in relation to health (Mensink and Katan, 1990; Grundy, 1994).
Epidemiological data (Willett et al., 1993) have shown a positive association between
higher intakes of trans isomers (derived from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils) and
the risk of CHD. Wahle and James (1993) have published a comprehensive review on
this topic, and concluded that some evidence exists to suggest that trans fatty acids have
deleterious effects on blood plasma lipids (i.e., they tend to increase the levels both of
LDL and HDL cholesterol present, as well as the concentration of lipoprotein a (which
is a genetic marker for CHD acting as an independent risk factor). However, other studies
have given conflicting results, so that the issue at present remains unresolved, with a
majority of studies implicating trans fatty acids. Clearly, more research is required on
this issue. Meanwhile, the FAO/WHO Expert Committee concluded that the effects on
plasma cholesterol concentrations exerted by trans unsaturated fatty acids are similar to
saturated fatty acids and hence they have recommended that in order to improve plasma
lipid profile, the intake of trans fatty acids should be cut back when the intake of saturated
fats is reduced (Sanders, 1995).
In short, while our knowledge of the relationship between diet and health continues
to progress, the adoption of dietary recommendations derived from that knowledge
consistently lags behind. It is possible that a better consumer response could be achieved
primarily by more extensive nutritional education and secondly, by improving the quality
of existing or new low-fat foods. On the other hand, it is likely that as the market matures,
with increasing availability of low-fat foods to a wider range of social strata, consumers
might more readily adhere to the guidelines regarding fat consumption.
(A, D, E and K); and they are an important source of energy. From a nutritional point
of view, only the first two may be considered as essential because other nutrients (namely
carbohydrates and proteins) can act as sources of energy. Normally, even diets very low
in fat can satisfy those requirements. The overriding issue today is that changes in
peoples lifestyles over the years have meant that the requirements for energy from food
have decreased significantly. At the same time, the proportion of energy derived from
fat (the consumption of which, as noted already, apart from being the most concentrated
source of energy, has other adverse effects on health) has remained high. Figure 1.1
illustrates the relative contribution of fat from different foods in an intake of 88 g/day
which is the average for the U.K., and represents 38% of total energy or approximately
40% of energy from food, i.e., excluding alcohol (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Food, 1994a).
Figure 1.1 Sources of fat in diet of U.K. consumers. (Compiled from Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food, 1994a).
The nutritional function of fat in food would not be complete without mentioning its
physiological/psychological aspect, mainly the extent to which fat plays a role in achieving satiety. Research has shown that the consumption of fat is associated with a subsequent state of fulfillment, such that, by implication, fat reduction might lead to energy
compensation and the increased consumption of food. This issue is discussed in detail
in Chapter 2. However, it should be pointed out that most studies on satiety have been
carried out using noncaloric, nonabsorbable fat substitutes (such as sucrose polyesters).
As will be discussed, so far such fat substitutes have not been approved for use in foods,
and therefore the studies do not address the current market reality where fat mimetics
are used to reduce the fat content of food products. A study on satiety involving three
different types of fat mimetics is currently being undertaken at the Leatherhead Food
Research Association, supported by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
Figure 1.2 Basic fishbone diagram for product development and reformulation purposes.
(From Source, Issue No. 13, January, 6, 1994. Reprinted with the permission of Loders Croklaan.)
terminology used for fat-replacing ingredients in the literature. Thus, there is a need to
introduce a more systematic approach to this issue. Initially, the term fat substitute
was used for all such ingredients regardless of the extent to which they were able to
replace fat and principles determining their functionality. However, the main interest then
had been directed toward discovering an optimal ingredient able to replace fat fully in
all food systems. Such an ideal ingredient would need to have a similar chemical structure
and similar physical properties to fat, but would need to be resistant to hydrolysis by
digestive enzymes in order to have preferably a zero or very low caloric value. In the
second half of the 1980s, the only ingredients able to fulfill all those requirements were
synthetic compounds such as olestra. The main practical difference between these synthetic compounds and other ingredients launched for the purposes of fat replacement
was that only the former were able, by definition, to replace fat on a weight-by-weight
basis. All other ingredients, on the other hand, required water to achieve their functionality, and their ability to replace fat was based on the principle of reproducing (mimicking)
some of the physical and sensory characteristics associated with the presence of fat in
the food. Hence, the term fat mimetic evolved to distinguish this group of ingredients.
With separate terms now being used to define these different types of ingredients,
there was the need for an overall term that referred to all ingredients used for
fatreplacement purposes, and the general term fat replacer began to be used in that
context. However, many authors continue to use the term fat substitute for all fat
replacing ingredients, and an even greater number use the terms fat substitute, fat
mimetic, and fat replacer more or less interchangeably, thus causing confusion on the
meanings of these terms.
In addition, as a result of further developments, other terms have been introduced by
ingredient manufacturers. For instance, the term fat extender has been used by Pfizer
to describe a system comprising a mixture of ingredients, containing standard fats or
oils, such as Veri-Lo 100 and Veri-Lo 200, which are emulsions containing 33 and
25% fat, respectively. On the other hand, ingredients such as Caprenin and Salatrim,
which are true fats (i.e., they are triglycerides) but with a fatty acid composition different
from standard fats designed to provide fewer calories (see below), may also be described
as fat extenders. However, when Salatrim was launched, the term low-calorie fat
was promoted, and has since evolved as a term in its own right, distinct from fat
extenders. Thus, Caprenin and Salatrim are now more usually placed in an independent
group under the heading low-calorie fats. Hence, the term fat extender now tends to
be reserved for systems combining standard fats or oils with other ingredients, as in the
case of Veri-Lo.
In summary, the five terms used to describe ingredients which can replace fat may
be defined briefly as follows:
Fat replacer: a blanket term to describe any ingredient used to replace fat
Fat substitute: a synthetic compound designed to replace fat on a weight-by-weight
basis, usually having a similar chemical structure to fat but resistant to hydrolysis
by digestive enzymes
Fat mimetic: a fat replacer that requires a high water content to achieve its functionality
Low-calorie fat: synthetic triglyceride combining unconventional fatty acids to the
glycerol backbone which results in reduced caloric value
Fat extender: a fat replacement system containing a proportion of standard fats or
oils combined with other ingredients
It should be added that the current lack of development activity for the last category of
fat replacers might lead to the disappearance of the term in due course; however, it is
included in the above list for completeness.
1.4.2 CLASSIFICATION
One of the main characteristics of the ingredients used to replace fat is that they lack
similarity both in terms of chemical structure and in a specific physical structure. All
they have in common is that under certain conditions, they are able to replace fat and
fulfill at least some of the functional properties associated with fat in a given product.
By definition, therefore, they represent a disparate group of ingredients for which it is
not easy to provide a simple classification. An additional problem is that the group as a
whole is quite unbalanced in which some subgroups of ingredients of similar chemical
structure and functional properties comprise a large number while others may contain
only one or two ingredients developed so far. In short, a systematic approach (i.e., based
on a single feature or characteristic) cannot be used because too many ingredients would
be excluded. Furthermore, there is the issue as to whether to include in any classification
all ingredients currently used, or have potential use as fat replacers, or whether it should
consist only of those ingredients that have been purposely designed to act as fat replacers.
The classification of fat replacers given below aims to give the reader a comprehensive
view of ingredient categories that can be considered for product development of low-fat
foods (including the synthetic fat substitutes, none of which, as yet, are permitted for
use in foods)*. The list is based partially on chemical composition and partially on
functionality of the ingredients, and includes combination systems (i.e., blends).
1. Starch-derived
2. Fiber-based
* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the
use of olestra in selected savory snacks.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Protein-based
Gums, gels and thickeners
Emulsifiers
Bulking agents
Low-calorie fats
Fat extenders
Synthetic fat substitutes
Combination systems
As may be seen, a certain degree of overlap cannot be avoided. For instance, it can
be debated whether low-calorie fats should be considered as a separate entity, or be
included in the synthetic fat substitute category. However, since the low-calorie fats
structurally are lipids, and were assigned a separate term from other fat replacers when
launched on the market, it is considered more appropriate to differentiate them from the
category of the, as yet, unpermitted fat substitutes in the above classification.
Figure 1.3 Consumption of liquid milk (g/d) in the U.K. (Compiled from Ministry of Agriculture,
Food and Fisheries, National Food Surveys for 19841993.)
it can only work well when the consumer is highly motivated, and where, therefore, fat
content and nutritional concerns in general will influence purchasing behavior. In short,
the limited number of products to which this strategy can be applied has meant that other
ways of achieving fat reduction have had to be sought.
1.5.2 FORMULATION OPTIMIZATION
The major challenge in the development of reduced-fat foods is to achieve fat reduction
while matching as closely as possible the eating qualities of the traditional full-fat
product. This involves the creative use of established functional ingredients, including
the range of fat replacers now available.
For most food products, reduction of fat is associated with an increase in water content.
The first need, therefore, in order to mimic the quality of the full-fat product, is to attempt
to structure the water phase, through the use of such functional ingredients as proteins,
starches and other thickeners, gums, stabilizers, gelling agents, bulking agents, emulsifiers and fibers. The choice of ingredients will depend on product type and the level of
fat reduction intended, and needs to be carefully balanced against their effects on the
multiplicity of product characteristics. The strategy requires a thorough knowledge of
the ingredients available, and an understanding of the structure/function relationships in
a given product matrix. During the second half of the 1980s, when the emphasis was
narrowly focused on the search for an optimal new fat replacer, developments in other
directions were somewhat limited. However, once the inherent limitations of the various
fat replacers introduced to the market were realized, interest in the creative use of the
standard functional ingredients increased considerably.
The introduction of new ingredients designed specifically to replace fat (i.e., fat
replacers) significantly increased the scope for matching the quality of reduced-fat
variants. Currently, as noted already, there are over 200 ingredients with some claim for
aiding fat replacement, either available commercially, or at an advanced stage of development (see Section 1.6). Most of the fat replacers on the market are based on the ability
to structure the water phase toward achieving fat-like structures that mimic the physical
and/or perceived sensory characteristics of fat.
1.5.3 TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH
The use of specially designed fat replacers in products often requires changes in processing conditions or additional processing stages in order to achieve optimal functionality. However, the technological approach can be extended much further in fat replacement strategies. One example would be to explore interactive processing. This is based
on the principle of employing a processing method purposely designed to cause interactions between ingredients, and changes in ingredient functionalities within the food
matrix, in such a way that they compensate for the removal of fat in the final product.
On the other hand, the application of a new technology, or an existing technology that
is not normally used in the production of the standard product, can be sought. To date,
neither of these approaches has been explored to any great extent.
1.5.4 HOLISTIC APPROACH
The holistic approach to fat reduction is based on the fact that, on the one hand, the vast
majority of food products are relatively complex systems, and, on the other hand, any
one fat mimetic has limitations in its ability to cover the many different functions of fat.
The strategy has evolved because in most cases it has been found that no single approach
to fat replacement gives a satisfactory final product with significant fat reduction, without
compromising some of the quality characteristics (e.g., sensory, physical stability, microbiological stability) of the standard product. It has normally taken the form of using a
chosen fat replacer in conjunction with other ingredients (e.g., stabilizers, emulsifiers),
or the use of a blend of ingredients designed for a particular product application. More
recently, this has shifted toward using more than one fat replacer in conjunction with a
range of standard ingredients. However, the ultimate holistic strategy, with the goal of
producing optimal quality products with low-fat levels or in fat-free versions, needs to
go beyond the issue of ingredients used, toward encompassing all technological means
for achieving the required fat reduction. Indeed, this does not only apply to the development of low-fat products, but to all food product development. In a holistic strategy
even greater attention must be directed toward achieving an understanding of the functionality of the various ingredients, and how they interact with one another. Many of the
advances in product development activities have been predominantly empirically based.
In general, low-fat products, because they are deprived of the functionality of fat, are
much more sensitive to molecular interactions, especially those between flavor and other
ingredients, and those which affect texture. Thus, when developing low-fat products,
much more attention needs to be given to all aspects of the often complex and finely
balanced physical and chemical system as a whole. This emphasizes the need for a
holistic strategy.
main events, in order to show how each development had an impact on further research
activities. It sets the scene for the more detailed discussion on the different fat replacers
or categories of fat replacers in Chapters 6 through 13.
1.6.1 OLESTRA AND ITS IMPACT
Initially, as previously mentioned, the desire was to find an ingredient that would behave,
both physically and chemically, like fat, while contributing fewer calories, and which
could be used in all product types by directly substituting for the fat, with little or no
need to reformulate the product. Olestra, a sucrose polyester, first synthesized in 1968
and patented by the Procter & Gamble Company in 1971, precisely fitted those criteria
(Mattson and Volpenheim, 1971). With sucrose substituting for the glycerol moiety in
triglycerides, and six to eight of the hydroxyl groups of the sucrose esterified by fatty
acids, the chemical structure of olestra is rather similar to fat. The main difference is
that the molecule cannot be hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipases, and hence passes straight
through the gastrointestinal tract unchanged without being absorbed. It thus contributes
no calories. Furthermore, its physical properties could be manipulated by varying the
chain length, the degree of unsaturation and the proportions of different fatty acids used
to esterify the hydroxyl groups of the sucrose molecule. Finally, because it is inherently
heat stable, it can substitute for fat over a wide range of applications in the food industry
(including in frying oils), and in virtually every type of food product.
It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s, when the nutritional arguments for
reducing fat consumption were being publicized, that a viable market for olestra started
to become apparent. Its current status is that it is still awaiting official approval for use
in food. Procter & Gamble submitted its first petition for approval to the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) in April 1987. A further petition was submitted in July 1990,
restricting its use to savory snacks (Anon., 1991a). The company has also filed for the
approval of olestra in Canada and in the U.K. (Anon., 1990). It was hoped that approval
would be obtained in 1995, especially since a second 1-year interim extension to the
Procter & Gambles patent awarded by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office is due to
expire in January 1996 (Anon., 1995). Under the current U.S. legislation concerning
products which require lengthy regulatory review, if olestra were to be approved before
this date, then it would be possible for Procter & Gambles patent to be extended for an
additional 2 years from the time of its approval by the FDA. There is also the issue that
even if approved, it is not certain whether olestra will gain consumer acceptance. However, it is noteworthy that, despite, on the one hand, its synthetic nature, and, on the
other hand, a concurrent consumer trend in the 1980s toward natural and additivefree products, olestra has continued to receive remarkably positive publicity.
For completeness, it should be added that a number of other synthetic fat substitutes
have been developed. These include esterified propoxylated glycerols, carboxy-carboxylate esters, malonate esters, alkyl glyceryl-ethers, alkyl glycoside fatty acid polyesters,
esterified polysaccharides, polyvinyl oleate, ethyl esters, polysiloxanes, and many more
(Bowes, 1993). These are discussed in Chapter 13. It is interesting to note, though, that
none of the companies developing these synthetic fat substitutes have so far attempted
to go through the hurdles of gaining approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, but rather have resigned themselves to waiting for the outcome of the application
for olestra. However, it should be pointed out that a joint agreement was signed in 1990
between the companies Arco and CPC International to develop esterified propoxylated
glycerol, and subsequently to prepare the necessary scientific data required if the ingredient is to gain approval (Anon., 1991a).
Meanwhile, the nonavailability of olestra in the 1980s had the effect of stimulating
developments in fat replacers in other directions.
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developments were on-going at Ault Foods Ltd., a division of John Labbatt Ltd., which
culminated in 1989 with the launch of a whey protein concentrate-based fat mimetic
under the name Dairylight (Anon. 1991b). The difference between Simplesse and
Dairylight lies in the processing method employed, whereby the latter involves only a
mild treatment which leads only to partial denaturation of protein (60 to 80%), and hence
it is not a microparticulated protein (Asher et al., 1992). Four years later, in 1993, the
company Pfizer relaunched Dairylight under the Dairy-Lo name as a result of an
agreement reached between Pfizer Company and Ault Foods Ltd., whereby Ault Foods
would produce Dairy-Lo and Pfizer would market it in all countries with the exception
of Canada (Anon., 1993).
The concept of a microparticulated protein as a fat mimetic was seen by many as the
ultimate development in ingredient technology with the potential of resolving all the
problems associated with fat replacement, including that of total fat replacement. These
beliefs were compounded by the strong marketing strategy of the NutraSweet Company.
However, strong marketing was needed at the time in order to combat the general opinion
that fat mimetics were by definition underperformers as compared with the true fat
replacers such as olestra which, in spite of their failure to gain approval for use in foods,
were still seen as the ideal fat replacers. The concept of a special processing method
leading to a microparticulated form of an ingredient was seen as one that can actually
mimic the fat droplets in an oil-in-water emulsion, and hence the developments in proteinbased fat replacers were oriented toward some form of microparticulates (see Chapter 4
for a more detailed discussion of this issue). While LITA (from the company Opta Food
Ingredients, Inc.) and Trailblazer (from Kraft General Foods) followed this concept using
multicomponent systems based on proteins, a large number of insoluble fat mimetics
also started to be marketed as having what had become the fashionable microparticulated
form (e.g., the Avicel range from FMC, and Stellar a crystalline starch from A. E.
Staley).
Back in the late 1980s, Simplesse was also promoted on the basis of its natural (as
opposed to synthetic) character, since it was produced from a well-recognized natural
ingredient (i.e., whey protein concentrate or egg white/skimmed milk/sugar/pectin for
Simplesse 100 and Simplesse 300, respectively). The fact that these ingredients were
originally produced only in a liquid form, and hence had a short shelf-life and required
refrigeration was probably (at least initially) a contributing factor to the positive image
of these ingredients. (Further developments of Simplesse 100 are outlined in
Section 1.6.8.)
However, in due course, the publicity surrounding Simplesse turned into a two-edged
sword, since it was loaded with high levels of expectancy and hence was thought able
to deliver much more than other fat mimetics. In many applications, however, it was not
technically possible for it to come up to those expectations, and moreover, it was
becoming increasingly apparent that in order to achieve a significant fat reduction, in
most cases, other ingredients were also necessary for obtaining optimal quality.
1.6.4 FAT REPLACERS IN THE CONTEXT OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
The link between fat replacers and functional foods has not previously been made.
However, that an association does exist, as will be demonstrated here, is worth pointing
out amidst the current high level of interest in functional foods.
One definition for a functional food states that it is a food which positively affects
physiological functions of the body in a targeted way as a result of it containing ingredients which may, in due course, justify health claims (Roberfroid, 1995). Taking this
issue broadly, it can be argued that all foods with reduced fat content can be considered
as functional foods given the nutritional benefits of fat reduction as discussed in
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Section 1.1. Most of the ingredients used to replace fat, of course, do not provide any
special positive physiological benefits themselves. However, fiber-based fat replacers can
claim such benefits since there is a growing recognition for the role of dietary fiber in
disease prevention, particularly in relation to colonic cancer and heart disease (e.g., Asp
et al., 1993; Stark and Madar, 1994; Kritchesky, 1994).
Thus, a number of fat replacers have been launched based on fiber from a number of
different sources, such as oats, sugar beet, soy beans, almonds, and peas. For instance,
Advanced Oat Fibers manufactured by the company Williamson Fiber Products in Ireland
were first introduced in 1988. Oat fiber is also a good source of b-glucan which is claimed
to have cholesterol-lowering properties (Duxbury, 1990). Oatrim fat replacer, developed
and patented by the U.S. Department of Agriculture is obtained through the enzymic
modification of oat starch in the oat flour or bran, and contains from 1 to 10% of bglucan (Inglett and Grisamore, 1991). Both ConAgra and Rhne-Poulenc/Quaker Oats
Company are currently producing Oatrim under separate license agreements. Another
fiber ingredient, Fibercel, developed by Alpha-Beta Technologies, is composed of 85 to
90% -glucan obtained from a food-grade yeast product (Jamas et al., 1990). A range
of cellulose-based fat replacers should also be mentioned as a source of fiber (see
Appendix). Moreover, in the particular case of inulin fat replacers (for instance Raftiline
from Orafti, Belgium, and Fibruline from Cosucra SA, Belgium), positive physiological
benefits arise from their bifidus stimulating properties (Roberfroid, 1995).
1.6.5 RECOGNITION OF THE ROLE OF ESTABLISHED
FOOD INGREDIENTS
Gradually, the realities of the market place began to shift away from the mythical one
ingredient can solve it all and toward a more holistic strategy. Moreover, meanwhile,
commercial pressures were moving the goal-posts of fat reduction to well beyond the
50% mark, thus making it even more difficult to achieve fat replacement without a holistic
strategy in which ingredients such as, gums, emulsifiers, thickeners, stabilizers, and
bulking agents, along with gelatin and other proteins and untreated starches could play
crucial roles. Previously, this group of ingredients had been overshadowed by the orientation toward discovering the optimal fat replacer.
However, the important role of these well-established ingredients is clearly evident
when examining low-fat or zero-fat products currently on the market (Bavington et al.,
1992). While in many cases, these ingredients are used in conjunction with those developed purposely for replacing fat, in some products, fat reduction has been achieved by
structuring the water phase using only gums and stabilizers (e.g., Krafts Free Choice
Vinaigrette Style Fat-Free Dressing). Thus, the role of ingredients such as gums, stabilizers, thickeners and emulsifiers needs to be firmly emphasized in the context of fat
replacement. That is why this group of ingredients has been placed in a separate category
in the classification of ingredients given earlier. Details on the uses of gums, bulking
agents and emulsifiers are given in Chapters 9, 10, and 11, respectively, and cellulosebased stabilizers, and their use for fat mimicking purposes, is discussed in Chapters 7A
and 7B. The scope for utilizing functional food ingredients in fat replacement was further
highlighted in 1991 by the commercialization of Slendid, a proprietary pectin developed
by Hercules, Inc., and marketed by Copenhagen Pectin A/S (see Chapter 7C).
1.6.6 DEVELOPMENT OF COMBINATION SYSTEMS
The launch of the N-Lite range of fat mimetics by National Starch & Chemical Corporation in January 1992, as well as widening the scope for the use of starch-derived
ingredients for fat replacement purposes, was of considerable significance because it
established a new trend. This was the development of combination systems (i.e., blends
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of ingredients) for use in fat replacement in specific product applications. For example,
N-Lite F, specifically designed for use in icings, fillings, frozen desserts and dry mixes,
was a blend of modified starch, non-fat milk solids, polyglycerol ester and guar gum. In
effect, therefore, the necessity for the holistic approach to fat replacement has been
acknowledged. Most notably, it was in this context that modified starch was shown to
have a useful role in fat replacement.
In fact, some blends were on the market before 1992. Indeed, a number were launched
in the second half of the 1980s, but received few headlines, because, at the time, the
search for the single magic ingredient was the dominant theme. Developments in the
use of blends as fat replacers have taken a number of forms, but, in the main, the approach
has been to prepare a formulation containing three or more ingredients which, either
could be more universally applied, or, were designed for a specific product category. The
latter approach has tended to dominate (for obvious reasons), and the blends typically
included as ingredients are gums, stabilizers, thickeners, and emulsifiers, together with
standard protein sources (see Appendix for a list of blended ingredient systems that are
on the market).
Most combination systems are composed using a passive approach, whereby each
ingredient has its particular functionality, and it is the sum of those functionalities that
is devised to result in optimal product characteristics. However, one group, interactive
combination systems, is based on the principle that a particular combination of ingredients interact during processing, resulting in different characteristics to those that would
have been expected from each of the ingredients separately or together. A good example
of an interactive combination system is the Slimgel range launched by P.B. Gelatins,
Belgium, at the end of 1993. It is composed of gelatin and galactomannans, and its
performance is based on thermodynamic incompatibility between these two hydrocolloids, which, in turn, leads to phase separation (Muyldermans, 1993, see also Chapter 12).
The advantage of blends, ideally, is that they shorten the time and effort required to
develop new low-fat or fat-free products. However, the disadvantage is that when significant development work is required to best match a given full-fat variant, the use of
a blend might prove too inflexible, and inhibit the ingredient optimization process, since
the precise composition of the main functional system used is not known. The concept
of using a range of ingredients in an attempt to reproduce the different functions of fat
in the full-fat product goes some way toward a holistic strategy. This was particularly
necessary by early 1990s, by which time, partly due to commercial pressures and partly
due to new legislative restrictions regarding claims (see Chapter 5), the goal-posts for
fat reduction had moved yet again, this time toward the ultimate limit i.e., zero fat.
1.6.7 REPLACING STANDARD FATS WITH LOW-CALORIE FATS
The concept of replacing fat with a low-calorie fat entered the scene in the early 1990s.
By that time, the likelihood of obtaining FDA approval for the use of olestra within a
short time-scale was dwindling rapidly, and, on the other hand, it was recognized that
the commercially available fat mimetics did not provide an easy answer to fat replacement, and, moreover, their use was restricted, in general, to water-based food systems.
In this context, the idea of using the basic structure of a triglyceride molecule, but
changing the composition of the fatty acids esterified with the glycerol backbone in order
to achieve caloric reduction appeared to be very plausible. Moreover, the fact that
medium-chain triglycerides, which usually comprise caprylic (C8) and capric (C10) fatty
acids, are GRAS ingredients with a 35-year track record in clinical medicine (e.g., for
treating patients suffering from lipid malabsorption symptoms or for use in infant formulae) was a distinct advantage (Latta, 1990; Megremis, 1991). These compounds
provide energy (8.3 kcal/g) but are metabolized through the liver, and are characterized
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by a low tendency for becoming incorporated into tissue as depot fat. Currently, mediumchain triglycerides are marketed by the U.S. company Karlshamns Food Ingredients
(Captex 300, 350 and 355, now known as AKomed range) and by Stepan Company
(Neobee M-5). However, as pointed out by Thayer (1992), there are certain limitations
to the use of medium-chain triglycerides in foods since, upon hydrolysis, the free fatty
acids released give strong off-flavors.
The concept of using medium-chain triglycerides together with long-chain fatty acids
(e.g., behenic acid C22) was developed jointly by Procter & Gamble and Grinsted
Products, Inc. and commercialized under the name Caprenin. The incorporation of
behenic acid (which is only partially absorbed in the gut), together with caprylic and
capric acids, gives further caloric reduction, and the net result is that Caprenin provides
only 5 kcal/g (Peters et al., 1991; Webb and Sanders, 1991). More information on
Caprenin is given in Chapter 13. Caprenin has been used commercially as a substitute
for cocoa butter in the product Milky Way II produced by M & M Mars (introduced into
a test market area in the U.S. in March 1992), and (in September 1992) in Hersheys
Reduced Calorie and Fat Candy Bar. In both cases, the Caprenin was used in conjunction
with polydextrose to achieve a 25% reduction in caloric value compared with the standard
product. However, since then, there seems to have been no apparent progress in the use
of Caprenin as a fat replacer.
The most recent addition to the low-calorie fat category is Salatrim, developed by
Nabisco Foods Group in conjunction with Pfizer Food Science, and launched in July
1994. Salatrim is a family of triglycerides comprising mixtures of long-chain fatty acids
(predominantly stearic acid) and short-chain fatty acids (mainly acetic acid, propionic
acid, and/or butyric acid) esterified with glycerol. As a result of this chemical structure,
the caloric value of Salatrim is 5 kcal/g (Smith et al., 1994). It is not expected that the
commercial availability of Salatrim will be hindered by the FDA approval process since
it is made from natural substances commonly used in foods and produced by an established interesterification process (petition filed with the FDA in mid-1994). No toxic
effects were observed in animal studies of up to 13 weeks duration and in clinical studies,
Salatrim was found to be well tolerated in doses of up to 30 g/d (Smith et al., 1994). At
the time of writing, Nabisco was hoping to launch chocolate bars containing Salatrim
by mid-1995, and Pfizer Food Science was planning subsequently to launch ice cream,
cheeses, baked goods and table spreads made from Salatrim. However, the incorporation
of Salatrim into frying oils has not been suggested (see Chapter 13). The future will
show whether low-calorie fats will be seen as a commercially viable option for the food
industry.
1.6.8 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF FAT REPLACERS
Developments of fat replacers have not only been confined to the development of new
ingredients. In addition, much effort has been made by ingredient manufacturers to
improve further the quality of the existing fat replacers in terms of their functionality,
ease of use and heat stability, with the aim of expanding their industrial applications.
Three trends can be identified: instantization; alterations in functionality profile; and ease
of use during product manufacture.
Instantization is an obvious and well-established route for ingredient extension. Thus,
a number of ingredient manufacturers have launched instant versions of their fat mimetic.
This is evident from the list of fat replacers given in the Appendix.
The second trend can be seen as a reflection of the realization that no fat mimetic,
however good, can mimic all the functional characteristics provided by a fat in a given
product. Thus, one or more other ingredients were being added to alter and improve the
functionality profile provided by the original ingredient in order to obtain some additional
fat-like property (e.g., development of the Novagel range of fat replacers by F.M.C.,
based on Avicel). The extreme form of this trend was its extension into the development
of blends, as discussed above.
The need for ingredients which were easy to use during the manufacture of food
products was especially in evidence during the first half of the 1990s. This is associated
with the fact that the use of many of the fat replacers that have been developed necessitated either the preparation of a solution and/or special processing when placed in
solution, prior to addition to other ingredients, e.g., the Rafticreming stage required for
Raftiline, and the high shearing (8000 psi) required for Stellar (Pszczola, 1991).
Hence, the subsequent developments aimed to remove these additional stages in product
manufacture while providing the expected functionality, and new variants entered the
market (e.g., Raftiline HP and Instant Stellar).
In the overall context of improvements in the quality and flexibility of fat replacers,
Simplesse deserves special mention, since the original ingredient (Simplesse 100)
which was commercialized in a liquid form (42.5% solids) with a short shelf-life and
low heat resistance, was developed into a dry form (Simplesse 100D) able to withstand
UHT pasteurization or retorting, without loss of functionality.
therefore, that for these patterns to emerge, the quality of the products with medium fat
reduction may be the key to future developments. In this context, the market drive for
fat-free variants may be seen as being premature for some product categories.
The positioning of a particular product in the diet should, in principle, determine the
level of fat reduction required and the product quality that can be achieved at different
fat levels should be balanced against that before making a marketing decision. This helps
to explain why some of the fat-free variants, despite apparently different characteristics
from the equivalent standard product, appear to be of greater appeal to consumers than
others.
1.7.2 KNOWLEDGE OF INGREDIENTS
When developing a product where fat reduction is achieved through the incorporation
of a fat replacer, it is of considerable importance to know or establish: first, the physical
and chemical characteristics of the functional ingredients used; second, what the possible
interactions with other food components might be; and third, what the implications might
be for the processing operations, i.e., what changes in processing might need to be
employed in order to achieve maximum functionality.
Thus, a full knowledge of a range of fat replacers, which can be used effectively to
narrow down the number of fat replacers suitable for a particular product type, is essential
if product development is to be carried out in an efficient manner. Moreover, any
adjustments in other ingredients present in the standard full-fat formulation need to be
guided by a knowledge of their functionality. It is important to be especially flexible as
far as the processing method is concerned, since, in some cases, small adjustments in
the standard method might be required, whereas in others, the optimal solution might
be to consider other technological options (e.g., through technology transfer, or by
devising a new technology altogether).
1.7.3 MICROBIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
A reduction in fat content in a given product formulation is usually associated with a
simultaneous increase in moisture content, which thus affects microbiological stability,
and hence the safety of the product must be given due consideration. For example, lowfat spreads require the addition of a preservative such as potassium sorbate which is not
normally necessary for full-fat margarine, and, moreover, they have a considerably shorter
shelf-life. Similarly, many low-fat dressings, unlike the full-fat equivalent, require refrigeration after opening. In other words, for many reduced-fat products, consumers have to
change the way in which they use the product compared with the full-fat equivalent, and
it has to be ensured that consumers are aware of that.
It is well recognized that water activity, acidity, preservatives, and the extent of heat
treatment are the main factors affecting product shelf-life and microbiological safety.
However, it should be mentioned that although water activity measurements have been
used in the food industry for nearly 40 years as a food safety parameter, this is now
considered inadequate by some, who argue that greater emphasis should be placed on
glass transition temperature (Slade and Levine, 1991; Franks, 1991). Franks (1991)
suggests that change in water availability, especially in the case of intermediate or low
moisture products, is related to the rate of water diffusion in the product, which, in turn,
is related to the glass-rubber transition of the material and the sensitivity of the transition
temperature to changes in the moisture content. As yet, there is no consensus on this
topic. Meanwhile, therefore, water activity remains the basic method for ascertaining
microbiological stability.
In many low-fat products, increasing the acidity of the aqueous phase can be an
effective means to achieve an acceptable shelf-life. For example, Gram-negative pathogens such as the salmonellae may be controlled by ensuring a pH below 4.0. For
coliforms, an even lower pH is required, or a combination of low pH and low temperature
(The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods, 1980a).
The type of acid used for lowering the pH is critical, since it is the undissociated molecule
of the organic acid or ester that confers antimicrobial activity. Organic acids used as
food preservatives have pKa values of between 3 and 5 (pKa is the pH at which 50% of
the total acid is undissociated). Lowering the pH of a food increases the proportion of
undissociated molecules of an organic acid, thus increasing its effectiveness as an antimicrobial agent (The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for
Foods, 1980b). Acetic, citric, lactic, propionic, benzoic, and sorbic acids are the most
commonly used food acidulants and preservatives. At pH 4.0, for instance, the proportion
of acetic acid molecules in an undissociated state is over four times that of citric acid,
which reflects the formers greater effectiveness as a preservative. This is well illustrated
by the occurrence of outbreaks of Salmonella in Spain associated with the practice of
using lemon juice instead of acetic acid in mayonnaise in which the importance of
selecting the right acid to maintain a preservative function was simply overlooked (Perez
et al., 1986). In a later study (Perales and Garcia, 1990), it was found that 45% of
mayonnaise made in different restaurants in Spain had a pH greater than 4.5, with 17.5%
using vinegar and lemon, and 2.5% did not use any source of acid, and 60% of the
restaurants surveyed had recipes that allowed Salmonella enteriditis to survive, thus
presenting health risks to consumers. The importance of selecting the right acid is even
more important in the case of reduced-fat products, where microbiological risks are that
much greater.
Finally, it is important to bear in mind that if strongly acidic notes perceived in a
product adversely affect overall sensory quality, it is possible to design blends that
produce an acceptable flavor profile, while maintaining the preservative function.
1.7.4 LEGISLATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
When developing reduced-fat variants, the legislative issues in the country of sale need
to be taken into account. This topic is discussed in detail in Chapter 5, but here the issue
of nutritional claims will be outlined briefly due to its importance in product marketing.
In the European Union, harmonized provisions for nutrition claims across the member
states has been under consideration for some time now, but final agreement has yet to
be reached. The current draft proposes that the term reduced-fat can be used if the fat
content is reduced by at least 25% of that present in the standard product, and that the
low-fat claim can only be used if not more than 3 g of fat is present per 100 g of
product. The term without fat would be considered acceptable if the amount of fat did
not exceed 0.15 g per 100 g in a product. However, in the absence of harmonized
European Union regulations, national regulations or guidelines need to be adhered to.
The U.S. regulations for nutrition claims produced by the FDA differ from the current
draft for the European Union in the way the latter two claims are defined. The FDA
low-fat claim can be used if a reference amount customarily consumed is greater than
30 g, or greater than two tablespoons, and the food contains 3 g or less of fat per reference
amount. In cases where the serving size is 30 g or less, or up to two tablespoons, a lowfat claim can be used under the conditions stated above, but providing that 3 g or less
of fat is present in 50 g of the food. The fat-free claim can be used when the food
contains less than 0.5 g of fat per reference and per labeled serving.
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Chapter
Implications of Fat
Reduction in the Diet
Debra L. Miller and Barbara J. Rolls
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Background and Significance
2.3 Why Is Fat Overeaten?
2.3.1 Palatability
2.3.2 Development of a Fat Preference
2.3.3 Differences in Fat Preference
2.3.3.1 Gender Differences
2.3.3.2 Obese/Lean Differences
2.3.4 Energy Density
2.3.5 Satiety Value of Fat
2.4 Low-Fat Diet Research
2.4.1 Short-Term Fat Manipulations
2.4.2 Longer-Term Fat Manipulations
2.5 Noncaloric, Synthetic Fat Substitute Research
2.6 Fat Replacers and Fat Preference 39
2.7 Population-Based Studies
2.8 Conclusions
References
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fat-Free, Low-Fat, Reduced-Fat these labels pervade the supermarkets, the
media, and even restaurants and are found on a wide range of products. While some
individuals may purchase such products because they prefer the taste, it is likely that
most will do so to bring about improved health and/or body weight changes. The question
is then Will these products be effective in producing the desired results?
The safety of using fat replacers has received much attention, but comparatively few
data are available to address the issue of how these products influence human food intake
and energy regulation. Until recently there were few studies examining the effects of
variations in the level of fat in foods on energy intake and body composition. This was
because until the mid-1980s there was relatively little emphasis on the role of dietary
fat in obesity and related disease states, and the technology for formulating palatable
reduced-fat foods was limited. Hence, we are only beginning to assess the effectiveness
of such substances in reducing both dietary fat and energy intake.
Because of the paucity of relevant literature, nutrition professionals and the general
public alike may make assumptions that the use of fat-replaced products will bring about
automatic reductions in the high intake of dietary fat in Western society. However, we
know very little about how consumers use fat-replaced foods. Will fat-replaced foods be
substituted for higher fat versions of foods? (I use low-fat mayonnaise instead of regular
mayonnaise.) Will they be used as substitutes for forbidden foods? (Ill eat fat-free
potato chips, but not regular potato chips.) Will they be used as a license to increase
intake of other types of foods? (If I use the fat-free salad dressing, I can have a piece
of cheesecake for dessert.) There is also considerable debate in the scientific community
regarding whether the overconsumption of dietary fat alone leads to negative health
outcomes, or if it is the resultant increase in overall energy intake due to the overconsumption of dietary fat that contributes to these outcomes. In many cases, the trickle
down message the general public has received is I can eat as much food as I want as
long as it is low in fat or fat-free.
This chapter examines these questions and the existing scientific literature regarding
low-fat/fat-replaced foods and diets to determine the efficacy of using fat replacers as a
strategy to reduce intake of dietary fat and total energy.
Several key points to consider when regarding products made with fat replacers
include:
1. Why do many people eat more dietary fat than is recommended (30% of total energy)
and will fat replacers satisfy peoples desire to consume fatty foods?
2. Will eating foods that use fat replacers aid in lowering the amount of fat consumed?
That is, will the fat and/or energy reduction be compensated for in subsequent intakes?
3. How will these products be used by the consumer (in place of regularly eaten foods,
as a license to eat previously forbidden foods, or to allow for increased consumption
of other foods)?
4. Will individuals learn with repeated experiences that reduced-fat and reduced-energy
foods do not satisfy hunger as well as their high-fat counterparts? If such learning
takes place, will this reduce palatability so that such products are no longer included
in the diet?
innate fat preference could have been adaptive for survival by encouraging consumption
of a dense, easily stored energy source for periods of scarcity. However, if humans did
acquire adaptations that encouraged fat consumption, these adaptations have become
maladaptive in todays society, which is characterized by an overabundance of foods
(Birch, 1992).
There is some evidence that children display preferences for high-fat foods (Birch,
1992; Johnson et al., 1991; Kern et al., 1993). In experiments with high- and low-fat
yogurt shakes, Johnson and colleagues (1991) found that preferences for initially novel
foods high in fat content can be learned, and that conditioning of these preferences is
the result of the postingestive consequences of consumption. Rozin and Zellner (1985)
argue that this type of Pavlovian or associative conditioning is central to the acquisition
of food preferences. Because high-fat foods are palatable and satisfying, which are
positive consequences of consumption, children learn to like these foods (Birch, 1992).
Such foods are also often used as treats or rewards for children, which may enhance this
preference (Birch, 1992).
The animal literature suggests that fat may be preferred at an early age in rats (Ackroff
et al., 1990; Sclafani, 1990). Ackroff and colleagues (1990) measured fat appetite in
infant rats. In this study, which used intake as an index of preference, 12 to 15 day old
pups consumed nearly as much oil emulsion solution as a dilute sucrose solution (0.03 M)
and only slightly less than a milk formulation similar to rats milk; they concluded that
the taste for fat was as pleasant to the pups as sweet solutions and mothers milk.
However, in humans, there is no evidence to support the hypothesis that there is an
innate, unlearned preference for fat, and the possibility of such seems unlikely because
the form and function of fat is not unitary across food systems (Drewnowski, 1987).
Furthermore, Drewnowski and colleagues (1991) have shown that there is no relationship
between taste preferences for high-fat foods and early age (<10 years) of onset of obesity
(thought to be a measure of familial risk); they concluded that environmental as opposed
to familial factors may be more immediate determinants of taste preferences and food
choice.
2.3.3 DIFFERENCES IN FAT PREFERENCE
2.3.3.1 Gender Differences
Just as Jack Sprat would eat no fat and his wife would eat no lean, differences in fat
preferences between men and women have been noted anecdotally. Recent epidemiological surveys have provided evidence that there are indeed gender differences in regard
to fat preferences. Although both men and women seem to find high-fat foods highly
palatable, men seem to derive the bulk of their dietary fat from red meat, whereas women
derive dietary fats mainly from margarine, whole milk, shortening, and mayonnaise
(Block et al., 1985). Women are also more likely than men to express preferences for
sweet/fat desserts like cake and ice cream (Block et al., 1985). These gender differences
persist among obese individuals as well. Drewnowski and colleagues (1992) surveyed
the favorite foods of obese men and women and found that obese men listed predominantly fat-protein sources (meat dishes) among their favorite foods while obese women
listed more carbohydrate/fat sources and more sweet foods (doughnuts, cookies, cake,
and chocolate).
2.3.3.2 Obese/Lean Differences
It has been proposed that obese persons may have an enhanced preference for high-fat
foods leading to overconsumption of energy dense foods. In sensory tests, obese individuals have shown a preference for higher levels of fat in foods than lean individuals
(Drewnowski, 1987). Several investigators have found that body weight was related to
preferences for fat. In 1985, Drewnowski and colleagues found that obese and formerly
obese individuals preferred higher levels of fat in mixtures of dairy products and sugar
than did lean individuals. However, in a 1991 study, Drewnowski found that only a subset
of obese, those with a history of large weight fluctuations, showed an enhanced fat
preference. Mela and Sacchetti (1991) found a positive relationship between sensory
preferences for fat in a variety of foods and percent body fat in normal weight subjects.
It has been shown that as body fat increased, the percent of energy derived from fat
increased (Miller et al., 1990; Strain et al., 1992), and, in a 3-year longitudinal study
(Klesges et al., 1992), high weight gain was associated with high fat intake in both men
and women. This work taken together indicates that enhanced preferences for fat could
be important in the development and maintenance of obesity; however, no controlled,
laboratory-based experiment has looked at this issue directly. Additional research is
needed to understand how the sensory qualities of fat and individual differences in
preferences for dietary fat influence human food intake and body composition.
2.3.4 ENERGY DENSITY
Dietary fat provides approximately 9 kcal/g compared with 4 kcal/g for carbohydrate or
protein (Burton and Foster, 1991). The relatively high energy density of fat could be a
factor in its overconsumption if there is a tendency to eat a certain volume or weight of
food. For example, 100 g of potato chips (which are typically 60% energy from fat) has
538 kcal, while an equal amount of pretzels (which are typically about 8% energy from
fat or less) has only 375 kcal. Several studies which have varied the fat content of foods
(Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall et al., 1991; Tremblay et al., 1991)
have found that subjects consumed a nearly equal volume of food despite differences in
energy density. Thus, the more energy-dense, high-fat diets were associated with
increased daily energy intakes when compared to the low-fat diets. In some of the studies
which have manipulated dietary fat (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall
et al., 1991), subjects were given access only to foods within a specified (high or low)
fat content, i.e., energy density. The results from these studies showed reduced energy
intake on low-energy-density diets. However, in such situations, there appeared to be a
tendency to eat a relatively constant amount of food, and it is possible that if the
experiments lasted longer, the amounts of the low-fat foods eaten would gradually
increase so that daily energy intake would be maintained. These studies will be discussed
in more detail in following sections regarding low-fat diet research.
2.3.5 SATIETY VALUE OF FAT
Dietary fat may be overconsumed because it does not satisfy hunger as well as other
nutrients. This hypothesis is related to the physiological consequences of ingested fat
such as stomach distention, stomach emptying, nutrient absorption, hormonal release,
oxidation of nutrients, and so on. Several sources suggest that fat and carbohydrate have
very different postingestive consequences. Data from experiments measuring postabsorbtive metabolism suggest that dietary fat is not metabolized as rapidly as carbohydrate
and protein (Schutz et al., 1989). Ingested carbohydrates produce rapid rises in blood
glucose (Van Amelsvoort et al., 1989), while fats often depress blood glucose (McHugh
et al., 1975). Thus, depending on the accuracy of the glucostatic theory, which suggests
that the sensation of hunger is maintained until blood glucose levels reach adequate
levels, it is possible that carbohydrates produce more rapid satiety than fats. Conversely,
there are factors associated with fat intake that may influence satiety as well. One of
these factors is the release of satiety hormones.
Cholecystokinin is one such putative satiety hormone (Smith and Gibbs, 1988) that
is released when some types of fat enter the intestine (Canton, 1992). Thus, the ingestion
of fat, in theory, could lead to early satiety as well. On the basis of these differing
physiological effects, it is difficult to make any definitive statements regarding the satiety
value of fat vs. carbohydrate.
A recent paper by Rolls and Hammer (1995) reviewed various studies that utilized a
preloading paradigm (giving fixed amounts of the macronutrients and determining the
effects on subsequent hunger, satiety and food intake) to detect a difference in the satiety
value of fat vs. carbohydrate. In this review, they concluded that carbohydrate may have
a greater satiety value than fat in individuals with certain subject characteristics (e.g.,
obese and those concerned with their body weight). However, overall there is little
evidence that carbohydrate has a greater satiety value than fat, and it remains to be
determined whether the overconsumption of fat and energy is due to a physiological
insensitivity to the amount of fat in foods.
for this surfeit (Caputo and Mattes, 1992; Foltin et al., 1988). These findings are, however,
dependent on the magnitude of the manipulation and the characteristics of the subjects
being tested (e.g., lean/obese, restrained [concerned about body weight]/unrestrained [not
concerned about body weight]).
2.4.2 LONGER-TERM FAT MANIPULATIONS
The studies mentioned above (Caputo and Mattes, 1992; Foltin et al., 1988; Foltin et al.,
1990) manipulated fat intake within specific meals or over the course of a day. These
types of interventions provide useful information about short-term regulation of fat and
energy intake when dilutions and surfeits are introduced into the diet; however, they
provide no information about long-term regulation or the ability to maintain compliance
to a low-fat diet. A few naturalistic studies (Schlundt et al., 1993; Mattes, 1993; Gatenby
et al., 1993; Sheppard et al., 1991) have been designed to reduce the overall intake of
dietary fat in certain groups over longer periods of time. These studies used various
strategies (nutritional counseling, behavioral therapy, or financial incentives) to aid subjects in reducing their dietary fat consumption. Results of these studies generally showed
that the intervention groups consumed less dietary fat than control groups. Intervention
periods in these studies ranged in duration from 12 to 20 weeks, which indicates that
compliance to a low-fat diet can be maintained over a moderate amount of time; however,
there are few data regarding the long-term compliance to a low-fat diet. Sheppard and
colleagues (1991) followed 303 women participating in the Womens Health Trial for
one and two years. These women either received intensive instruction in maintaining a
low-fat diet (reducing cooking fats, substituting low- or no-fat variants of high-fat foods
and increasing traditional low-fat foods in the diet) or they were part of the control group.
After 1 year, the intervention group had reduced their dietary fat intake by 45% of their
baseline intake and energy intake by 59%. Most of the reductions occurred within the
first 6 months of the intervention and were maintained at the 1- and 2-year follow-ups.
Results of naturalistic studies such as these (Schlundt et al., 1993; Mattes, 1993; Gatenby
et al., 1993; Sheppard et al., 1991) are often used as the basis for advocating low-fat
diets and that compliance to low-fat diets can be maintained over time. However, although
these studies may have some external validity, they relied heavily on self-report and diet
records as a source of data for fat intake, and should therefore be interpreted cautiously.
In this review, we will next focus on laboratory-based experiments that provide more
accurate intake measurements and stringent controls over the experimental setting.
Three controlled, laboratory studies (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall
et al., 1991) have investigated the effects of high- and low-fat diets on energy intake and
body weight over varying periods of time. In 1983, Duncan and colleagues fed lean and
obese subjects a low-energy density diet comprised of traditionally low-fat foods (fruits,
vegetables, and grains) and a high energy density diet for 5 d (0.7 kcal/g vs. 1.5 kcal/g).
Subjects could eat the foods ad libitum. The results showed that both obese and nonobese groups significantly reduced their energy consumption on the low-energy diet.
Nearly twice as many calories were consumed during the high-energy density diet
compared to the low-energy density diet (3000 vs. 1570 kcal/d). No data were supplied
regarding weight change during the test periods.
Two other studies which were conducted at Cornell (Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall
et al., 1991) are often cited in both scientific and popular literature as proof that ad
libitum consumption of low-fat foods can reduce fat intake and produce weight loss. The
low-fat diets in these studies included currently available fat-replaced foods, primarily
margarines, salad dressings, and mayonnaise as well as traditionally low-fat foods. The
first of these studies, conducted by Lissner and colleagues in 1987, provided all food
(meals and snacks) to 24 women who were divided into groups of <101% ideal body
weight (IBW) and >101% IBW. Subjects were each fed 3 diets: low-fat 15 to 20%,
medium-fat 30 to 35%, and high-fat 45 to 50% of energy. Subjects could eat the foods
ad libitum. Each diet was fed for 14 d with a 7-d washout between the test periods. The
results showed that energy consumption was positively correlated with the level of dietary
fat, with the total daily energy consumed on the low-fat diet being 2087, the mediumfat diet 2352, and the high-fat diet 2614 kcal. Over the two-week periods, the diets did
not produce any statistically significant weight changes. The second Cornell study,
conducted by Kendall and colleagues (1991), was similar but extended the intervention
period to 11 weeks. It is unclear whether lean or obese women were studied; although
a mean subject height was reported, there was no mean weight reported. It is noted that
individuals <101% of ideal body weight (according to Metropolitan Life standards) were
excluded from the study. This study examined two diets that differed in fat content: one
diet was comprised of 20 to 25% fat (low-fat) and the other diet was 35 to 40% fat
(control). Again, the women were given free access to foods. Results showed that the
subjects consumed an average of 286 kcal/d less on the low-fat diet. The subjects in this
experiment, in contrast to the Lissner and colleagues study (1987), did lose weight.
Weight loss was significantly greater on the low-fat diet; however, subjects lost weight
on both diets (low-fat: 2.54 kg and control: 1.26 kg). There were no reasons given by
the authors for the weight loss on the control diet.
A recent animal study by Harris (1994), examined the effect of three groups of 20
female Sprague-Dawley rats (60 rats in total) chronically fed either a high-fat diet (45%
energy from fat) or a low-fat diet (25% energy from fat) containing either no added fat
replacer (control diet) or the maltodextrin Paselli, a starch-derived fat mimetic produced
by Avebe and described in more detail in Chapter 6B. All three diets in this study had
different textures. Rats were fed the control diet for 10 d, and were then divided into
three groups, receiving one of the three diets for 42 d. Preference tests for the three diets
were assessed before and after the 42-d period. Results showed that all but two of the
rats preferred the fat mimetic diet over the high-fat and control diets and food intake
was the greatest in the group fed the fat mimetic diet (741 g/58d = control, 736 g/58d =
high-fat, 900 g/58d = fat mimetic). However, energy intake was greatest in the group fed
the high-fat diet (3250 kcal/58d = control, 3871 kcal/58d = high-fat, 3585 kcal/58d = fat
mimetic). The higher energy intakes of the high-fat and mimetic-fed animals resulted in
greater weight gain during the experimental period and a heavier carcass weight at the
end of the experiment, compared with control rats, largely due to an increase in carcass
fat. Harris (1994) concluded from these data that the inclusion of highly preferred, fatmodified foods in the diet may result in a reduction in fat intake, but including such
foods may not aid in limiting energy intake.
The evidence from human studies presented here indicates that low-fat diets are
potentially useful for reducing both the total energy intake and the amount of fat consumed. However, although these early results have some validity, their interpretation is
often oversimplified. When reviewing research on the effects of low-fat diets, it is
important to recognize that the methods available have limitations which may influence
outcome. The three laboratory-based studies reviewed above (Duncan et al., 1983; Lissner et al., 1987; Kendall et al., 1991) have allowed subjects to consume food ad libitum
in their dietary interventions; however, this access was limited to the particular fat level
that was under study. In other words, during a low-fat condition, the subjects could only
choose from low-fat foods, and in the high-fat condition, only high-fat choices were
available. And, although the subjects rated the diets equally palatable, this does not mean
that, given a choice, they would voluntarily eat the low-fat foods. Thus, it is difficult to
Figure 2.1 Mean ( SEM) daily caloric intake of rats fed chow only (Control group), chow and
high-fat cake (High-fat group), or chow and no-fat cake (No-fat group). Intakes were averaged
over 5-day blocks; BL represents 5-day chow baseline period. Top panel: total calories; center
panel: calories derived from cake; bottom panel: calories derived from chow. (From Sclafani,
A., Weiss, K., Cardieri, C., and Ackroff, K., Obesity Res., 1, 173, 1993. With permission.)
a low-fat ad libitum consumption diet and a low-fat caloric restriction diet on adult men
and women who were at least 20% above ideal body weight. They found that subjects
on the caloric restriction diet lost significantly more weight and reduced fat intake to a
greater extent than those on the ad libitum low-fat consumption diet. Hence, advocating
that an individual can eat as much as he/she desires and lose weight as long as the food
1996 CRC Press LLC
is low in fat content (Kendall et al., 1991) is unwarranted based on these data. For weight
loss purposes, energy intake must also be limited.
The next question is whether varying the fat content, while keeping energy equal, on
an energy-restricted diet is beneficial in regard to weight loss. This question has been
addressed in an animal study by Boozer and colleagues (1993). They found that when
rats previously fed a high-fat diet (40% of energy) were switched to equicaloric diets
(75% of their previous ad libitum intake) that varied in fat content (12, 28, or 45% fat),
rats fed the 12% fat diet lost significantly more body fat than the rats fed the 45% fat
diet. These results indicate that an energy-restricted diet produces greater weight loss
when it is also low in fat in these experimental animals. Although similar data are not
available for humans, if weight loss is a goal, it seems prudent to advise restriction of
both dietary fat and overall energy intakes to achieve maximum results. It follows that
reduced-fat foods may provide one strategy for weight loss if an individual who is
consuming greater than 30% of energy from fat can restrict food choices to those low
in fat but not high in energy, while keeping the volume of food consumed constant.
In 1983, Porikos and colleagues diluted the fat content of the diet of five obese men
confined to a metabolic ward for 36 d by replacing fat in margarine and mayonnaise
with SPE. Energy intake was measured in three conditions: pre-intervention baseline
(days 1 to 9), intervention (days 10 to 28) and post-intervention baseline (days 29 to
36). In the intervention period the manipulation created a 10% reduction of overall energy
of the diet. The results showed that subjects increased the amount of food consumed
during the SPE period relative to the pre- and post-intervention baselines so that there
was no significant effect of diet on energy intake (baseline = 3924 kcal/d and SPE =
3812 kcal/d). Subjects did not selectively ingest more fat but rather increased their intake
of all three macronutrients to compensate for the energy dilution due to the addition of
the SPE. Rolls and colleagues, in the U.S. (1992), and Burley and Blundell, in the U.K.
(1991), ran parallel studies that were the first to focus on the use of olestra in lean
individuals. In each trial that investigated a SPE manipulation in a breakfast meal
(biscuits/scones and margarine), 24, healthy, lean males participated. Subjects were fed
the three breakfasts (control = 765 kcal, 20 g SPE = 582 kcal, and 36 g SPE = 445 kcal)
in a counterbalanced, crossover design followed by self-selection lunch and dinner meals.
Subjects also recorded any evening snacks to account for 24 h energy intake. Despite
differences in the country of the testing, similar results were obtained in both studies.
The lean men compensated well for the energy dilution due to SPE replacement
(Figure 2.2), but there was very little fat-specific compensation resulting in a significant
reduction (p<.0034 and p<0.0066) in fat consumption with 20 and 36 g SPE substitution,
respectively, compared to placebo (Rolls et al., 1992).
Figure 2.2 Mean cumulative (bottom to top of bars) energy (kJ) consumed for all subjects
under each condition for all meals during which data was collected. , next-day breakfast; ,
snack; , dinner; , lunch; and , test breakfast. (From Rolls, B.J., Pirraglia, P.A., Jones,
M.B., and Peters, J.C., Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 56, 84, 1992. With permission.)
Similar energy compensation was observed with children (Birch et al., 1993).
Researchers measured 29 normally developing 2 to 5 year olds during five, 2-d periods
over 5 weeks. Approximately 14 g of SPE was substituted for fat (-125 kcal) in the
childrens diet over the course of the morning and afternoon. The children compensated
for some of the energy dilution by the end of the first day, and by the end of the second
day they had compensated for all but 23.9 kcal. Similar to adult men, children did not
show macronutrient compensation, but instead the manipulation produced a reduction in
the percent of fat consumed without reducing the total energy of the diet through an
increase in carbohydrate intake.
In other recent studies reported in abstracts, neither complete fat nor energy compensation was found when SPE was incorporated into foods. In one study, the incorporation
of 55 g of SPE in either meals or snacks across a day was associated with a decrease in
fat and energy intake on that day (Cotton et al., 1993). This energy reduction was not
fully compensated for the following day either (Cotton et al., 1993). In preliminary work
by Hulshof and colleagues (unpublished a and b), incorporation of SPE into croissants
and warm meals was followed by incomplete caloric compensation so that daily energy
intake was reduced. However, the social setting, which has been shown to have a
substantial impact on food intake (Shide and Rolls, 1991), was not controlled in these
studies. These findings may be further confounded by methodological issues such as
overt weighing of subjects food and the lack of compliance checks (Hulshof, 1994).
Thus, the results are equivocal regarding the efficacy of using foods prepared with
SPE to reduce fat and/or energy intake. The existing evidence (derived from relatively
few studies that have been conducted and published), suggests that SPE incorporation
into foods may aid in reducing the amount of fat consumed. The evidence is, however,
less clear regarding its use in reducing total energy intake. Again, it is necessary to note
that these studies used covert manipulations; that is, subjects were unaware of the fat
manipulation. It is difficult to assess whether or not this will be representative of how
individuals will consume such products when provided with information about the
product. Clearly, more studies are needed to clarify the effects of fat replacers on energy
intake. The variable effects of SPE on energy intake notwithstanding, the availability of
palatable low-fat foods is likely to aid in the reduction of fat intake if such items are chosen
instead of the full-fat versions of the same foods and if they are eaten in the same quantity.
These issues were examined in a study in which 96 habitual potato-chip eaters (lean
and obese men and women) ate regular fat potato chips (5.3 kcal/g, 60% energy from
fat) and SPE (olestra) chips (2.8 kcal/g, 0% energy from fat) equal in palatability in a
counterbalanced study for 10-d periods (Miller et al., 1995). Fifty subjects were given
information about the energy and fat content of the chips and 46 were not. The consumption patterns of both types of chips were similar, both showing decreased consumption over time (most likely due to monotony). Furthermore, in unrestrained subjects (lean
and obese), there was no significant difference in gram intake between the regular-fat or
SPE chips regardless of whether they were aware of the fat and energy content of the
chips or not. When restrained individuals (lean and obese) were given information about
the chips, they ate significantly more of the SPE chips (+10g/d) than the regular chips,
but, because of the considerable fat and energy dilution of the SPE chips, they still
consumed less energy and fat in the SPE condition than when consuming the full-fat
version of the product. Body weight (lean vs. obese) was a nonsignificant factor. The
results of this study suggest that, for some groups, when palatability is maintained, fatreplaced foods may be eaten in a similar manner as their full-fat counterpart even when
provided with complete nutritional information. These data also indicate that restrained
individuals may increase their consumption of fat-free products when they are aware of
the fat content. Because of the complete fat-replacement allowed by the use of SPE in
this study, the increased gram consumption of the chips by the restrained subjects did
not result in increased fat or energy intakes. However, it is important for such individuals
to be aware of the magnitude of the fat and energy dilutions in reduced-fat foods and to
be careful not to overconsume such products to such an extent that they minimize or
negate the net benefit of using fat-replaced foods.
fatty foods. It may be that the most effective strategy for fat reduction would be to
decrease the preference for dietary fat. Mattes (1993) has examined the effects of two
different reduced-fat diets, one which allowed the use of fat mimetics (commercially
available reduced-fat products such as salad dressings, table spreads, mayonnaise) and
one which did not, on the preference for a limited number of high-fat foods. The results
indicated that the group which did not experience fatty flavors showed a decrease in the
preferred level of fat in test foods, whereas the group using fat replacers showed no such
shift. Mattes (1993) concluded that the preference for fat in foods is governed more by
exposure to fatty flavors than by the level of fat in foods. Mattes (1993) further suggested
that the preference for fat can be lowered and that the best strategy for lowering fat preference
is to avoid fat mimetics and fat replacers. However, due to methodological limitations firm
conclusions should not be based on this research. First, hedonic measures were obtained on
only four foods, and since fat imparts so many sensory properties to foods, it seems unlikely
that changes in preferences for fat in one type of food will generalize to other types of foods.
Second, because subjects consumed products at home there was little control over the
experimental setting. Third, the observed shift in preference did not lead to a reduction in
fat intake during a 3-month follow-up period. Finally, data were obtained from diet records
with few checks for compliance. Thus, although this hypothesis may have merit, this research
needs to be replicated under stricter controls with expanded preference assessments to
provide more salient information (Rolls, 1994). However, other long-term studies, such as
the Womens Health Trial (Sheppard et al., 1991), have shown, albeit through self-report
and diet records, that reduced-fat foods may be helpful in maintaining compliance on lowfat diets.
2.8 CONCLUSIONS
The question that we have examined in this chapter is whether or not reduced-fat foods,
especially those utilizing fat replacer technology, are useful in reducing the current trend
to overconsume dietary fat in Western societies. This question is difficult to answer
considering: (1) only since the 1980s has dietary fat consumption been the focus of
nutritional research and (2) many of the advancements in fat replacer technology are
even more recent. What we do know is that we consume foods that taste good more
readily than those that do not taste good. Therefore, it seems reasonable that the
availability of low- or no-fat foods that are also highly palatable may aid in compliance
to low-fat diets that were previously bland and unsatisfying. However, although fatreplaced foods may offer new food choices to consumers, it still should not be assumed
that the use of fat-replaced foods will bring about significant reduction in fat and
energy intakes.
The research cited in this chapter regarding currently available fat replacers supports
the notion that such products may aid in reducing dietary fat intake but perhaps not
overall energy intake. Most studies using traditional low-fat foods and currently available
fat-replaced foods have resulted in compensation for energy reductions, but not macronutrient compensation. Results from sucrose polyester studies are equivocal in respect
to energy and fat compensation, with some reporting energy compensation while others
do not. More tightly controlled, laboratory-based human studies are needed to determine
how useful fat replacement will be in reducing overall fat and energy intakes.
It is also not known how consumers will use new and existing fat-replaced products.
Will they be used as a one-to-one substitution for foods previously high in dietary fat
or as license to overeat other rich foods? It may be that the key to the successful use of
fat-replaced products lies in the motivation of the consumer to bring about a reduction
in his/her intake of dietary fat. Again, more naturalistic studies exploring the potential
usage patterns of fat-replaced products are needed to determine their usefulness in
bringing about desired dietary changes.
Because overall energy intake has been shown to be a factor in weight loss and weight
maintenance, the use of fat-replaced foods alone should not be expected to produce
spontaneous improvements in body weight management or obesity. Such improvements
will still be dependent upon long-term behavioral changes that include not only modifications in fat intake, but also modifications in overall energy intake and increases in
energy expenditure. Because fat is the most energy dense macronutrient, substituting
low-fat foods can substantially reduce the energy density of the diet provided these foods
are also low in energy. If the energy density of the diet is reduced and volume of intake
remains constant, reductions in energy intake are likely.
These caveats stated, fat-replaced foods could aid motivated individuals to reduce
their intake of dietary fat and energy. In this regard, fat replacers may prove to be a
useful tool in reducing fat intake, but as with most novel approaches more detailed
investigations should be conducted to determine the efficacy of such products in reducing
fat intake. Future studies are needed to resolve issues of fat and energy balance using
fat-replaced foods, and whether it is the energy density, the fat content, or the total energy
of the diet that is critical for the prevention of such disease states as obesity, cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Additionally, longitudinal studies (both in the natural environment and the laboratory) need to be conducted to determine the best strategies for
long-term compliance to a low-fat diet.
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Chapter
Market Considerations in
Fat Replacement
John N. Young
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Consumer Attitudes to Diet and Health
3.3 Market Developments in Reduced-Fat Foods
3.3.1 United Kingdom
3.3.2 Europe
3.3.3 United States
3.4 Market Developments for Fat Replacers
3.5 Conclusions
References
3.1 INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that for most developed economies, the consumers awareness of the
relationship between diet and health has grown considerably in recent years. With fat
consumption having been identified by the media, government bodies, and consumers
alike as one of the most important factors (if not the most important) contributing to ill
health, e.g., heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, etc., it comes as no surprise
that this has resulted in the growing popularity of reduced-fat foods. This has itself fueled
intense research and development activity in the area of fat replacers.
While there clearly exists a growing market for fat replacers, initial sales projections
for the U.S. and Western Europe appear to have been over-optimistic. After a more
detailed examination of the consumer issues that have led to the development of the lowfat food market in the U.S. and Western Europe, and a review of the current status of
these markets, various reasons for the comparatively poor market performance of fat
replacers to date will be proposed.
Interest score
(mean of 5)
3.49
3.30
3.03
2.94
2.78
2.11
Over half the sample (56%) of the 509 respondents in the U.K. study claimed to be
very/quite interested in low-fat foods, and 30% claimed to be very interested. Female
respondents showed a higher degree of interest in low-fat foods than their male counterparts; i.e., 62% of female respondents were very/quite interested in low-fat foods
compared with only 50% of male respondents. Not surprisingly, interest in low-fat foods
varied considerably across the different age groups, and while all respondents were
concerned about eating too much fat, actual purchase of low-fat foods was more limited.
Interest was lowest for respondents aged 16 to 24 and highest for respondents aged 45
to 64, where 68% of respondents claimed to be very/quite interested in low-fat food. In
terms of socioeconomic group, respondents with the highest levels of income (known
as AB groups in the U.K.) were most interested in low-fat foods, with 69% stating that
they were very/quite interested, compared with only 49% of the respondents in the lowest
income brackets (known as DE groups in the U.K.). Regional variations were also
apparent, possibly due to regional variations in living standards, with 62% of respondents
from the South and Midlands claiming to be very/quite interested in low-fat foods
compared with 46% for the North.
1996 CRC Press LLC
When asked which foods they felt were the main sources of fat in their own personal
diets, butter came top, being cited by 40% of respondents (Table 3.2). Interestingly, only
one fifth of respondents believed margarine to be a major source of fat in their diet,
despite the fact that many margarines have the same fat content as butter. When asked
what they felt about the level of fat in their own diet, the consensus of opinions was that
fat levels were probably on the high side simply because of the way in which consumers
have become used to eating in the U.K. However, over half of the sample (53%) of the
509 interviewed respondents claimed that the levels of fat were probably about right in
their own diets while one third claimed that they were a little too high, suggesting a
certain degree of complacency among consumers. A small number of respondents who
felt that their fat levels were acceptable were those who had had their cholesterol levels
measured and had since taken action to reduce fat intake, although even here respondents
admitted that they often had difficulty in keeping to such a strict regime.
Table 3.2 Main Sources of Fat
in Own Diet Cited by 509
Respondents in the U.K.
Food product
Butter
Chocolate
Cakes
Milk
Meat
Biscuits
Snack foods
Margarine
40
30
26
24
22
21
20
19
Respondents in the group discussions cited cutting down on foods such as snacks and
chocolate while increasing intake of fresh fruit and vegetables as principal ways of
reducing their fat intake. In the quantitative survey, however, cutting down on foods such
as cakes and biscuits (cookies) and changing cooking methods were cited by 47 and
31% of the 509 respondents interviewed, respectively (Table 3.3). Of most significance
was that nearly one third of the respondents advocated consumption of low-fat foods
and low-fat spreads as a means of reducing fat intake while cutting down on dairy
products, snacks, and butter/margarine did not feature highly. This finding supports the
view that U.K. consumers still have a far from perfect understanding of the relative
contributions of different components of the diet to overall fat intake. By contrast,
consumers in the U.S. may be more knowledgeable about the main sources of fat in the
diet; in one California survey, the overwhelming majority (70%) of respondents identified
potato crisps (chips), mayonnaise, ice cream, cheese, and whole milk as important sources
of fat in the diet (Bruhn et al., 1992). Furthermore, nationwide surveys in the U.S. have
shown that American consumers are eating fewer dairy products and less red meat
(Gallup, 1990).
Consumers views on fat replacers were also explored in the Leatherhead Food RA
survey. Some respondents were aware that manufacturers used fat replacers in foods to
reduce the fat content; however, few were able to name any such products. Simplesse
produced the highest level of awareness at 5%. The vast majority of respondents (90%)
were not aware of any fat replacers and this rose to 98% for respondents aged 65+. A
47
31
30
26
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Ever tried
(% of respondents)
Eaten regularly
(% of respondents)
83
73
56
51
47
42
30
28
18
65
55
40
40
19
16
11
9
5
From Cathro, J., Industry and Market Reviews, No. 19, 1993. With permission.
taste was not such a critical factor in acceptance as the product was eaten in combination
with other foods, e.g., toast and marmalade.
In the discussion groups, consumers were clearly confused about the necessity for
very low-fat yogurts, especially as yogurt was perceived as a healthy food anyway. The
wide variety of products on the market also added to the confusion. However, despite
this confusion, 40% of the 509 interviewed respondents claimed to purchase very lowfat yogurts on a regular basis (Table 3.4). However, it is important to note that with
yogurt there is also a question of calorie and sugar content as well as fat levels.
While respondents were aware of the high fat content of many snack products, regular
purchase of low-fat crisps (chips) was comparatively low at 16%. From the discussion
group it could be inferred that the reason for this was their generally unacceptable flavor
and texture compared with standard products. Low-fat meat products also came in for a
fair amount of criticism on flavor grounds, this being reflected in low purchase frequency,
i.e., 9 and 5%, respectively.
On exploring the reasons for trying low-fat foods, previous studies by Boyle and
colleagues (1991) had indicated that, while health was the prime reason, this tended to
be concentrated on those products that were consumed on a regular basis, e.g., milk,
spreads, etc. It was not perceived to be important to buy low-fat versions of luxury items,
because they were not considered to make much difference to fat intake overall. The
1993 Leatherhead Food RA study, however, suggests that a change in consumer attitudes
may have occurred in that consumers considered that if a product existed in low-fat form,
it made sense to try it, and, providing the taste was acceptable, it could well replace the
standard product. This point is further supported by the dynamic performance of the socalled healthy ice cream category in the U.K. (Table 3.5) and the U.S. in recent years.
Healthy ice cream is one of the most dynamic sectors of the U.K. low-fat dairy products
market, with sales increasing more than threefold between 1990 and 1992. Furthermore,
in the Leatherhead study, respondents who had not tried any products in low-fat form
(only 42 from a total of 509) were asked why they were not interested in trying them
(Table 3.6). Here it is interesting to note that one third of respondents claimed to prefer
the taste of the standard product, suggesting that as technological advances give rise to
improvements in flavor, more consumers will be tempted to try low-fat versions of foods.
When respondents were asked which foods they would like to see made available in
low-fat form, chocolate was the most common response, followed by a variety of bakery
items. Some respondents did, however, have reservations about the artificial nature of
such products. Overall, respondents seemed to be divided into two distinct camps over
Value
(m rsp)
% Growth
1989
1990
1991
1992
2
5
10
23
+150
+100
+130
33
29
7
7
5
5
5
2
2
the usefulness of such products. One group claimed that if a low-fat option was provided
(and taste was on a par with that of the standard product) then it made sense to try it,
since it was likely to be healthier than the standard product and since the consumer was
unlikely to be at risk of eating too little fat. Conversely, the second group of respondents
claimed that this was actually moving away from a healthy balanced diet and that if
traditional treat items started to appear in low-fat form, consumers would simply eat
more of them. Respondents agreed that if the move toward low-fat foods incorporated
foods traditionally perceived as unhealthy, then consumers as a whole would tend to eat
more of the unhealthy items. In this case, the benefits of low-fat foods were not likely
to be apparent. Finally, the cost of low-fat foods was also criticized for being unnecessarily high. Clearly, there still exists the view that if a product is promoted as containing
less of an ingredient, in this case fat, it should cost less than the standard product. That
a food manufacturer may have incurred higher formulation costs to develop an acceptable
reduced-fat product is an issue that many consumers seem unaware of and indeed
probably have little interest in.
A survey of European consumers funded jointly by the Pfizer Speciality Chemicals
Group and the Calorie Control Council in 1991 showed similar trends in Europe to those
identified in the U.K. study described above (Wagner, 1992). The research showed that
the driving motivation among Europeans for consuming low-fat products was, generally,
to stay in better overall health, although this reason stood out less prominently from
others than it did in a comparable U.S. study by the same parties. For example, in France,
1996 CRC Press LLC
reducing fat ranked higher than staying in better health, and reducing calories, maintaining weight, and maintaining an attractive physical appearance were ranked nearly as high
as better overall health. In general, the findings suggested that the message of reducing
fat had a stronger appeal to European consumers than Americans.
Fat is also the number one dietary worry of U.S. consumers according to several statespecific and national surveys (Bruhn et al., 1992; Buss, 1993; CPQ, 1991; Gallup, 1990).
For example, in a 1991 poll by the Food Marketing Institute, 42% of respondents ranked
fat as the most important nutritional concern (Buss, 1993) while a California survey
showed that as many as 62, 61, and 58% of respondents considered total fat content,
saturated fat content, and cholesterol as very important in food selection (Bruhn et al.,
1992). It appears that the U.S. consumer is responding not to an old-fashioned urge to
diet, but to broader health recommendations by major groups such as the National
Cancer Institute and the American Association of Diabetes that Americans reduce their
fat intake to an average of 30% of total calories from the current average of 36% (Buss,
1993). However, the findings of a 1991 National Eating Trends study by the NPD Group,
a marketing research firm, also suggest that Americans concerns about fat and cholesterol
intake may be declining. Other studies show similar attitudes toward sugar, salt, and
calorie intake. It should be stressed that this does not necessarily mean that healthful
diets no longer interest people, but rather that the hysteria has subsided. The fact that
the food supply now offers choices that make people feel more comfortable about
cholesterol and fat is cited as one of the reasons for the drop in consumer concern
regarding fat intake.
Clearly, consumers concern and knowledge of the link between fat intake and health
have heightened their receptiveness to the concept of reduced-fat foods, which in turn
has led to increasing demand from food manufacturers for fat replacers.
1991
1992
% Change
Dairy products
Milk
Cream
Cheese
Yogurt
Fromage frais
Ice cream
Spreads
Meat products
Burgers/grillsteaks
Sausages
Pt
Snack foods
Other
Ready meals
Dressings
Pre-packed salads
Total
1,548
1,207
9
92
84
23
10
123
49
10
28
11
40
104
65
29
10
1,741
1,869
1,486
10
107
91
29
23
123
51
10
29
12
40
116
72
31
13
2,076
+20.7
+23.1
+11.1
+16.3
+8.3
+26.1
+130.1
0
+4.1
0
+3.6
+9.1
0
+11.5
+10.8
+6.9
+30.0
+19.2
While most sectors of the low-fat food market in the U.K. are showing steady growth,
some are showing dynamic growth, albeit from a small base, namely ice cream, prepacked salads, and fromage frais. While not evident from Table 3.7, reduced-fat bakery
products are beginning to make an appearance on the U.K. market. The first reduced-fat
biscuit (cookie) of note, namely Light Digestive from McVities, appeared on the U.K.
market in late 1992, and since then reports indicate that it has grown to a 7.5 million
brand (approximately $12.5 million). The product now accounts for an estimated 10%
of the U.K. digestive biscuit (cookie) market. As yet, there has been little activity outside
biscuits (cookies). In this respect, the U.K. market is well behind that in the U.S., where
retail sales of low-fat and low-cholesterol bakery products grew at an annual compound
rate of 23.6% from 1989 to 1993. It is interesting to note that the largest sector, milk,
is still one of those showing strongest growth, at over 23% in 1992, ahead of several
smaller and newer low-fat product sectors such as meat products and snack foods.
While consumer trends toward healthy eating and the reduction of fat in the diet
continue to gain momentum, several low-fat food sectors have struggled to gain acceptance
in the U.K., failing to meet consumer expectations in terms of taste and quality. Products
that have performed best are those where, through the use of fat replacer technology, the
food manufacturer has been able to offer products tasting nearly, and ideally equally as
good as, the full-fat products they replace. This has been comparatively easy for a number
of product sectors, in particular dairy products and dressings, which explains their high
level of acceptance by consumers. The same is not the case for baked goods, where the
technical challenges to be faced are more stringent and exacting.
3.3.2 EUROPE
While data on the European market are somewhat patchy compared with those on the
U.S., there is sufficient information to indicate a considerable and growing interest in
reduced-fat foods, although it should be stressed that a number of market sectors are
beginning to plateau and in some cases decline.
According to several consumer surveys discussed in more detail earlier in this chapter,
growing numbers (ranging from 64 to 76%) of adults (aged 18 and over) in Europe are
selecting light foods and beverages to help them control their intake of fat and calories
to stay in better overall health (Wagner, 1992). Based on these figures, it can be estimated
that 81 million consumers in France, Germany, and the U.K. purchase light products,
which is roughly 60% of the U.S. market (calculated at about 141 million consumers).
Using similar extrapolations of survey data, it is estimated that there are 30.5 million
light food and beverage consumers in the U.K. (75% of the adult population), 31.5 million
light consumers in Germany (69% of adults) and 19 million light consumers in France
(48% of adults). As in the U.S., the popularity of foods and beverages reduced in fat is
the primary force behind the light food trend in Europe. Some 67% of British adults
consume low-fat products, as do 53% of Germans, and 39% of the French. While very
popular among men (as high as 61% penetration in the U.K.), these products are even
more widely consumed by women in the three countries. The most popular low-fat
products among Europeans are margarines, cheese, yogurt, cream and other dairy products, sauces, mayonnaise, and beverages (Wagner, 1992).
Taking a closer look at the German market, it is apparent that, while light products
are firmly established, market growth is modest. As in the U.S., reduced-fat dressings
are the most popular reduced-fat foods. Reduced-fat salad dressings and mayonnaise
accounted for 39% of total salad dressing and mayonnaise sales in the former West
Germany for the period January to November 1992. This compares with penetration
levels of 37 and 32% for the years 1991 and 1990, respectively. However, reduced-fat
margarines appear to be growing in popularity, accounting for 12% of total margarine
sales in 1992. This is 2% up on 1991 and 3% up on 1990. Penetration levels for reducedfat condensed milk and reduced-fat drinking milk have stabilized at 11% and 3%,
respectively. Not surprisingly, penetration levels for light products in the former East
Germany are considerably lower. For example, light salad dressings and mayonnaise
accounted for only 16% of total salad dressing and mayonnaise sales in 1992, the same
level as in 1991 (Staehler, 1992).
A lower level of interest in reduced-fat foods in France compared with Germany and
the U.K. has been reported (Anon., 1992). While sales of reduced-fat foods in France
have in general grown in recent years, there are signs, as in Germany, that consumer
interest is waning. Indicative of this was a 7.8% volume sales decline for reduced-fat
spreads in 1992. While as a general rule the European consumer has shown a growing
preference for healthier alternatives to traditional products, it is important to be aware
of the strong regional variations relating to consumption of reduced-fat foods. As an
example, it is possible to cite the considerable variation for penetration of reduced-fat
milks across Europe. Since the data previously presented indicate that the French consumer has a lower level of interest in reduced-fat foods than the British and the Germans,
it is somewhat surprising that France has one of the highest penetration levels for reducedfat milks in Europe, i.e., around 80%. This compares with penetration levels of around
50% in the U.K. and only around 20% in Germany. Higher preference for semi-skimmed
products for most countries suggests that consumer desires to reduce fat intake are limited
by taste. Other regional variations are also apparent, such as the comparatively more
developed markets for reduced-fat meat products in Germany and reduced-fat bakery
products in France. While the previous data appear at odds with earlier information on
the French consumers attitude to reduced-fat foods, it further illustrates the danger in
viewing the European market as homogeneous.
3.3.3 UNITED STATES
While the numerous articles and reports on the U.S. market for reduced-fat foods may
vary on its current value, all agree that it is a dynamic area. According to Mancini (1993),
U.S. sales of low-fat processed foods are continuing to climb, from $29 billion in 1990,
to $32 billion in 1991, to an expected $55 billion in 1996. Also indicative of the dynamism
of the market was the launch of 519 new low-fat/low-cholesterol products in 1992,
representing an increase of 39% over 1991, according to FIND/SVP (1993).
Dairy products appear to be the most active category, accounting for one third of all
low-fat foods introductions in 1992, followed by bakery products with 88 launches. This
is also reflected in their sales value, which, at $10 billion, accounted for nearly 48% of
total low-fat food sales in 1990 (Lakin, 1993). Sales are forecast to climb to $16 billion
by 1995, or 32% of total low-fat food sales (Table 3.8). A recent study by FIND/SVP
(1993) is even more bullish about the size and prospects for the U.S. market for lowfat/low-cholesterol dairy products. They forecast retail dollar sales to increase yearly,
from $25.7 billion in 1992 to $39.3 billion in 1996, an average gain of more than 15%
compounded annually.
Table 3.8 Actual and Projected Sales of
Low-Fat Food Products in the U.S. ($bn)
Year
Food product
Baked goods
Dairy products
Frozen desserts
Margarine
Frozen ready meals
Processed meats
Salty snacks
Total
1990
1995
1
10
3
2
2
2
1
21
6
16
7
2
6
8
5
50
One of the major questions posed by a survey carried out by the Calorie Control
Council has been: Do U.S. consumers really like current reduced-fat products? (Mancini, 1993). In the survey, some 69% of respondents claimed to be satisfied with the
industrys attempts at developing good-tasting products; however, nearly one third of
respondents indicated that there was still scope for improvement. Mancini (1993) has
suggested that one of the prime reasons for salad dressings being given as the category
of low-fat foods most frequently purchased by adult Americans (55% of respondents) is
that good-tasting reduced-fat versions can be achieved by the use of well-tried and tested
ingredients, e.g., starch and hydrocolloids. The second most popular category of products
have been low-fat dairy products (e.g., cheese and imitation sour cream) and reducedfat margarines, both reportedly purchased by 50% of the respondents. Reduced-fat milk,
meat products, and ice cream/frozen desserts were consumed by 48, 39, and 38% of the
consumers in the survey, respectively. It is suggested that since some of these foods are
usually consumed with other foods (e.g., salad dressings and spreads), consumers tend
to be more forgiving about any problems with texture and flavor. The fact that low-fat
dairy desserts were only the sixth most frequently purchased line is felt to indicate that
foods eaten primarily for pleasure rather than health have to satisfy more stringent criteria
by consumers. As a consequence, it is therefore not surprising that low-fat baked goods
and snacks are consumed less often.
Dairy Field reports that despite some setbacks in early attempts at reduced-fat dairy
products, new product development in the low-fat arena continues at a frenzied pace
(Anon., 1993). Significant sales growth for reduced-fat variants is evident for most of
the key dairy product categories, with many manufacturers seeing further opportunities
for growth. There has been a proliferation of reduced-fat products in the sour creams
and dips category, with no-fat and low-fat varieties now accounting for between 20 and
30% of total sales. Significant progress has also been made in reduced-fat cheeses, which,
worth $750 million, account for 10% of total retail cheese sales. A 9% sales increase
for reduced-fat frozen yogurt for the 52-week period ending August 15, 1993, is also
indicative of the buoyancy of the low-fat frozen desserts category (Anon., 1993).
While bakery products represent a relatively small part of the total market for lowfat foods, it is nevertheless one of the fastest growing categories, having grown at an
annual compound rate of 23.6% over the period 1989 to 1993, according to FIND/SVP
(Anon., 1993). However, while some products succeed for example, Pepperidge
Farms reduced-fat cookies, breads, muffins, and pita under the Wholesome Choice
banner others have not fared as well, e.g., Pepperidge Farms Wholesome Choice
crackers, Sara Lees Free and Light, and Nabiscos My Goodness. However, the growing
importance of such products can be gauged from the fact that the market pioneer,
Entenmanns, now derives 20% of its sales revenue from its fat free range of baked
goods. As for most other categories of the reduced-fat food market, good taste and quality
are cited as crucial to success (Anon., 1993).
While pundits may disagree on the level of growth, there is no doubt that the demand
for reduced-fat variants of traditional products in the U.S. will increase. However, crucial
to continued growth will be improvements in product quality, particularly for products
eaten for pleasure rather than purely for health reasons.
One can conclude from the information presented above that the market for reducedfat foods is buoyant internationally, although there are signs that interest may be waning
in certain countries, e.g., France. The dairy sector has been at the forefront of this
development, making a wide range of reduced-fat alternatives available to consumers.
This has been possible due to the comparatively simple technology required to produce
good-tasting reduced-fat alternatives to some dairy products. However, the technical
challenges to be overcome in producing good-tasting reduced-fat baked goods and meat
products are much greater, which explains their comparatively modest success to date.
Based on what has been reported so far, one would expect that sales of fat replacers
mirror those of reduced-fat foods. An examination of market developments specific to
fat replacers now follows.
3.5 CONCLUSIONS
Data have been presented to indicate that fat is likely to remain the prime dietary worry
for both U.S. and European consumers for the foreseeable future. This in itself will spur
continued growth in the reduced-fat food markets of Europe and America, which in turn
will increase demand for fat replacers. Many of the reduced-fat foods developed to date
have been achieved through the use of existing carbohydrate-based thickeners and stabilizers combined in some cases with new processing technologies. While it is likely
that carbohydrate-based fat replacers, i.e., maltodextrins, polydextrose, gums, etc., will
continue to dominate the market for the foreseeable future, these will eventually lose
some share to more sophisticated protein-based and synthetic products. However, the
impact of synthetic fat substitutes on the market could well be blunted by regulatory
delays and high price. Critical to the continued development of the reduced-fat foods
market is the introduction of a wider range of good-tasting and textured products,
particularly in the bakery and snack food sectors. This in turn will require that a broader
range of fat replacers be developed; as has already been indicated, this can be an
extremely expensive and risky business venture. However, for the company bold enough
to tackle these problems, the rewards could be considerable. These views have been
endorsed by a recent study by the Leatherhead Food RA on the current status and future
opportunities for fat substitutes in Europe (Hilliam et al., 1995).
REFERENCES
Anonymous, Lite food is popular, Food Technol., 29(10), 17, 1993.
Anonymous, Reduced-fat bakery foods: meeting the taste challenge, Prep. Foods, 162(8), 79, 1993.
Anonymous, Britain takes a healthy lead in Europe, Grocer, 214(7078), 34, 1992.
Anonymous, Are marketers living a fat-free fantasy? Bakery Prod. Mark., 28(6), 132, 1993.
Anonymous, Schwere Zeiten fr Lights?, Lebensmitt. Prax., 15, 4, 1993.
Boyle, C.S., Cathro, J.S., Comber, L.R., Emmett, S.E., and Hilliam, M.A. The U.K. low-fat food report,
Ind. Mark. Rev. No. 6, 1991.
Bruhn, C.M., Cotter, A., Diaz-Knauf, K., Sutherlin, J., West, E., Wightman, N., Williamson, E., and
Yaffee, M., Consumer attitudes and market potential for foods using fat substitutes, Food Technol.,
April, 81, 1992.
Buss, D., Trimming the fat from fat replacer expectation, Food Process., 54 (10), 44, 1993.
Cathro, J., The U.K. Low-Fat Foods Report, 2nd Edition, Volume II The Consumer, Ind. Mark. Rev.,
No. 19, 1993.
Comber, L.R., Cutler, A.J., and Griffin, P.F. The U.K. Low-fat Food Report, 2nd Edition, Volume I
The Market. Ind. Mark. Rev. No. 19, 1993.
Center for Produce Quality (CPQ), Two years after Alar: A Survey of Consumer Attitudes Toward Food
Safety, CPQ, Newark, Delaware, 1991.
FIND/SVP, Low-fat/low-cholesterol products hit new highs, Food Process., 54(3), 11, 1993.
Gallup, Gallup Survey of Public Opinion Regarding Diet and Health, conducted for the International
Food Information Council and American Dietetic Association, The Gallup Organization, Princeton,
N.J., 1990.
Hilliam, M., Angus, F., Bower, S., and Marriss, L., Fat substitutes An in-depth European review of
current status and future opportunities. Leatherhead Food Research Association Report, March 1995.
Lakin, J., Fact file, Super Market., 46, 1068, 1993.
Mancini, L., Low fat comes of age, Food Eng., 65(6), 149, 1993.
Morrison, M. Fat replacers: potential markets. Inform 3(12), 1270-1277, 1992.
Shukla, T. P., Low-fat foods and fat replacers, Cereal Foods World, 37(6), 452, 1992.
Staehler, C., Out of the niche into the spotlight, Lebensmitt. Prax., 5, 4, 1992.
Wagner, J., Global consumers want the lite stuff, Food Process., 53(10), 68, 1992.
Chapter
Introduction
Mimicking the Fat Droplet
Rheological Matching
Physical Stability and Fat Reduction
Sensory Implications of Fat Reduction
4.5.1 Intensity of Sensory Attributes
4.5.2 Temporal Effects of Fat Replacement
4.6 Flavor Release and Fat Reduction
4.6.1 Principles of Flavor Release and Methodological Considerations
4.6.2 Flavor Compounds vs. Flavor Perception
4.6.3 Flavor/Food Component Interactions
4.6.4 Flavor/Fat Replacer Interactions
4.6.5 Mass Transfer Inhibition and Flavor Release
References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The principal objective of all the current product development activities in the area of
fat reduction is to match the overall product characteristics of a full-fat variant. The
degree of complexity of this task is dependent on the type of product and the level of
fat reduction required, but the underlying cause of the difficulties experienced when
reducing fat lies in its multifunctional nature as a food ingredient, and its often profound
effects during the different stages of a products manufacture, as well as on the final
product characteristics. Moreover, the problems are compounded by the fact that to date
there is no permitted, commercially available single ingredient which can directly replace
fat in all its food applications. Hence, the only viable route is to apply a holistic approach
in fat reduction, whereby a fat-replacing system needs to be devised together with
appropriate processing changes for each of the product matrices. Although there is a
considerable range of commercialized fat replacers on the market, since the vast majority
of these ingredients have hydrophilic characteristics, it is inevitable that in the majority
of applications, fat reduction will be associated with an increase in water content, and
this will lead to changes in physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics.
A reasonable starting assumption, for instance in products which are in the form of
an oil-in-water emulsion (e.g., milk, yogurt, cream, cheese, ice cream, soups, sauces,
mayonnaise, dressings, etc.) could be to physically mimic a fat droplet. On the other
hand, it may be more appropriate to attempt to match the rheological characteristics of
the full-fat product through the use of different fat mimicking ingredients. However,
while doing so, it would be necessary to achieve an acceptable product quality in terms
of physical characteristics, physical stability, and sensory characteristics. Of equal importance in this context is the issue of microbiological stability as discussed in Chapter 1.
Furthermore, since fat reduction is associated with changes in perceived product characteristics, it is essential to understand the physical and chemical implications of flavor
release in the context of fat content manipulations.
This chapter evaluates the scope for a scientific, systematic approach to fat reduction
in the light of data reported in the literature, highlighting some of the more controversial
aspects, with the aim of identifying the existing gaps in our scientific knowledge in the
area of fat reduction.
opportunities due to its hydrophobic nature and inherent insolubility in water. This
concept was first explored by Enzytech, Inc. and then developed further by its branch
Opta Food Ingredients, Inc., in the production of LITA whereby the microparticulated
zein protein is obtained through a special processing technique which includes the coating
of the surface of the insoluble particle with a polysaccharide such as carboxymethylcellulose or gum arabic, in order to prevent aggregation of the particles (Cook et al., 1991;
Iyenger and Gross, 1991; Stark and Gross, 1992). By definition, therefore, the nature of
these microparticles, being very dense, nondeformable spheres, ranging from 0.1 to 8.0
m in diameter, is quite different from those obtained through a heat or acid coagulation
route. Although conceptually, LITA is undisputedly a unique ingredient in terms of the
source of protein used and its strong hydrophobic character, it should be noted that the
same features are responsible for its major commercial drawback i.e., its inherent
flavor problems. On the other hand, LITA is a product based on protein-polysaccharide
interactions and considerable scope exists for exploring this concept in the pursuit of
mimicking fat droplets.
Another example of an ingredient based on protein-polysaccharide complex formation
is Trailblazer range developed by Kraft General Foods (KGF). The principle behind
Trailblazer is the fact that anionic polysaccharides interact strongly with proteins at pH
values below their isoelectric points (Chen and Soucre, 1985; Chen et al., 1992). A typical
Trailblazer product is made from xanthan gum, egg white, and whey protein. On heating,
crosslinking through the formation of disulfide bond takes place resulting in a fibrous
network. These are then subjected to a microfragmentation process which reduces particle
size to approximately 10 m. In physical terms, however, the structure of Trailblazer is
that of fiber and therefore does not achieve the spherical ideal expected to give the
maximum ball-bearing effect. Unfortunately, KGF decided not to commercialize the
Trailblazer range and the interesting issue of the relative importance of structural differences in fat mimetics derived from the same protein (i.e., whey protein concentrate)
remains open to speculation.
Starch could be seen as an obvious ingredient to explore in the context of mimicking
the fat droplet, but there seems to have been little activity in this area so far. Zhao and
Whistler (1994) described an interesting process for forming spherical starch aggregates
using starch granules (preferably from amaranth or wheat) by coating with sodium
alginate or low methoxy pectin and then spraying with calcium chloride to form insoluble
coatings. Although these spheres were developed for flavor-carrying purposes, it can be
seen that the basic principle is similar to that employed in microparticulated proteins
coated with hydrocolloids (as in LITA and Trailblazer). On the other hand, if it is
assumed that the actual physical shape is not important, then a fat mimetic such as
Stellar, which is based on a crystalline fraction of starch, could also be viewed as a
microparticulated material since it is composed of aggregated starch crystallites which,
when subjected to high shear in an aqueous system (minimum 8000 psi), form particles
of 3 to 5 m (Pszczola, 1991).
A different concept of mimicking fat globules has been developed by the French
company A and S Biovecteures (ODonnell, 1994). The synthesis of a low-fat globule
was based on a milk fat concept, whereby an internal lipid core was replaced by a
reduced-calorie starch core but with the external properties of the globule modeled on a
milk-fat globule. The process involves: obtaining a cross-linked modified starch; extruding the starch to obtain particle size with a diameter of approximately 2 m; grafting a
fatty acid layer to the starch particles using a nonpolar solvent or by supercritical fluid
extraction technology; and attaching a phospholipid layer using a homogenization process. This concept for fat replacement was first introduced at the 1993 Food Ingredients
Exhibition (FIE 93).
It might be expected that the issue of mimicking the fat globule would be especially
important in the absence of the dispersed phase, as in the case of a fat-free version of
an oil-in-water emulsion. In such a case, a two-phase system of an emulsion can be
devised by partitioning of the aqueous phase using the principle of biopolymers competing for water. Thus, depending on the choice of biopolymers and conditions such as
water activity, pH, ionic strength, charge density, and biopolymer concentration, a mixture
of two biopolymers can undergo complex coacervation (e.g., gelatin/gum arabic), or
phase separation driven by thermodynamic incompatibility between biopolymers (e.g.,
gelatin/maltodextrin) (Tolstoguzov, 1986). In each case, it is possible to obtain a twophase system, and, in the latter case, mixed or filled gels with two or more 3D networks
can be formed. Phase separation driven by thermodynamic incompatibility between
biopolymers has been investigated for a wide range of mixtures, and proposed as an
approach to fat reduction in the yellow fat spreads product area (Cain et al., 1989; Kasapis
et al., 1992; Muyldermans and Vanhoegaerden, 1992).
The above examples highlight some of the possible approaches to mimic physically
the fat globule structure through the use of accessible ingredients, and, in most cases,
special processing methods. It can be concluded that, although some means of interrupting the continuous aqueous phase is necessary, the extent to which it is necessary
to mimic perfectly the size and shape of oil droplets remains questionable, as different
approaches utilize a range of particle size beyond the 0.1 to 3.0 m range originally
considered as optimal, and the shapes range from distinct spheres to irregular particles.
Moreover, despite attempts to limit hydrophilic activity, the designer particles could
be expected to have different physical properties to those of fat on account of the
differences in chemical structure. In other words, there are certain limitations in attempting to form the physical structure of a fat globule.
However, the above discussion has focused on the mimicking of the fat globule
structure in isolation. In reality, the complexity of real food systems necessitates optimization of the overall product formulation when replacing either all or a substantial
amount of the fat by a fat mimetic. On the other hand, it may be considered as the need
to obtain a fat mimetic system that would compensate for the broad spectrum of fat
functionalities exhibited in a given product type. Glicksman (1991) suggested that a
three-ingredient system is necessary for a good fat mimetic: (1) a thickening agent for
lubricity and flow control; (2) a soluble bulking agent for control of adsorption/absorption
of the food onto taste perceptors of the tongue; and (3) a microparticulate, generally
insoluble, agent that acts like a ball-bearing to create smoothness.
It can be postulated, however, that in order to mimic the different functions of fat in
a substantially reduced-fat product, we must consider viscosity matching, solids adjustment, and particle size impact and mouthfeel, and we must also carefully balance the
perceived flavor characteristics of the system. In other words, as has been emphasized
previously, there is a need for a holistic approach.
it) have to be taken into account, as well as the implications of these descriptors to
rheological measurements. The following brief examples from the literature should help
the reader to understand the significance of these issues.
The majority of published reports investigate the issue of fat replacement in oil-inwater emulsion systems since, on the one hand, it represents a large range of existing
product categories, and, on the other hand, it is the easiest system to characterize and
define from a scientific point of view. An oil-in-water emulsion exhibits non-Newtonian,
shear thinning behavior. In a recent study, Mela et al. (1994) showed that an increase in
oil content (in an oil-in-water emulsion containing 1.0% w/w of sucrose stearate as an
emulsifier and fat content ranging from zero to 48%) gives rise to a logarithmic increase
in viscosity (as measured at a shear rate of 48 sec1), and that this viscosity increase was
a predominant factor affecting perceived fat content as assessed by panelists. However,
statistical analyses of the data showed that fat content made independent contributions
beyond viscosity alone. Indeed, earlier work on perceived fat content and creaminess in
thickened milks (Mela, 1988) led to the same conclusion.
Other authors recognized the importance of two rheological parameters in relation to
fat perception i.e., viscosity and flow behavior index (power law index). Studying
model soups with a range of thickeners, Wood (1974) established that, for this product,
maximum perception of creaminess was at a viscosity of between 50 and 80 mPa.s, and
a flow behavior index (n) of about 0.50. For desserts (creams with xanthan), Daget et al.
(1987) found that maximum creaminess was at a viscosity of between 880 and 7500
mPa.s and a corresponding flow behavior index of 0.15 and 0.04 for 3.5 and 30% fat
content, respectively. More recently, Daget and Joerg (1991) reported on a substantial
study of model cream soups which examined the effects of several hydrocolloid thickeners on creaminess, thickness, and liking consistency in relation to rheological characteristics. The relationship between the flow behavior index and apparent viscosity was
found to be different for each thickener. The maxima of creaminess corresponded to
a viscosity of between 90 and 325 mPa.s and a flow behavior index of 0.12 to 0.42.
Interestingly, rheological optima for liking consistency were found always to be lower
than those for creaminess, while perceived thickness was found to be linearly related to
the logarithm of viscosity for all thickeners. Thus, the results demonstrated the importance of the two rheological parameters in perceived creaminess and acceptability. However, the authors also established that other unknown aspects affected acceptability ratings
in this study. Such aspects could be validated through a broader rheological approach.
The importance of the size of oil droplets in relation to fat content and perceived fat
content has also received some attention. The results reported by Mela et al. (1994)
showed no apparent pattern in oil droplet size as affected by fat content in emulsions
containing 0 to 48% fat. The decrease in oil droplet size resulting from different homogenization pressures used (100 and 300 bar) caused the viscosity of the emulsions to
increase, but no difference was found in perceived fat content as a result of this viscosity
increase.
Richardson et al. (1993) studied the effects of homogenization and fat content on oral
perception in 3.5 and 4.8% fat milks with and without the addition of carboxymethylcellulose. The results showed no effect of fat content or homogenization on viscosity (as
measured at 50 s1) for neither the unthickened milks nor for the milks thickened to the
viscosity of a double cream. The ratings of fat content and creaminess were very
similar; although higher scores were obtained for both of those attributes for nonhomogenized milks, these differences were not statistically significant as indicated by error
bars. In the case of thickened milks, the responses obtained for perceived fat content and
creaminess were again similar for all four milk samples and only the homogenized milk
containing 4.8% fat received higher scores, but again, these were not statistically significant. Interestingly, despite the fact that the authors do not give any data on oil droplet
size and distribution, they conclude that a high density of evenly sized particles (produced
as a result of homogenization), together with adequately high viscosity, results in a
realistic sense of creaminess. Although it is difficult to see the validity of this statement
in the context of the results presented, and further work is obviously required, it would
be expected that droplet size and distribution would have an effect on perceived fat
content and creaminess, but it should be possible to, at least to some extent, depict such
an effect in rheological performance.
In this context, the results reported by Partel et al. (1994) should be mentioned, since
they were able to relate mathematically rheological and particle size parameters. However, it should be pointed out that in this experimental work, extreme conditions were
prevailing (in terms of both composition and methodology), and further work would be
required to ascertain the validity of these findings in a low-fat context, as well as in
relation to perceived flavor characteristics, since neither of these issues were included
in the study.
Baines and Morris (1988), confirming the results of earlier work on perceived thickness of solutions of polysaccharide thickeners in relation to viscosity measurement,
postulated that the use of small-deformation oscillary measurement of viscosity at 50
rad1 is necessary in order to account for the particular rheological behavior of xanthan,
which is the result of its conformationally ordered structure (as opposed to random
coiled disordered polysaccharide structures). A good correlation was found between
viscosity and perceived thickness, while no differences were found in perceived thickness,
stickiness, or sliminess. Interestingly, despite the extreme shear thinning of xanthan, no
correlation was found between perceived sliminess and shear thinning. Moreover, no
detectable suppression of perceived flavor or taste was found to exist when xanthan
solutions of up to 1.0% (w/v) were studied.
However, the issue of sensory attributes used to describe the contributions of fat (or
fat mimetic) in textural terms are far from being resolved, despite the fact that there has
been a substantial amount of research activity in this area (Szczesniak et al., 1963; Jowitt,
1974; Szczesniak, 1979). The elusive term of creaminess, for instance, was reported
to be unrelated to terms such as thickness, smoothness, and slipperiness (Cussler
et al., 1979). While Kokini et al. (1977) defined each of the latter three desriptors in
terms of friction and/or viscosity, Cussler et al. (1979) suggest that creaminess cannot
solely be related to the three above mentioned attributes, and hence it cannot be defined
in rheological terms.
On the other hand, Drewnowski (1987), in a study on liquid dairy foods (from milk
to heavy cream) suggests that the fat content may be better monitored and perceived
through the use of more abstract terms related to caloric density (e.g., oily, greasy). It
is noteworthy that the response received for the term creamy was very similar to that
received for the terms fattening and high calorie.
While there appears to be some confusion in the reported data with regard to the
sensorily measured responses to fat content, on the basis of a closer examination of the
data it can be postulated that the current state of flux has its origins in two factors: first,
the sensory methodology used (e.g., consumer vs. trained panelist, brief given on the
products, the level of understanding of the terms assessed, presence or absence of
reference points, etc.); and second, the type of attribute used. In the latter case, two
categories of attributes can be distinguished. The first comprises terms that are unaffected
by hedonic response (e.g., thickness, smoothness, slipperiness, fattening, high calorie),
and hence an approximately linear relationship would be expected between the intensity
of these attributes and fat content, and these terms could be defined in rheological terms.
On the other hand, the attribute creaminess, which is considered by most authors as
the best descriptor for the assessment of the contribution made by fat to perceived sensory
characteristics of a product, is much more complex, since it involves a certain level of
hedonic response. For that reason, the response for this attribute would be expected to
be nonlinear. This can vary from a curve response with a plateau, as first obtained by
Wood (1974), to an inverted U-shape response against increasing fat content, since a
point will be reached where a further increase in fat content is deemed inappropriate for
the particular product type. Obviously, it is not feasible to attempt to define such an
attribute in rheological terms alone. Moreover, it can be postulated that in any given
product, apart from thickness and smoothness characteristics, perceived creaminess will
also be affected by the intensity of flavor attributes present in the system.
Overall, it can be concluded that while considerable scope remains in rheological
matching of the contribution made by fat with that of a fat replacing system, the issue
needs to be viewed in the context of the complexity of a particular product matrix and
its quality parameters. While rheological characteristics undoubtedly play an important
role in sensory perception of foods, the extent to which this route is sufficiently explored
is debatable. It could be postulated that more attention should be given to physically
mimicking the conditions in the mouth prior to proceeding with rheological characterization, which should, perhaps, be designed in relation to the products matrix. On the
other hand, the limitations of rheological characterization alone should be recognized,
especially where flavor intensity and flavor release affect the perceived rheological
characteristics.
with no aqueous phase stabilizers were found to have the smallest aqueous phase droplet
size, while hardness and spreadability of the spreads were primarily, though not exclusively, related to the solid fat content. Other spread characteristics, such as stickiness,
cloying character, the rate of breakdown in the mouth, etc., were dependent upon the
type of aqueous phases stabilizers and the openness of the spread microstructure (Bavington et al., 1992). Figure 4.1 gives an example of some of the differences in selected
physical characteristics for three of the ten commercial low-fat spreads investigated in
relation to the composition of the aqueous phase as indicated on the labels. It is apparent,
therefore, that low-fat spreads produced commercially differ considerably in terms of
their physical characteristics. Overall, the differences in physical characteristics can be
attributed in general terms to four main factors: fat content; composition of the aqueous
phase; composition of the fat phase; and processing methods/conditions used.
Figure 4.1 Differences in selected physical characteristics of some of the commercial 40%
fat spreads: Sample 2, containing sodium caseinate and sodium alginate; Sample 5, containing
modified starch and milk proteins; Sample 6, containing gelatin and milk proteins. (Compiled
from Bavington et al., 1992.)
In low-fat spreads containing 30% fat or less, the primary concern is to maintain a waterin-oil emulsion structure. In standard processing methods, this can easily be achieved
using an appropriate emulsification system, which will allow the formation of the emulsion
and the maintenance of the water-in-oil emulsion structure during processing (Clegg
et al., 1993). However, while in physical terms an excellent emulsion can be achieved,
with small water droplets (0.5 to 2.0 m) homogeneously distributed throughout the
continuous fat phase, the emulsifiers necessary for obtaining such a stable system give
rise to undesirable organoleptic characteristics which manifest themselves predominantly
in textural attributes (e.g., the slow rate of emulsion breakdown in the mouth), and these,
in turn, affect flavor release characteristics of the spreads. Thus, certain changes in
product formulation are necessary if an acceptable quality is to be achieved.
It is now an established commercial practice to use hydrocolloid stabilizers, either
polysaccharide-based (e.g., starch, maltodextrin, sodium alginate) or protein-based (e.g.,
gelatin or sodium caseinate), in order to structure the aqueous phase of the low-fat spreads
(Bavington et al., 1991). Such ingredients thicken and gel the aqueous phase droplets,
giving rise to rheological changes that affect the different stages of manufacture, as well
as the physical stability of the final product, which will be dependent on the type and
concentration of the hydrocolloid(s) used.
Clegg et al. (1993), in a study of the role of aqueous phase stabilizers in low-fat
spreads containing 30% fat, demonstrated an apparent destabilizing effect of hydrocolloids on the physical characteristics of the final product. This was manifested in an
increase in droplet size, changes in droplet size distribution, and a decrease in thermal
and shear stability compared with spreads containing no aqueous phase stabilizers. A
confocal laser scanning microscopy technique was used to study changes in microstructure in order to ensure minimum disruption of the spread systems, and also to be able
to view the structure in three dimensions. While slight destabilization was observed for
spreads containing gelatin and those containing gelatin and maltodextrin, a marked
increase in droplet size was found in spreads containing gelatin and sodium alginate. In
the case of spreads containing gelatin and modified starch, a significant destabilization
was found, with evidence that some of the starch was disrupting the crystalline fat phase
structure. Extensive destabilization was found in spreads containing gelatin and sodium
caseinate as a result of the surface active properties of the sodium caseinate, and its
tendency to promote a water-continuous emulsion, which was therefore counteracting
the action of the emulsifiers present. However, while at a lower concentration of sodium
caseinate the microstructure of the spread was more or less bi-continuous in nature, at
higher concentrations of sodium caseinate the increased viscosity of the aqueous phase
tended to counteract to a certain degree the surface active properties of the protein, thus
limiting the extent to which the aqueous droplets coalesced during and after processing.
As a result, some restabilization was apparent, and the presence of aqueous lakes and
large droplets was evident. Figure 4.2 shows confocal images of selected low-fat spreads
from these studies (Clegg et al., 1993).
On the other hand, destabilization of the water-in-oil low-fat emulsion systems, as
affected by the presence of hydrocolloids, has an important positive effect on sensory
characteristics in terms of the rate of emulsion breakdown in the mouth, melt-down
properties and flavor release. In other words, a certain degree of instability needs to be
introduced into a necessarily tight and stable low-fat oil-continuous emulsion system
(which is needed to enable processing) in order to mimic the sensorily perceived characteristics of the full-fat spread. In addition, the source of the fat blend, the melting
profile of the fat, and the ratio of liquid to crystalline fat affect the structure of the
emulsion and organoleptic characteristics. A more extensive discussion of the sensory
implications of fat reduction is given in Section 4.5.
c
Figure 4.2 Effect of aqueous phase stabilizers on microstructure of 30% fat spreads obtained
using confocal laser scanning microscopy technique: (a) no aqueous phase stabilizers; (b) 2%
gelatin/15% maltodextrin; and (c) 2% gelating/8% sodium caseinate. (From Clegg, S. M., Moore,
A. K., and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With
permission.)
Figure 4.3 Effect of fat content on intensity of flavor attributes in oil-continuous spreads (fat
reduction not compensated by compositional changes). (From Jones, S. A. et al., unpublished.
With permission from the Leatherhead Food Research Association.)
positioned close to one another in the plot were perceived as having similar sensory
characteristics, whereas those distant were perceptually different from one another. The
original sensory attributes are shown as vectors radiating from the origin of the plot and
lengths of the vectors represent their relative importance in the principal component
space. For clarity, only the more important vectors are shown in Figure 4.4, but these
are derived from panelists evaluation of 16 attributes reflecting appearance, flavor,
texture, and mouthfeel characteristics. The data show that the two full-fat margarines,
and one of the 40% fat spreads are clearly separated from the other samples on the basis
of paler yellow color, smoother texture, and more glossy appearance. However, this 40%
spread is differentiated from the others on the basis of high levels of lard flavor and lack
of saltiness. The rest of the low-fat spreads are positioned more to the right of PC1, and
were generally darker yellow in color, with a more grainy appearance. The product
containing the lowest amount of fat of those tested (i.e., 25% fat) is clearly separated
from the others on account of its gelatinous and firm characteristics, whereas the 40%
fat located closest to it is characterized by a firm texture as it is based on butter.
Figure 4.4 Positioning of a range of commercial fat continuous spreads with respect to each
other and discriminating attributes (PC1 vs. PC2). (From Kilcast, D., Crawford, B. A., and Foster,
Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 683, 1991. With permission.)
Although there are some published reports on the effects of different fat replacers in
food systems, virtually none consider a full sensory characterization of the products
studied with the aim of relating that to physical characteristics in order to gain an
understanding of the precise role each ingredient fulfills in fat replacement. As a result,
the development of low-fat foods is to a large extent left to the empirical approach of
trial and error.
However, in the previously mentioned study, Clegg et al. (1993) investigated the
effects of a range of fat mimicking ingredients in relation to both physical and sensory
characteristics. Figures 4.5 and 4.6 illustrate the effect of maltodextrin concentration on
flavor and texture attributes, respectively, in low-fat spreads containing 30% fat. The
results show that the addition of maltodextrin gave rise to a significant perception of
soury, nutty, and margarine notes which coincided with a decrease in vegetable oil flavor.
With respect to texture, the incorporation of the maltodextrin at a higher level (15%)
resulted in the product showing a significantly increased rate of breakdown in the mouth
which corresponded with a decrease in perceived waxiness. This product was also found
to have the least gelatinous characteristics of all low-fat spreads tested in this study
(Clegg et al., 1993).
In Figure 4.7, a principal component plot for flavor is given showing the relative
positioning of all low-fat spreads tested. It can be seen that PC2 clearly separates the
maltodextrin containing spreads on account of their higher level of margarine flavor,
which is a positive attribute. On the other hand, PC1 differentiates between all the samples
on the basis of relative intensity of vegetable oil which is a negative attribute related to
the ability to break down the water-in-oil emulsion structure in the mouth. Hence, flavor
intensity of attributes such as sweet, butter, and salt are inversely related to the vegetable
oil intensity and the spread containing 8% sodium caseinate is clearly separated from
other spreads in the PC1 dimension in a positive direction. The effects of other hydrocolloids on flavor characteristics of low-fat spreads investigated in this study are to a
Figure 4.5 Effect of maltodextrin on flavor attributes of low-fat spreads. (From Clegg, S. M.,
Moore, A. K., and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With
permission.)
large extent depicted by their positioning in a negative direction of the PC1 dimension,
and they are related to the size and distribution of the aqueous droplets, as indicated in
Section 4.4. It is apparent from the foregoing that structural changes in the emulsion
found as a result of the addition of hydrocolloids were well reflected in sensory characteristics, and that the textural characteristics were determining flavor changes as a result
of the impact of structural changes on flavor release.
4.5.2 TEMPORAL EFFECTS OF FAT REPLACEMENT
Using fat mimetics to compensate for fat removal leads not only to changes in intensity
of the different flavors but also can have significant effects on temporal characteristics
of flavor perception. The time-intensity technique allows the determination of a graphical
relationship between the perceived strength of a sensory attribute and the duration of its
perception (Wyeth and Kilcast, 1991). The various parameters that can be obtained from
a time-intensity curve include onset time of response; maximum perceived intensity;
time to reach maximum intensity and its duration; and rate of decay of response.
Figure 4.6 Effect of maltodextrin on texture attributes of low-fat spreads. (From Clegg, S. M.,
Moore, A. K., and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With
permission.)
Figure 4.8 shows mean time-intensity curves for sharpness, bitterness, and astringency
as perceived by panelists when evaluating reduced-fat and full-fat versions of commercial
Cheddar cheese (Shamil et al., 1991). The rate of flavor release was greater, and the total
intensity of all attributes tested was higher in the reduced-fat Cheddar cheese as a result
of a longer persistence time of response. This indicates a changed flavor balance which
may have an important effect on consumer acceptability.
In another experiment, the effects of two starch-derived fat mimetics, Paselli SA2 and
N-Oil, were studied in a 30% salad cream formulation in which the maltodextrin/water
system replaced 50% of the fat (Shamil et al., 1991). This was evaluated against a fullfat product (30% fat) acting as a control. Figure 4.9 shows the results obtained for
perceived saltiness and vinegariness. The reduced-fat salad dressings containing 15% fat
were perceived to have a higher intensity of vinegariness, and a longer persistence time
in the mouth compared with the full-fat control, while saltiness showed the opposite
Figure 4.7 Effects of aqueous phase composition on positioning of low-fat spread samples
with respect to each other and discriminating attributes (PC1 vs. PC2). Sample 1, no aqueous
phase stabilizers; sample 3, 2%-gelatin; sample 5, 2%-gelatin/10%-maltodextrin; sample 6, 2%gelatin/15%-maltodextrin; sample 7, 2%-gelatin/2.5%-modified starch; sample 8, 2%-gelatin/5%-modified starch; sample 9, 2%-gelatin/1%-sodium alginate; sample 10, 2%-gelatin/2%sodium alginate; sample 12, 2%-gelatin/8%-sodium caseinate. (From Clegg, S. M., Moore, A. K.,
and Jones, S. A., Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 715, 1993. With permission.)
Figure 4.8 Mean time-intensity curves for perceived sharpness, bitterness, and astringency
in reduced- and full-fat cheddar cheeses. (From Shamil, S., Wyeth, L. J., and Kilcast, D.,
Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 687, 1991. With permission.)
Figure 4.9 Mean time-intensity curves for perceived saltiness and vinegariness in full- and
reduced-fat salad dressings. (From Shamil, S., Wyeth, L. J., and Kilcast, D., Leatherhead Food
Res. Assoc. Res. Rep. No. 687, 1991. With permission.)
trend. While clearly significant differences between the control and the two reduced-fat
samples were apparent, the Student-Newman Keuls multiple comparison test showed no
statistically significant differences between the use of Paselli SA2 and N-Oil.
The results obtained in the experiments described above can be explained in terms
of the hydrophobic/hydrophilic characteristics of the compounds responsible for the
measured sensory characteristics; the relative concentrations of these compounds in
water/fat phases; and overall, the impact of fat replacement on the flavor release mechanism (the latter point will be discussed in Section 4.6).
Daget and Vallis (1994), in their study on fat replacement in milk chocolate through
the manipulation of solid fat index and the addition of a bulk filler, also investigated the
temporal effects of such formulation changes. The authors established that although the
fat reduction from 35 to 25% itself had hardly any effect, the solid fat index had a
significant influence on several time-intensity parameters in milk chocolate, with a lower
solid fat index (50%) being associated with a more rapid perception of sweetness, as
well as a higher sweetness intensity compared with a higher solid fat index (70%).
The above examples merely illustrate the importance of monitoring temporal characteristics of flavor perception in the context of fat replacement, but there is an obvious
scope for the time-intensity technique to provide a greater understanding of the relative
changes in flavor balance in relation to flavor release mechanisms.
given by Overbosch et al. (1991). Recent advances in using a direct approach of measuring the release of volatile compounds in exhaled breath using a mass spectrometer as
a detector have been discussed by Reid and Wragg (1995). The authors constructed a
membrane interface to allow direct introduction of volatile compounds into a mass
spectrometer and optimized conditions for in-breath flavor analysis using different mass
spectrometric ionization techniques. Thus, significant progress has been made in the
direct application of mass spectrometry to study flavor release and there is obvious scope
for expanding further the use of this technique to monitor the effects of flavor release
as affected by fat content in food systems.
Table 4.1 Stages in the Flavor-Release Process and
Corresponding Methods of Analysis
Location of process
Process
Analytical method
Headspace analysis
Mouth analogue
None available
In-nose MS-breath analysis
None available
Sensory analysis
From Plug, H. and Haring, P., Trends Food Sci. Technol., 4, 150, 1993. With permission.
The issue of flavor release in the mouth is very complex, and a number of research
groups have tried to address the problem through the development of mathematical
models that could describe the physical and chemical aspects of the release of flavor
volatiles during food consumption (see Overbosch et al., 1991). Undoubtedly, this
approach could have great potential for use in the development of low-fat or fat-free
products, provided that its scope was sufficiently broad to encompass the multiplicity of
issues of importance in fat replacement. Currently, research in this area is being carried
out jointly by the Leatherhead Food Research Association and the Institute of Food
Research, Reading (U.K.) under the U.K. governments LINK scheme, which aims to
address the issue of improving the flavor quality of low-fat foods (both oil-in-water and
water-in-oil food systems).
4.6.2 FLAVOR COMPOUNDS VS. FLAVOR PERCEPTION
Fat not only delivers its own flavor volatiles but also functions as a carrier for other
lipophilic compounds present. These are bound to the fat molecules by weak, reversible
Van der Waals and hydrophobic interactions (Plug and Haring, 1993). It follows, therefore, that in the case of total fat removal, with the flavor cocktail used remaining
unchanged, the changed kinetics of the flavor release mechanisms will cause the perceived flavor of the product to be changed perhaps quite dramatically.
In this context, the effects of pH on flavor compounds need to be borne in mind.
Thus, because of concerns regarding microbiological stability, it is common practice to
make the pH of a food product lower when reducing fat content in order to ensure a
sufficient shelf life. This can have a significant impact on acid-base flavor compounds,
since mostly they exhibit a particular flavor only if in the associated state. Since this
would depend on the pK value of the compound, changes in pH can result in more
molecules in the dissociated state, thus leading to the loss of flavor perceived. According
to Bennett (1992), lowering the pH of a product from 6.5 to 4.2 results in a ten-fold
increase in the associated form of butyric acid which has obvious implications for fat
replacement in dairy products.
Furthermore, the amount of fat that is removed and the amount of water added to a
food system will affect not only the perceived intensity of both the lipophilic and
hydrophilic flavor compounds present but also the flavor balance. This point is illustrated
in Table 4.2 which compares flavor threshold values of flavor compounds when placed
in a water medium and when placed in an oil medium (Bennett, 1992). Thus, the threshold
value for decanoic acid, for example, will change by 5000% when moving from oil to
water. In short, the need for changes in the composition of the flavor cocktail used when
developing low-fat or fat-free foods is rather apparent.
Table 4.2 Comparison of Flavor Threshold
Values for Fatty Acids in Water and Oil
Threshhold
(ppm)
Fatty acid
2:0
4:0
6:0
8:0
10:0
12:0
(Acetic acid)
(Butyric acid)
(Hexanoic acid)
(Octoanoic acid)
(Decanoic acid)
(Dodecanoic acid)
Water
Oil
54
7
5
6
4
0.6
3
350
200
700
product with no flavor impact could result. Plug and Haring (1993) have suggested that
the results of studies on the relationships between the molecular structure of flavor
compounds and their binding to proteins have not always been consistent, probably
because of the conformational differences in the proteins tested.
In the case of starch, Solms (1986) postulated that specific interactions occurred as
a result of compounds entrapped in the helical structures of the gelatanized amylose
fraction of starch, but, in the case of degraded starches, a loss of binding properties
occurs. Overbosch et al. (1991) concluded that no overall insight exists into the mechanism of flavor binding to carbohydrates, and that the effects encountered are mostly
reversible. In contrast, while Bennett (1992) supports the view that flavor compounds
form complexes with amylose, he also indicated that in a system low in fat, it would be
expected that a lipophilic flavor compound would not be able to react with the olfactory
receptors until a breakdown of the helix structure had occurred as a result of the enzymic
activity of the -amylase in the mouth, which would be unlikely to happen before
swallowing.
In the case of polysaccharides, due to their highly polar nature, while interactions
with lipophilic flavor compounds will not occur, there will be interactions with hydrophilic flavor compounds through dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonds (Plug and Haring,
1993). Baines and Morris (1987), in a study of perceptions of flavor and taste in guar
gum solutions, concluded that since, on the one hand, they obtained the same ratings for
flavor and sweetness perception, respectively, and on the other hand, the physiological
mechanisms and receptors involved in the two cases are quite different, direct binding
of flavor or taste molecules to guar gum does not seem likely, especially since the
concentration of guar gum showed no effect (up to approximately 1.7% w/v).
Overall, it can be concluded that our understanding of the interactions between flavor
compounds and food components is still quite limited, and progress in this area will
depend on developments in methodologies used to monitor flavor release.
4.6.4 FLAVOR/FAT REPLACER INTERACTIONS
The interactions between flavor compounds and fat replacers were studied by SchirleKeller et al. (1992) in model systems, each containing a different fat mimetic. The
following fat mimetics were used: Simplesse S-100, Simplesse S-300, N-Oil II, Avicel
RC 591 (microcrystalline cellulose/sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) and Avicel FD
100 (microcrystalline cellulose). All were used at concentrations of 10%, except for
Avicel RC 591, which, due to its high viscosity, was used at 2%. A 10% oil system
was used as a control, and all model systems contained 0.5% of Tween 80, acting as an
emulsifier, and 1% of a flavor cocktail comprising thirteen compounds; all samples were
tempered at 37C for 40 minutes prior to analysis. The relative vapor pressures of each
compound in the aqueous solutions of the fat mimetics and of the controls were calculated
from the headspace concentrations for each compound in relation to a water system
where no interactions were taking place. The results obtained for Simplesse S-300,
Avicel FD 100 and N-Oil II were very similar, showing minimal interactions with flavor
compounds. On the other hand, Simplesse S-100 and Avicel RC 591 showed some
interaction, with the Simplesse S-100 showing especially strong interactions with aldehydes. No effects of increasing sample equilibration temperature were observed up to
70C for Simplesse S-100, thus indicating the very strong nature of the interactions
taking place. The authors noted that the S-100 contained 1.72% of fat, and this may
explain some of the interactions observed for the nonpolar flavor compounds. Contrary
to the supposition of Dumont (1987), no changes in the relative vapor pressure of the
flavor compounds over the nine-day period were observed. Schirle-Keller et al. (1992)
concluded that although considerable change in the level of flavors used are needed when
moving from a 10% oil-in-water emulsion to a fat-free (or almost fat-free) system
containing fat mimetics, this would be less so when Simplesse S-100 is the fat mimetic
used.
Another study investigated flavor interactions with fat replacers (Simplesse S-100,
Simplesse S-300, Slendid and Stellar), and the effects of flavor/fat interactions in a
system containing 0.5% Tween 80 and fat ranging from 0 to 20% (Schirle-Keller et al.,
1994). This showed that the behavior of flavors was directly related to their oil solubility,
and water soluble compounds (such as acetaldehyde) were largely unaffected by the
presence or absence of oil. For the flavor cocktails used, the protein-based fat replacers
showed more interactions with longer chain aldehydes (which would have higher fat
solubility) than did carbohydrate-based fat replacers. It should be noted that, in this study,
higher levels of Simplesse ingredients were used than in the earlier work, and that the
tempering of the samples was carried out at the higher temperature of 60C. No indication
was given in the paper that the required shearing was employed in the preparation of the
Stellar and Slendid model systems to achieve functionality (as recommended by the
respective ingredient manufacturers). As in the previous paper (Schirle-Keller et al.,
1992), the authors concluded that foods formulated with protein-based fat replacers
should be more characteristic of fat-containing products in terms of flavor profile than
would be the case of those containing other fat replacers; nonetheless, the need for
reformulation would remain.
4.6.5 MASS TRANSFER INHIBITION AND FLAVOR RELEASE
As indicated earlier, while a considerable amount of research has been devoted to partition
phenomena, the issue of resistance to mass transfer as a factor in flavor release has not
received the same level of attention. This is somewhat surprising, bearing in mind that
availability (or accessibility), as a function of time, would be expected to play an
important role in the overall flavor release equation. Considering the latter factor, the
reason that the structure of the food would be expected to have an effect is that it would
influence the breakdown of the matrix during mastication in the mouth. In turn, that
could affect the convective transport of the volatiles to the olfactory epithelium. Although
the importance of this issue is generally acknowledged (Overbosch et al., 1991), a certain
amount of confusion exists which is related, at least partially, to methodological differences.
A detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this chapter, but a few examples can be given.
Numerous earlier studies examined the effects of mass transfer on flavor/taste perception by relating viscosity data to sensory perceptions. Cussler et al. (1979) established
that perceived flavor ratings are proportional to the concentration of the flavor/taste
compound and to the square root of the diffusion coefficient, whereby the latter is related
to viscosity. Further studies by Kokini et al. (1982), using the same penetration model
of mass transfer, showed that increasing tomato solids decreases the rate of transport of
a sweetener (sucrose or fructose) to the surface of the tongue, resulting in a decrease of
sweetness intensity.
The results obtained by de Roos and Wolswinkel (1994) again showed that the higher
viscosity of the liquid phase (1% carboxymethylcellulose solution) not only reduces the
mass transport in the liquid phase, but also that in the gaseous phase. Furthermore, the
authors demonstrated the effect of fat on flavor release in which an oil-in-water emulsion
was formed containing 1% olive oil with carboxymethylcellulose acting as emulsion
stabilizer. As a result, the viscosity of the system increased markedly, and a significantly
higher flavor retention was observed for all flavor compounds investigated in comparison
to that obtained from carboxymethylcellulose solutions without oil. These findings,
therefore, highlight the extensive impact that a small level of oil addition makes on flavor
release characteristics.
While the studies mentioned above indicate the importance of diffusive mechanisms
on sensory perceptions, Darling et al. (1986) proposed a different concept. On the basis
of their study on flavor release from guar gum and sucrose solutions, as well as the
modeling of those systems, they suggested that, on the one hand, partitioning behavior
(which reflects an equilibrium condition) is unlikely to be obtained during the normal
consumption conditions, and, on the other hand, diffusion processes are too slow to have
any significant effect on in-mouth flavor perception. The authors postulate that it is the
surface regeneration behavior that constitutes a significant physical factor which controls
the availability of flavor for perception. The surface regeneration behavior will be a
function of the rheological properties of the system and for solutions with noninteracting
thickener molecules, the rate of flavor release will decrease with increased concentration
(sucrose 0 to 60%; guar gum 0 to 0.2%). However, for solutions with interacting thickener
molecules (e.g., guar gum at concentrations greater than 0.2%), the surface regeneration
and flavor release increases with increases in the strength of the polymer network.
Within the overall topic of flavor release mechanisms, the issue of comparative release
from oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions is worth mentioning. Overbosch et al.
(1991) concluded from their model that the release is independent of emulsion type. In
other words, for the same flavor compound, the same oil and water phase, and the same
volume fraction of oil, flavor release was found to be the same from oil-in-water as from
water-in-oil emulsion. However, the above authors were not able to validate this point
in the experimental work, where significantly greater release was obtained from an oilin-water emulsion. The different emulsifiers used for the two emulsions were considered
to be responsible for the differences encountered, and for slowing down the diffusion of
the flavor compound from water droplets into the gaseous phase. By comparison, Salvador et al. (1994) showed that the release of diacetyl was higher from an oil-in-water
emulsion than from a water-in-oil emulsion (each containing the same oil volume fraction
= 0.5), despite the fact that there were no differences in droplet size distribution, and
that the same emulsifier was used in both emulsion systems in this study (sucrose stearate
at 0.5% w/w). The results obtained led the authors to conclude that this is due to structural
differences affecting mass transfer at the interfaces. It should be added that flavor release
in this study was measured from a static system using headspace gas chromatography,
and no sensory evaluations were carried out.
Contrary to expectations, the results obtained by Barylko-Piekielna et al. (1994) in a
study on perception of intensity of taste stimuli in oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions
(again at = 0.5, but with sucrose stearate concentration at 1% w/v) showed no effects
of emulsion type on taste intensity. Moreover, the differences in measured and perceived
viscosity were found not to affect taste intensities studied, i.e., sweetness (sucrose at
concentrations in the range 0.5 to 4.0%), saltiness (sodium chloride at concentrations in
the range 0.25 to 1.0%), and sourness (citric acid at concentrations in the range 0.15 to
1.0%). The authors concluded that, on the one hand, the relatively small differences in
measured viscosity between emulsion types could explain the lack of effect of viscosity
on taste, and, on the other hand, inversion of the water-in-oil emulsion in the mouth (due
to the effects of saliva and sample dilution during the process of mastication) could be
the reason for the lack of differences in taste intensity observed for the two emulsion
systems. Further research is required to confirm this hypothesis, but meanwhile the issue
of the effect of type of emulsion on flavor release remains largely unresolved. However,
while a certain level of phase separation or inversion of the water-in-oil system is a likely
explanation, the extent to which this phenomenon may take place will depend on the
physical properties and concentration of the emulsifier used, so that the answer should
be sought through an examination of the behavior of the emulsifier at the water-oil
interface in the respective types of emulsion.
A few more general comments on flavor release mechanisms can be made. First, a
comparison of static headspace data to that obtained from sensory studies is likely to
lead to different conclusions since the process of flavor perception in the mouth is very
dynamic. If the flavor is to be extracted into saliva, it would be expected that this would
be more effective from a water-continuous system. The surface regeneration behavior of
a system, pinpointed by Darling et al. (1986), would be expected to have an important
role in flavor perception as volatiles need to be extracted into the air from thin layers
formed in the mouth during the mastication process, and the concentration of the volatile
compounds in these thin layers would determine the rate of release. It is also here that
the emulsifier may have a retarding effect on flavor release. The same applies to taste
perception where availability of the tastants to the receptors is of importance.
From a methodological point of view, it could be argued that the chemical route for
studying flavor release is more precise than sensory methods. However, while the latter
may lack accuracy, and by definition it is a subjective method, it should be borne in
mind that it is difficult to envisage that even future mouth analogues could fully imitate
the dynamic in-mouth reality. In this context, however, training of the panel, understanding of the descriptors used, reproducibility of the results, points of reference, etc., are
of particular significance.
Overall, it seems reasonable to postulate that for any given system the three issues
i.e., partitioning behavior, diffusion behavior, and surface regeneration behavior need
to be carefully reviewed to determine the driving force for in-mouth flavor perception
that is applicable to a particular product type. Moreover, the methodologies used to assess
flavor release need to be carefully analyzed before any extrapolation of the results is
undertaken. A better understanding of product structure, physical and chemical interactions at interfaces, and overall in-mouth changes will help to further our knowledge on
flavor release phenomena in the context of fat reduction in foods.
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Chapter
Legislative Implications of
Fat Replacement
Jane Smith
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Acceptability of Fat Replacers
5.3 Additives as Fat Replacers
5.4 Other Fat Replacers
5.5 Nutrition Labeling
5.6 Nutrition Claims
References
5.1 INTRODUCTION
With increasing interest in foods that can be used to reduce the total level of fat in the
diet, as recommended by many experts including those who prepared the U.K. governments Health of the Nation White Paper, the use of various ways and means to wholly
or partially replace fat in a range of food products provides one of the major developmental areas for the food industry. The addition of compounds which act directly as fat
replacers, be they acting either as fat mimetics or fat substitutes, have to take into account
existing legislative requirements for the use of such products. In addition, changes are
needed to product labeling in order to provide the necessary information concerning the
composition and properties of the food to consumers so that they may obtain an informative description as to the nature of the product and not be misled in any way as to its
nature, substance, or quality. Manufacturers wishing to use such fat replacers must
therefore be aware not only of legislative developments concerning direct addition of
the compound in which they are interested but also how the food in which the compound
is to be used must be labeled.
Manufacturers find that the use of nutrition claims often provides a marketing advantage in consumers eyes; developments in nutrition labeling and claims requirements must
therefore be considered. Within Europe, much of the legislation on nutrition labeling
results from developments at European Community (EC) level, with the aim of harmonization in this respect throughout the European Union. The situation on claims is more
variable at present. Provisions in the U.S. are quite different from those in Europe, and
may be different again in other major export markets. In this chapter, the legal aspects of
fat replacement in two principal regions, Europe and the U.S., are described and compared.
Country
Status
Additive
Additive
Additive
Additive
Australia
Japan
Additive
Ingredient
In certain cases, a manufacturer may wish to use a compound that has not previously
been used as a food component, or which is manufactured by a new or novel process.
In such cases, specific approval for the use of such a compound is usually required; this
can take considerable time. The criteria for the approval of food additives have been
specified by the EC framework additives directive; such criteria may need to be taken
into account.
In the U.S. those additives permitted for direct food use are termed direct additives.
The standard of identity for particular food products controls the use of additives in these
products; for so-called nonstandardized foods, the conditions of use for specific additives
states whether the additive in question can be used for foods generally, or whether use
of an additive is restricted to particular foods only. These additives are classified by legal
status and may have permanent food additive status, be prior sanctioned, GRAS (generally recognized as safe), or permitted on an interim basis. For GRAS substances, maximum usage limits may be set or, alternatively, they may be generally recognised as
safe when used in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practice.
To illustrate how these additives are regulated in the U.S., polydextrose (see also
Chapter 11) is permitted to GMP as a bulking agent, formulation aid, humectant, or a
texturizer in specified foods. Guar gum is classified as GRAS, but is only permitted in
foods as authorized and to the maximum limits established. Other gums tend to be
classified in a similar way. Sodium alginate is also GRAS and permitted in specified
foods to the maximum limits established, but is also permitted in foods generally (unless
restricted by a standard of composition) to the maximum specified limit. If usage is
desired at a higher level than that authorized, approval from the FDA is likely to be
required.
Under the proposal, in order to be placed on the market, such food ingredients must
be safe for the consumer, when consumed at the intended level of use, must not mislead
the consumer, and must not differ from similar foods or food ingredients that they replace
in the diet in such a way that their normal consumption would be nutritionally disadvantageous for the consumer. Such an aspect is particularly relevent for fat replacers;
not only is it the calorific and textural aspects of fat addition to foods that are being
replaced but also nutritional aspects such as the content of fat-soluble vitamins. Separate
vitaminization may therefore be required; again, this would have to be carried out in
accordance with the legislation of the relevant country. In some cases, the addition of
vitamins renders a food a dietetic product. In the U.K., a Panel on Novel Foods of the
Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) has recently produced a report
entitled The Nutritional Assessment of Novel Foods and Processes, which details
general principles and criteria as well as specific nutritional criteria to be used in the
consideration of novel foods and food processes referred to COMA.
Currently in the U.K., it is the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes
(ACNFP) who review applications for use of novel food ingredients. Specific approval
is given in each case where deemed appropriate, together with any conditions of use.
The Food Advisory Committee (FAC) (a group of experts from the food industry and
related professions who advise the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food) also
review continuing technological developments within the food industry and advise
accordingly. With novel food additives, existing European Community legislation has to
be taken into account; the U.K. can no longer act unilaterally in terms of acceptability
of specific food additives. With Simplesse, a protein-derived fat mimetic derived from
dairy and egg protein (see Chapter 11), the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and
Processes considered that Simplesse was unlikely to give rise to any particular safety
concerns and so could be used in foods. So far it has been incorporated mainly into dairy
products; its use is being kept under review, with any possible future regulatory action
depending on how widely it is introduced into food products in this country. A further
committee, the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) is also keeping
the uptake of Simplesse by the food industry under review. Two of the issues that the
Food Advisory Committee is considering are the possible overlap between novel foods
and additives and the role of fat replacers generally.
In the U.S., approval has to be given by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
for the use in food with any ingredient that would be classified as a novel ingredient.
Currently there is no specific legislation on novel foods or ingredients in the manner that
is being prepared in Europe. However, the importance of regulatory approval procedures
in the U.S. cannot be underestimated as these often have significant bearing on approvals
elsewhere in the world, as the situation with Simplesse illustrates. Simplesse is classified
as GRAS and may be used in frozen-type dessert products (except to replace the milk
fat required by standards of composition) to good manufacturing practice. Specific
labeling requirements for the ingredient are detailed, including the requirement to declare
the source of the protein and a list of the ingredients of the microparticulated protein
product. It was only following U.S. approval for Simplesse that the European industry
began to take a serious interest in the product (see also Chapter 11).
The current situation is somewhat different when low-calorie fats and synthetic fat
substitutes are considered (see also Chapter 13). Due to their nature, separate approvals
for each compound are required before use in foods would be permitted. Currently,
Caprenin is pending approval from the FDA for direct food use. Caprenin and other
recent developments in the EC-proposed regulation on novel foods and novel food
ingredients were scheduled for discussion at recent meetings of the ACNFP in the U.K.
The other synthetic fat substitute that is most widely known at this stage is olestra and
this is considered generally to be at the stage nearest approval. From a U.K. point of
view, assessment has been ongoing since 1987, when the FAC considered a case of need
for olestra and subsequently consulted the Committee on Toxicity (COT) on its safety
in use. The nutritional implications of olestras use in the diet have also been considered
by COMA; its advice was passed onto the FAC who will be evaluating further data. It
is possible that it may be looked at under additives legislation, which would then involve
consultation and communication with Brussels.
In contrast, the U.S. Nutrition Labeling and Education Act amended the Federal Food,
Drug and Cosmetic Act to require the mandatory nutrition labeling of most foods from
May 8, 1994. Nutrition information must be declared on the information panel and must
include information on levels of calories, calories from fat, total fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrate, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamins, and
minerals. Information about other components such as polyunsaturates, potassium, soluble and insoluble fiber can be given voluntarily unless a claim is made. Detailed
provisions concerning presentation of information are specified in order to make the
information readily apparent to consumers. Requirements for U.S. nutrition labeling are
therefore significantly different from those required by the EC Directive and need to be
considered separately from European requirements. Table 5.2 illustrates the differences
in format (note that the examples used are not of the same product).
Table 5.2
United Kingdom:
per 100g
Energy
1495 kJ
350 kcal
9.9 g
73.9 g
9.3 g
1.9 g
0.4
8.4 g
0.6 g
Protein
Carbohydrate
of which sugars
Fat
of which saturates
Fiber
Sodium
930 kJ
220 kcal
8.7 g
39.3 g
10.1 g
2.9 g
1.5 g
3.8 g
0.3 g
United States:
Serving size 3.5 oz
Servings per container about 2.5
Amount per serving:
Calories 310
Calories from fat 80
Total fat
Saturated fat
Cholesterol
Sodium
Total carbohydrate
Dietary fiber
Sugars
Protein
Vitamin A
Calcium
Vitamin C
Iron
9g
5g
40 mg
310 mg
41 g
3g
1g
16 g
% daily value
14%
25%
13%
13%
14%
12%
10%
25%
0
10%
of harmonized provisions for the use of such claims has been underway for some time,
despite difficulties in agreeing in formats and detail between the various Member States.
It is seen as important and in the interests of consumers that claims relating to foods
which by their nature have special effects, characteristics, or properties linked to their
nutritional value or composition be worded so that they are not misleading or liable to
mislead. Under the latest draft document in circulation, a claim is defined as any reference, message, or interpretation, whatever the means or form of transmission, stating,
implying, or suggesting that a food has particular characteristics, properties, or effects
linked to nature, composition, nutritional value, method of production and processing,
or any other quality. It is possible at this stage that trademarks may also be included,
although this has caused some controversy.
Earlier drafts included specific provisions for claims. For example, a claim for low,
weak, or poor would only be authorized for foods with a reduced fat content of at
least 50% from a standard product, except where specific criteria have been established.
For energy, a requirement for the product to have less than 40 kcal/100 g product is
given; this is in line with existing U.K. legislation under the 1984 Food Labeling
Regulations. For fat, less than 3 g/100 g product was specified. Additional criteria for
saturates and cholesterol were also established.
A reduction of at least 25% from a standard product would be required to use the
term reduced, together with any other specific conditions. For fat, more than 3 g/100 g
product is required and for energy more than 40 kcal/100 g product, in order to differentiate between reduced and low products. Detailed conditions were also given for
saturates and cholesterol.
The term without would be considered acceptable under the draft where the amount
of the element is too small to be of nutritional or physiological significance or to be
reliably quantified by a standard method of analysis, again taking into account any
specific requirements. For fat, such a requirement is that the content must be less than
0.15 g/100 g product; for cholesterol, the stringent requirements specified were less than
5 mg/100 g product, less than 1.5 g saturates/100 g product, and less than 10% of energy
generated by saturates.
Provision was also made under the earlier drafts for use of such a claim as contains
x% less; such a claim could well be relevent to a manufacturer of products containing
fat replacements. Use of the term light in food labeling was also covered; this is
particularly attractive for products that have been produced with a lower energy or fat
content in relation to standard products. Reference was made to the use of this term in
conjunction with specifications already discussed; for example to be described as light
in respect of energy content, a product must comply with provisions stated for reduced
or low energy and to be described as light in respect of other components, appropriate
provisions relating to energy and the particular nutrient in question must be met.
Final agreement on this document had yet to be reached at the time of writing; a
consultation process with interested parties will be carried out before a final draft is
published. It is looking increasingly likely that the more specific criteria will not remain
in future drafts and that the document will be general in nature, although the relevant
detail is of interest from a comparative point of view.
The U.S. FDA has also produced regulations on the use of specific nutrient content
claims on food labels covering both expressed claims (direct statements about the level
or range of nutrients in a food) and implied claims (those suggesting nutrients are
present/absent in a certain amount or those suggesting that, because of their nutrient
content, foods may be useful in being healthy and which are made in conjunction with
an explicit claim or statement, e.g., healthy, contains 3 g of fat). Free and low
claims before the name of the food can only be used for foods that have been specially
REFERENCES
Commission Directive 93/102/EEC of 16 November 1993 amending Directive 79/112/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the labeling presentation and advertising of
foodstuffs for sale to the ultimate consumer. Off. J. Euro. Commun., 36(L291), 14, 1993.
Council Directive of 18 December 1978 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating
to the labeling, presentation and advertising of foodstuffs for sale to the ultimate consumer. Off. J.
Euro. Commun., 22(L33), 1, 1979.
Council Directive of 21 December 1988 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning
food additives authorised for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption. Off. J. Euro.
Commun., 32(L40), 27, 1989.
Council Directive of 24/9/90 on Nutrition Labeling for Foods. Off. J. Euro. Commun., 33(L276), 40, 1990.
Council Regulation (EC) No 2991/94 of 5 December 1994 laying down standards for spreadable fats
Off. J. Euro. Commun., 37(L316), 2, 1994.
Department of Health Report on Health and Social Subjects 44 The Nutritional Assessment of Novel
Foods and Processes, HMSO, London, 1993.
Document 6874/94 on Amended Proposal for a European Parliament and Council Regulation (EC) on
novel foods and novel food ingredients, Brussels, May, 1994.
Document SPA/62/REV3. Orig. FR., Consumer Policy Service Unit 4 Foodstuffs Commission of the
European Communities, Brussels, July, 1993.
European Parliament and Council Directive 95/2/EC of 20 February 1995 on food additives other than
colours and sweeteners. Off. J. Euro. Commun., 38(L61), 1, 1995.
Federal Register, 58(3), 2431, 1993.
Food Labeling (Amendment) Regulations 1994, SI 1994 No. 804. HMSO, London.
Food Legislation Topics No. 2 A Guide to U.S. Nutritional Labeling and Claims, Lisa J. Skelton. The
British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Association Leatherhead, 1993.
Food Safety Act 1990 HMSO, London.
Health of the Nation White Paper HMSO, London, 1992.
U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 184.1498.
Part
II
Chapter
6A
Starch-Derived Fat
Mimetics:
Maltodextrins
Sibel Roller
CONTENTS
6A.1
6A.2
6A.3
6A.4
6A.5
6A.6
Starches from corn, potato, wheat, rice, tapioca (also known as cassava or yucca),
sago palm, barley, sorghum, and other grains and roots serve as raw materials for the
making of hydrolysate products around the world. Most of these hydrolysate products
are in the form of sugar syrups, used in the food industry as sweetening agents. It has
been estimated that about 70% of the world production of corn starch is converted into
glucose-containing sweeteners (Schenk and Hebeda, 1992). However, in this chapter,
only those starches that have been degraded to a very limited extent for the specific
purpose of preparing ingredients useful in fat replacement are discussed.
The term maltodextrin was first used very broadly in the early 1950s to describe
oligosaccharides consisting of -1,4-linked glucose units and including mixtures of
maltose, maltotriose, maltotetraose, maltopentaose, and higher oligosaccharides (Alexander, 1992). By 1957, a narrower definition was published by the American Corn
Industries Research Foundation in which maltodextrin was defined as the product
obtained by the incomplete hydrolysis of cornstarch and containing 13 to 27% reducing
sugars, calculated as anhydrous dextrose and expressed on a total solids basis (Hoover,
1957). In 1983, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued regulations defining
maltodextrins as nonsweet, nutritive saccharide polymers consisting of D-glucose units
linked primarily by a-1,4 bonds with a dextrose equivalent (DE) of less than 20. The
regulations further stipulated that maltodextrins were prepared by partial hydrolysis of
cornstarch using acids and/or enzymes, thereby apparently excluding similar materials
from other starch sources such as potato or tapioca. Currently, the term maltodextrin is
used widely in the general literature to describe enzymically-prepared, partially-hydrolyzed starches with a DE below 20 from any botanical source. In this chapter, discussion
is focused on a specific group of maltodextrins, i.e., the low-DE maltodextrins, as the
DE range of 1 to 10 has been found particularly useful in fat replacement.
Starch hydrolysis product is a term generally used very broadly to describe all
oligosaccharide and monosaccharide mixtures obtained by acid or enzymic degradation
of starch. By this definition, maltodextrins and high-fructose corn syrups are both starch
hydrolysis products. However, in the 1970s a series of papers and patents from the former
East Germany (discussed in more detail below) describing starch hydrolysis products
(SHPs) with DEs of 5 to 8 with unusual functional properties useful in fat replacement
were published (Richter et al., 1976a and b). Since then, the term SHP has also been
used in a narrower sense to describe hydrolysates degraded to a very limited extent or
to a DE below 10. To avoid confusion, the term starch hydrolysis product is used in this
chapter only in its broadest sense.
The first maltodextrin to be commercialized was an acid hydrolyzed dent corn starch
with a DE of 15 produced in 1959 by the American Maize Products Company (Amaizo).
Other companies, including CPC International and the Grain Processing Corporation
(GPC), were also prominent in the early development of maltodextrins. The potential
use of -amylase in the preparation of maltodextrins was investigated in the 1960s by
researchers at CPC International (Alexander, 1992). The early products were marketed
primarily as carriers and bulking agents for use in dry food mixes. It was not until the
mid-1970s that it was first suggested by a group of scientists working at the former East
German Academy of Sciences that low-DE maltodextrins prepared from potato starch
could be used as fat replacers in foods (Richter et al., 1976a and b). The German scientists
have since patented their process (discussed in more detail below) and a factory (VEB
Strkefabrik Kyritz) manufacturing low-DE maltodextrins for low-fat dressings and
ice cream was in operation in East Germany from 1980 until mid-1990 (Schierbaum,
1991). Meanwhile, in the last 10 years, low-DE maltodextrins developed specifically for
fat replacement have been launched by most of the major starch-producing companies,
including, for example, the Paselli range (see Chapter 6B) from potato starch (Avebe)
and Instant N-Oil from tapioca starch (National Starch & Chemical Corporation). Some
examples of commercially available low-DE maltodextrins developed for fat replacement
and a selection of their properties are given in Table 6A.1.
Fat replacers in which maltodextrins form the bulk of the material but which contain
smaller amounts of other carbohydrates have also been introduced to the market recently.
For example, Oatrim was developed at the Northern Regional Research Center in the
U.S. by George E. Inglett and is produced from oat bran or oat flour using -amylase.
This material differs from other maltodextrins in that it contains up to 5.5% soluble glucan. Oatrim is now licensed by Con-Agra Speciality Grain Products and is marketed
by A.E. Staley as TrimChoice (Duxbury, 1993; Inglett, 1990 and 1991; Inglett and
Grisamore, 1991). For a complete list of starch-derived fat replacers and their manufacturers/developers, refer to the Appendix.
Table 6A.1 Examples of Starch-Derived Fat Replacers (DE Below 10) and Some of Their Properties
Parent starch
Product name
Manufacturer
Corn/Maize
Amalean I and II
(instant)
Lycadex 200
Maltrin M040, M050,
M100, M150, M180,
M520
OptaGrade
Stellar
Lean Bind, N-Lite L
Lo-Dex
N-Lite B
N-Lite D, N-Lite LP
Sta-Slim 171
C*Pur 01906
Lycadex 100
Paselli SA2
(see also Chapter 6B)
Sta-Slim 142 and 143
N-Oil, Instant N-Oil
Slenderlean
Sta-Slim 150-151
Waxy Maize
Potato
Tapioca
Roquette Frres
Grain Processing Corp.
Method of production
MW (kDa)
Label designation
600
Enzymic
Dual-stage enzymic and/or acid
20
Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin
<20
Single-stage acid/enzyme
Enzymic
Enzymic
Dual-stage enzymic
Cornstarch
Food starch modified
Food starch modified
Maltodextrin
Food-grade maltodextrin
Modified food starch
Food starch modified
Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin
Food starch modified
Tapioca dextrin/maltodextrin
Food starch modified
Food starch modified
Compiled from Braudo et al., 1979; Haenel and Schierbaum, 1980; Harris and Day, 1993; Lucca and Tepper, 1994; Roller and Dea, 1995; Setzer and Racette, 1992;
Yackel and Cox, 1991; manufacturers literature.
sago are used as botanical sources of the starch, with corn identified as the preferred
source (Morehouse and Sander, 1987). However, it is notable that the GPC patent is said
to have been withdrawn recently (Harkema, 1994).
In 1976, Richter and his colleagues in the former East Germany patented a process
that was different from the common industrial processes in that it was based on enzymic
treatment of starch that had not been fully gelatinized. This approach was reported to
give low-DE maltodextrins with unique properties particularly suited to fat replacement
(Richter et al., 1976a and b). According to Richters patent, root and bulb starches,
particularly potato starch, were dispersed at concentrations between 10 and 30% with
bacterial -amylase and heated to a temperature that was 1 to 4C below the temperature
at which the swelling of the starch granules commenced (i.e., the gelatinization temperature, which is in the region of 58 to 65C for potato starch). The mixture was held at
a temperature of 55 to 60C for 5 to 30 minutes or until the DE reached a value between
5 and 8. The enzyme was inactivated by raising the temperature of the mix to 90 to
100C, followed by spray-drying.
Although nearly all industrial processes for the preparation of maltodextrins destined
for fat replacement rely on the use of the enzyme -amylase from various (mainly
microbial) sources, more recently other enzymes have also been suggested as alternative
biocatalysts for achieving desirable changes in the structure and function of starch. For
example, pullulanases and isoamylases both cleave the -1,6-linkages at the branch points
of amylopectin, converting it into a mixture of amylose molecules with -1,4 linkages
only. Both enzymes have become readily available in large quantities at a low cost only
relatively recently. Waxy maize starch debranched using isoamylase has been shown to
form pastes with a greasy feel similar to that of fats (Swinton et al., 1990). A series
of patents has also been published recently by researchers from the National Starch &
Chemical Company (Chiu, 1990; Chiu and Henley, 1994; Chiu and Zallie, 1989; Zallie
and Chiu, 1990) describing the use of debranching enzymes to prepare ingredients
suitable for fat replacement as well as other food applications (see Section 6A.6. on
specific applications). At the time of writing, however, it was not known whether
debranching enzymes were actually being used in commercial processes.
these cause a lower pasting temperature, higher viscosity, and improved clarity (BeMiller,
1993; Swinkels, 1985; Whistler et al., 1984). All of these gross compositional characteristics may influence the processing tolerance and ultimately the texture and flavor of
foods containing starch-derived fat replacers.
All starches are polymers of a-linked anhydroglucopyranose units. Native starches
are composed of amylose, a linear polymer of primarily alpha-1,4 linkages, and amylopectin, also a linear polymer of alpha-1,4 linked units but with about 5% of the bonds
in the form of alpha-1,6 branch points. In general, native starches contain amylose and
amylopectin in an approximate ratio of 25:75 although speciality starches such as waxy
maize starch (99% amylopectin) and amylomaize (50 to 70% amylose) are available
(BeMiller, 1993; Zobel, 1992). Unlike highly hydrolyzed products such as high-fructose
corn syrup, which have very similar chemical, physical, and organoleptic properties
regardless of botanical source, maltodextrins have subtly different properties that are
related to their botanical source as well as to the processing method used for their
manufacture. Both amylose and amylopectin play imporant roles in determining the
functional properties of starch and consequently of the maltodextrins derived from them.
The most commonly reported chemical property of maltodextrins is the dextrose
equivalent (DE). This is essentially an empirical and somewhat crude measurement of
the amount of reducing sugar present, expressed on a dry weight basis, and is a reflection
of the extent of starch hydrolysis. In general, as the DE increases, so does the presence
of free glucose and oligosaccharides with degrees of polymerization (DP) below 8. Thus,
the average molecular weight of the glucose polymers in the maltodextrin decreases as
the DE increases (Alexander, 1992). Maltodextrins are frequently complex mixtures of
molecular species ranging from glucose to long polymeric (linear and branched) chains
so that samples with the same DE prepared by different manufacturers can have different
physical and functional properties.
Manufacturers of fat replacers derived from starch frequently make claims of superior
fat-mimetic performance in their product literature. Yet, the hard experimental evidence
(relating superior functionality in real food systems to a unique chemical structure, for
example) is often lacking. Consequently, the food product developer could be forgiven
for thinking that all commercial maltodextrins currently on the market have more-or-less
the same chemical composition and consequently have very similar fat-mimetic properties that are unlikely to be improved by further research and development. However,
emerging experimental evidence (discussed in more detail in Section 6A.4) suggests that
subtle functional differences between low-DE maltodextrins from different manufacturers
do exist. These functional differences could be explained and further exploited in the
search for improved fat replacers by subtle differences in fine chemical structure. Thus,
the size, shape and degree of branching of the molecules present in maltodextrins may
have more importance in determining the fat-mimetic properties of maltodextrins than
has been recognized so far.
Reports of molecular weight determinations of maltodextrins have been somewhat
contradictory, probably due to methodological differences as well as to analytical difficulties caused by the tendency of short chains of amylose to retrograde and precipitate
out of solution. Amylose and amylopectin in native starches have been reported to have
molecular weights of approximately 160 to 2,600 kDa and 50,000 to 400,000 kDa,
respectively (BeMiller, 1993). By comparison, Richter and Schierbaums group reported
an average molecular weight for low-DE potato maltodextrins prepared using their
patented process of around 395 kDa with three principal fractions occurring at 578, 80,
and 16 kDa (Braudo et al., 1979). However, only a year later, the same group reported
that the molecular weight of low-DE potato maltodextrins was, on average, about 1,000
kDa for about 75% of the product, down to 180 to 360 kDa (molecular weight of glucose
and maltose) for about 2.5% of the product, with the remaining 22.5% of the product
having an unspecified molecular weight (Haenel and Schierbaum, 1980). Using a similar
method for preparing low-DE maltodextrins, Anger and colleagues (1981) have reported
a broad molecular weight profile (150 to 500 kDa) for a low-DE corn maltodextrin with
the larger molecular weight fraction comprising only 25% of the product. By contrast,
Bulpin et al. (1984) reported the presence of a high molecular weight fraction (>10 kDa)
and a low molecular weight fraction (<10 kDa) in roughly equal proportions in samples
of low-DE potato maltodextrins obtained from East Germany. The high molecular weight
fraction formed thermoreversible gels and consisted of branched molecules derived from
amylopectin. The authors concluded that maltodextrin gels were composed of a network
of high molecular weight branched molecules stabilized by interactions with short linear
chains and that this fine structure was obtained by the preferential action of -amylase
on the amorphous region of the starch granule, leading to extensive hydrolysis of amylose
but only a partial hydrolysis of amylopectin. It is possible that this preferential action
of the enzyme was brought about by the specific processing method for preparing
maltodextrins developed by Richter and Schierbaum which, unlike most commercial
processes, did not involve complete gelatinization of the starch.
The reported molecular weights of some commercial maltodextrins available today
are shown in Table 6A.1. The significance of molecular weights (or, more precisely, of
molecular weight profiles as indicators of fine structure) of maltodextrins has not been
fully appreciated to date. For example, Harris and Day (1993) have reported average
molecular weights determined by gel permeation chromatography of 180 kDa, 177 kDa,
and <20 kDa for commercial fat replacers derived from potato maltodextrin (not named),
tapioca maltodextrin (not named), and cornstarch (Stellar from A.E. Staley), respectively. Although the average molecular weight reported for Stellar was nearly an order
of magnitude lower than that found for the potato- and tapioca-derived fat replacers, the
authors stated that this difference was not of major importance in determining the fatreplacement properties of Stellar but rather, attributed the functional properties entirely
to the microparticulate structure of the creme (these are discussed in more detail in
Section 6A.4).
More recently, qualitative high precision size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC)
of potato maltodextrins prepared without complete gelatinization of the starch prior to
enzymic treatment showed a much greater presence of high molecular weight oligomers
than in a commercial potato maltodextrin with a similar DE (Roller and Swinton, 1990;
Roller et al., 1990). The authors suggested that the difference in the molecular weight
profile (i.e., the difference in oligomeric fine structure) of the maltodextrins may have
accounted for the difference in performance as fat replacers in low-fat salad dressings
(described in more detail in Section 6A.6).
The concept of exercising control over the choice of substrate, enzyme, and processing
conditions in order to produce a low-DE maltodextrin with a specific structure and
superior fat-mimetic properties was further exploited in a recent patent application by
Roller and Dea (1995). In this invention, wheat- and potato- derived low-DE maltodextrins were prepared using porcine pancreatic -amylase at temperatures below those
required to achieve gelatinization of the starch. The new maltodextrins were only partly
soluble and the molecular weight profiles of their water-soluble fractions were substantially different from those of the fully-soluble potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2 or of the
low-DE potato maltodextrin produced by the Richter method (1976a and b). Both the
potato and the wheat maltodextrins prepared by Roller and Dea (1995) showed a distinct
peak at a molecular weight of around 12 to 20 kDa with oligomers of molecular weight
over 20 kDa present in much greater quantities than the oligomers below 12 kDa. By
contrast, the potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2 consisted of two main molecular weight
fractions: the larger fraction was very broadly distributed from around 50 to 180 kDa
and the smaller fraction constituted a much sharper peak at around 6 kDa. The low-DE
potato maltodextrin prepared using Richters method was different again, and showed a
very broad distribution with no sharp peaks in the molecular weight range from about
150 to 12 kDa; in addition, there was also a much higher proportion of lower molecular
weight material (<5 kDa) than in the other maltodextrins studied (Roller and Dea, 1995).
Again, the differences in fine structure were attributed by the authors to improved
performance of the new maltodextrins in low-fat salad dressings (discussed in more detail
in Section 6A.4 and 6A.6).
It is clearly evident from the studies discussed above that the determination of average
molecular weights for maltodextrins may be meaningless in the context of fat replacement. Rather, a molecular weight profile (giving size and amount of each molecular
species whenever possible) may provide more useful data that could, in the future, be
correlated with functional (fat-mimetic) properties.
In a patent assigned to National Starch & Chemical Co., maltodextrins with DE<5
derived from tapioca starch were also reported to form thermoreversible gels with gel
strengths of 65 to 930 g at 25 to 35% solids measured using a Stevens Texture Analyser
(Lenchin et al., 1985). Yet, in the same patent, there is a statement in the summary of
the invention claiming that the modified starches covered by the patent (from tapioca,
corn, and potato) do not form gels but can nevertheless be used as fat replacers in products
such as ice cream and spreads. Furthermore, the tapioca-derived, enzymically prepared,
Instant N-Oil from National Starch & Chemical has been on the market as a fat replacer
for a number of years, as has the corn-derived Maltrin MO40 sold by GPC. Finally,
the work of Roller and Dea (1995) suggests that gel strengths of more than 25 g/mm at
a concentration of 20% and measured using a Stevens Texture Analyzer (hemispheric
probe diameter 13 mm) may be undesirable for fat replacement purposes. Therefore, it
is not entirely clear from the literature whether the ability to form thermoreversible gels
is an absolute requirement for successful fat replacement using maltodextrins.
In the last 10 years, a veritable armory of experimental techniques for rheological
analysis has become available and these have been used to characterize the physical
properties of foods and food ingredients, including fats and fat replacers (Chapter 9;
Clark, 1987; Prentice, 1992). As an example, the heterogeneous, submicron, particle
network of A.E. Staleys Stellar (acid- and shear-modified cornstarch) has been sho wn
to have thixotropic rheological properties similar to those of hydrogenated vegetable
shortening when tested in a model system using a Bohlin Model VOR rheometer (Harris
and Day, 1993). The G values for shortening and the Stellar creme (25% solids)
dropped off dramatically with increasing strain at relatively lo w strain values, displaying
short textures, whereas polymer gels prepared from either a 20% traditional starch
thickener (brand not specified) and a 1.25% xanthan gum solution showed no drop in
G values at low strain values consistent with a long texture (Harris and Day, 1993).
The work of Kasapis et al. (1993a) on low-DE potato maltodextrins described above
provides another example of recent advances made using rheological techniques. Rheological comparisons in real food systems, e.g., low-fat spreads, in which a multitude of
ingredients can be expected to play a role, have also been carried out and some of these
are described in more detail in Section 6A.6.
As might be expected, maltodextrins share some of the undesirable physical properties
associated with native starches. For example, the tendency of amylopectin to retrograde
very slowly is manifested in low-fat food products containing starch-derived fat replacers
by giving rise to such phenomena as set-back in low-fat spoonable salad dressings stored
for long periods of time (Biliaderis, 1992; Biliaderis and Zawistowski, 1990). Similarly,
low-DE maltodextrins can suffer from variable freeze-thaw stability and unreliable heatand acid-stability. Finally, many low-DE maltodextrins, unless specifically treated, can
impart an undesirable, starchy, off-flavor to delicate foods if used at high concentrations.
interactions that can be expected in model systems and in complex foods in an effort to
optimize ingredient performance. Protein/maltodextrin interactions are but one such
example of important interactions occurring in foods in which fat has been replaced by
low-DE maltodextrins.
Kasapis and colleagues have studied the effect of thermodynamic incompatibility in
mixed solutions of gelatin and low-DE potato maltodextrins, two ingredients commonly
used in the manufacture of low-fat spreads, in order to attain an in-depth understanding
of the role that these ingredients play in the process of phase inversion and solvent
partition between polymeric phases (Kasapis et al., 1993a, b, c, and d). Using visual
observation and optical techniques and a temperature (45C) at which the individual
polymers were stable as disordered coils over long periods of time, it was shown that
conformational ordering (and consequent precipitation) of maltodextrins derived from
potato starch can be accelerated by the presence of gelatin in the same solution phase.
The amount of maltodextrin precipitated was proportional to the square of its initial
concentration and to the first power of gelatin concentration, indicating that gelatin was
driving the self-association and aggregation of maltodextrins when both polymers were
present in a single liquid phase. Furthermore, proton NMR showed that the precipitated
maltodextrin was higher in molecular weight and in the degree of branching than the
material remaining in solution (Kasapis et al., 1993b). In a subsequent paper, the behavior
of the same polymers at lower temperatures (5C) was examined using differential
scanning calorimetry, mechanical spectroscopy, and light microscopy (Kasapis et al.,
1993c). The results indicated that there was no direct coupling between gelatin and
maltodextrin in mixed gels and that phase inversion from a gelatin-continuous network
with maltodextrin inclusions to a maltodextrin-continuous network with gelatin as the
dispersed phase occurred over a very narrow range of composition. Finally, Kasapis and
colleagues also compared the experimental storage moduli (G ) for mixed gel systems
with those of the constituent polymers in isolation using the Takayanagi et al. (1963)
blending laws and obtained quantitative data on the distribution of solvent between the
two phases for more than 30 gelatin/maltodextrin combinations (Kasapis et al., 1993d).
The fundamental background information obtained in these studies allowed Gupta and
Kasapis (1995) to pinpoint the brittle and elastic character of maltodextrins and proteins,
respectively, and to develop a low-fat spread formulation in which a relatively soft, milk
protein-continuous matrix provided the solid-like structure whereas the stronger maltodextrin filler introduced micro-heterogeneities to encourage plastic failure (described in
more detail in Section 6A.6).
Many of the more recently introduced commercial fat replacers are based on the
combined properties of two or more macromolecule components, one of which is frequently a low-DE maltodextrin. For example, Rice Trin 3 Complete (Zumbro, Inc.)
contains an enzymically hydrolyzed rice maltodextrin and 10% rice protein present in 1
to 5 m particles, thereby combining the benefits of a gelling starch with those of a
microparticulated protein (Setzer and Racette, 1992). Another example is Slimgel, a
blend of gelatin and galactomannan, described in more detail in Chapter 12; indeed,
Slimgel is an example of a proprietary blend in which the concept of thermodynamic
incompatibility has been exploited in a way that is similar to the work of Kasapis on
maltodextrin/caseinate systems in low-fat spreads (see Section 6A.6). However, as our understanding of the action and interaction of hydrocolloids in foods improves with time, recourse
to proprietary blends designed specifically for fat replacement may not be necessary.
As with native starches, low-DE maltodextrins can interact with a variety of other
food ingredients such as flavors, emulsifiers, sweeteners, etc. (Godshall and Solms, 1992).
Interactions between maltodextrins and lipid-based materials are discussed in more detail
in Chapter 6B.
6A.6 APPLICATIONS
6A.6.1 LOW-FAT SPREADS
In the first wave of reduced-fat product development in the West, the so-called halvarines were developed in which the fat content of butter and margarine was reduced by
half from the traditional 80% to about 40%, to allow for the now widely available and
popular low-fat spreads. In most of these low-fat spreads, gelatin was, and still is, used
in the aqueous phase. As consumer pressure for light products grew, manufacturers
continued to strive to reduce the fat content of spreads even further, giving the so-called
quarterines (20% fat) and even fat-free (actually 3% fat) versions of the product. However,
at levels of 3 to 5% fat, the spreads were water-continuous and proteins like gelatin
tended to produce an undesirable, gel-like structure. Alternative proteins (e.g., caseinates)
were introduced and major reformulations of ingredients and concepts were necessary
to achieve satisfactory products. Indeed, it can be said that to date, very few no-fat spreads
of acceptable quality have reached and stayed on the market. In this respect, the very
recent work of Kasapis and his colleagues at Cranfield University in the U.K. has been
instrumental in demonstrating how dramatic quality improvements could be made by
exploiting the interaction of maltodextrins with proteins (see Section 6A.5) within spreadable products and this work is discussed in more detail below.
One of the first requirements for a successful low-fat spread or soft cheese product
is that it should have the spreadable properties of the full-fat product. Kasapis used
compression analysis, a known rheological technique (Prentice, 1992), to characterize
and compare existing full-fat and low-fat spreads on the market by creating a series of
comparative force-deformation profiles for each product. In this type of analysis, a
constant stress is applied to a sample and the generated strain is recorded until a certain
predetermined deformation is reached (usually between 70 and 90% of the original
height).
As illustrated in Figure 6A.1b, spreadable butter (Anchor) was shown to display a
characteristic stress-strain profile: a smooth shoulder was followed by a shallow dip
which was in turn followed by a gradual but steady rise in the curve. The curve obtained
was quantified by the force at the point of failure (maximum stress, m) and at the
maximum depth of the dip (plastic stress, p). A p to m ratio between 0.95 and 1.00
was typical of the spreadable butter Anchor (Chronakis and Kasapis, 1995 and 1996;
Gupta and Kasapis, 1995; Kasapis et al., 1996). Similar ratios (0.95 to 1.00) were
obtained for the full-fat soft cheese Philadelphia (a water continuous emulsion), ordinary
butter, and Flora margarine (Gupta and Kasapis, 1995) although the absolute stress values
differed, as illustrated in Figure 6A.1b for Anchor spreadable butter (left hand y-axis
scale from 0 to 30 kPa) and Flora margarine (right hand y-axis scale from 0 to 10kPa).
By contrast, four commercial low-fat spreads failed to demonstrate the same stress-strain
profiles. St. Ivels Gold (a halvarine spread) and Gold Lowest (25% fat, containing at
least 6% protein and 4% starch in the aqueous phase) showed a sharp breaking pattern
and had sp to sm ratios of about 0.82, revealing a gel-like character (Figure 6A.1a). In
water-continuous spreads such as Unilevers Promise containing a gelatin-maltodextrin
aqueous phase and believed to have been produced according to the patented method of
Cain et al. (1989), fracture occurred (Figure 6A.1a). In the curves obtained for Gold,
Gold Lowest, and Promise, no near-horizontal region of plastic flow was observed;
instead, there was an inflection point where the stress went through a minimum value,
followed by a sharp increase in the curve. In Safeways Very Low Fat Spread, the elastic
mechanics of a gelatin network were avoided by replacing gelatin with the microparticulated protein Simplesse (for more detail on this fat replacer, see Chapter 8). However,
the outcome was a sticky product reminiscent of a thick Greek yogurt with no apparent
Figure 6A.1 Force-deformation profiles for: (a) St. Ivels Gold Low Fat Spread (40% fat), St. Ivels Gold Lowest Fat Spread (25% fat, 6% protein, 4% starch),
Unilevers Promise (3% fat and containing gelatin and starch, believed to be manufactured according to the method of Cain et al., 1989) and Safeways Very
Low Fat Spread (3% fat and containing the microparticulated protein Simplesse). (b) Anchor spreadable butter (80% fat), Flora margarine (80% fat) and the
water-continuous experimental spreads prepared according to the method of Gupta and Kasapis (1995) and containing 4.8% fat, 2.3% caseinate, 11.5%
Cerestars maltodextrin C*Pur 01906 and 5% inulin (Product A) and 4.5% fat, 4.7% caseinate and 15.9% Cerestars potato maltodextrin C*Pur 01906 (Product
B). Cylindrical disks of 26 mm length and diameter were compressed at 0.8 mm/s at 5C. Note that the arrow below each product name indicates the location
(left or right) of the appropriate y-axis. (Compiled from Chronakis, I. S. and Kasapis, S. 1995 and 1996; Gupta, B. B. and Kasapis, S., 1995; Kasapis, S.
et al., 1996, with permission from S. Kasapis.)
yield points on the curve during a compression cycle (Figure 6A.1a, note the difference
in scales of the y-axis). Tescos Very Low Fat Spread (5% fat) and Sainsburys Sunflower
Lowest (5% fat) gave similar results (Gupta and Kasapis, 1995).
Having demonstrated instrumentally and quantitatively what consumers already
knew that none of the existing, very-low-fat spreads on the market resembled their
full-fat counterparts Kasapis and his colleagues went on to develop mixed biopolymer
systems (including maltodextrins) for very low-fat spreads based on the concept of phase
inversion due to thermodynamic incompatibility (see Section 6A.5 and Chapters 7C, 9,
and 12). New, phase-separated, low-fat spread formulations were developed in which a
relatively soft, milk protein-continuous matrix provided the solid-like structure whereas
the stronger maltodextrin filler introduced micro-heterogeneities to encourage plastic
failure. Phase separation could be further manipulated by adjusting the concentration of
the hydrocolloids and of salt. Figure 6A.1b shows the stress-strain curves for such spreads
made with 4.8% fat, 2.3% caseinate, 11.5% maltodextrin (Cerestars C*Pur 01906) and
5% inulin (product A) and 4.5% fat, 4.7% caseinate, and 15.9% maltodextrin (C*Pur
01906, product B). In both cases, the rheology of Flora margarine was successfully
matched with low-fat, water-continuous products. Furthermore, the shapes of the experimental stress/strain curves and the p/m ratios matched those of Anchor spreadable
butter, although, of course, the absolute stress values differed. The absolute stress required
to deform the low-fat products was smaller than that required for butter indicating good
spreading characteristics at refrigerator temperatures. Therefore, the authors postulated
that the maintenance of the p/m ratio (measured at 5C) between the values of 0.95 and
1.00 was the most important rheological characteristic when attempting to match lowfat spreadable products with full-fat ones (Chronakis and Kasapis, 1995; Gupta and
Kasapis, 1995).
As has been pointed out in Chapters 1 and 4, fat plays a multitude of roles in foods
and texture determination is but one of them. Low-fat products which have been successfully matched with full-fat versions in terms of texture may fail to meet quality
expectations in terms of flavor release. Therefore, in the above work by Kasapis and
colleagues, sensory profiling of the newly developed low-fat spreads was undertaken to
check melting temperatures determined instrumentally and to assess overall sensory
acceptability. Of the maltodextrins studied (C*Pur 01906, Paselli SA2, N-Lite D, NOil, Maltrin M040, Lycadex 100, Optagrade and TrimChoice), Cerestars C*Pur 01906
and Opta Food Ingredients Optagrade were considered preferable because at least 50%
of the gel structure present at 5C was lost at oral temperatures (around 37C) and this
characteristic was associated with better flavor release. Other maltodextrins tended to
retain their gel structure in the mouth and were considered less suitable (Gupta and
Kasapis, 1995). Dynamic mechanical measurements on the concentration dependence of
the storage modulus (G ) and the melting profiles of the above maltodextrin gels in
combination with sensory analysis of water-continuous spreads showed the potato maltodextrin Cerestar C*01906 to be the most efficient structuring agent with the best
organoleptic performance. This appeared to be linked to a low minimum gelling concentration (about 12%) compared to that of the other maltodextrins which gelled at
concentrations of over 18%. Therefore, it was possible to produce spreads using lower
concentrations of C*Pur 01906 than the other maltodextrins thereby avoiding the unpleasant starchy oral perception associated with high levels of maltodextrins in foods. The
spreads also contained minor amounts of nongelling hydrocolloids, such as xanthan gum,
locust bean gum, modified starch, or soluble vegetable fiber such as inulin. It was
recommended that no nonaggregate forming gelling agents such as gelatin should be
present in the spreads to avoid a gel-like structure (Gupta and Kasapis, 1995).
More recently, a study comparing the sensory and physical performance of Avebes
potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2 and National Starch & Chemical Co. tapioca maltodextrin N-Oil in a reduced-calorie frozen dessert was reported (Specter and Setzer, 1994).
The effect of an artificial sweetener/bulking agent combination (Nutrasweets polydextrose-aspartame) was also examined in this study. The basic formulation consisted of
cream (37% fat), nonfat dry milk, sucrose, and water to give final concentrations of 12%
milk fat, 10% nonfat milk, and 16% sucrose (total solids content was 38%). A total of
21 formula variations were prepared including those in which the fat content was 100,
66, 33 and 0% of the 12% milk fat in the control recipe. The removed fat was replaced
by one part Paselli SA2 or N-Oil and three parts water. On sensory assessment following
0 and 140 d of storage, none of the high-fat or low-fat products were judged to be
different in terms of gumminess or coldness. No significant differences in terms of any
other sensory parameters were observed between the full-fat frozen dessert and the
desserts prepared with Paselli SA2 and a fat level of 66 and 33% of the control. Desserts
prepared with Paselli SA2 at a level of 0% fat and all the low-fat desserts prepared with
N-Oil (66, 33 and 0% of the control milk fat) differed from the control in at least one
or more sensory parameters other than gumminess or coldness. Desserts prepared with
N-Oil were perceived as more chalky than those prepared with Paselli SA2. The results
also suggested that the polydextrose/aspartame mix may have compensated not only for
the functional properties of sucrose but also for those of the milk fat (for a detailed
description of polydextrose, see Chapter 11). Physical measurements such as viscosity,
melting rate, and resistance to deformation did not correlate highly with sensory properties.
In another study, 182 consumers were asked to compare the organoleptic properties of
strawberry-flavored yogurt containing either no supplements or supplemented with milk fat
or one of five fat replacers (Pfizers Litesse [see Chapter 11], National Starch & Chemical
Co. tapioca maltodextrin N-Oil, Avebes potato maltodextrin Paselli SA2, and Roquette
Frress maltodextrins Lycadex 100 and 200) using a 9-point hedonic scale (Barrantes
et al., 1993). The yogurts were prepared using reconstituted skim milk powder (14% total
solids) and 1% sugar. The experimental yogurt batches were fortified with 1.5% anhydrous
milk fat or one of the above-mentioned fat replacers. The starter culture was added at
16g/100 l and the processed strawberry fruit was added at a level of 15%. Overall sensory
scores showed that all the yogurts were liked by the majority of consumers. The authors
concluded that all the fat replacers tested were suitable for the manufacture of acceptable
reduced-fat yogurt. However, given that the control yogurts containing no added fat and
those containing added fat (1.5%) were judged equally acceptable and the difference between
the fat content of the yogurts was so small, it is debatable whether any conclusions can be
drawn from this study about the comparative merits of the five fat replacers.
When incorporated in low-fat ice cream at a level of 1%, debranched waxy maize
starch has been shown to impart a creamy texture and improved flavor (Swinton et al.,
1990). In addition, debranched waxy maize starch showed some promise as a potential
fat replacer in both pork pie filling and crust (Swinton et al., 1990). Other workers in
the field have also noted that enzymically debranched maize starches had a fat-like texture
useful in fat replacement (Chiu, 1990), as well as having other physical properties of
interest, such as low hot viscosity, high gel strengths, and emulsification ability. The
latter properties would render the debranched starches suitable for food applications such
as jelly gum confectionery, caseinate replacement in imitation cheese, stable cloud
formation in beverages, and general thickening and bonding (Chiu and Zallie, 1989;
Zallie and Chiu, 1990). More recently, it has also been suggested that debranched starches
could be used as opacifiers in low-fat foods (Chiu and Henley, 1994). It is not known
whether some of the commercial maltodextrins available on the market today have been
produced using debranching enzymes.
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Chapter
6B
Starch-Derived Fat
Mimetics from Potato
Jaap Harkema
CONTENTS
6B.1
6B.2
6B.3
6B.4
6B.5
6B.6
to be unique for maltodextrins based on potato starch (Richter et al., 1976). For a more
detailed discussion of the literature on the physical properties of a wide range of maltodextrins used in fat replacement, refer to Chapter 6A.
The chemical composition of potato starch with its low lipid and protein content
makes it particularly attractive as a raw material for the preparation of bland maltodextrins
for many food applications, including fat replacement. In addition, potato starch contains
amylose molecules with longer chains (DP 3,000) than those found in corn and wheat
starches (DP 800) and these are thought to retrograde less readily, thereby reducing the
tendency to cause turbidity and an undesirable texture (Swinkels, 1985).
Maltodextrins have been available to the food technologist as filling and bulking
agents for many decades. The products are easily digestible, easy to blend with other
dry ingredients, easy to dissolve, and have low viscosity in solution. When consumer
concern with regard to the effect of too much fat in the diet on health started growing
in the mid-1980s, maltodextrins, and more particularly low-DE maltodextrins, were
rediscovered because of their excellent ability to mimic the functional properties of
fat and oil. Furthermore, one part of a low-DE maltodextrin and three parts of water can
often replace four parts of fat or oil. This can reduce the calories originally provided by
fat to as little as 11%. However, it must be noted that in very few cases can all of the
fat or oil in a formulation be substituted by low-DE maltodextrins without changing the
texture and flavor characteristics of the food substantially. In many such cases, combinations with other functional ingredients (e.g., thickeners, emulsifiers) are required.
One of the first low-DE maltodextrins to be launched on the market in the mid-1980s
specifically for fat replacement has been Avebes Paselli SA2 derived from potato starch,
followed in 1994 by Paselli Excel, a premium quality, flavor-free fat replacer developed
specifically for delicately flavored foods. Meanwhile, other companies, such as Cerestar
(Gruppo Feruzzi) and Roquette Frres are also marketing low-DE potato maltodextrins
known as C*Pur 01906 and Lycadex 100, respectively, for fat replacement applications.
same chemical composition and properties as Paselli SA2, but is entirely flavor-free. The
composition of Cerestars potato-derived C*Pur 01906 is similar with a DE of 3 and a
carbohydrate composition of 1% glucose, 2% of maltose and maltotriose each, and 95%
higher saccharides. Specifications for another potato product, Lycadex 100 from
Roquette Frres, state that this enzymically hydrolyzed maltodextrin has a maximum DE
of 5 and a carbohydrate composition of 0.5% glucose, 0.5% maltose, and 99% higher
polysaccharides.
Figure 6B.1 Effect of DE on the viscosity of three maltodextrin solutions at 40% dissolved
solids with increasing temperature. Data were obtained using a Brookfield Viscometer. (From
Avebe Company Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)
solution can be deaerated by placing it into an ultrasonic waterbath to give a clear solution
with a layer of foam on top. Ultrasonication is a good way of ensuring that the maltodextrin has been fully dissolved. However, deaeration is not necessary for good gel
formation as the air bubbles do not affect gel strength. After covering and refrigerating
overnight, a white, smooth, and spreadable gel ready for further processing is obtained.
Maltodextrin gels derived from potato starch have plastic, fat-like characteristics. The
texture is short, spreadable, and nonelastic in nature and the gels are thermoreversible,
which means that they melt upon heating and reset to a comparable gel strength when
cooled down again. The gels are also shear-thinning and reform when shearing is stopped.
Maltodextrin gels are pH-stable, retaining the same gel strength in the pH range 3 to 7.
Gel strengths increase with higher concentrations, as shown in Figure 6B.2. The hydration
temperature is also of interest; when the product is dissolved in hot water, the gel is
stronger, as shown in Figure 6B.3. However, if higher water temperatures are used, more
vigourous homogenization might be required as lumps may appear more quickly in hot
than in cold water.
Figure 6B.2 Effect of maltodextrin concentration on the gel strength (g/mm) of a low-DE potato
maltodextrin gel. Data were obtained using a Stevens Texture Analyzer. (From Avebe Company
Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)
Figure 6B.3 Effect of hydration temperature on gel strength (g/mm) of a low-DE potato maltodextrin. Data were obtained using a Stevens Texture Analyzer. (From Avebe Company Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)
Gel strength at 1 h
(g/mm)
Gel strength at 24 h
(g/mm)
No addition
+ SSL 3%
+ SE 3%
+ GMS 3%
Liquid
147
108
20
79
221
207
89
Note: SSL = Sodium Stearoyl Lactylate (Admul SSL-2004, Quest); SE = Sucrose Ester
(S-1670, Mitsubishi-Kasei); GMS = Glycerol mono-stearate (Myverol 18-06, Kodak
Eastman).
Figure 6B.4 Effect of free glucose (dextrose) and two maltodextrins (DE 20 and DE 2-3) on
Brabender viscosity of native potato starch. (From Avebe Company Brochure, Veendam, The
Netherlands, 1993. With permission.)
6B.6 APPLICATIONS
In the following section, the use of low-DE maltodextrins in a range of specific food
product sectors is discussed and illustrated using formulations containing some of the
commercially available maltodextrins, including Paselli SA2 (Avebe), Paselli Excel (for
delicately flavored foods) and C*Pur 01906 (Cerestar). The Paselli range of fat replacers
is recommended for use in soups, sauces, dressings, dips, dairy applications, and bakery
products (cakes, frostings). Cerestars C*Pur 01906 is recommended for use in salad
dressings (hot and cold produced), low-fat spreads, ice cream, and meat products (De
Coninck, 1993). Roquette Frres Lycadex 100 is also available and is recommended
for use in applications where solid fat (e.g., shortening, butter, margarine) has to be
replaced or where the fat replacer has to contribute to a creamy, plastic, or spreadable
texture, as in salad dressings, cooked meats, low-fat spreads, cheeses, and ice cream
(Roquettes Frres, 1991).
6B.6.1 POWDERED AND LIQUID FOODS
The most obvious application by direct addition of spray-dried low-DE maltodextrins is
in powdered products such as instant soups. Once the dried food product has been
dissolved, the presence of low-DE maltodextrins enhances creaminess, adds body and
texture, and gives a fatty mouthfeel to the food product. In liquid foods such as soups,
sauces, desserts, pourable dressings, creamers, and beverages, it is recommended that
low-DE maltodextrins are added to the dry ingredients in the formulation before the
addition of water. In these systems, low-DE maltodextrins add to a full-bodied texture
and mouthcoating, since their viscosity is relatively high compared with higher-DE
maltodextrins. Because of the relatively low concentrations of maltodextrins used (1 to
5%) and the fact that the continuous water phase is large, gels are not formed. An example
of this use of low-DE maltodextrins is shown in the formulation and preparation procedure for low-fat butter sauce in Table 6B.2. The preparation procedure for this food
product involves blending together all the dry ingredients, placing the dry ingredients
into water in a sauce pan, bringing the mixture to the boil while stirring constantly,
reducing to a simmer and cooking for 5 to 7 min while stirring.
%
88.55
3.20
2.50
2.40
2.00
1.00
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.05
100.00
Nutritional information
Product
Calories/
100 g
Calories
from fat
Total fat
(g)
Control
Low-fat
59
46
40.5
15.3
4.5
1.7
%
67.70
11.00
7.64
6.01
3.02
2.63
1.50
0.50
qs
100.00
Nutritional information
Product
Calories/
100 g
Calories
from fat
Total fat
(g)
Control
Low-fat
202
136
96.75
20.88
10.75
2.32
Content (%)
25
1.82
0.03
0.12
68
2
0.0025
3.0275
4.5
1
10
1.5
2.5
0.06
5.06
0.53
1.32
0.067
40.463
Belgium.
28.53
28.32
18.02
15.33
9.50
0.30
100.00
Nutritional information
Product
Calories/
100g
Calories
from fat
Total fat
(g)
Control
Low-fat
302
208
172.6
83.7
19.18
9.3
REFERENCES
Avebe, Paselli SA2, The Proven Fat Replacer, Company Brochure, Veendam, The Netherlands, 1993.
De Coninck, V., Fat Reduced Foods with C*Pur 01906, Company Brochure, Cerestar, Belgium.
Food and Drug Administration, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Office of the Federal Register,
National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C., Paragraph 184.1444, 1983.
Harris, R.B.S., Factors influencing energy intake of rats fed either a high-fat or a fat mimetic diet, Int.
J. Obesity, 18, 632, 1994.
Richter, M., Schierbaum, F., Augustat, S., and Knoch, K-D., Assignee Academy of Sciences of the German
Democratic Republic, Method of producing starch hydrolysis products for use as food additives,
U.S. Patent 3 962 465, 1976.
Roquettes Frres, Lycadex, The Natural Choice for Light Products, Company Brochure, Lestrem, France,
1991.
Sobczynska, D. and Setzer, C.S., Replacement of shortening by maltodextrin/emulsifier combinations in
chocolate layer cakes, Cereal Foods World, 36(12), 1017, 1991.
Swinkels, J.J.M., Sources of starch, its chemistry and physics, in Starch Conversion Technology, van
Beynum, G.M.A. and Roels, J.A., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1985, 15.
Chapter
7A
Fiber-Based Fat
Mimetics:
Microcrystalline
Cellulose
William M. Humphreys
CONTENTS
7A.1
7A.2
7A.3
7A.4
7A.5
7A.6
mass of cellulose chains and the crystalline region comprises tight bundles of microcrystals in a rigid linear arrangement. The first step in the process is acid depolymerization
which removes the amorphous chains and leaves crystalline bundles of cellulose. The
production process at this point can take one of two routes, resulting in powdered or
colloidal microcrystalline cellulose as shown in Figure 7A.1 (FMC Corp., 1993a). Utilizing a proprietary agglomeration and drying step, it is possible to produce aggregates
of very porous particles of powdered microcrystalline cellulose (FMC Corp., 1993a).
Figure 7A.1 Steps in the production of microcrystalline cellulose products. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b. With permission.)
The colloidal products are manufactured by applying intense shear forces to break
open the cellulose network to form colloidal microcrystalline cellulose. To prevent the
colloidal material from reaggregating during drying, a soluble hydrocolloid is introduced.
This acts as a barrier coating for particles and facilitates water uptake and dispersion.
The characteristics of the soluble hydrocolloid has an effect on the properties of the
dispersed product, which together with different drying techniques, give the range of
commercial products shown in Table 7A.1.
The manufacturing process for Novagel microcrystalline cellulose aggregrates follows the same initial steps. The cellulose microcrystals are co-processed with guar gum
which exhibits a strong affinity for the microcrystalline cellulose. This produces a guar
coating of the pliable microcrystalline cellulose spheres (McGinley and Tuason, 1993)
which imparts the slipperiness that is similar to the sensory properties of fat in food
products (Table 7A.2). The material is then dried in a manner to ensure a regular particle
size when dispersed in water.
There are currently over 150 U.S., German, Japanese, European, Dutch, Belgian, and
French patents pertaining to the development and use of microcrystalline cellulose. Patent
categories cover general product technology, bakery and dessert products, beverages,
sauces and salad dressings, confections and jelly products, instant powder applications,
formed and extruded foods, microwave applications, low-calorie/low-fat, and miscellaneous applications.
Table 7A.1 Key Physical and Chemical Properties of Colloidal Grades of Avicel Microcrystalline Cellulose
Avicel
RC501
Properties
MCC Content (%)
Process
91
Bulk-dried
Avicel RC
581
89
Bulk-dried
Avicel
RC 591F
88
Spray-dried
Avicel
CL611
Avicel
RCN30
0.31
39175 at 1.2%
75
85
Co-processed
Co-processed with
with xanthan
calcium alginate
and maltodextrin
High speed mixer High speed mixer High shear or low shear
with sequestrants
0.22.5
0.51.5
0.42.5
50151 at 2.6%
620 at 3%
n/a
1250 at 1.2%
1850 at 2.6%
General stabilizer,
thixotropic gels
85
Spray-dried
n/a
Avicel
AC815
MicroQuick
WC595
MaltoQuick
MC230
22
Co-processed
with whey
22
Co-processed
with
maltodextrin
Low shear
Low shear
24
24
10100 at 6% 50150 at 5%
n/a
1200 at 6%
Dry blended
foods
Dry blended
foods
Novagel RCN 10
Novagel RCN 15
90
Low
Pliable spheres
0.33
Frozen desserts, cheese,
and beverages
85
Medium
Spongy spheres
0.35
Salad dressings, icings, frostings,
cheese, and beverages
Modified from FMC Corp., 1994b. With permission of the FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA.
importantly, has a short texture. This thixotropic network of insoluble crystals is physically and functionally similar to the insoluble network of dispersed oil droplets in an
oil-in-water emulsion and is the key to the unique functionality of colloidal microcrystalline cellulose in fat replacement.
The properties of Novagel RCN are very different. Once dispersed in water, the
particles of Novagel RCN exist in a substantially spherical form. Micrographs taken
using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) show that Novagel RCN 10 forms firm,
pliable, spherical particles while Novagel RCN 15 forms more open, deformable,
spherical aggregates as shown in Figure 7A.4 (FMC Corp., 1994b). Consequently, Novagel RCN 10 has less surface area and lower water absorption properties (absorbing
approximately 2.5 times its own weight) than Novagel RCN 15 which absorbs up to
10 times its own weight of water. Within food systems, these particles contribute a fatlike consistency, a creamy mouthfeel, body, and opacity. Novagel RCN is stable under
a broad range of processing conditions: retort, UHT, freezing, and low pH including
microbial fermentations, microwave, etc.
Figure 7A.4 Scanning electron micrograph of a particle of Novagel RCN 15. (From FMC
Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b. With permission.)
Figure 7A.5 Photograph of a fully dispersed colloidal Avicel dispersion under polarized light
and 100X magnification. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b. With permission.)
Figure 7A.6 Photograph of a Novagel dispersion under polarized light and 100X magnification. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1993a. With permission.)
As a general guideline for processing, medium levels of Novagel, added either dry
or as part of a dry blend with other food ingredients, are readily dispersed in water by
applying such shear forces as those obtained using a propellor mixer at approximately
1600 rpm for 5 min. Even under minimum shear conditions, such as spoon-stirring in
dry powder mix applications, much of the functionality of Novagel is exhibited. The
amount of shear force necessary increases as the viscosity and/or solids level of the
aqueous phase increases and as Novagel concentration increases. As microcrystalline
cellulose based products do not significantly bind water, they will not prevent the
solubilization or dispersion of ingredients added subsequent to their activation. In the
same manner, they have little effect on the water activity (aw) of the food.
Figure 7A.7 Viscosity of basic soybean oil emulsions with and without Avicel as a function of shear rate. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1994b.
With permission.)
1.8
1.4
4.3
0.3
3.6
5.8
4.0
4.5
0.5
1.8
qs
to 100
100
Avicel CL 611
Novagel RCN 15
Vegetable oil
Xanthan gum
Modified waxy maize starch
Sugar
Egg yolk
12% Vinegar
Lemon juice
Salt
Flavors and preservatives
Water
TOTAL
Modified from FMC Corp., 1993c. With permission of the FMC Corporation, Brussels,
Belgium.
Figure 7A.8 Rheology of a full-fat salad dressing compared with no-oil dressings with and
without Novagel RCN 15 added. (From FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA, 1993a. With
permission.)
Table 7A.4 Use of Novagel RCN in a LowFat Processed Cheese Containing <1% Fat
Ingredients
Novagel RCN 10
Skim milk cheese
Sweet whey powder
Trisodium citrate
Disodium phosphate dihydrate
Salt
Enzyme modified cheddar cheese
Carrageenan*
Potassium sorbate
Color
Buttermilk, 0.5% fat
TOTAL
*
%
1.02.0
52.0
6.0
1.2
0.7
0.85
0.5
0.55
0.15
qs
to 100
100
and lubricating the protein structure, Novagel improves both the melting and eating
properties of low-fat cheeses (Bullens et al., 1994).
Manufacturing typically involves dispersion in a premix tank followed by processing
in a jacketed, processed cheese cooker. The dry ingredients are first dry blended and
added to the buttermilk in the premix tank. The ingredients are incorporated by mixing
using a planetary (or higher shear) mixer at approximately 1800 rpm for 4 to 8 minutes
until smooth. In the jacketed cheese cooker, the cheese is shredded and the premix added
while heating. The mixture is then heated to approximately 75C under agitation and
vacuum, and the product is packaged hot.
7A.6.5 FROZEN DESSERTS
Colloidal microcrystalline cellulose prevents the growth of ice crystals in frozen foods
during freeze-thaw cycles (FMC Corp., 1994c). The dispersed colloidal structure and
large surface area allows for reabsorption of water and redispersion of components during
the thaw cycle. Colloidal microcrystalline cellulose helps to prevent moisture migration
and inhibits the irreversible aggregation of protein and other solids by maintaining a
homogeneous state of the system. Dispersions of microcrystalline cellulose also contribute several other benefits such as opacity and a source of noncaloric fiber. Therefore,
colloidal microcrystalline cellulose is used in standard, full-fat ice cream as well as in
low-fat frozen desserts. An example of the application of Avicel in a low-fat frozen
formulation is shown in Table 7A.5.
3.0
12.2
12.0
4.0
0.20.5
0.250.5
0.050.2
0.10.2
qs
100
REFERENCES
Bullens, C., Krawczyk, G., and Geithmann, L., Reduced fat cheese products using carrageenan and
microcrystalline cellulose, Food Technol., 48(1) 79, 1994.
FMC A/S, Food Ingredients Division, Brussels, Belgium, Product Information Bulletins: 3010 Novagel
RCN 10 and 3015 Novagel RCN 15, 1993b.
FMC A/S, Food Ingredients Division, Brussels, Belgium, Application Note Microcrystalline CelluloseDM4-1: Low Fat Mayonnaise Dressings, 1993c.
FMC A/S, Food Ingredients Division, Brussels, Belgium, Application Note MCC-CH2-1: <1% Fat
Processed Cheese, 1994d.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Avicel in Low/Non Fat Systems, Bulletin
C-96, 1989.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Customer Service Bulletin: Avicel
Cellulose Gel General Technology, 1993a.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Customer Service Bulletin: Specifications
and Product Information Avicel AC 815 Cellulose Gel, 1994a.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Customer Service Bulletin: Novagel
Cellulose Gel Fat Replacer, 1994b.
FMC Corporation, Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, PA, Application Bulletin: Avicel Microcrystalline Cellulose in Frozen Desserts, 1994c.
Imeson, A. P., Applications of Alginates, in Gums and Stabilisers for the Food Industry, Vol. 5, G.O.
Phillips, D.J. Wedlock, and P.J. Williams, Eds., IRL Press, Oxford, U.K., 1989, 553.
Mc Ginley, J. and Tuason, D.C., Fat-like Bulking Agent for Aqueous Foods Comprising Microcrystalline
Cellulose and a Galactomannan Gum, U.S. Patent 5,192,569, 1993.
Reilly, P. J. (1994), Personal communication.
Tuason, D. (1994) Personal communication.
Wyden, P. and Morrow, W., The Overweight Society, New York, 1965.
Chapter
7B
Fiber-Based Fat
Mimetics:
Methylcellulose Gums
Pablo de Mariscal and David A. Bell
CONTENTS
7B.1
7B.2
7B.3
7B.4
7B.5
7B.6
of fats; they imitate the mouthfeel imparted by fats via film formation and rheological
properties and they permit precise control of formulation viscosity so formulators can
simulate fat-like texture in reduced-fat foods. Like fats, MC and HPMC help entrain air
in foodstuffs to improve structure, stabilize air or carbon dioxide bubbles to reduce
volume loss, and enhance moisture retention in a variety of products including sauces
and dressings, restructured, frozen, and baked goods.
In addition to The Dow Chemical Company, other manufacturers of these products
for food use include Courtaulds Chemicals (Celacol), Hercules Ltd. (Benecel), Hoechst
AG (Tylose) and Shin-Etsu Chemical Co. (Metolose).
Figure 7B.1 Typical chemical structures of (a) methylcellulose and (b) hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. (Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.)
of molecules of substituent which have been substituted per anhydroglucose unit. The
latter is used in the case of hydroxypropoxyl substitution because it is possible to form
poly (hydroxypropoxyl) chains due to the additional hydroxyl group of the hydroxypropoxyl substituent. Although the control of the distribution of substituents of the individual
anhydroglucose units is not believed to be of a great importance in commercial products
used in food applications, the effects of changing the absolute level of substitution of
methoxyl and hydropropoxyl substituents has a profound effect on the physicochemical
properties of MC and HPMC (Grover, 1981). Therefore, water retention properties,
sensitivity to electrolytes and other solutes, dissolution temperatures, gelation characteristics, and solubility in nonaqueous systems are all affected by variations in methoxyl
and hydroxypropoxyl substitutions within the range permitted for food applications. For
example, decreasing the methoxyl groups below a DS of 1.4 gives products whose
solubility in water decreases. Concentrations of 2 to 8% sodium hydroxide are required
for solubility as the level of substitution decreases. On the other hand, increasing the
hydroxypropoxyl substitution above an MS of 2.0 improves the solubility in polar organic
solvents.
The range of methoxyl substitution permitted in MC under the above mentioned
European Directive is 25.0 to 33.0%. This corresponds to a DS range of 1.49 to 2.00.
For HPMC, the range is 3.0 to 12.0% of hydroxypropoxyl groups with 19.0 to 30.0%
of methoxyl substitution (European Council, 1978). These ranges correspond to an MS
range of 0.073 to 0.336 for hydroxypropoxyl groups and a DS range of 1.11 to 2.03 for
methoxyl groups. Commercially available MC products, as produced by the various
suppliers, have an average methoxyl degree of substitution ranging from 1.5 to 2.0.
Hence, one half to two thirds of the available hydroxyl positions are substituted with
methoxyl groups. In commercial HPMC products, the DS for methoxyl groups ranges
from 0.9 to 1.9 and the MS for hydroxypropoxyl groups ranges from 0.073 to 0.336
(Table 7B.1).
Table 7B.1 Typical Degree of Substitution and Weight Percent Substitution for the
Methocel Range of Methylcellulose Gums
Gum Type
Methoxyl degree
of substitution
Methoxyl
(%)
Hydroxy-propoxyl
molar substitution
Hydroxy-propoxyl
(%)
1.8
1.9
1.8
1.4
30
29
28
22
0.23
0.13
0.21
8.5
5.0
8.1
Methocel A MC
Methocel E HPMC
Methocel F HPMC
Methocel K HPMC
Note: Determined using method ASTM D 2363-72 (The Dow Chemical Co., 1993).
Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.
Nominal viscosity
(Centipoise or millipascal seconds)
15
4,000
15
50
4,000
100
4,000
100,000
Unlike other food gums, MC and HPMC products are available in a variety of
molecular weights. This provides flexibility to the formulator in simulating the textures
of fats and oils. At the low molecular weight end, these gums impart a mouthfeel that
is similar to lower viscosity fats and oils while, at the upper end, MC and HPMC provide
a texture and functionality resembling the more highly viscous plastic shortenings.
Apparent viscosities as a function of gum concentration for selected MC and HPMC
solutions are shown in Figure 7B.2.
Another unique property of MC and HPMC products is that their solutions gel when
heated to temperatures that are specific for each type. This is the opposite behavior to
other gelling gums such as gelatin or alginates which melt at raised temperatures. This
Figure 7B.2 Effect of concentration on viscosity for (a) low viscosity methylcellulose gums and (b) high viscosity methylcellulose gums in
aqueous solutions at 20C. (Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.)
phenomenon has been explained by postulating that the water of hydration of the polymer
chains in solution is gradually lost as the temperature of the solution increases (Henderson, 1987). When enough water of hydration is driven from the chains, these interact
with one another and the solution gels (Figure 7B.3). This gelation process is reversible
on cooling and can be affected by the presence of certain additives, e.g., salt, sugar,
sorbitol, etc. (Henderson, 1988). The gels show thixotropic behavior until reversion upon
cooling, whereupon pseudoplastic flow behavior occurs once again. The gel texture
produced on heating aqueous solutions of these molecules varies with the type used.
Normally, MC products yield firm gels, whereas gels obtained with HPMC products are
softer. As methoxyl substitution is reduced and/or hydroxypropoxyl substitution
increased, the gel texture softens. In low-fat products, this unique property contributes
to simulate the texture otherwise provided by fats (De Mariscal, 1993).
Maximizing the functional and textural properties contributed by the fat that remains
in a reduced-fat food is critical in simulating a full-fat product. To achieve this end,
proper emulsification of the remaining fat droplets is essential. It is therefore beneficial
to use stabilizers which not only modify the bulk aqueous phase of the food system but
which also lower interfacial tension between the dissimilar phases of the food. MC and
HPMC gums are surface active polymers due to their substitution and, as a result, they
reduce the interfacial tension between the polar and nonpolar phases of emulsions (Sarkar,
1984). The hydrophilic hydroxyl groups along the cellulose backbone, along with the
hydroxyls contributed by the hydroxypropoxyl substituents, provide affinity for water,
while the lipophilic methoxyl groups substituted along the cellulose molecules impart
affinity to nonpolar phases such as oil and air. MC and HPMC gums thus add stability
to food emulsions by occupying sites at the interfaces between the oil or air droplets and
the continuous aqueous phase. This interfacial activity means that high viscosity is not
always necessary to increase emulsion stability, and the formulators flexibility to control
the texture of the food is therefore increased by using MC or HPMC. A gum which is
not surface active typically thickens a food product to stabilize the emulsion, but this
may have detrimental effects on the texture of the product in some situations. The surface
activities of MC, HPMC and other hydrocolloids are shown in Table 7B.3. For most MC
and HPMC products, the surface tension of a solution decreases linearly as the sample
is heated from 0C until an apparent minimum surface tension is reached between 35
and 50C (The Dow Chemical Company, 1990). This apparent minimum is specific for
a given product, molecular weight, and concentration.
Table 7B.3 Surface Activities of 1% Gum Solutions
Gum type
Water
Xanthan gum
Carboxymethylcellulose
Hydroxyethylcellulose
Sodium Alginate
Propylene Glycol Alginate
Methylcellulose
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose
Surface tension
(Dynes/cm)
72
75
71
69
62
58
5359
4555
The reduced surface tension imparted by MC and HPMC makes these gums excellent
film-formers. In fat reduction, film formation is important in creating a barrier to oil
absorption in fried foods (Meyers and Conklin, 1988) and in creating a filmy mouthfeel
that is similar to that of oil for low molecular weight gums and to that of shortenings
for higher molecular weight gums (Bell, 1993).
MC and HPMC are nonionic polymers. As a result, their solutions have a remarkable
stability to changes in pH. In this respect, they differ from both anionic and cationic
hydrocolloids which normally show dramatic changes in solubility and solution viscosity
near their isoelectric point. Solutions of MC and HPMC are generally stable in the pH
range of 3 to 11. Below pH 3, acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of the (1,4) bond becomes
significant. Above pH 11, the polymeric chain is cleaved due to oxidative degradation
(Greminger and Krumer, 1980). MC and HPMC gums are also very resistant to high
temperatures. For example, MC and HPMC films can be molded or extruded at 120 to
190C when blended with a suitable plasticizer such as sorbitol or glycerin.
such as certain pigments or flavoring oils, do not adversely affect the gums. On the other
hand, as MC and HPMC gums are not soluble in concentrated salt or sugar solutions,
these media can be used as nonsolvent dispersing media. Subsequent dilution reduces
the salt or sugar concentration to a level that allows the gum to dissolve and become
fully functional.
Table 7B.4 Grams of Additive Tolerated by 100 ml
of 2% Solutions of Methocel Gums at 20C
Methocel Premium gum types
Additive
(g/100 ml)
A15
A4M
NaCl
MgCl2
Na2CO3
Na3PO4
Sucrose
11
11
4
2.9
100
7
8
3
2.6
65
F50
17
35
5
3.9
120
F4M
K100
K4M
11
25
4
3.5
80
19
40
4
4.7
160
12
39
4
4.3
115
Of particular practical interest is the synergistic effect encountered when low molecular weight MC is blended with modified starch. One of the problems found when starch
alone is used to thicken a food product is that the viscosity of the latter drops as
temperature increases. The result is often a liquid product with less than optimum appeal.
By adding MC to modified starch, the viscosity increase that can be achieved when heat
is applied is substantially greater than expected, the reason being that the thermal gelation
property of MC counteracts the negative effect increased temperature has on the viscosity
of a starch solution. The result is that solutions of MC/modified starch blends thicken
as temperature increases (The Dow Chemical Company, 1988). This allows for reductions
in the levels of starch to be made in some formulations.
Tests done in model systems containing 0.5 to 1.0% MC and 2 to 5% modified corn
starch show this interaction. A plot of the apparent viscosity as a function of heating for
one modified starch and a low molecular weight methylcellulose is shown in Figure 7B.4.
This interaction provides viscosity control over a wide range of temperatures. It introduces the capability of efficiently thickening a reduced-fat food as it is heated, which
can be advantageous in sauces to impart cling to a substrate such as vegetables. The
watery separation that occurs in some reduced-fat sauces when they are heated can be
prevented using this interaction. In addition, a more uniform viscosity can be maintained
over a broad temperature range in reduced-fat food products where neither an increase
or decrease in viscosity is wanted as the product is heated. This is highly desirable not
only in reduced-fat foods but in their fully-fatted counterparts as well. Applying the
MC/starch interaction to reduced-fat food systems is a function of selecting appropriate
concentrations for the MC and modified starch. As a result of the lower starch level, the
caloric content of the food product may be reduced and there is less possibility of
developing a starchy texture and taste. At the same time, the viscosity is better controlled
and freeze/thaw stability is enhanced. As an additional benefit, there are fewer starchrelated processing problems such as burning starch on the walls of heat exchangers.
MC and HPMC are also compatible with a substantial number of other water-soluble
polymers. These include gum arabic, gum tragacanth, alginates, carrageenan, guar gum,
xanthan gum, and many others.
Figure 7B.4 Effect of temperature on viscosity of solutions containing a modified corn starch
and a low viscosity methylcellulose. (Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company,
Midland, MI.)
textural characteristics. Although other hydrocolloids can also provide thickening in cold
glaze formulations, they do not contribute as readily to hot viscosity and hot cling as
MC and HPMC. These gums have been shown to improve adhesion, gloss, texture, and
viscosity in glazes as a function of film-forming, thermal gelation, and molecular weight
properties (Conklin, 1993).
7B.6.2 LIQUID FOODS
MC and HPMC are effective stabilizers in sauces and salad dressings. Moreover, they
provide controlled pourability and mouthfeel characteristics through rheology adjustment. In reduced-calorie products, they are successfully used to obtain the texture of
fully-fatted sauces. The interaction of low molecular weight MC with modified corn
starches, as described previously, is an important property in controlling viscosity in
sauces. Different combinations of MC or HPMC and other gums have been developed
to prepare low-calorie sauces and dressings. Furthermore, zero-oil salad dressings have
been successfully formulated using MC/xanthan gum blends (Table 7B.5). The processing method used consisted of heating the vinegar and water mixture to 50C, dry-blending
the food gums and sifting into the warm vinegar solution under gentle agitation, allowing
the gums to hydrate, adding sugar and salt, and adding the previously dry-blended spices
to the liquid.
Table 7B.5 Use of a Methylcellulose
(MC) Gum in a Mayonnnaise Substitute
Formulation Containing 0% Oil
Ingredients
Water
Vinegar
Sugar
Salt
Minced onion
Propylene glycol alginate
MC Methocel A4M Premium
Garlic powder
Xanthan gum
Dried salad herbs
Ground black pepper
Cayenne pepper
%
45.60
45.60
4.90
2.00
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.05
cake by 12%, despite the stresses of microwave baking and reductions in fat of 65% for
the yellow and 70% for the chocolate cake. Figure 7B.5 shows the surface response plot
for gum concentration and batter moisture vs. cake height in microwave chocolate cake.
The yellow and chocolate cakes containing low molecular weight HPMCs produced a
favorable moist mouthfeel compared with the control, which was too dry in sensory
panel evaluations. The chocolate cake formula that resulted from this study is shown in
Table 7B.6. The cake was prepared using a Hobart-type mixer with a wire whip attachment for blending of the dry ingredients, adding shortening to the dry ingredients to
obtain a fine crumb structure, adding water and vanilla and blending for 4 min, weighing
400 g of the cake mix into a previously prepared microwaveable pan, and baking for
5 min on a high setting.
Figure 7B.5 Chocolate cake height as a function of HPMC concentration and moisture.
(Reprinted with permission of The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI.)
The surface activity of MC and HPMC also improves the whippability of reducedegg cake batters. The stabilization of the foam is further reinforced by the thermal gelation
of these molecules during the baking stage. In addition, MC and HPMC aid in the
production of low-gluten bread. There, they contribute to obtaining the body and texture
normally associated with standard, full-gluten bread. Further benefits include increased
tolerance to overmixing, longer holding times, and improved product yield.
7B.6.4 FROZEN DAIRY PRODUCTS
In reduced-fat frozen desserts, it is critical that the sensory properties of the dairy fat be
effectively emulated. Different combinations of hydrocolloids are often used for this
purpose. A number of characteristics of HPMC make it particularly well-suited to frozen
dessert and novelty applications. Its film-forming property, in combination with the
thickening capability, simulates the coating property of fat in the mouth. Additionally,
aqueous solutions of HPMC have lubricity, which further mimic the feel of fat.
(%)
44.0
20.8
18.5
3.8
3.8
2.4
2.4
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.2
112 kcal/one-eighth of an 8-in. round cake.
The interfacial activity of HPMC is important in stabilizing fat droplets and air cells
in reduced-fat frozen desserts. As an extender for the fat that remains, HPMC improves
the emulsification stability of the fat globules in the continuous aqueous phase. Similarly,
the surfactant properties entrain and stabilize air cells in the emulsion, contributing to
the overrun of the dessert (the increase in product volume for a given weight resulting
from air incorporation).
Another applicable property of MC and HPMC is their cold water solubility. Both
products are more readily soluble in cold water than in warm. As a result, at or near
freezing temperature the hydrophilic tendency is very strong. The mobility of water that
thaws during freeze/thaw cycling is consequently inhibited by MC and HPMC and ice
crystal growth is reduced during refreezing after each thawing cycle. This reduces the
formation of a sheath of ice around frozen novelties and improves the mouthfeel of these
and other frozen desserts. This property is all the more important when the fat has been
reduced in these products, since there is often more water present to compensate for the
removed fat. An example of a fat-free frozen dessert formulation is given in Table 7B.7.
The dessert was prepared by using part of the water in the formulation to make a 25%
water solution of N-Oil, heating the N-Oil mixture to gelatinize, adding the N-Oil mixture
and the previously blended dry ingredients to the remaining water, pasteurizing for 10 min
at 75C, homogenizing for 3 min, cooling to 5C, ageing for at least 4 h and making the
dessert using an ice cream machine adjusted to the overrun required.
7B.6.5 LOW-FAT WHIPPED TOPPINGS
Similarly to frozen desserts, non-dairy whipped toppings are emulsions which include
lipids and air as the discontinuous phases in a continuous aqueous matrix. As a group,
whipped toppings are sensitive emulsions due to their low densities, and even small
changes to a formulation can have significant effects on stability and appearance. Accordingly, the interfacial acitivity of MC and particularly HPMC are critical in providing air
entrainment and stability to these food foams. The film-forming characteristic is particularly critical in reduced-oil toppings. Not only must the gum stabilize the remaining
oil-and-air-in-water emulsion, but it is responsible for producing a fat-like textural character in the mouth as well.
(%)
14.00
10.00
3.00
2.00
0.27
0.25
0.18
Q.S.
69.00
Since whipped toppings are low density and often low viscosity emulsions, the use
of a low molecular weight stabilizer is appropriate. As a result, the property that can
have the most beneficial effect on mouthfeel in the absence of high viscosity is filmformation, and HPMC is an excellent film-former. HPMC grades with a viscosity in the
range of about 3 to about 100 mPa.s provide the best combination of emulsion stability,
texture in the mouth, and visual appearance.
(purity criteria), 79/112/EEC (labeling), 89/107/EEC (framework directive on food additives), and their respective amendments. In December 1994, a proposal for a Council
Directive on Food Additives Other Than Colors and Sweeteners was adopted and published on March 18, 1995 as Council Directive 95/2/EC. This new Directive establishes
several criteria (Appendixes) relevant to MC and HPMC. The latter are listed in Appendix
I meaning that these gums are allowed for use in all foodstuffs following the quantum
satis principle (maximum levels limited only by good manufacturing practice), except
for applications in certain foods specified in Appendix II, i.e., cocoa and chocolate
products; fruit juices and nectars; jams, jellies, marmalade, and chestnut pure; and
dehydrated and partially dehydrated milk. The Member States of the European Union
have 18 months from the date of adoption (December 1994) to introduce this Directive
into their national legislation at which point the Directive becomes fully enforceable.
Until that happens, food manufacturers need to evaluate their particular case on a countryspecific basis.
MC can be labeled either as methylcellulose or E-461. HPMC can be labeled either
as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or E-464.
REFERENCES
Andon, S. A., Applications of soluble dietary fiber, Food Technol., 41(1), 74, 1987.
Bell, D. A., Methylcellulose as a structure enhancer in bread baking, Cereal Foods World, 35(10), 1001,
1990.
Bell, D. A., Formulating with methylcellulose food gums in fat-reduced foods. Paper presented in the
Reduced-Calorie Food Product Development Short Course. AACC/IFT. Chicago, Illinois. March
3rd-5th, 1993.
Bell, D. A. and Steinke, L. W., Effects on fat reduction and moisture retention in doughnuts by the
addition of methylcellulose and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Poster Session, AACC Annual
Meeting, Seattle, Washington, 1991.
Bell, D. A. and Steinke, L. W., Evaluating structure and texture effects of methylcellulose gums in
microwave-baked cakes, Cereal Foods World, 36(11), 941, 1991.
Bell, D. A. and Steinke, L. W., Reduced fat uptake and increased moisture retention in yeast-leavened
doughnuts with methylcellulose and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Poster Session, AACC Annual
Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1992.
Braun, W. H., Ramsey J. C., and Gehring, P. J., The lack of significant absorption of methylcellulose
3300 cP from the gastro-intestinal tract following single and multipe oral doses to the rat. Food
and Cosmet. Toxicol., 12, 373, 1974.
Brenner, G. M., Sugarless Beverage. U.S. Patent 2,691,591, 1951.
Conklin, J. R., Performance of food hydrocolloids in seafood glaze toppings. Poster Session, IFT National
Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, 1993.
De Mariscal, P., Methylcellulose food gums in reduced-calorie foods. Paper presented in the Course on
Low-Calorie Food Product Development. AACC/IFT/CFDRA. Stratford-on-Avon. June 15th-17th,
1993.
Eastwood, M. A., Brydon, W. G., and Anderson, D. M. W., The effects of dietary methylcellulose in man.
Food Add. Contamin., 7(1), 9, 1990.
European Council, European Council Directive 78/663/EEC, 1978.
Gorzinski, S. J., Takahashi, I. T. and Hurst, G. H., The fate of ultra-low viscosity C-hydroxypropylmethylcellulose in rats following gavage administration. Drug and Chem. Toxicol. 9(2), 83, 1986.
Greminger, G. K., Jr. and Krumer, K. L., Alkyl and hydroxyalkylalkylcellulose. In Handbook of Watersoluble Gums and Resins, R. L. Davidson, Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980.
Grover, J. A., Methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) gums. In Food Hydrocolloids, 2nd ed., Vol. 3, M. Glicksman, Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1981, 121.
Henderson, A., Cellulose ethers- the role of thermal gelation, in Gums and Stabilizers for the Food
Industry, Vol. 4, G. O. Phillips, D. J. Wedlock, and P. A. Williams, Eds., IRL Press, Oxford, 1987,
265.
Henderson, A., Properties of MC and HPMC cellulose derivative gums. Food Technol. Int. Eur. 219, 1988.
Hodge, H. C., Maynard, E. A., Wilt, W. G., Jr., Blanchet, H. J., Jr., and Hyatt, R. E., Chronic oral toxicity
of a high gel point methylcellulose (Methocel HG) in rats and dogs. J. Phar. Exp. Ther., 99(1), 112,
1950.
Ink, S. L. and Hurt, H. D., Nutritional implications of gums. Food Technol., 41(1), 77, 1987.
Meyers, M. A. and Conklin, J. R., Method of Inhibiting Oil Absorption in Coated Fried Foods Using
Hydrxypropylmethylcellulose, U.S. Patent 4,900,573, 1988.
McCollister, S. B., Kociba, R. J., and McCollister, D. D., Dietary feeding studies of methylcellulose and
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose in rats and dogs. Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 11, 943, 1973.
Passmore, R. and Eastwood, M. A., Davidson and Passmore Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 8th. ed.,
Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1986.
Pinthus, E. J., Weinberg P., and Saguy, I. S., Gel strength in restructured potato products affects oil uptake
during deep-fat frying. J. Food Sci., 57 (6), 1359, 1992.
Pinthus, E. J., Weinberg P., and Saguy, I. S., Criterion for oil uptake during deep-fat frying. J. Food Sci.,
58 (1), 204, 1993.
Sarkar, N., Structural interpretation of the interfactial properties of aqueous solutions of methylcellulose
and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Polymer, 25, 481, 1984.
The Dow Chemical Company, Starch Synergy with METHOCEL Premium Food Gums, Technical
brochure, Midland, MI, 1988.
The Dow Chemical Company, METHOCEL Cellulose Ethers. Technical handbook, Midland, MI, 1988.
The Dow Chemical Company, A Food Technologists Guide to METHOCEL Premium Food Gums,
Midland, MI, 1990.
The Dow Chemical Company, METHOCEL Premium Food Gums in Fried Foods, Technical brochure,
Midland, MI, 1991.
The Dow Chemical Company, METHOCEL Food Gums. Product selection guide, Midland, MI, 1993.
The Dow Chemical Company, Formulating Reduced-Fat Foods with METHOCEL Food Gums. Technical
brochure, Midland, MI, 1993.
Chapter
7C
Fiber-Based Fat
Mimetics: Pectin
Beinta Unni Nielsen
CONTENTS
7C.1
7C.2
7C.3
7C.4
7C.5
1986; Rolin and de Vries, 1990; May, 1990; Pilnik and Voragen, 1992; Rolin,1993).
However, none of the earlier reviews has considered the use of pectin as a fat replacer,
and this chapter is therefore mainly confined to the subject of fat replacement.
SLENDID, a registered trademark of Hercules Incorporated, was introduced in 1991.
The SLENDID concept covers a range of specialty pectins tailor-made for fat replacement (Pszczola, 1991). The production of SLENDID takes place on the premises of
Copenhagen Pectin A/S, a Division of Hercules Incorporated, in Denmark.
Pectin consists mainly of the partial methyl esters of polygalacturonic acid and their
sodium, potassium, calcium, and ammonium salts. D-galacturonic acid units are diaxially
linked by a-(1,4) -glucosidic bonds. The chain length varies from 200 to 1,000 galacturonic units, and a typical molecular weight (MW) as measured by relative viscosity
methods, is 50 to 150,000 Daltons. Figure 7C.1 shows a HM-pectin (DE 60%) and a
LMA- pectin (DE 40% and DA 20%). It has been shown that dried preparations of the
pectin molecule form helices with three subunits per turn (Palmer and Hartzog, 1945).
As to the molecular configuration in solution, it is believed that the HM-pectin helices
pack in a parallel arrangement retaining the helical structure with 3 subunits per turn
whereas the LM-pectin helices pack as corrugated sheets of antiparallel helices with 2
subunits per turn (Walkinshaw and Arnott, 1981).
Figure 7C.1 The chemical structure of high methoxyl and low methoxyl pectin.
LM-pectins require a controlled amount of calcium ions to form gels. Gelation may
take place across a wide pH range (from 2.8 to 7.0). It has been suggested that calcium
pectate gel formation is dependent on the stabilization of separate chain segments by OCa-O bridges (Walkinshaw and Arnott, 1981). Two pectin chains, free of ester groups,
may arrange as corrugated sheets with an equivalent amount of calcium ions in between.
Further, it has been suggested that a prerequisite for proper gel formation is the presence
of approximately 15 consecutive nonesterified galacturonic acid residues in either molecule (Morris, 1990).
A popular model for calcium-pectate gel formation is the so called egg-box model.
This model was originally proposed for describing the gelation of calcium alginate
(Morris et al., 1978). According to the egg box model, the helices form with only two
subunits per turn. This model therefore contradicts the assumption of three subunits per
turn. However, the model may still be valid if it is assumed that the conformation of
pectin during the dissolution process changes from three to two subunits per turn.
Nevertheless, it is unlikely that pectins are extensively cross-linked as indicated by the
egg-box mechanism. This was confirmed by recent investigations (Renard et al., 1993;
Axelos et al., 1991).
Amidated LM-pectins require less calcium for gelling than nonamidated LM-pectins.
Amidated types usually gel in a fruit system without an exogenous source of calcium,
i.e., with the calcium originating from fruit and water. By contrast, nonamidated types
require addition of calcium for proper gelling.
HM-pectins require acidic conditions (pH 2.0 to 3.5) and the presence of soluble
solids measured as sucrose by refractometry of at least 55% for gelation. It has been
suggested that the gelation mechanism relies on intermolecular hydrogen bonds and
hydrophobic interactions between methyl ester groups (Walkinshaw and Arnott, 1981).
Parallel polygalacturonan chains are packed in a hexagonal lattice with columns of methyl
groups arranged in the interstices.
It has been verified that the galacturonan backbone is occasionally interrupted by the
insertion of a-(1,2)-linked L-rhamnose residues. The rhamnose insertions provide kinks
in the molecular chain which restrict the formation of potential junction zones. Powell
and co-workers (1982) have suggested an even distribution of rhamnose insertions with
a length of polygalacturonate sequences between rhamnose insertions of approximately
20 to 30 residues. By contrast, de Vries and co-workers (1982) have suggested a model
which consists of a long homogalacturonan chain intercepted by a few relatively short
hairy regions containing all rhamnose insertions and neutral sugar side chains, i.e.,
galactose, glucose, arabinose, xylose. The amount of neutral sugars is approximately 5
to 10% of the amount of galacturonic acid.
Figure 7C.2 Particle size of SLENDID 100 wet preparation at 3.72% vs. pressure after a
single stage homogenization.
For most applications, SLENDID 100 and 110 can simply be added as a dry powder
for gelling and shearing in situ. Premixing of the SLENDID powder with other dry
ingredients in the food recipe such as sugar or starch improves dispersibility. However,
with some food applications such as meat and fish products, a separate sheared water
gel containing more than 95% water is prepared. When separately making up the wet
preparation, usage levels in the range 1.5 to 4.0% are recommended, and the final usage
level in finished food products is in the range of 0.4 to 1.5%.
The viscosity h [Pa s] vs. shear rate g [s 1] of a SLENDID 100 wet preparation at
3.72% before and after homogenization is shown in Figure 7C.3 as a log-log plot. Data
were generated using a Bohlin VOR Rheometer. Both preparations were pseudoplastic,
i.e., exhibiting reduced viscosity with increasing shear rates. With low shear rates, i.e.,
5 to 10 s1, the nonhomogenized sample had a viscosity 4 to 5 times higher (20 to 50
Pa s) than the homogenized sample (5 to 10 Pa s). However, with higher shear rates, the
difference was reduced, the viscosity of the nonhomogenized sample being only twice
that of the homogenized counterpart. SLENDID 110 showed similar trends but the
viscosity was approximately 50% higher.
SLENDID 200, a calcium salt of a HM-pectin, is an instant type of product that
may be added directly to water. The pectin does not dissolve, but rather swells instantly
into big soft particles, with an average particle size greater than 250 m. Due to the very
soft nature of the swollen particles, the original particle size is significantly reduced
during food processing. The viscosity of a range of SLENDID 200 concentrations is
depicted in Figure 7C.4. The figure illustrates that at very low concentrations, SLENDID
200 exhibits near-Newtonian behavior whereas at high concentrations, pseudoplastic behavior becomes predominant. The recommended usage level of SLENDID 200 is 0.3 to 0.8%.
Figure 7C.3 Viscosity vs. shear rate of SLENDID 100 wet preparation at 3.72% before and
after a two-stage homogenization (150/50 bar).
Figure 7C.4 Viscosity vs. shear rate for a range of SLENDID 200 concentrations.
7C.5.1 SPREADS
Traditional oil-continuous products for spreading contain 80% fat. When lowering the
fat content, it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain the original water-in-oil emulsion. Therefore, aqueous phase stabilizers are often added to the water phase in order to
maintain a continuous oil phase (Wilbey, 1988). The most commonly used stabilizers in
low fat spreads are milk proteins, gelatin, modified starches, carrageenans, and alginates
(Moran, 1991). Other hydrocolloids that may be used include pectin, xanthan, and locust
bean gum. In addition to the thickening and stabilizing effect, the addition of milk solids
may have a just-noticeable destabilizing effect on the water-in-oil emulsion leading to
easier phase inversion in the oral cavity.
Ingredients
Oil phase
Hydrogenated palm oil
Soy oil
Distilled monoglycerides (emulsifier)
Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (emulsifier)
Water phase
Tap water
SLENDID 200
Salt
Total
Content
%
6.4
12.8
0.7
0.1
78.2
0.8
1.0
100.0
From Nielsen, B.U. and Hansen, K.M., Annu. Trans. Nordic Rheol.
Soc., Vol. 2, Copenhagen, 1994, 44. With permission.
Different rheological models have been used for characterizing spreads, e.g., the
Casson Model and the Herschel-Bulkley Model. It has been suggested that conventional
high-fat spreads follow the Casson equation whereas low-fat versions exhibit HerschelBulkley flow behavior (Stern and Cmolik, 1976). Good correlation has been reported
between empirical rheological data and sensory analysis (deMan et al., 1979). It has been
suggested that the yield stress has a range where an optimum spreadability is achieved.
Too high a value results in a hard, difficult-to-spread product, whereas too low a value
results in a soft and destabilized product (Rohm and Raaber, 1991; Diris, 1992).
By applying oscillatory measurements, it is possible to determine the critical shear
stress which may be thought of as being similar to the static yield stress. Stress sweeps
for two spreads prepared according to Table 7C.1 with PGPR and without PGPR added
are shown in Figure 7C.5. From the stress sweep, the critical shear stress, scrit, is determined as the shear stress s where G = 0.9G lin applies, G lin being the linear value of
the storage modulus, G before the onset of deformation. A controlled stress (CS)
rheometer of the type Haake RheoStress RS100 was used for the rheological characterization. For a more detailed discussion of the general principles of rheological analysis,
the reader is referred to Chapter 9. G lin was almost identical for the two spreads, i.e.,
40 to 50 Pa, indicating that the firmness of the spreads was comparable. However, scrit
of a PGPR-containing spread was significantly higher (128 Pa) than for its corresponding
counterpart containing only distilled monoglycerides (52 Pa). Sensory analysis confirmed
that a PGPR-containing spread was more acceptable from a spreading point of view,
Figure 7C.5 G vs. stress for a 20% fat spread stabilized with SLENDID 200 with (0.1%)
and without polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) added. (From Nielsen, B.U. and Hansen, K.M.,
Annu. Trans. Nordic Rheol. Soc., Vol. 2, Copenhagen, 1994, 44. With permission.)
while the spread with no PGPR was unacceptably slippery and understabilized. Additional
information on the use of different emulsifiers in low-fat spreads can be found in
Chapter 10.
Nondestructive rheological measurements have been used to characterize the meltability of low-fat spreads. By applying a temperature ramp, the melting process of the
spreads during consumption was simulated. Figure 7C.6 shows the storage modulus G
and the phase angle d as a function of temperature. It was observed that G declined
drastically at 35 to 40C indicating that a phase inversion had taken place at the temperature of the oral cavity. A perceived melting temperature may be defined as the
temperature where the storage modulus G and the loss modulus G exhibit identical
values, i.e., with the phase angle, d, being 45. Using this definition, a melting temperature of 39C for a SLENDID 200 containing spread was obtained. A similar phase
inversion temperature was found with a commercial 80% fat containing spread (Nielsen
and Hansen, 1994).
Borwankar and co-workers (1992) used a similar approach for characterizing a range
of low-fat spreads and concluded that the perceived meltability of such products correlated with the sensation of flow, i.e., the rheology, and not simply with the melting of
fat. However, the phase angle was not monitored and the melting temperature was defined
arbitrarily as corresponding to a certain value of the complex viscoelastic modulus G*.
The water droplet size in a traditional 80% fat spread is typically below 10 m.
Normally, with lower fat versions, the droplet size increases and the product is therefore
more prone to bacterial contamination. However, microscopic evaluation of a 20% fat
spread stabilized with SLENDID 200 confirmed that the water droplet size was reduced
significantly during spread processing, i.e., from a particle size above 250 m to a particle
size of approximately 25 m.
7C.5.2 MAYONNAISE
Mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion. Traditionally, the oil content is 80%, and the
main ingredients in descending order are: vegetable oil, water, acetic acid, and egg yolk.
The egg yolk provides emulsifying properties and gives the pale yellow color (Holcomb
Figure 7C.6 G and d vs. temperature for a 20% fat spread with SLENDID 200. Phase
inversion temperature was 39C. (From Nielsen, B.U. and Hansen, K.M., Annu. Trans. Nordic
Rheol. Soc., Vol. 2, Copenhagen, 1994, 44. With permission.)
et al., 1990). For preservation purposes, sodium benzoate or potassium sorbate may be
added. Salt and mustard are added optionally. Whereas low-calorie mayonnaise (typically
with 30 to 40% oil) always contains external stabilizers, the full fat (80%) version may
also contain stabilizers in order to increase shelf life stability (Arnell, 1990). Typical
stabilizers are modified starch, alginates, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), locust bean
gum, guar gum, and xanthan. The latter three categories are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 9.
Using SLENDID 100, it is possible to reduce the oil content of a mayonnaise from
80% to 3%. A mayonnaise recipe containing 20% oil is given in Table 7C.2. When
reducing the oil content to 3%, it is recommended that additional external stabilizers,
e.g., xanthan and guar gum, are used. The mayonnaise is prepared according to conventional mayonnaise processing methods. Briefly, the dry ingredients are added to part of
the oil. The water phase is placed in a colloid mill of the Fryma, Koruma, or DixieCharlotte type and the dry mix is added during mixing. The remaining oil is then added
and when the product becomes homogeneous, the egg yolk and acid are added.
The rheological properties of mayonnaise may be described as Bingham plastic or
pseudoplastic with a yield stress (Figoni and Shoemaker, 1983). The Casson equation
which is typically used for characterization of melted chocolate has been found suitable
for estimation of the yield stress of mayonnaise (Lahtinen, 1986; Paredes et al., 1988).
In the literature, yield stress values in the range 40 to 50 Pa have been reported (Lahtinen,
1986). Figure 7C.7 depicts a log-log plot of shear stress vs. shear rate for two SLENDID
100-containing mayonnaises (20 and 3% oil). It is evident that the two mayonnaises
exhibited similar, pseudoplastic flow behavior. Applying the Casson equation to the data
gives yield stress values of 44 Pa and 59 Pa for the mayonnaises containing 20 and 3%
oil, respectively. Commercial mayonnaises with 80 and 40% oil gave similar yield stress
values, i.e., 61 Pa and 72 Pa, respectively.
The oil droplet size in an 80% fat mayonnaise is typically 2 to 5 m. If a mayonnaise
is not properly stabilized, the oil droplets coalesce, and the viscosity is reduced (Sherman,
1983). Accordingly, the stability of a mayonnaise emulsion may be reflected by the mean
diameter of the oil droplet in the dispersed phase. A study conducted with increasing
B
C
D
Ingredients
SLENDID 100
Sugar
Modified starch
Sodium caseinate
Oil
Water, color, flavor, preservative
Egg yolks
Calcium chloride
Salt
Vinegar
Mustard
Total
Content
%
1.20
4.00
3.00
2.00
20.00
57.20
4.00
0.10
1.00
7.00
0.50
100.00
Figure 7C.7 Shear stress vs. shear rate for mayonnaises stabilized with SLENDID 100 and
containing 20% or 3% oil.
addition of SLENDID 200 to a 20% oil mayonnaise has shown that the average median
particle size of the oil droplets was inversely related to the SLENDID 200 concentration,
as shown in Figure 7C.8. A control with no SLENDID added had an average oil droplet
size of approximately 40 m whereas the addition of 0.5% SLENDID resulted in
reduction in the oil droplet size down to approximately 15 m.
7C.5.3 EMULSIFIED MEAT PRODUCTS
Typical emulsified meat products are sausages and pts or meat spreads. Conventional
emulsified meat products contain relatively high amounts of fat, i.e., 25 to 35%. Two
options exist for reducing the fat content in an emulsified meat product: either introduction of an increased amount of lean meat in the recipe or substitution of the fat with
Figure 7C.8 Oil particle size vs. SLENDID 200 use levels for a mayonnaise containing 20% oil.
water. Whereas the first option gives a very firm product, the latter option ensures that the
original succulence is maintained. The choice, however, depends on national preferences.
Using SLENDID 110, it is possible to reduce the fat content in a frankfurter from
25 to 35% to 3 to 5%, as shown in Table 7C.3. When using SLENDID 110 for emulsified
meat products, it is necessary to prepare a separate water gel by homogenization or
similar process. Since the pH in a frankfurter is approximately 5.5 to 6.0, calcium citrate
is the preferred calcium donor salt. Furthermore, carrageenan is added in order to give
optimal texture and good sliceability. A wet preparation of 2.0%, resulting in a final
SLENDID 110 usage level of approximately 0.9%, was found to give optimal texture
characteristics. The matrix is processed according to normal procedures whereby meat
and texturized soy protein are added to a bowl chopper followed by phosphate, nitrite
salts, and half of the wet preparation. This is followed by carrageenan, soy isolate, and
the remaining wet preparation, and finally the starch and ascorbate. The product is cut
until the desired consistency is achieved and is then filled, dried, smoked, and cooked.
Table 7C.3 Use of SLENDID 110 in a Low-Fat
Frankfurter Formulation
Ingredients
Shank meat
Water/ice
Sodium tripolyphosphate
Nitrite salt (sodium chloride with 0.6% sodium nitrite)
Texturized soy protein
Carrageenan (GENUGEL type MB-73)
SLENDID 110 (2% wet preparation)
Soy protein
Sodium ascorbate
Potato starch
Total
Content
%
40.00
6.00
0.50
1.80
1.50
0.50
46.65
1.00
0.05
2.00
100.00
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Chapter
Microparticulated Proteins
as Fat Mimetics
Norman S. Singer
CONTENTS
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
What we are all addressing in this text is the need to resolve one of the powerful
approach-avoidance conflicts which now confronts the western world: enjoyment or
health. Mankind seems to be unique in its treatment of ingestion as a personal pleasure
which when shared, becomes a basis for social communion. We are the only animal that
fusses over the preparation of its food. With the exception of such curiosities as the
delicate precision with which a lobster eats a crab, animals simply ingest their food. For
mankind, it is perhaps the second greatest source of pleasure, and so it has over the
millenia become an art form. At a time when so many other pleasures have so suddenly
become forbidden, we cannot expect the consuming public to easily surrender this one.
The now-familiar message from health care associations urging us to eat a more
healthful, low-fat diet seems to be understood by consumers. Yet, they (we) do not seem
ready to abandon traditional enjoyments. One need only look at the large numbers of
low-fat products on the shelves of supermarkets to appreciate just how strong the consuming publics hope is that they can eat more healthfully without having to resort to a
more primitive diet.
However, this hope works against a powerful counter-current expectation that food
which is good for you probably tastes bad (Drewnowski, 1990a; Rose, 1991). It must
be observed that much of the low-fat food offered to consumers on those shelves can
only reinforce this negative expectation. Further, the recent experiments which have
shown that people can learn to accept a more spartan diet (Mattes, 1993) did not measure
the effect of this regimen upon the panelists estimation of their quality of life. We must
not ignore the fact that globally, food nourishes the soul as well as the body.
The task which confronts the food industry then is nothing less than learning how to
produce, in a low-fat language, the kind of sensory poetry upon which food companies
were founded. This language includes the alphabet of new ingredients which have been
made available to address the very real health concerns of consumers.
The capacity of protein microparticles to confer sensory impressions of fatty emulsions upon fat-free foods was a serendipitous discovery (Singer et al., 1988), which
proved to be the bellwether for the recent food industry campaign against high-fat
contents. Simplesse, the product which arose from that discovery, is made by the
NutraSweet Company. It was the first fat replacer to be affirmed by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) (FDA, 1990).
Figure 8.1 Stability of whey protein microparticles to changes in pH. (From Clark, D. R., Bringe,
N., Bishay, I., and Desai, N., IDF Seminar, Protein and Fat Globule Modification, Munich, August
1992, The NutraSweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission.)
we therefore examine what is known about both smoothness and creaminess, before we
examine how these effects can be achieved by the use of MP3.
It has been reported that people sense smoothness by rubbing food between the tongue
and the palate (Cussler et al., 1979). Wood (1974) had cogently observed that powderiness gave a strong anti-creaminess impression. In this observation, he agrees with
Prentices effort to define terms for the creamy impression (Prentice, 1973). Both of
these investigators point to a combination of the impressions of viscosity and sliminess
as being important in conveying the sense of creaminess.
In later work, Cussler and colleagues (1979) and later, Kokini (1987) proposed that
creaminess is a function of both smoothness and thickness. This would seem to place
them in substantial disagreement with the earlier work. However, they define smoothness
as inversely proportional to the friction force between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth (Cussler et al., 1979). The author of this chapter finds that this definition conveys
more the sense of lubricity (or sliminess) and thus supports the earlier proposals of Wood
(1974) and Prentice (1973). This apparent difference in definitive focus may have arisen
from the fact that Kokinis sensory panelists were reported to have been given the term
smoothness and asked to scale the intensities of the various solutions with which they
were presented (Kokini, 1987).
We have followed the lead of Stevens who demonstrated that smoothness is approximately the inverse of roughness (Stevens and Harris, 1962). These researchers (working
with blind manual assessments of bonded abrasives) found that perceived roughness
increased as a power function of particle size, and that the perception of smoothness was
approximately the inverse of roughness. While this earlier work provided valuable direction, the author of this chapter found two surprising discontinuities in the oral sensing
of particulates (Singer et al., 1988). The first of these relates to smoothness and the
second to the sense of substantialness. These two concepts are discussed in more detail
below.
We found that particles larger than about 3 m in aqueous dispersion are sensed as
powdery, chalky, gritty, etc. (with increasing particle size). In this range, the relationship
between particle size and roughness seems to follow the pattern described by Stevens.
On the other hand, particles smaller than about 2 m are simply not sensed as particles.
Instead, the tongue senses the overall characteristics of the fluid MP3 dispersion as smooth
and rich, which is more typically associated with oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions such as
full-fat mayonnaise. In the realm of food microparticulates, therefore, we have defined
smoothness as the absence of particulate roughness (Singer et al., 1988). For evidence
of this upper discontinuity (sensory threshold), we can compare the scanning electron
micrographs shown in Figures 8.2 a and b. Both specimens consist of acid-cooked whey
protein. The upper specimen represents a product which has been sold for over 30 years
as a nutritional supplement and which has been described as having a gritty mouthfeel.
The lower specimen is Simplesse which is characteristically smooth. The small size
and round shape of Simplesse make possible the creaminess which is so characteristic
of this class of ingredient (Singer, 1992).
Figure 8.2 Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of acid-cooked whey protein demonstrating
the upper threshold of the unique interval. The upper SEM shows a product which has been
sold for over 30 years as a nutritional substitute, and which has been described as gritty. The
lower SEM is of Simplesse which is characteristically smooth. The only differences between
the two are size and shape. (From Singer, N. S., ADPI/CDR Proc. of the Dairy Products Technical
Conference, Chicago, April 2526, 85, 1990. With permission.)
We found that while suspended particles larger than about 0.5 m convey to the taster
an impression which we have called substantialness, dispersions of particles which are
smaller than about 0.1 m impart none of this sense of substance. This proposed term
may be synonymous with the terms body and richness. We believe that consumers
refer to the absence of substantialness as wateriness (Singer, 1992). Experiential
evidence of this lower threshold can be found in the sensory responses to skim milk.
1996 CRC Press LLC
Figure 8.3 Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of skim milk showing the uniformity of
native casein micelles whose size is below the optimal for conveying a sense of substantialness.
(From M. Kalab, Ottawa, Canada. With permission.)
The micelles of casein are predominantly smaller than 0.2 m, as shown in Figure 8.3.
This size is below that which is required for optimal creaminess giving rise to the watery
taste of skim milk, as compared with the rich taste of regular milk (Singer, 1992). Further
experiential evidence is unfortunately readily available in the marketplace in those lowfat foods in which the dispersed phase functions have been overlooked.
Microparticles lying in the narrow range between the two sensory thresholds described
above convey the impression of substantialness without conveying the feeling of particulateness. This combination of sensory properties, termed the unique interval, makes
it possible for the net perception to be interpreted as creaminess (Singer, 1992). These
relationships are graphically represented in Figure 8.4.
In exploring the MP3 phenomenon, we tasted and microscopically examined dispersions of many foods and other materials, as discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
In the course of these explorations, we observed that even when ultrafine particles fell
within the unique interval but were needle-shaped, rod-shaped, or were characterized by
angular surface topology, they would not flow smoothly in the crucial tongue/palate test,
but tended to pack into log jams, whereupon they were sensed as much larger masses.
Even though transient, this impression was unpleasant, and distinctly foreign to creamy
foods, and so the illusion of creaminess could not be established. We therefore generalized
from these experiences that, to be effective in fat substitution, MP3 could not depart from
the spheroidal (Civille, 1990; Singer, 1992).
8.4.3 THE RHEOLOGY OF CREAMINESS
Some pioneering efforts in the rheological characterization of creaminess have been
reported recently (Bishay and Clark, 1994; Clark et al., 1992). In this work, illustrated
in Figure 8.5, it has been demonstrated that dispersions of MP3 paralleled the rheological
character of a classical emulsion (whipping cream) very closely. All of the products
tested had been prepared according to manufacturers instructions and were presented
for testing at their recommended usage levels. Where the manufacturer had recommended
a range of concentrations, the median value was used. The shapes of the flow curves in
Figure 8.5 are more revealing of rheological character than the magnitudes of the curves.
Figure 8.4 Graphical representation of the unique interval, the fortuitous span between the
two oral sensory discontinuities which define the relationship between microparticulate size and
sensory impression. (From Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 388, 1990a.
With permission.)
The shape of the flow curve for whipping cream, used as a standard for creamy rheology,
showed that it flowed smoothly even at the lowest shear rates and that it thinned with
increasing shear rate. The Simplesse sample behaved in a similar way. By contrast, a
variety of gum and starch products which are being promoted as fat replacers (including
the colloidal microcrystalline cellulose Avicel CL611 [see Chapter 7A]; the potato
maltodextrin Paselli SA2 [see Chapter 6B]; and the oat maltodextrin/ -glucan Oatrim
3) deviated from this behavior. The shapes of the flow curves of all the fat replacers
other than Simplesse suggested that they may be very useful in controlling water, but
that they could not simulate creaminess (Figure 8.5).
8.4.4 MICROPARTICULATE CONCENTRATION
It should be obvious to anyone skilled in the art (and who has read this far) that one or
two MP3/cc are not enough to generate a creamy impression any better than would be
a few globules of fat/cc. While the actual concentration required in any application needs
to be determined on a case-by-case basis, the number of microparticles required to create
the effect is typically in the order of 107 to 109/cc. The very large numbers of microparticles contained in Simplesse allow relatively small amounts of protein to replace
relatively larger amounts of fat (Singer, 1992).
To summarize the effects of the dispersed phase, we have seen that the size, shape,
uniformity, and concentration, as well as the nonaggregated nature of these particles are
characteristics which, working together, enable these particles to replace fat as the
dispersed phase of o/w emulsion products (Singer and Dunn, 1990b). While other
Figure 8.5 Rheological comparison of the shapes of the flow curves of whipping cream,
Simplesse, and four commercial fat replacers or fat-sparing ingredients. (From Clark, D. R.,
Bringe, N., Bishay, I., and Desai, N., IDF Seminar, Protein and Fat Globule Modification, Munich,
August 1992, The Nutrasweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission).
properties of MP3 have also been identified which contribute to their effectiveness in
replacing fat in foods, they cannot be disclosed at this time.
8.4.5 MICROSTRUCTURE OF MP3
The microstructure of MP3 has been intensively examined by means of light microscopy,
electron microscopy (both scanning and transmission EM), immunogold staining (Singer
and Dunn, 1990a) and more recently by means of atomic force microscopy, as exemplified
in Figure 8.6 (Bringe and Clark, 1993). Of all the microscopic techniques, the latter
entails the least risk of artifactual distortion. The findings of all of these techniques agree
that the MP3 in Simplesse are spheroidal aggregations of protein molecules which are
uniform in size and which are themselves not further aggregated.
While the techniques of scanning and transmission electron microscopy have been
used to examine the ultrastructure of food products for more than three decades, the first
formal examination of the microparticulate state in a range of foods was reported in
1990 by Kalab. Kalabs investigation revealed that a considerable variety of fine particles
can be found in conventional foods (Kalab, 1990). The fine structure of meat, for example,
is composed of microfibrils of myosin. Mammalian milks contain an abundance of casein
in micellar form (Figure 8.3). In leguminous seeds, the storage protein is commonly
found in the form of protein bodies. The form of these fine particles may change when
the foods which contain them are processed prior to consumption. For example, when
meat is processed to form a hot dog (frankfurter), the fibrils aggregate into a globular
form, embedded in a reticulum characteristic of gels. The textural variety of dairy foods
can be seen to arise at least in part from the extent and nature of aggregation of the
casein micelles. In yogurt, the micelles of casein can be seen to be connected in a tenuous
network which correlates well with the tender gel which characterizes this product
(Figure 8.7), while in cream cheese, which is much firmer, the casein micelle network
is more substantial. In addition, the micelles in cream cheese can be seen to be concentrated
Figure 8.6 Atomic force micrographs of MP3 (Simplesse) showing their spheroidal form.
(From The Nutrasweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission.)
in the membranes around the abundant fat globules. In ripened cheeses like cheddar, the
casein micelles have completely lost their identity, their constituent protein molecules
having aggregated into a plastic continuum (Figure 8.8). From this we can see that
aggregations of fine particles underlie many familiar food textures. In contrast to these
fine particulate structures, MP3 are uniformly spheroidal, of a strikingly narrow size range
(about 1 m in diameter) and entirely unconnected, as shown in Figure 8.9 (Dunn, 1989).
We can conclude from Kalabs report (1990) that while microparticulated proteins
occur naturally in foods, they are not found in the necessary size, shape, and abundance
to function as fat mimetics. Another study of the structure and function of protein
microparticulates further supported the earlier empirical finding that the size and shape
of the particles were essential in providing fat-like mouthfeel (Civille, 1990).
Figure 8.7 Scanning electron micrograph of yogurt showing the extensive reticular matrix
which connects essentailly all of the casein micelles and which is responsible for the characteristic texture of the unstirred product. (From M. Kalab, Ottawa, Canada. With permission.)
Figure 8.8 Transmission electron micrograph of a low-fat cheddar cheese prepared with Simplesse and aged for 6 weeks showing the amorphous continuum into which the casein micelles
have formed by the cheesemaking process. The intact and separate identity of MP3 which serve
as a surrogate dispersed phase replacing butterfat globules is also shown. (From The Nutrasweet
Co. Deerfield, IL. With permission.)
One of the most daunting challenges in fat replacement is replication of the flavors
of the traditional high-fat products. We have become accustomed to not only the specific
flavors of certain fats in our foods, but to the shape of the flavors arising from fatty
foods. Take away the fat, and the flavor changes. The new flavor profile, being different,
is frequently disappointing. Although the flavor industry has responded well to this
problem, the flavor of many low-fat foods remains disappointing (Drewnowski, 1990b).
1996 CRC Press LLC
Figure 8.9 Light micrograph showing MP3 (Simplesse) at a concentration of 1.5% in water
(before deposition) and demonstrating size, shape, uniformity, and the individual or unconnected
nature of the microparticles. (From Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 9, 388,
1990a. With permission.)
A tool which should not be overlooked in the quest for a realistic flavor profile in
low-fat foods is the way in which the chemistry of a fat substitute itself causes it to
interact with flavoring materials. Two studies out of a series conducted by Gary Reineccius at the University of Minnesota (Schirle-Keller et al., 1992; Schirle-Keller et al.,
1994 [see also Chapter 4, Section 4.6.4 for additional details on this work]) and described
by Clark (1994) in the context of further work (Reineccius, 1994) can serve as a Rosetta
stone. The data presented in Figure 8.10 is a compilation of the above studies as presented
by Clark (1994) and shows interactions between pairs of model systems: a model flavor
system and a model fat/fat replacer system. The model flavor system consisted of a 0.5%
solution of members of a homologous series of aldehyde aroma compounds in propylene
glycol. The model fat/fat replacer system consisted of water in which lipid (corn oil) or
a fat replacer and emulsifier (Tween 60 at 0.5%) were thoroughly distributed. A control
was prepared in which water replaced the fat or the fat replacer. The fat replacers studied
included Simplesse 100 at 5%, Simplesse 300 at 10% (to achieve the same protein
levels as with Simplesse 100), Slendid at 2% (level of addition constrained by very
high viscosity), Stellar at 5%, Oatrim at 5% and Paselli SA2 at 5%. The model flavor
system was presented to the model fat/fat replacer system at a level of 2% and mixed
by hand. Aliquots of this mixture were then transferred to headspace vials and stored at
4C for subsequent testing. It can be seen from Figure 8.10 that as the aldehyde chain
Figure 8.10 Interaction of a series of flavors (aliphatic aldehydes) with a group of commercial
fat replacers. A corn oil emulsion was used as reference. (From data compiled by Clark (1994),
The Nutrasweet Co., Deerfield, IL. With permission.)
length increased, the two MP3 ingredients (Simplesse 100 and Simplesse 300) behaved
more like the corn oil emulsion than the carbohydrate-based fat replacers. From this, we
would expect the flavor arising from the use of Simplesse to be more fat-like than that
obtained from the use of the carbohydrate-based fat replacers examined, assuming that
no other remedial steps are taken.
Figure 8.11 Transmission electron micrographs of full-fat ice cream (left) and a fat-free ice
cream made with Simplesse (MP3, right), demonstrating how MP3 can be used as a surrogate
dispersed phase to replace the fat globules (F). (From Singer, N. S. and Dunn, J. M., J. Am.
Coll. Nutr., 9, 388, 1990a. With permission.)
prepared from whey protein concentrate with no adjuvants was approved by the FDA in
August 1991 for use in a wide range of food applications. Labeling for the latter, more
popular version of Simplesse is easily accomplished since it conforms to the U.S.
Standard of Identity for whey protein concentrate and can be so labeled. The legislative
and labeling position of Simplesse is similar in Europe and the reader is referred to
Chapter 5 for a more detailed discussion of some of the specific European issues involved
in its approval for use in foods.
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5, 12, 1994.
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Chapter
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The term hydrocolloid can be used to describe many constituent components of plants
and animals, and basically covers the whole range of polymeric materials occurring
naturally. Of these, proteins and polysaccharides are traditionally the type of molecules
considered as food hydrocolloids, and these long-chain biopolymer molecules have
played a significant role in foodstuffs since ancient times on account of their texturizing
and water-structuring properties.
Historically, the utilization of food hydrocolloids such as gelatin, plant exudates, and
starches dates back hundreds, if not thousands, of years and, indeed, for many of the
exudates, the basic processes for their production and collection are similar to those used
centuries ago. However, only with the development of the processed food industry over
the last century has the commercialization of food hydrocolloids as food ingredients in
their own right been witnessed. Other sources of polysaccharide gums have also been
developed in particular, land and marine plants in which the polysaccharide represents
the reserve carbohydrate for the system and, in more recent years, biosynthetic gums
produced via fermentation by microorganisms.
The use of hydrocolloid gums in processed foods has traditionally been primarily as
thickeners and gelling agents as a result of their ability to alter significantly the rheological properties of the solvent in which they are dissolved, even when used at very
low concentrations. These viscosity-modifying effects occur as a result of the highmolecular-weight polymeric nature of hydrocolloids and the interactions that can occur
between polymer chains when hydrocolloids are dissolved or dispersed.
Considering the significant effects that food hydrocolloids can bring to the texture of
a food product, it is not surprising that they have a role to play in fat-reduced products
in which just the simple removal of fat, almost without exception, results in products
with perceived inferior textural qualities, compared with their higher-fat counterparts.
Indeed, all of the tailor-made fat mimetics discussed elsewhere in this book can be
categorized as food hydrocolloids, and it is the processing to which the hydrocolloid has
been subjected or its combination with other food ingredients that gives rise to the specific
fat-replacing properties of each of the fat mimetics.
In this chapter, the role of hydrocolloids, other than those specifically designed as fat
mimetics, is discussed. The large number of food hydrocolloid systems available to the
food technologist means that it would be impossible to discuss all the hydrocolloids in
a chapter of this size. Consequently, the chapter is written so as to give a basic understanding of the functional properties of food hydrocolloids in food products, following
which three hydrocolloids, locust bean gum, guar gum, and xanthan gum, are discussed
in detail with reference to their functionality in fat replacement.
Figure 9.1 Schematic diagram of polymer coils in solution illustrating (a) dilute solution conditions where the polymer coils are free to move independently (c<c*), (b) the onset of coil
overlap (c = c*) and (c) concentrated solution conditions in which there is an entangled polymer
network (c>c*).
1991). At polymer concentrations below c*, the zero-shear viscosity (0) increases more
or less linearly with increasing concentration (a double logarithmic plot of 0 vs. c would
typically have a slope of approximately 1.3 over this range). However, above c* the slope
of the plot is typically around 3.3 and, hence, a slight increase in polymer concentration
has a dramatic effect on viscosity above c*.
The critical concentration at the onset of coil overlap is inversely related to the size
of the individual coils (i.e., their hydrodynamic volume), which can be characterized
experimentally by the intrinsic viscosity, [], of the polymer. The molecular weight, the
flexibility of polymer chains, and the amount of bound water associated with polymers
determine, to a large extent, the hydrodynamic volume of polymer coils and hence their
viscosifying properties.
Although the type of hydrocolloid (i.e., chemical structure, molecular weight, flexibility, etc.) controls the viscosity of a given solution of the hydrocolloid by determining
the hydrodynamic dimensions of the polymer coil, the dependency of viscosity on the
extent of space occupancy by the polymer, which can be characterized by c[] (i.e., c
is proportional to the number of coils and [] to the hydrodynamic volume), has been
shown to have a general form for many different hydrocolloids (Morris et al., 1981).
This is illustrated in Figure 9.2, where the logarithm of the zero-shear specific viscosity
(sp) is plotted against the logarithm of c[] for a number of different hydrocolloids. A
sharp increase in the concentration dependency of viscosity is seen at c* (where the
viscosity is about ten times that of water and c[] 4).
For model systems containing one hydrocolloid only, any hydrocolloid could thus be
used to give the same final solution viscosity, providing the concentration of the hydrocolloid is correct. However, real food systems are not model hydrocolloid solutions but
a complex matrix of different compounds with different physical structures, ionic
strengths, pH values, etc. Consequently, when choosing the correct thickening agent for
any particular food application, the food technologist must take this into account; factors
such as interactions between hydrocolloids (be they synergistic or antagonistic), required
concentration to give the desired viscosity and cost also have a role to play in determining
the final choice of the hydrocolloid system(s) to be used.
The general viscosity/concentration plot illustrated in Figure 9.2 applies to the zeroshear viscosities of hydrocolloid solutions, which is an index of the initial resistance to
flow of the system. For solutions of small molecules, such as sucrose, viscosity, h, is
independent of the shear rate ( ) at which it is measured and solutions such as this are
described as possessing ideal (or Newtonian) behavior. Hydrocolloids, on the other hand,
deviate vastly from Newtonian behavior in terms of their shear rate dependency of
viscosity, and usually show a marked reduction in viscosity as the shear-rate of measurement is increased. The extent of this shear-rate dependency of viscosity (shearthinning behavior) is a function of the concentration of the polymer in solution. At
concentrations below the coil overlap concentration, c*, polymer chains are essentially
free to move independently through the solvent and the viscosity shows only a slight
dependency on the shear rate of measurement (typically less than 30% over several
decades of ). For these dilute hydrocolloid solutions, the shear-thinning behavior arises
as a result of individual polymer coils being stretched out under the influence of flow
and consequently offering less resistance to movement (i.e., lower viscosity) (Morris,
1990a; Dickenson, 1992). As the concentration of a hydrocolloid solution increases above
c*, the shear-rate dependency of the viscosity increases significantly, and typically a drop
of several orders of magnitude is observed in viscosity over the shear-rate range of
practical importance. When an entangled polymer network is present (i.e., above c*),
application of flow requires that molecules wriggle through the entangled network of
neighboring chains. At low shear rates, this can occur without a significant reduction in
the number of entangled cross-links in the system (i.e., the time scale of disentanglement of the polymer chains caused by application of flow is similar to that of reentanglement between different chains) and viscosity is independent of shear rate at low shear
rates. However, at high shear rates, the rate of disentanglement is greater than that of
reentanglement and, hence, the cross-link density of the system decreases and consequently the viscosity falls. As with the concentration dependency of zero-shear viscosity,
the shear-rate dependency of viscosity for many different random coil hydrocolloids can
also be described in general form (Morris, 1991) by the simple empirical relationship
= 0 /[1 + ( / 1/2) 0.76]
(9.1)
Figure 9.2 Generalized concentration dependence of zero-shear specific viscosity for conformationally disordered random coil polysaccharides (different symbols represent different
polysaccharides). (Reprinted from Morris, E.R., Cutler, A.N., Ross-Murphy, S.N., Rees, D.A.
and Rice, J., Carbohydr. Polym., 1, Concentration and shear rate dependence of viscosity in
random coil polysaccharide solutions, 5, 1981. With kind permission from Elsevier, Science
Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington OX5 1GB, U.K.)
two extremes, the product may be subjected to a host of other shear rates (e.g., during
spreading, on mastication, due to shaking during distribution, etc.) and the role of the food
technologist is to identify suitable hydrocolloids for incorporation into a specific formulation
that gives correct functionality at all stages during the lifetime of the product.
Figure 9.3 Schematic diagram of the polymer network structure of a hydrocolloid gel with
noncovalently bonded ordered junction zones linking the polymer chains into a three-dimensional
network.
Typical examples of the types of conformationally ordered junction zones that exist
in hydrocolloid gels include helical structures such as the coaxial double helices found
in carrageenan and agar gels, the double helical ordered structure of starch, and the
collagen triple helical structure found in gelatin gels (Morris, 1986; Ledward, 1986).
Other types of ordered structures are also found in hydrocolloid gels. In the calciuminduced gels of alginate and pectin (see Chapter 7C), the junction zones are formed by
chain segments locked in a regular zig-zag shape with calcium ions sandwiched in the
spaces between them to balance the negative charges on the polymer (Morris, 1986). For
modified celluloses with a low degree of substitution and galactomannans, the chains
can pack together with ordered ribbon-like structures similar to the fibrillar structure of
insoluble native cellulose, but show some solubility on account of the substituent group
on the main chain periodically disrupting the ordered structure (Morris, 1990a).
In order for a gel structure to be formed, the ordered junction zones must terminate at
some point so that the remaining unordered segments of the polymer chains are free to
participate in other junction zones with other polymer chains and hence build up the threedimensional network structure. Termination of junction zones usually results from a change
in primary structure along the polymer chain. Examples of changes in primary structure that
terminate junction zones include a change from one type of residue to another type in
polysaccharides with block-like character, irregularly spaced side chains, or the presence of
residues that are geometrically incompatible with the ordered packing arrangement.
Although true gelling characteristics are only shown by certain hydrocolloids, it
should be noted that the distinction between a gel and a concentrated hydrocolloid
solution is not always as clear-cut as it might seem and, from the viewpoint of the food
technologist who wishes to utilize the properties of food hydrocolloids to give the correct
rheological properties to the final food product, somewhat irrelevant.
In general, hydrocolloid solutions and gels exhibit viscoelastic behavior (i.e., they
possess both liquid-like and solid-like properties) and the type of behavior that such
systems exhibit depends on the time scale of the process to which they are subjected.
Resolution of the solid-like and liquid-like character of a material can be conveniently
carried out using the technique of mechanical spectroscopy, in which a small oscillatory
deformation is applied to the sample under test (Ross-Murphy, 1984; 1988). The stress
generated by the sample in resisting the applied deformation can be resolved into
components that are in phase and out of phase with the applied deformation. For a
perfect solid, stress increases with the increasing extent of deformation (strain) and
the in-phase stress generated is thus related to the solid-like character of a sample. This
in-phase stress divided by the applied strain gives the modulus, G (known as the storage
or elastic modulus). For a perfect liquid, resistance (stress) increases with increasing
rate of deformation (which for an oscillatory system is maximum at the midpoint of the
oscillation and zero at the extremes) and therefore, the out-of-phase stress divided by
the applied strain gives the modulus, G (known as the loss or viscous modulus), which
is a measure of the liquid-like response of the sample. The two parameters G and G
are dependent on the frequency of the applied oscillation and in the technique of mechanical spectroscopy are measured over a range of frequencies. The ratio of the unresolved
complex modulus G* = (G 2 + G 2)1/2 to the frequency of oscillation ( ) gives a third
useful parameter, the complex dynamic viscosity, *, for characterization of viscoelastic materials.
Typical hydrocolloid gels show mechanical spectra with the form illustrated in
Figure 9.4a. The value of G is substantially higher than that of G , indicating the
predominantly solid-like response of the sample, while both G and G , and hence G*
show little, if any, frequency dependence. The dynamic viscosity ( * = G*/ ) is
inversely proportional to at all frequencies (as G* is essentially frequency-independent)
and hence the slope of the plot of log * against log approaches the theoretical
limiting value of 1.
Figure 9.4 Typical mechanical spectra of hydrocolloid gels and solutions showing the frequency ( ) dependence of G , G and * for (a) a strong gel, (b) a concentrated entangled
random coil polymer solution and (c) a dilute hydrocolloid solution below the onset of polymer
entanglement. (From Morris, E. R., in The Structure, Dynamics and Equilibrium Properties of
Colloidal Systems, Bloor, D. M. and Wyn-Jones, E., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The
Netherlands, 1990, 449. Reprinted with permission of Kluwer Academic Publishers.)
9.3 GALACTOMANNANS
Plant seeds are a useful source of polysaccharides with gum-like properties, and of this
type of polysaccharide, the family known as the galactomannans are the most widely
used industrially. The three main galactomannan gums are guar gum, locust bean gum,
and tara gum, but only the former two are extensively utilized, with tara gum not
commercially exploited at present, and not approved for food applications (Glicksman,
1986).
The use of locust bean gum dates back thousands of years, to when it was used in
the process of mummification in ancient Egypt. Since that time, locust beans have been
used as a food source, with exploitation of the functional hydrocolloid properties of
locust bean gum by the processed food industry occurring over the last century. Locust
bean gum is the common name applied to the gum found in the seeds of the carob tree
(Ceratonia siliqua) and is, therefore, also sometimes referred to as carob gum. The carob
tree grows extensively throughout the Mediterranean region and the dark brown locust
bean pod (which contains several seeds from which locust bean gum is separated) is
harvested annually (Seaman, 1980a).
In contrast to locust bean gum, guar gum was introduced more recently to the Western
world, as a result of a search aimed at finding replacements for other gums that became
unavailable during the course of the second World War. However, commercialization of
guar gum was very rapid after the war and its use as an industrial hydrocolloid now
significantly outweighs that of locust bean gum (Glicksman, 1986). Guar gum is found
in the seeds of two annual leguminous plants (Cyamposis tetragonolobus and psoraloides), which were traditionally harvested by hand in India and Pakistan. In the last 40
years, however, guar gum has established itself as a commercially viable crop suitable
for modern mechanical farm technology (Seaman, 1980b).
The production of locust bean gum and guar gum consists of a series of crushing,
sifting, and grinding steps designed to separate the seeds from the pod and then the gum
from the seeds. The gum is contained in the endosperm of the seed, with the endosperm
making up 42 to 46% of the seed weight in locust bean gum (Seaman, 1980a) and 35
to 42% of the seed weight in guar gum (Seaman, 1980b).
9.3.1 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Galactomannans are polysaccharides whose monomeric building blocks are composed
of galactose and mannose. Both guar gum and locust bean gum have a chemical structure
composed of a linear chain of 1,4 linked -D-mannose with single-membered a-D-galactose
units occurring as side branches, linked 1,6 with the main mannan chain (Figure 9.5).
The two gums differ in their ratio of mannose to galactose (M:G ratio) and in the positions
of the galactose side branches on the main polymer chain. Guar gum, which typically
has an M:G ratio of around 1.5 to 2 (Glicksman, 1986), is considered to possess an
almost alternating copolymer structure, with a galactose side-chain residue occurring
approximately every other mannose residue, the galactose residues thus being evenly
spaced along the length of the mannan chain. Locust bean gum, on the other hand, has
a less highly substituted structure, with an M:G ratio of approximately 3.5. For locust
bean gum, it is now generally considered that there are regions of galactose-substituted
and unsubstituted mannan blocks along the polymer chain, but the number of residues
in these blocks varies between samples (Morris, 1990b). The molecular weights of the
two gums have been reported as being 310,000 (Herald, 1986a) for locust bean gum and
220,000 (Herald, 1986b) for guar gum. However, as with all gums, the molecular weights
are polydisperse and are influenced by external factors such as climatic conditions during
crop growth, botanical source, etc.
Figure 9.5 Primary repeating structure of galactomannans, showing the 1,4 linked Dmannose main chain with 1,6 linked
D galactose side branches. In locust bean gum, approximately 1 in 4 of the mannose units are substituted with galactose, while in guar gum,
approximately 1 in 2 of the mannose units are substituted with galactose.
polysaccharide thickeners. However, there is evidence in locust bean gums with low
galactose content (e.g., M:G = 4.5) for gradual renaturation of interchain association
with time, resulting in a tenuous, gel-like structure in concentrated solutions stored at
ambient temperature for several days (Morris, 1990b). The renaturation process is accelerated at low temperatures and particularly by freeze/thaw cycles (Dea et al., 1977). At
concentrations below those at which the gel-like structure is formed, freezing and thawing
results in selective precipitation of the least substituted polymer chains and can therefore
be used as a locust bean gum fractionation method.
The main functional properties of locust bean gum when in solution arise as a result
of its water-thickening capacity, and indeed locust bean gum is one of the most efficient
hydrocolloid thickeners. When in solution, the polymer chains in locust bean gum exist
in typical disordered random coil conformation, and the general shape of a viscosity/concentration plot is similar to that expected for such systems. However, for locust bean
gum, a plot of zero-shear specific viscosity (sp) against the coil-overlap parameter c
[] does not superimpose on the general curve (Figure 9.2) expected for typical random
coil polymer solutions. The transition from dilute solution behavior to concentrated
solution behavior (c* transition) for locust bean gum occurs at a lower degree of space
occupancy that for other random coil polymers (i.e., c* occurs at c [] 2.5 for locust
bean gum, but generally for random coil polymers occurs at c[] 4). Furthermore, for
locust bean gum, the viscosity at concentrations above c* is approximately proportional
to c4, whereas for typical random coil polymers the viscosity is approximately proportional to c3.3. Below c*, however, the concentration dependency of viscosity is the same
for locust bean gum as for other random coil polymers. The increased dependency of
viscosity on concentration above c* for locust bean gum is interpreted as occurring as
a result of normal polymer entanglements being augumented by chain-chain associations
(similar to those in the solid state) at concentrations where polymer chains overlap (i.e.,
at concentrations above c*) (Morris, 1990b). From the point of view of the food technologist, the higher concentration dependency of viscosity of locust bean gum compared
with other random coil thickeners is an advantage in that lower concentrations of locust
bean gum can be used to give the same viscosity.
In terms of response to shear, solutions of locust bean gum have zero yield values
(i.e., they flow as soon as the slightest shear force is applied). Solutions are thus predominantly liquid-like in terms of their rheological characteristics although, at high
concentration (2 to 3%), the high viscosities of locust bean gum solutions give them an
almost gel-like appearance (Seaman, 1980a). Locust bean gum solutions behave as typical
random coil hydrocolloids under the influence of shear, being pseudoplastic, with an
initial shear-rate-independent plateau in shear rate vs. viscosity curves, followed by a
rapid decrease in viscosity with further increase in shear rate. Unlike the concentration
dependency of viscosity, the shear-rate dependency of viscosity of locust bean gum
solutions is typical of random coil hydrocolloids and the viscosity against shear rate
curve can be fitted using the generalized equation given earlier.
Various external factors can cause locust bean gum solutions to be irreversibly
degraded, with an associated loss of viscosity, as indeed is the case for most hydrocolloids. Prolonged heating at elevated temperatures and high rates of shear (with the extent
of structure breakdown depending on the degree of shear and the time over which it is
applied) are two obvious factors that can cause degradation and therefore must be
considered by the food technologist when utilizing locust bean gum in any particular
product application. The reduction in viscosity as a result of both heating and application
of shear is a consequence of cleavage of the polymer chains and hence a lower average
molecular weight.
Locust bean gum, being a neutral polysaccharide, gives solutions whose viscosities
are not significantly affected by salts commonly used in the food industry. The polymer
is also stable over a fairly large pH range, from pH 3.5 to 11.0 (Herald, 1986a). Above
and below these pH values, hydrolysis of the polymer takes place, resulting in a reduction
in molecular weight and hence viscosity of solutions.
The interaction of locust bean gum with other polysaccharides such as carrageenan
and particularly xanthan gum is exploited by the food industry. When locust bean gum
and xanthan gum are heated together, a solution with a viscosity higher than would be
obtained from either of the individual gums is obtained. Furthermore, providing the gum
concentrations are high enough, the solution gels on cooling to give thermoreversible
gels. The molecular origin of these synergistic viscosity and gelling effects are discussed
later in the section on xanthan gum.
9.3.2.2 Guar Gum
The solid state of guar gum is basically the same as that of locust bean gum. In contrast
to locust bean gum, guar gum dissolves at temperatures in the region of 25 to 40C with
stirring, and this solubility at lower temperatures occurs as a result of the lower M:G
ratio in guar gum (Morris, 1990b). The lower M:G ratio in guar gum and the more even
distribution of galactose residues along the mannan backbone mean that there are fewer
galactose-deficient segments in the polymer chain, hence fewer intermolecular interactions between them and consequently, less heat required for solubilization of the polymer.
The viscosity behavior of guar gum solutions is similar to that of locust bean gum
solutions. Typical random-coil-like behavior is observed below the onset of coil overlap
but the transition from dilute solution behavior to concentrated solution behavior (c*)
occurs at a lower degree of space occupancy (c[] 2.5), while the concentration
dependency of viscosity above c* is greater than expected for typical random coil
polymers. Unlike locust bean gum which has a significantly higher M:G ratio, there is
little evidence for any renaturation of intermolecular structure on aging guar gum solutions. Guar gum solutions have zero yield values and their behavior under shear is
typically random-coil-like, being pseudoplastic and showing the same general shear-rate
dependency of viscosity as locust bean gum and other random coil hydrocolloids.
As with locust bean gum, the main functional properties of guar gum arise as a result
of its highly efficient thickening properties and water-binding capacity. In most applications, guar gum is utilized at concentrations below 1%, and at concentrations above this,
solutions of guar gum, although still possessing zero yield value, have an almost gellike appearance due to their high viscosity and viscoelastic properties (Seaman, 1980b).
Figure 9.6 shows the mechanical spectra of guar gum solutions at different concentrations. At low frequencies of oscillation and low concentrations, the response of the guar
gum solution is predominantly liquid-like (i.e., G G ) but, with increasing frequency
of oscillation and concentration, the mechanical spectrum indicates a more solid-like
response (i.e., G > G ). This crossover from predominantly liquid-like behavior to
predominantly solid-like behavior is typical of concentrated solutions of random coil
hydrocolloids, and as discussed earlier, has its origins in the inability of an entangled
network of polymer chains to disentangle within the time scale of an oscillation.
The effects of salts and pH on the viscosities of guar gum solutions are primarily the
same as for locust bean gum solutions, with typical salts used in the food industry having
little effect. The viscosities of guar gum solutions are reasonably stable between pH 3.5
and pH 9.0 (Herald, 1986b). The pH, however, does affect the rate of hydration of guar
gum, with the maximum hydration rate occurring at a pH of about 8. As with locust
bean gum, the effect of high shear rates and prolonged exposure to high temperatures
can cause irreversible degradation of guar gum with the associated reduction in solution
Figure 9.6 Frequency dependence of G (filled symbols) and G (open symbols) for guar gum
solutions at different concentrations (1%, 2% and 3%). (Reprinted from, Robinson, G., Morris,
E.R. and Ross- Murphy, S.B., Carbohydr. Res., 107, Viscosity-molecular weight relationships,
intrinsic chain flexibility and dynamic solution properties of guar galactomannan, 17, 1982. With
permission from Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam Publishing Division, Sara Burgerhartstraat
25, 1055 KV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.)
viscosity as a consequence of polymer chain cleavage. Guar gum also shows synergistic
effects with other food hydrocolloids such as carrageenan and xanthan but, unlike locust
bean gum, guar gum does not interact with xanthan gum to give thermoreversible gels,
but gives only a synergistic viscosity increase (Morris, 1990b).
9.3.3 APPLICATIONS IN LOW-FAT FOODS
The galactomannans, although not direct replacers for fats, are frequently used as tools
in formulating reduced- and low-fat food products, where their main function is to imbibe
water and control viscosity (Anon., 1991; Setser and Racette, 1992; Haumann, 1986).
Their basic functional role in low-fat foods is, therefore, to a large extent the same as
in traditional higher-fat products, but since low-fat products frequently contain significantly larger amounts of water than their higher-fat counterparts, the water stabilizing
properties of hydrocolloids become increasingly important as the fat level is reduced.
It has been suggested (Glicksman, 1991) that a three-ingredient system is necessary
for a good fat mimetic: (1) a thickening agent for lubricity and flow control; (2) a soluble
bulking agent for control of adsorption/absoption of the food onto the taste receptors of
the tongue; and (3) a microparticulate to give the smoothness of the fat. Of these, the
galactomannans fall into the first category and they are often used in low-fat formulations
in conjunction with other ingredients possessing fat-replacing properties. Indeed, many
second-generation fat mimetics are blends composed of a number of ingredients, each
bringing its own functionality to the system, and these frequently contain either locust
bean gum or guar gum as one of the functional ingredients (see for example Novagel,
a colloidal microcrystalline cellulose product containing 10 to 15% guar gum, described
in Chapter 7A). Traditionally, the galactomannans have found application in food products such as frozen desserts, cultured dairy products, bakery products, and sauces and
dressings, all of which now have low-fat versions in which the galactomannans have a
functional role to play.
The functional role of locust bean gum as a stabilizer in low-fat ice cream is the same
as in a standard-fat ice cream. Once dissolved in the ice cream mix, locust bean gum
produces a uniform viscosity which is relatively independent of temperature, while at
the same time binding large amounts of water. During processing, the presence of locust
bean gum promotes a fine ice-crystal structure in the ice cream, giving a short, smooth
texture. The low temperature dependency of viscosity of locust bean gum gives the ice
cream good heat-shock stability, with the locust bean gum maintaining the small icecrystal structure during periods of temperature fluctuation during storage (Herald, 1986a;
Setser and Racette, 1992).
Similarly, guar gum can be used as a stabilizer in low-fat ice creams, but unlike locust
bean gum, it gives an ice cream with increased body and chewiness. These differences
in final product texture obtained by using different stabilizers give the food technologist
a method of creating different ice cream textures simply by varying the relative amounts
of locust bean gum and guar gum in the formulation. In low-fat ice cream, the presence
of a tailor-made fat mimetic in the formulation helps to give perceived fat-like properties
(e.g., creamy mouthfeel) to the ice cream, but without the galactomanannan stabilizer
controlling ice and sugar crystal growth and stabilizing and binding the excess water,
the product would be of a far inferior quality.
Another product type in which galactomannans have been traditionally utilized for
their stabilizing properties are soft cheese type products and, here again, the reduced-fat
versions make use of the good water-binding capacities of the galactomannans to prevent
syneresis or weeping. In this type of product, locust bean gum in particular gives a unique
desirable texture believed to be a result of complex formation of the locust bean gum
with milk casein polymers (Herald, 1986a). Other ingredients, including other gums and
fat mimetics, can be added to improve the textures of reduced-fat cheeses, making them
more like the full-fat versions, but galactomannans, particularly locust bean gum, are the
major stabilizers used in this type of product.
Galactomannans also play a significant role in bakery products. This is because the
galactomannans can pick up and hold water even through the baking process, thereby
giving the low-fat product the softness and moistness associated with higher fat products
(Anon., 1991). The incorporation of guar gum and locust bean gum into bakery products
also provides an even crumb expansion as the product bakes, while the effect of guar
gum on the viscosity of the aqueous phase helps to enhance the foam stability of cake
batters (Glicksman, 1991). Consequently, low-fat bakery products stabilized by hydrocolloids possess larger volumes and finer, more uniform cell structure, similar to those
of the traditional higher fat products.
three distinct types of polysaccharides: extracellular polysaccharides, structural polysaccharides, and intracellular storage polysaccharides. The extracellular polysaccharides
(which can be found as discrete capsules surrounding the microbial cell or secreted as
an amorphous slime into the surrounding medium) have been identified as possessing
unique and functional hydrocolloid properties (Glicksman, 1982). The extracellular
polysaccharides secreted are often complex in terms of their primary structure compared
with more traditional gums such as galactomannans, and this frequently results in their
possessing novel solution and gelling properties. Indeed, it is the novel rheological
behavior of xanthan solutions that has made the commercialization of xanthan gum such
a success.
Xanthan is an extracellular polysaccharide from the microorganism Xanthomonas
campestris, an organism originally isolated from the rutabaga plant, a member of the
cabbage family. It was first isolated during an intensive screening program at the USDA
Northern Regional Research Laboatory in Peoria in the late 1950s (Morris, 1990b). By
1964, commercial production of xanthan gum had begun. Authorization for the use of
xanthan gum in food was granted by the Food and Drug Administration in 1969 following
extensive animal feeding trials and, since this date, the functional properties of xanthan
gum have been widely utilized in a whole range of different food product types (Pettitt,
1982).
Current commercial production of xanthan gum is by large-scale aerobic fermentation.
During fermentation it is necesary to maintain the pH within the range 6.0 to 7.5; if the
pH is allowed to fall below a critical point of about 5.0, gum production either decreases
sharply or ceases (Pettitt, 1982). Once fermentation is complete, the broth is pasteurized,
followed by precipitation with isopropyl alcohol, drying, and milling to the desired
particle size distributions.
9.4.1 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Xanthan is composed of pentasaccharide repeating units as shown in Figure 9.7. The
main polymer chain is composed of 1,4 linked -D-glucose units (as in cellulose), but
alternate residues on the backbone are substituted with a charged trisaccharide group
linked 1,3 with the main chain, thus giving the pentasaccharide repeat unit. The trisaccharide side branches are composed of two mannose units and a glucuronic acid unit,
with the glucuronic acid unit being sandwiched between the two mannose units. The
terminal -D-mannose unit in the side chain is glycosidically linked to the 4-position of
-D-glucuronic acid, which in turn is glycosidically linked to the 2-position of a-Dmannose. The structure is further complicated by the presence of acetate substituents on
the 6-position of the nonterminal D-mannose unit and by the presence of pyruvate
substituents joined by a ketal linkage to the 4-and 6-positions of the terminal D-mannose
unit in the trisaccharide branch. In normal commercial xanthans, the degree of substitution is usually around 30 to 40% for pyruvate and 60 to 70% for acetate. However, there
can be substantial variations in the extent of substitution within and between chains and,
furthermore, there is also evidence that the number of side branches may be less (by up
to 5%) than that expected from the idealized pentasaccharide repeating unit (Morris,
1990b).
In terms of its conformation in solution, xanthan is different from most other polysaccharide thickeners in that it usually exists as a rigid rod-like conformationally ordered
structure rather than as a random coil (Morris, 1991); this is the reason for the unique
solution and gelling properties of xanthan, which will be discussed later. The ordered
structure of xanthan in the solid state has been determined by X-ray fiber defraction
studies, which show a five-fold helix with a pitch of 4.7 nm (Moorhouse et al., 1977;
Okuyama et al., 1980). Two possible conformational structures have been proposed for
the ordered structure of xanthan: a single helix stabilized by the side branches packing
along the backbone (Moorhouse et al., 1977), and a coaxial double helix in which both
strands have a conformation close to that proposed in the single-helix model (Okuyama
et al., 1980). There is supportive evidence for both models, with kinetic (Norton et al.,
1984) and molecular-weight studies (Milas and Rinaudo, 1979) supporting the single
stranded model, while light-scattering studies indicate that the mass per unit length is
twice that expected for a single xanthan chain and hence support the double-stranded
model (Liu et al., 1987). As yet, therefore, the exact conformation in solution remains
unresolved.
9.4.2 PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
In contrast to most polysaccharide thickeners, xanthan gum in solution does not exist in
a typical random-coil conformation but has a rigid helical ordered structure giving rise
to the unique solution properties of xanthan. Solutions of xanthan are extremely pseudoplastic and show quite different shear-thinning behavior from the generalized shear-rate
dependency of viscosity of typical random coil polysaccharides mentioned earlier. A
double-logarithmic plot of viscosity vs. shear rate for xanthan at most salt concentrations
of practical importance is linear, with no indication of a shear-rate-independent plateau
at low shear rates, and with a slope substantially higher than the 0.76 predicted for
random-coil-like behavior at high shear rates (Morris, 1990b).
This high degree of pseudoplasticity results in xanthan solutions possessing extremely
high viscosities (or effectively yield values) when not under the influence of shear.
Consequently, xanthan solutions at rest can be considered as weak gels, as illustrated in
Figure 9.8. The mechanical spectrum in Figure 9.8 has similar characteristics to those
of a true gel (i.e., G > G at all frequencies, while both G and G show little
variation with frequency and * decreases steeply with increasing frequency). These gellike properties of xanthan solutions persist down to concentrations as low as 0.1% and
this contributes to the effectivenes of xanthan gum as a stabilizing agent.
Figure 9.8 Mechanical spectrum of a 2% xanthan solution showing the typical characteristics
expected of a true gel. (From Morris, E.R. in Food Gels, Harris, P., Ed., Elsevier Applied Science,
London, 1990, 291. With permission from Chapman and Hall Ltd., Scientific, Technical and
Medical Publishers, Andover, Hampshire, England.)
Xanthan, therefore, like all polysaccharide solutions and gels, shows viscoelastic
behavior. However, the uniqueness of xanthan results from the marked difference between
its viscoelastic behavior under static conditions, when gel-like properties are present,
and under conditions of shear, when freely flowing solutions are obtained. This combination of gel-like properties at rest and liquid-like properties under applied stress is of
considerable practical value to the food technologist (Pettitt, 1982).
The origins of the unusual solution properties of xanthan lie in its molecular structure,
which determines the conformational behavior of xanthan. It is generally believed that
the weak gel-like properties of xanthan solutions occur as a result of weak side-by-side
association of ordered chain sequences from different molecules to give a tenuous threedimensional intermolecular network (Morris, 1991). For normal polysaccharide gels,
bonding in the junction zones needs to be relatively strong to counter the considerable
loss of conformational entropy as the fluctuating random coil chain is incorporated into
the conformationally ordered junction zone. Consequently, the gels formed are quite
strong. In xanthan, however, weak side-by-side enthalpically favored associations can
strains. At concentrations below those required for gel formation (i.e., below approximately 0.5%), only a synergistic viscosity effect is observed between locust bean gum
and xanthan gum, but this effect is still useful to the food technologist, allowing savings
to be made in ingredient costs and modifications to be made to the rheology of food
systems. The synergism between guar gum and xanthan gum is less strong, being limited
to a synergistic viscosity increase with no gel formation (Morris, 1990b). Nevertheless,
as for the locust bean gum/xanthan system below the gelling concentration, the synergistic
viscosity effect of guar gum and xanthan gum is utilized in numerous food products.
The synergistic effects between xanthan and galactomannans arise as a result of a
specific interaction between the helical ordered structure of polysaccharides and the
unsubstituted regions of galactomannan chains (Figure 9.9a), thereby forming junction
zones which are linked together by disordered, more highly substituted segments of the
galactomannan backbone (Dea et al., 1972; Morris, 1986; Morris, 1990b). The extent of
interaction between xanthan molecules and galactomannan is dependent on the size and
number of unsubstituted regions along the galactomannan molecule and the model
therefore qualitatively predicts the observed lower degree of synergism in the more highly
substituted guar/xanthan system than in the locust bean gum/xanthan system. However,
although the model of specific interaction between xanthan and galactomannan molecules
is now generally accepted, the exact conformation, the size of junction zones etc. in these
mixed systems are still under investigation. An alternative model that would allow for
the substituted regions of the galactomannan chain to be incorporated into the junction
zones was proposed by McCleary (1979) and is schematically illustrated in Figure 9.9b.
In this model, the galactose side branches on every other residue along the mannan
backbone are all pointing away from the helical ordered structure.
9.4.3 APPLICATIONS IN LOW-FAT FOODS
As with galactomannans, the role of xanthan gum in fat replacement is not as a direct
fat mimetic but as a tool for controlling viscosity and texture and binding excess water.
Indeed, xanthan can be used as a stabilizer in similar low-fat product types to those
already mentioned under the section on galactomannans (e.g., frozen desserts, cultured
dairy products, and bakery products). Frequently, a combination of xanthan gum and
galactomannan is found to give better functionality in such products (as a result of the
synergistic interactions) or at least the same functionality but at reduced cost. Commercially, many gum suppliers now supply gum blends for use in specific reduced-fat product
types and these frequently include both xanthan and a galactomannan.
One of the most successful food applications of xanthan as a stabilizer is in dressings,
sauces and mayonnaises, where its weak gel properties (i.e., gel-like properties at rest
and solution-like properties under the application of flow) are exploited to stabilize oil
droplets and particulate material in the oil-in-water emulsions (Morris, 1991). Furthermore, such product types are ideal candidates for reduced-fat versions as the traditional
products tend to be high in fat content, while consumers have demonstrated a willingness
to use reduced-fat versions on a regular basis (Marsili, 1993). Indeed, reduced- and lowfat dressings and mayonnaises are undoubtedly among the most popular fat-reduced
product types and can therefore be considered one of the major successes in the quest
for low-fat, consumer-acceptable products. Hence, it is not surprising that xanthan, with
its traditional stabilizing role in dressings and sauces, has been widely and successfully
utilized in reduced- and low-fat versions of these products.
The removal of oil and addition of water in a low-fat dressing requires that the oil
phase be better stabilized if separation of the dressing is to be avoided on prolonged
storage, while the viscosity needs to be suitably adjusted to give a similar consistency
Figure 9.9 Schematic representations of the specific interaction in junction zones between
galactomannans and helix-forming polysaccharides such as xanthan: (a) model proposed by
Dea et al. (1972); (b) model proposed by McCleary (1979). (From Morris, V. J. in Functional
Properties of Food Macromolecules, Mitchell, J. R. and Ledward, D. A., Eds., Elsevier Applied
Science, London, 1986, 121. With permission from Chapman and Hall Ltd., Scientific, Technical
and Medical Publishers, Andover, Hampshire, England.)
to that of the higher-fat counterpart. Incorporation of xanthan into the formulation can
help on both accounts, giving relatively viscous solutions at low concentrations and
stabilizing the disperse oil phase against coalescence through its gel-like properties at
rest. In this manner, typical usage levels of xanthan, for example 0.1 to 0.4% (or lower
when in combination with galactomannan), can help to make a small amount of fat go
a long way.
The highly pseudoplastic nature of xanthan gum also contributes to its effectiveness
in low-fat dressings. In pourable dressings, the weak gel-like structure at rest is sufficient
to give clear dressings an attractive visual appearance by suspending particulate matter
throughout the shelf-life of the product but, on application of small shear forces (such
as those experienced on pouring) the structure readily breaks down, allowing the dressing
to flow from the bottle. On contact with the food, the tenuous gel structure rapidly sets
up again so that the dressing clings to the food rather than draining off (Morris, 1991).
Another advantage of xanthan gum in low-fat dressings is the nongummy mouthfeel and,
associated with this, the good flavor release characteristics. These properties again arise
as a consequence of the high degree of pseudoplasticity of xanthan, with the shear rates
experienced in the mouth causing a significant reduction in the viscosity of the dressing,
thereby giving maximum flavor impact.
When developing a low-fat dressing, the food technologist is not only concerned with
the physical and organoleptic properties of the dressing immediately following production, but also with any changes that may occur during the shelf-life of the product. In
this regard, xanthan again has advantages over many other gums owing to the rigid helical
1996 CRC Press LLC
ordered structure of the molecules which makes xanthan less susceptible to chain cleavage through acid hydrolysis, a factor that is particularly important in low pH dressings.
In summary, xanthan is an extremely versatile hydrocolloid in terms of its functional
role in a range of food product applications, possessing unique properties on account of
its ordered molecular structure in solution that can be utilized in the formulation of
reduced-fat products.
REFERENCES
Anonymous, Quest for fat substitutes taking many routes, Inform, 2(2)115,1991.
Dea, I. C. M., McKinnon, A. A., and Rees, D. A., Tertiary and quaternary structure in aqueous polysaccharide systems which model cell wall cohesion: reversible changes in conformation and association
of agarose, carrageenan and galactomannans, J. Mol. Biol., 68, 153, 1972.
Dea, I. C. M., Morris E. R., Rees. D. A., Welsh, E. J., Barnes, H. A., and Price. J., Associations of like
and unlike polysaccharides: mechanism and specificity in galactomannans, interacting bacterial
polysaccharides and related systems, Carbohydr. Res., 57, 249, 1977.
Dickenson, E., An Introduction to Food Colloids, Cornell University Press, New York, 1992, chap. 3.
Glicksman, M., Fermentation (biosynthetic) gums, in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. I, Glicksman, M., Ed.,
CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL, 1982, 123.
Glicksman, M., Plant seed gums, in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. III, Glicksman M., Ed., CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 1986, 155.
Glicksman, M., Hydrocolloids and the search for the oily grail, Food Technol., 5(10), 94, 1991.
Haumann, B. F., Getting the fat out, JAOCS, 63(3), 278, 1986.
Herald, C. T., Locust/carob bean gum in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. III, Glicksman, M., Ed., CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 1986a, 161.
Herald, C. T., Guar gum, in Food Hydrocolloiids, Vol. III, Glicksman, M., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 1986b, 171.
Ledward, D. A., Gelation of gelatin, in Functional Properties of Food Macromolecules, Mitchell, J. R.
and Ledward, D. A., Eds., Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1986, 171.
Liu, W., Sato. T., Norisuye, T., and Fujita, H., Thermally induced conformational change of xanthan in
0.01 M sodium chloride, Carbohydr. Res., 160, 267, 1987.
Marsili, R., Strategies for creating low-fat sauces and dressings, Food Prod. Design, 3(8), 49, 1993.
McCleary, B. V., Enzymic hydrolysis, fine structure, and gelling interaction of legume-seed D-galacto-Dmannans, Carbohydr. Res., 71, 205, 1979.
Milas, M. and Rinaudo, M., Conformational investigation of the bacterial polysaccharide xanthan, Carbohydr. Res., 76, 189, 1979.
Moorhouse, R., Walkinshaw, M. D., and Arnott, S., Xanthan gum molecular conformation and interactions, in Extracellular Microbial Polysaccharides, ACS Symposium Series, 45, 90, 1977.
Morris, E. R., Cutler, A. N., Ross-Murphy, S. N., Rees, D. A., and Rice, J., Concentration and shear rate
dependence of viscosity in random coil polysaccharide solutions, Carbohydr. Polym., 1, 5, 1981.
Morris, E. R., Rheology of hydrocolloids, in Gums and Stabilisers for the Food Industry, Vol. 2, Philips,
G. O., Wedlock. D. J., and Williams, P. A., Eds., Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1984, 57.
Morris, E. R., Industrial hydrocolloids, in The Structure, Dynamics and Equilibrium Properties of Colloidal Systems, Bloor, D. M. and Wyn-Jones, E., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990a, 449.
Morris, E. R., Mixed polymer gels, in Food Gels, Harris, P., Ed., Elsevier Applied Science, London,
1990b, 291.
Morris, E. R., Pourable Gels, IFI NR., 1, 32, 1991.
Morris, V.J., Gelation of polysaccharides, in Functional Properties of Food Macromolecules, Mitchell,
J. R. and Ledward, D. A., Eds., Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1986, 121.
Norton, I. T., Goodall, D. M., Frangou, S. A., Morris, E. R., and Rees, D. A., Mechanism and dynamics
of conformational ordering in xanthan polysaccharide, J. Mol. Biol., 175, 371, 1984.
Okuyama, K., Aronott, S., Moorhouse, R., Walkinshaw, M. D., Atkins, E. D. T., and Wolf-Ullish, Ch.,
Fibre diffraction studies of bacterial polysaccharides, in Fibre Diffraction Methods, ACS Symposium Series, 141, 411, 1980.
Pettitt, D.J., Xanthan gum, in Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. I, Glicksman, M., Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 1982, 127.
Rees, D.A., Morris, E. R., Thom, D., and Madden, J.K., Shapes and interaction of carbohydrate chains,
in The Polysaccharides, Vol. 1, Aspinall, G.O., Ed., Academic Press, New York, 1982, 195.
Robinson, G., Morris, E.R., and Ross-Murphy, S.B., Viscosity-molecular weight relationships, intrinsic
chain flexibility and dynamic solution properties of guar galactomannan, Carbohydr. Res., 107, 17,
1982.
Ross-Murphy, S.B., Rheological methods, in Biophysical Methods in Food Research, Chan, H.W. S., Ed.,
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 1984, 138.
Ross-Murphy, S.B., Small deformation measurements, in Food Structure Its Creation and Evaluation,
Blanshard, J. M. V. and Mitchell, J. R., Eds., Butterworths, London, 1988, chap. 21.
Seaman, J. K., Guar gum, in Handbook of Water-Soluble Gums and Resins, Davidson, R. L., Ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980a, chap. 14.
Setser, C. S. and Racette, W. L., Macromolecule replacers in food product, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.,
32(3), 275, 1992.
Smidsrd, O. and Haug, A., Estimation of the relative stiffness of the molecular chain in polyelectrolytes
from measurement of viscosity at different ionic strengths, Biopolymers, 10, 1214, 1971.
Winter, W.T., Song, B. K., and Bouckris, H., Structural studies of galactomannans and their complexes,
Food Hydrocoll., 1, 581, 1987.
Chapter
10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of polar lipids as emulsifiers in processed foods is not a particularly new idea.
For instance, their use in the production of margarine has been known for more than 50
years although, no doubt, in the early days the choice was limited and the precise use
arrived at was a process of trial and error. However, in recent times, not only have we
learned very much more about their functionality, but also, by technical innovation, have
improved the quality and variety available to us. For instance, through molecular distillation, interesterification, or ethoxylation, a whole range of products has emerged with
many uses in food processing. Table 10.1 elaborates the range of products permitted for
use in food in the European Community, U.S., and Japan at the time of writing. Within
the particular headings, an even more varied range can be produced, depending upon the
fatty acids used in the production (Flack and Krog, 1990). Some typical fatty acid
compositions for monodiglycerides related to the oil feed stock used to prepare them are
shown in Table 10.2.
Emulsifiers are partial esters of fatty acids with chain lengths from C12 to C22, and
polyvalent alcohols like glycerol, sorbitol/sorbitan, and sucrose or organic acids like
Table 10.1
Emulsifier types
EC No.
Lecithins
E 322
184.1400**
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
432
433
434
435
436
442
470(a)
470(b)
471
172.515
172.840
178.3400***
172.836
172.838
172.863
184.1501**
E 472(a)
172.828
E 472(b)
1372.852
E 472(c)
E 472(e)
184.1101**
Japan
172.830
E 473
172.834
172.859
Sucroglycerides
Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids
Polyglycerol polyricinoleate
Propane-1,2-diol esters of fatty acids
Thermally oxidized soya bean oil interacted with monoand diglycerides of fatty acids
Sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL)
Calcium stearoly lactylate (CSL)
Stearyl tartrate
Sorbitan monostearate
Sorbitan tristearate
Sorbitan monolaurate
Sorbitan mono-oleate
Sorbitan monopalmitate
E
E
E
E
E
474
475
476
477
479(b)
+
+
+
+
172.854
172.856
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
481
482
483
491
492
493
494
495
+
+
+
+
+
172.846
172.844
172.842
178.3400***
178.3400***
178.3400***
Table 10.2
Fatty acid
Lard or tallow
Myristic (C14:0)
Palmitic (C16:0)
Palmitoleic (C16:1)
Stearic (C18:0)
Oleic (C18:1)
Linoleic (C18:2)
C20 and higher
Iodine value
(approx)
13%
2732%
35%
1520%
3643%
57%
4055
1015%
1012%
610
5866%
8590%
35%
4055%
3035%
510%
80
46%
1828%
6070%
12
12
105
From Flack E. A. and Krog, N., Lipid Technol., 2(1), 11, 1990. With permission.
lactic acid. Partial esters may also be esterified with organic acids such as acetic, citric,
diacetyl tartaric, or succinic to form the wide range listed in Table 10.1. The world
production of food emulsifiers has been estimated at between 185,000 and 250,000 tonnes
(Als and Krog, 1990).
Production of monodiglycerides from fat and glycerol is carried out by alkaline
catalysis at high temperatures (circa 200C). The proportions of fat and glycerol can be
varied to obtain monoester contents of 30 to 60%, the latter being the limit for production
from simple esterification. In many cases, the most important component of monodiglyceride is the monoglyceride, higher levels of which can be obtained by various means.
The process preferred universally for large-scale production is high vacuum distillation
which results in monoglyceride contents of 90% and higher. Monoglycerides and monodiglycerides are also the building blocks for production of other types of emulsifiers
by reaction with organic acids or acid anhydrides to create acetic, citric, lactic, succinic,
and diacetyl tartaric acid esters.
The use first envisaged for emulsifiers was, as their name implies, to stabilize emulsions, whether they be water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions as in margarine or oil-in-water (o/w)
emulsions as in the case of ice cream. Besides lowering the surface tension between
components of multiphase systems, emulsifiers perform a wider range of functionalities,
depending upon the type selected; these include foam stabilizing, dough conditioning,
amylose complexing, and crystal modifying (Flack and Krog, 1990).
Food emulsifiers are amphiphilic substances which, depending upon their chemical
structures, possess both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties. This is often quantified in
terms of their hydrophilic/lipophilic balance (HLB), and while this is a useful tool in
developing simple technical emulsions, it is much less useful in food systems due to the
complicated nature of food matrices.
In general terms, emulsifiers are used either to facilitate processing or to improve the
texture, consistency, and shelf-life of finished foodstuffs. As the structures of foods are
rather complex, it is not possible in many cases to explain precisely the functions of
emulsifiers at a molecular level. It is usual, therefore, to optimize emulsifier combinations
and concentrations empirically. In emulsion-type foods, the function of emulsifiers is to
form interfacial films which will contribute to the stability of emulsions against coalescence; thus, in this case, their effect upon long-term stability is of greater importance
than their ability to reduce droplet particle size distribution. Interactions between emulsifiers and starch components in starch-based foods such as bread, flour, confectionery,
processed potato, and pasta foods are also important.
Emulsifiers possess many of the properties of fats and oils. They have an oily or fatty
consistency, may be present in different physical forms (liquid, solid, crystalline) depending upon temperature, have lubricity and possess the texture and cohesiveness of fat.
Emulsifiers form films or spread on surfaces, build or increase viscosity through hydration, and soften or weaken structures created by polysaccharides or proteins (Orthoefer
and McCaskill, 1992).
The mouthfeel properties of oils and fats are important characteristics to consider
when reducing or replacing fat in formulations. Mouthfeel results from a combination
of several basic parameters as shown in Table 10.3. Oils and fats may add to, modify,
or reduce flavor and sweetness perception, and reduction of oils and fats can also have
an effect upon processing and handling (Orthoefer and McCaskill, 1992). Furthermore,
as the reduction of fat may be part of a general calorie reduction process, other bulk
components such as sugar may also be reduced.
Table 10.3
Parameters in Mouthfeel
Physical property
Sensory characteristic
Viscosity
Lubricity
Absorption/adsorption
Cohesiveness/adhesiveness
Waxiness
From Orthoefer, F. and McCaskill, D., Inform., 3(12), 1270, 1278, 1992.
With permission.
The desire to reduce fat without sacrificing organoleptic and textural properties has
resulted in the development of fat replacers. However, emulsifiers can also play a significant role in enabling reformulation using lower levels of fat in processed water-inoil (w/o) emulsions and oil-in-water (o/w) systems (Flack, 1992). Typical examples of
products in which proportions of fat can be reduced significantly, i.e., by 30% or higher,
include yellow fat spreads, biscuits, cakes, baking emulsions, ice cream, and salad
dressings.
can lead to phase inversion. Therefore, in low-fat spreads, it is necessary to use distilled
monoglycerides instead of mono- and diglycerides for greater emulsion stability since
monoglycerides have less interfacial activity than lecithin. Even when monoglycerides
are used, added lecithin can further reduce the interfacial tension as shown in Figure 10.1
and thus increase the ever-present risk of phase inversion (Borwanker and Buliga, 1989).
However, the work leading to this conclusion did not indicate the types of monoglyceride
used, which has some significance.
Figure 10.1 Interfacial tension at 50C of oil-in-water systems containing (a) 1.27% distilled
monogylceride and (b) 1.27% distilled monoglyceride + 0.51% lecithin in the oil phase and
3.6% NACI in the aqueous phase. (From Borwanker, R. P. and Buliga, G. S., A.I.Ch.E. Symp.
Series, Vol. 86, No. 277, 44, 1990. With permission.)
Problems with instability, melt-down and flavor release can be overcome by a combination of formulation and processing steps. Important factors in the formulation include
the melting characteristics of the fat blend, the type and level of emulsifier, and the
addition of thickeners to increase the viscosity of the water phase. To improve flavor
release, low levels of whey protein, as later shown, can be used with the added advantage
of a reduced pH of the water phase, thereby improving the keeping properties (unlike
casein, whey proteins do not precipitate at low pH). The speed (i.e., rate of throughput)
and emulsion temperature are also important factors in the stability of the spread.
Madsen (1989) evaluated the stability of a 40% fat spread containing different combinations of emulsifiers by quantitative measurement of water separation as a factor of
time, as shown in Table 10.4. In the case of a 20% fat spread (containing 4.0% skim
milk powder, 3.0% gelatin, and 1.5% sodium alginate in the aqueous phase at pH 6.8),
the presence of 0.8% distilled monoglyceride from sunflower oil (iodine value approximately 105) resulted in phase separation in the chiller, whereas the use of the same
emulsifier at 0.5% in conjunction with 0.5% of polyglycerol ester of interesterified
ricinoleic acid (iodine value approximately 85) produced a fine, stable spread with good
spreadability and mouthfeel. The trial batches in both cases were made in a 3-tube
Perfector pilot plant. Both examples indicate the potential instability of these emulsions
Types of emulsifiers
Distilled monoglyceride from vegetable oil
Iodine value 80
Distilled monoglyceride from vegetable oil
Iodine value 80
Polyglycerol ester of fatty acids
Iodine value 80
Distilled monoglyceride from vegetable oil
Iodine value 80
Polyglycerol ester of interesterified ricinoleic acid
Iodine value 85
2.6
9.5
15.8
1.0
2.6
6.3
Note: Formulation of spread: water phase (pH 4.5): 56.4% water, 0.5% whey powder, 1.5% gelatin, 1.5%
salt, 0.1% potassium sorbate. Fat phase: 39.239.4% fat blend, 0.60.8% emulsifier (as above), 4
ppm beta-carotene.
From Madsen, J., World Conference on Edible Oils and Fats, AOCS, Maastricht, 1989. With permission.
and the differences in stabilizing effects of varying emulsifier combinations even at low
dosages (Madsen, 1989).
Although possible, it is more difficult to produce low-fat butter spread due to the
hardness of butter oil at low temperatures. Spreads with a butterfat content of about 40%
can be produced using 5.0% sodium caseinate in the water phase and 0.5% distilled
monoglyceride with an iodine value of approximately 55 in the fat phase. However, the
pH of the water phase cannot be lowered since the caseinate precipitates and loses its
emulsifying properties and thus the keeping properties of the spread are limited.
Alternatively, low fat butter spread can be produced using dairy cream with a fat
content adjusted to the level desired in the finished spread and using a distilled monoglyceride with a high iodine value (80 to 105) added to the cream together with a thickening
agent such as sodium alginate. Phase reversion, i.e., from o/w to w/o, can then be achieved
in the tube chiller, using normal or slightly reduced cooling and utilizing 40 to 50% of
the normal capacity. To achieve an adequate working effect, a high rotor speed in the
tube chiller cooling cylinder is preferable (Madsen, 1989).
highly unsaturated oils are used in order to increase the P/S ratio, that is, the ratio of
polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids which in itself affords a small reduction in fat
without any significant loss of quality.
Many trials have been undertaken to investigate the effect of emulsifiers on the texture
of biscuits, especially in connection with the reduction of fat. Trials reported by Hutchinson and co-workers in 1977 were carried out using a cookie formula based on the
American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) Method 10-50 (1962). The formula
containing 13.5% fat, 47.6% flour, and 27.5% sugar as the main components, was used
to screen the effects of various emulsifiers at levels increasing from 0.125% to 1% on
flour weight. The dough was mixed in a Hobart N-50 mixer and baked in a reel oven at
204.5C for 10 min. Samples were packaged in heat sealable poly bags and stored at
room temperature (22 to 24C) for three months. Initial texture readings were observed
after 18 h of storage. Textural evaluations were measured using an Instron Texturometer,
model 1132 with a 500 g combination load cell (tension/compression). Cookies were
compressed to a depth of one half normal thickness or 4 mm, six cookies being evaluated
for each emulsifier level and storage period. To observe the effects in a reduced-fat
system, the formula was modified by (1) reducing the shortening by 20% (i.e., to 10.8%)
and (2) increasing the water by one half of the weight of shortening removed (i.e., an
increase of 32% in water level) necessary to maintain proper formula balance. Only two
levels of each emulsifier (0.25 and 0.5% of flour weight) were tested in the reduced-fat
cookies. The study showed that all the experimental cookies gave textural values below
or were softer than the control. At the lower level of addition (0.25% of flour weight),
the strongest softening effects were found using sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL) and
succinic acid ester (SMG) with medium effects observed with polyglycerol ester (PGE),
ethoxylated monoglyceride (EMG), mono-di 40% and diacetyl tartaric acid ester
(Datem), and with no appreciable effect using lactic acid ester (Lactem). At the higher
level (0.5% of flour weight) an improved effect was seen with PGE, Datem, and Lactem,
but poorer results with EMG, mono-di, and SSL. SMG gave similar results at both levels
(Hutchinson et al., 1977). Unfortunately, as in many other early trials, exact specifications
for the emulsifiers used in this study were not stated. This can be of great interest as
esters can vary quite widely in their esterified acid levels, which can have a strong bearing
on their effectiveness.
Early trials at BBIRA (British Baking Industries Research Association), later FMBRA
(Flour Milling and Baking Research Association, Chorleywood, U.K.), have been
reported by Stevens in 1975. Reference was made to trials carried out in 1953 when
glyceryl stearates (unspecified) were found to give satisfactory results in Osborne biscuits
when used at a level of about one third of the amount of the fat that had been omitted,
up to a maximum reduction of 20% of the fat (Stevens, 1975). However, trials in
shortbread were reported as unsatisfactory at higher levels of replacement, even with up
to half of the fat removed. By 1975, however, with a wider range of emulsifiers being
available, trials were conducted using distilled monoglycerides and Datem at low levels
in both semisweet 16% fat (Marie) and short dough 32% fat (Lincoln) biscuits, in which
the fat calculated on flour weight was reduced by 20%, i.e., down to 12.8 and 25.6% fat
on flour weight, respectively). Preliminary tests showed Datem to be the most effective
emulsifier even though used at only half the levels of monoglyceride (i.e., 0.5 to 0.75%
vs. 1 to 1.5%) and thus the follow-up investigations centered on this type of compound.
The Datem paste used in the Stevens (1975) trials had a total tartaric acid content of
17 to 20%, an acid value of 70 to 90, and a saponification value of 380 to 425, both of
the latter calculated as mg KOH/g product. The results of these trials indicated that goodquality biscuits with a reduced fat level could be produced with the aid of this emulsifier,
as illustrated in Table 10.5. However, Stevens (1975) also noted in the accompanying
Table 10.5
The Effect of Datem Emulsifier on Lincoln (L) and Marie (M) Biscuits with Fat Level Reduced by 20%
Dough properties
Product
type
Lincoln
Lincoln
Lincoln
Lincoln
Marie
Marie
Marie
Marie
Sample
code
Fat
% std.
Datem
% fat
L1
L2
L3
L4
M1
M2
M3
M4
100
80
80
80
100
80
80
80
0
0
0.5
0.75
0
0
0.5
0.75
Consistency
Weight
g 10
Stack height
cm 20
Mean diameter
cm
Density
g/cc
Texturemeter
seconds
Reflectance
%
Satisfactory
Dry and crumbly
Crumbly
Crumbly
Optimum
Tight
Satisfactory
Optimum
117.0
121.3
121.9
120.3
75.7
77.2
75.9
76.0
100.6
105.1
104.1
104.0
60.4
61.4
60.4
60.2
16.6
17.6
17.6
17.6
10.8
11.2
11.0
11.1
5.76
5.70
5.72
5.68
5.92
5.97
5.92
5.91
0.465
0.468
0.460
0.466
0.406
0.392
0.399
0.396
21
26
24
21
26
28
28
26
36
36
33
32
45
46
44
41
Biscuit properties
discussion that in the case of the 20% fat reduction in the Lincoln recipe, the amounts
of ingredients were severely unbalanced and thus, adjustment of the ingredient levels as
well as of the processing and baking conditions was advisable.
Later work at FMBRA was more extensive and more detailed. In a report by Burt
and Thacker (1981) details were given of trials carried out screening 20 commercially
available emulsifiers as an extra ingredient in the FMBRA Lincoln biscuit recipe, having
a fat content of 18% of dough weight (as against 32% of flour weight reported in the
1975 study by Stevens). The emulsifiers selected were those permitted for use in biscuits
in the U.K. and which were thought to be of value in biscuit manufacture. Three
alternative modes of addition were utilized in the water, in the fat, or direct to the
dough as the last ingredient at the creaming stage and all at an inclusion rate of 1%
in a firm dough in the initial trials. Following the elimination of some types for practical
reasons, the main trials involved 13 emulsifiers at 0.4% level of addition. Details of the
types used, the mode of addition and their effects upon dough firmness, dough piece
weight, and biscuit hardness are shown in Table 10.6.
Table 10.6
Mode
Dough
firmness
Dough
piece wt.
Biscuit
hardness
1
0.4
1
0.4
1
0.4
Fat
Fat
Water
Water
Water
Water
ns
45
75
39
36
40
2.8
4.4
3.1
2.2
1.5
1.7
18
22
28
23
18
ns
1
0.4
0.4
1
1
1
1
0.4
1
0.4
1
0.4
Fat
Fat
Fat
Direct
Direct
Fat
Water
Water
Fat
Fat
Water
Water
ns
ns
ns
ns
2.0
ns
84
30
ns
ns
39
65
2.4
2.9
2.6
ns
ns
2.3
3.4
2.4
1.9
2.0
2.6
4.1
ns
ns
11
29
28
36
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
PGE*
0.4
Water
ns
1.4
11
SSL
1
1
0.4
1
0.4
Direct
Water
Water
Water
Water
ns
99
114
ns
ns
2.1
4.2
6.1
1.9
1.9
ns
ns
19
ns
ns
Emulsifier
Abbreviation
Monoglycerides
Mono (unsat)
(sat)
Monodiglycerides
Acid esters of
monoglycerides:
Lactic acid
Mono-di (sat)
Acetic acid
Citric acid
Diacetyl
tartaric acid
Sorbitan
monostearate
Sorbitan
tristearate
Polyoxyethylene
sorbitan
monostearate
Polyglycerol
monostearate
Sodium stearoyl2-lactylate
Acetem
Citrem
Datem
Calcium stearoyl2-lactylate
Lactem*
SMS*
STS*
Polysorbate
CSL*
Since it had been established separately that increasing the level of fat in the recipe
produced softer biscuits, it was judged that those emulsifiers which produced softer
biscuits when added to the control recipe should be suitable alternatives to fat. The
emulsifiers satisfying this criterion (Table 10.6) were Citrem, Datem, SSL, and PGE. On
closer examination, the latter was found to have too small an effect to be of potential
value as a fat replacer. Reductions of up to 30% in the level of fat in the control recipe
were used for estimating the trade-off between emulsifier and fat. The effect of fat
reduction on hardness in Lincoln biscuits, measured by the Baker Perkins Texturemeter,
is shown in Figure 10.2, the reading for the control biscuit being about 12 s and for the
30% fat-reduced biscuit being about 16.5 s (Burt and Thacker, 1981). This represents
an increase of about 37% in hardness relative to the control biscuit.
Figure 10.2 Effect on biscuit hardness of decreased levels of fat in the recipe, measured on
Baker Perkins Texturemeter at constant force. (From Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., FMBRA Bull.
2, April 1981. With permission.)
Further investigations by Burt and Thacker (1981) involved adding Datem via the fat,
Citrem and SSL in the recipe water, and Datem and SSL by direct addition to the dough.
In the latter approach, a modified recipe was used which adjusted dough water levels to
obtain the same firmness as the control doughs. The results are shown in Table 10.7.
Clearly, the mode of addition had a significant influence on the effectiveness of added
emulsifiers in terms of fat replacement, while the convenience of direct addition offered
distinct practical advantages. However, it should be noted that substitution of significant
levels of fat by emulsifiers affects biscuit properties other than hardness and therefore
emulsifiers should not be considered as equivalent to fat in all respects. The data in
Table 10.8 show the differences in biscuit properties between biscuits prepared using the
control recipe (18% fat on dough weight) and those containing 30% less fat (i.e., 12.6%
fat on dough weight) and 0.5% Datem on an ingredients basis. Taste panel tests on
biscuits with emulsifier levels from 0.25% to 1% after storage at 21C and sealed in
laminate for both 3 months and 6 months, did not reveal any serious off-flavors. The
final conclusions from these trials were that the most effective and economical fat
replacers were Datem and SSL when added directly to the dough and Citrem when added
to the dough water (Burt and Thacker, 1981).
A continuation of these trials reported by Burt and Thacker (1983) centered on Datem
and SSL via two modes of addition each, i.e., Datem direct and via the fat and SSL
direct and via the water. Particular note was made of the effect on biscuit hardness at
varying levels. The difference in fat sparing effect, depending upon mode of application
suggested in the earlier work, was not fully substantiated in this study. The conclusion
finally reached was that these emulsifiers would be effective when added to the dough
directly at low levels of 0.1 to 0.25% of the dry ingredients, up to a level of replacement
1996 CRC Press LLC
Table 10.7
Emulsifier
type
Datem
Fat
Direct
Direct
SSL
Water
Direct
Citrem
Water
Emulsifier on fat basis**:
0.25%
0.5%
12
20
20
4
20
11
0.64%
19
13
1.27%
30
17
18
2.5%
Recipe
FMBRA
FMBRA
Alternative
FMBRA
Alternative
FMBRA
Biscuit property
Weight
Thickness
Width
Length
Moisture
Control biscuit
18% fat
% change in
property
9.33 g
0.83 cm
5.73 cm
5.65 cm
1.6%
+7
+10
2
1
+45
8.72 g
0.75 cm
5.83 cm
5.71 cm
1.1%
From Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., FMBRA Bull., 2, 1981. With permission.
of 20% fat. At higher levels of replacement, the dough became sticky which, it was felt,
would cause problems in production.
Separately, lecithin was tested at six levels from 0.0 to 1.0% but was found to have
only a minor effect on biscuit hardness. For example, a level of 0.25% in the same recipe
as above gave an average reduction in the Texturemeter reading of only 0.6 s correlating
to a reduction of about 5% of total fat in the recipe.
In recent years, biscuits in which the levels of fat have been reduced by more than
20% have been shown to be commercially viable with several brands now available. The
substitution of normal shortening by very stable fat emulsions previously thought to be
impractical, has enabled the production of satisfactory biscuits with significant reductions
in fat levels, although the emulsion itself has presented problems in handling which,
when solved, offers an interesting alternative. The work in this area is still under development.
10.4 CAKE
The role of fat in the stabilization of air bubbles in cake batters was studied by Brooker
(1993), using shortening containing emulsifier by the all in method. During mixing,
fat crystals are coated with an interfacial layer of adsorbed protein (crystal-water interface) and absorb to the surface of the bubbles by a process which involves the fusion of
the crystal-water interface with the air-water interface. The adsorption of fat crystals
helps to stabilize large numbers of small bubbles which must expand without rupturing
during baking if the batter is not to collapse. During heating, the fat melts and runs over
the internal surface of the bubble, leaving behind the fat crystal-water interface to enable
expansion.
Almost all the air bubbles which ultimately create the texture in cake are incorporated
during the preparation of the batter, and previous study has shown that the polymorphic
form of the crystalline fat in the shortening affects the way in which air is incorporated.
Thus, it has been observed that when the solid fat consisted primarily of b1 crystals,
many small bubbles were stabilized, but when the much larger b crystals predominated,
relatively little air was incorporated in fewer large bubbles (Brooker, 1993). This has led
to the proposal illustrated in Figure 10.3 that the fat in the cooked batter forms a
continuous layer on the inside surface of the air bubbles. Previously it had been reported
that shortenings containing emulsifiers can stabilize larger numbers of small bubbles and
can produce a finer crumb structure in the final product than shortening alone (Brooker,
1993).
The size, shape, and number of the adsorbed fat crystals determine the area of interface
that can be made available to the surface of air bubbles per volume of fat. Small fat
crystals such as most b1 forms have a large surface area to volume ratio and are more
efficient at contributing interface to air bubbles during cooking than would a similar
weight of the larger b crystal form. Furthermore, the smaller b1 crystals usually have a
lower melting point and melt faster than the larger b form and thus make available their
fat-water interface more rapidly during baking. The incorporation of shortenings containing emulsifiers which help stabilize fat crystals in the lower melting forms such as
Lactem and PGMS are, therefore, essential to ensure stable high volumes in cake batters
when using lower levels of fat.
This is, therefore, but a step away from the complete replacement of shortening by
suitable emulsifiers which are stabilized in their lowest melting alpha form as aqueous
dispersions. Of importance in this respect are the saturated distilled monoglycerides
which disperse in water to form various mesophases at different temperatures (Krog,
Riisom, and Larsson, 1988). This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 10.4, from which
it can be seen that the binary phase diagrams of saturated and unsaturated distilled
monoglycerides differ considerably. Saturated distilled monoglycerides with 95%
monoester form lamellar mesophases at 55 to 70C while unsaturated products form
predominantly cubic mesophases at room temperature (20C+). The structure of various
liquid crystalline phases formed by food emulsifiers, including monoglycerides, are
shown in Figure 10.5. The latter is a highly schematic representation which only provides
an indication of structure of the phases. The cubic model has been revised more recently
and is much more complicated than the model shown in Figure 10.5 (Larsson, 1990).
The process for the formation of the lamellar mesophase and (after cooling) the gel
phase, is represented in Figure 10.6. At temperatures up to approximately 50C, the
monoglyceride remains in its stable b form, floating in water. At about 50C, the
monoglyceride starts to absorb water between the layers of polar groups and, if mixed
in the right proportions of water to monoglyceride, a liquid crystalline phase is formed
at 60 to 65C. This is a fully homogeneous system where the monoglyceride molecules
are oriented in a lamellar structure with water between their polar groups. At temperatures
above 70 to 80C, the monoglyceride transforms into a viscous isotropic phase in which
there is a fixed ratio between the monoglyceride and water and where excess water is
present as free water. The lamellar dispersion can be cooled to form an alpha crystalline
gel, but it is unstable at room temperature and quickly transforms to a coagel (b crystals)
unless used immediately. The efficiency of monoglycerides in various mesomorphic
forms is shown in Table 10.9 (Tamstorf, 1983).
Figure 10.3 Diagrammatic representation of the interfacial behavior of fat in the preparation
and cooking of cake batter. (A) Adsorption of fat crystals to the air-water interface; (B) crystals
melt during baking; (C) the oil runs over the internal surface of the bubble, thus releasing fatwater interface and permitting bubble expansion without rupture; (D) in the cooked batter, the
fat forms a continuous layer on the inside surface of bubbles. (From Brooker, B. E., Food
Structure, 12, 285, 1993. With permission.)
Figure 10.4 Phase diagrams of distilled monoglycerides from (a) hydrogenated lard and (b)
sunflower oil. (From Krog, N., Riisom, T., and Larsson, K., in Encyclopaedia of Emulsion
Technology, Vol. 2, Becher, P., Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 321, 1988. With permission.)
Figure 10.5 Schematic structure models of lamellar, hexagonal, and cubic mesophases.
(From Krog, N., Riisom, T., and Larsson, K., in Encyclopaedia of Emulsion Technology, Vol. 2,
Becher, P, Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 321, 1988. With permission.)
Figure 10.6 Structure models showing (a) orientation of surfactant molecules in the crystalline
state, (b) formation of a lamellar mesophase above Tc (Kraft Point) in the presence of water,
and (c) the formation of a gel phase below Tc. The structure parameters d, da, dw and S can
be measured by X-ray diffraction. (From Krog, N., in Food Emulsions, 2nd ed., Larsson, K. and
Friberg, S. E., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 127, 1990. With permission.)
Volume in cake
cm3
1137
1112
1560
2970
2660
1370
1915
680
664
1012
1318
1200
810
1100
Figure 10.7 Effect of cake gel additions on batter and cake characteristics in fat-free sponge.
(From Tamstorf, S., Grindsted Technical Paper TP 9-1e, presented at Grindsted Symposium,
Beijing, September, 1983. With permission.)
Figure 10.8 The aeration effects of distilled monoglyceride dispersions in alpha- and betacrystal forms.
Ice cream has a complex structure, being an aerated, partially frozen o/w emulsion
in which the air bubbles are surrounded by absorbed fat globules. Thus, the fat not only
provides a creamy taste but also helps create the structure of the ice cream. Emulsifiers,
mainly monoglycerides (40 to 90% monoester), are used at the levels needed to provide
approximately 0.21% 1-monoglyceride in the mix in order to destabilize the fat globule
membrane structure formed following homogenization and leading to partial churningout in the freezer, which then facilitates foaming and improves air cell distribution (Flack,
1988).
The destabilization process which takes place during ageing of the mix at 5C involves
desorption of interfacially bound protein (casein). Simultaneously, an increase in fat
globule crystallization occurs which also amplifies the rate of protein desorption. The
removal of adsorbed proteins increases the hydrophobicity of the fat globules and promotes their agglomeration and orientation around the air cells in the finished ice cream.
The desorption of protein is related to the temperature of the mix. At temperatures above
40C, the amount of protein adsorbed to the fat phase is high; when the temperature of
the emulsion is lowered, the amount of adsorbed protein is reduced (Krog, 1992).
Studies of the interfacial tension in o/w systems with or without emulsifiers dispersed
in the oil phase and with milk proteins dissolved in the water have shown that temperature
has a very pronounced effect on the surface activity of monoglycerides (Barford et al.,
1993). At high temperatures, the solubility of monoglycerides in the oil phase is high
and the reduction in surface tension minimal. However, upon cooling, the solubility
decreases while the adsorption of monoglycerides at the o/w interface increases, resulting
in lower surface tension. When monoglycerides are present, the interfacial tension
decreases at low temperatures to values below that of the protein film, and consequently
the increased adsorption of monoglycerides displaces the protein molecules. The interrelationship between decrease in interfacial tension, protein desorption, fat crystallization, and the agglomeration of fat globules due to increased hydrophobicity, is shown in
Figure 10.9 (Barford et al., 1993)
An important element in the processing of ice cream mix is homogenization, during
which the fat is distributed as small globules. The particle size distribution of the fat is
affected by both the temperature at which homogenization is carried out and the pressure
1996 CRC Press LLC
Figure 10.9 Changes in interfacial phenomena, such as interfacial tension, protein desorption
and fat crystallization related to agglomeration of fat globules in ice cream as a function of a
decrease in temperature with (+E) and without (-E) added monoglyceride emulsifier. (From
Barford, N. M., Krog, N., Larsen, G., and Buchheim, W., Fat Science Technol., 24, 1993. With
permission.)
Figure 10.10 Optimum homogenizing pressures for ice cream mixes of varying fat type and
content. (From Flack, E. A., Ice Cream and Frozen Confectionery, Ice Cream Alliance, Ltd.,
London February 1983. With permission.)
140
160
180
200
220
Average size, m
Variance, m
1.67
1.02
1.25
0.75
1.14
0.70
1.08
0.67
1.00
0.55
From Larsen, G., Paper presented at Inter-Ice 1989, Selingen. With permission.
such high water levels in the product, hydrocolloids play an important role in the structure
and stability of the ice cream due to their influence upon the rheological conditions of
the water phase (see Chapter 9).
From all these observations, it can be seen that ice cream with lower fat levels can
be produced by varying the balance of raw materials within the recipe and by adjusting
processing conditions. Examples of standard, low-fat and non-fat ice cream are shown
in Table 10.11, indicating the variations required to achieve optimum results and to ensure
organoleptic acceptability. Other food products in which an appreciable reduction in fat
1996 CRC Press LLC
Figure 10.11 Churning out as a function of surface area. (From Larsen, G., Paper presented
at Inter-Ice 1988, Solingen, November 1988. With permission.)
Table 10.11
Creams
Butterfat %
Msnf %
Sugar %
Corn syrup solids %
Monoglyceride (60%) %
Stabilizer blend %
Total solids %
K/cal/100 g
Homogenization kp/cm2
10.0
10.5
12.0
5.0
0.35
0.15
38.0
204
160
Milk ice
3.0
11.2
12.0
6.0
0.49
0.21
32.9
149
220
Non-fat dessert
0
11.8
12.0
7.0
0.6
0.4
31.8
130
240
10.6 CONCLUSION
From this chapter, some general conclusions relating to the use of emulsifiers in fat
replacement can be drawn. First, a reduction in fat requires changes in both formulation
and processing to maintain quality comparable to the original product. Second, while
oils and fats may be used more efficiently in combination with emulsifiers, activation of
emulsifiers, for instance by hydration, to form dispersions and gels, may be required for
optimum performance, in which case a change in the composition of emulsifier blends
toward more hydrophilic properties may be necessary. The art of fat reduction may often
be in the creation of fat-like rheological properties by changing the aqueous components
in food systems.
1996 CRC Press LLC
REFERENCES
ALS, G. and Krog, N., Emulsifiers as food processing aids, in World Conference on Oleochemicals into
the 21st Century, Applewhite, T. H., Ed., AOCS, Kuala Lumpur, 67, 1990.
Barford, N. M., Krog, N., Larsen, G., and Buchheim, W., Effects of emulsifiers on protein-fat interaction
in ice cream mix during ageing 1: Quantitative analysis, Fat Sci. Technol., 24, 1993.
Borwanker, R. P., and Buliga, G. S., Emulsion properties of margarines and low fat spreads, A.I.Ch.E.
Symp., Vol. 86, No. 277, 44, 1990.
Brooker, B. E., The stabilization of air in cake batters the role of fat, Food Structure, 12, 285, 1993.
Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., The use of emulsifiers in short dough biscuits, FMBRA Bulletin 2, April, 1981.
Burt, D. J. and Thacker, D., Further investigations of emulsifiers in short dough biscuits, FMBRA Bulletin
5, October, 1983.
Flack, E. A., Important factors which affect homogenisation efficiency, in Ice Cream and Frozen Confectionery, Ice Cream Alliance Ltd., London, February, 1983.
Flack, E. A., Europe Ice cream, legislative requirements, Paper presented at Grindsted Technical
Seminar, ICA Exhibition, Glasgow, 1991.
Flack, E. A., The role of emulsifiers in reduced fat and fat-free foods, in Food Technology International
Europe, Turner, A., Ed., Sterling Publications Limited, London, 1992, 179.
Flack, E. A., The Role of Emulsifying and Stabilizing Agents in Ice Cream, Grindsted Technical Paper
TP 210-1e, 1988.
Flack, E. A. and Krog, N., Emulsifiers in modern food production, Lipid Technol., 2(1), 11, 1990.
Hutchinson, P. E., Barocchi, F. and Del Vecchio, A. J., Effect of emulsifiers on the texture of cookies, J.
Food Sci., 42(2), 399, 1977.
Krog, N., Riisom, T. and Larsson, K., Applications in the food industry, in Encyclopaedia of Emulsion
Technology, Vol. 2, Becher, P., Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988, 321.
Krog, N., Food emulsifiers and their chemical and physical properties, in Food Emulsions, 2nd ed.,
Larsson, K. and Friberg, S. E., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1990, 127.
Krog, N., The role of low-polar emulsifiers in protein-stabilized emulsions, in Emulsions a Fundamental
Practical Approach, Sjblom, J., Ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, 61, 1992.
Larsen, G., The principles of homogenization of an ice cream mix, Paper presented at Inter-Ice 88,
Solingen, November, 1988.
Larsson, K. and Dejmek, P., Crystal and liquid crystal structures of lipids, in Food Emulsions, 2nd ed.,
Larsson, K. and Friberg, S. E., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1990, 97.
Madsen, J., Low-calorie spread and melange production in Europe, in World Conference on Edible Oils
and Fats, AOCS, Maastricht, October, 1989.
Miller, A. R., Ferguson, E. F., Thacker, D. and Wheeler, R. J., Fat reduction in biscuits and crackers,
FMBRA Report No. 140 Part 2, December, 1988.
Orthoefer, F. and McCaskill, D., Emulsifiers and their role in low-fat and no-fat processed foods, Inform,
3(12), 1270, 1278, 1992.
Stevens, D. J., The use of emulsifiers in biscuits, FMBRA Bulletin 1, February, 1975.
Tamstorf, S., Emulsifiers for bakery and starch products, Grinsted Technical Paper TP 9-1e, presented at
Grindsted Symposium, Beijing, September, 1983.
Chapter
11
Figure 11.1 The chemical structure of polydextrose. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United
Kingdom.)
Appearance
Odor
Melting point
Solubility (25C)
Viscosity (25C, 50%w/w)
Heat of solution
Water activity (20% w/w)
pH in water (100g/liter)
Titratable acidity
Caloric value
Relative sweetness
Water
Sorbitol
Glucose
a
1625,000
88.1%
5,00010,000
10.0%
10,00016,000
1.2%
16,00018,000
0.1%
White-cream amorphous powder
None
130C
80% w/w
33.2 centipoise
9 Kcal/g
0.992
2.53.5
0.140.16 meq/g
1 kcal/g
None
Max 4%
Max 2%a
Max 4%a
Figure 11.2 A comparison of the solubility of polydextrose, sucrose, and selected polyols at
20C. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)
Figure 11.5 A comparison of the moisture pick-up of Litesse, selected sugars, and polyols at
a Relative Humidity of 66% (30C). (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)
freezing point depression. Polydextrose has a higher average molecular weight and
therefore has a reduced and favorable effect on the freezing point depression compared
with smaller molecules such as sucrose or sorbitol, as shown in Figure 11.6 (Baer and
Baldwin, 1984 and 1985). Polydextrose has also shown some potential as a cryoprotectant
in fish and beef surimi (Park, 1986; Park and Lanier, 1987); in these products, polydextrose has some advantages over the traditionally used cryoprotectants such as sorbitol as
it does not add any unwanted sweet flavors.
Litesse and Litesse II are second and third generation polydextroses with a reduced
titratable acidity and improved flavor compared to polydextrose (Table 11.2). Litesse II
was specifically developed for use in light foods that are more flavor sensitive and where
Figure 11.6 Freezing point depressions of Litesse, selected sugars, and sorbitol at various
concentrations. (Courtesy of Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)
a higher level of sugar and fat replacement is required, e.g., confectionery, chocolate,
bakery fillings and toppings, jams/jellies, syrups, and spreads. The sensory characteristics
of Litesse and Litesse II in aqueous solution were similar when judged by trained panelists
using Quantitative Descriptive Analysis, and there were no significant differences
between the two at equivalent concentration in aqueous solution. However, sweetness
was the most intense flavor characteristic and Litesse II was judged sweeter than Litesse
at a concentration of 20%. The sweetness of Litesse II was probably enhanced by its
lower titratable acidity. Litesse II was also less bitter, astringent, and oily than Litesse.
Since Litesse II has a tenfold lower titratable acidity compared to Litesse, products made
with the former rarely have to be buffered. The acidity of Litesse II also means that
sucrose inversion in the presence of Litesse II is negligible and there is minimal effect
on fat rancidity and subsequent flavor changes. In practical terms, this means that in
most applications there is no need for an additional neutralization step when using Litesse.
Litesse II can be used at greater levels in a formulation because of its clean, mildly sweet
taste. In all other respects Litesse and Litesse II have the same bulking and functional
properties as the original polydextrose.
Polydextrose
Litesse
Litesse II
Taste
Acidity (mequiv/g)
Usage levels
Tart, acidic
0.1
Low
<5%
Strong
High
Yes
Bland, neutral
0.03
Medium
510%
Manageable
Modest
Sometimes
Granulated forms of Litesse are also available for ease of handling and speed of
dissolution. The primary applications for granulated Litesse are in the beverage, confectionery, and frozen dairy segments. Granulated Litesse has been shown to dissolve in
water (80 g/100 g water, 23C, 270 rpm) in 4.5 min compared with similar quantities of
generic polydextrose and Litesse which took 9.3 and 12.2 min to dissolve, respectively.
The flavor quality of the new generation polydextroses, Litesse and Litesse II, is such
that these bulking agents can successfully replace sugar and some fats in food products
without any adverse reaction on the taste quality of the final product. Since the polydextroses are essentially bland-tasting, they can be used in both sweet and savory applications. To maintain the sweetness level in sweet products such as confectionery, it is
advisable to replace the sweetness by the use of an approved high intensity sweetener.
The new generation sweeteners such as aspartame, acesulfame-K and alitame can be
used with polydextrose.
11.5 APPLICATIONS
Polydextrose is most commonly used to replace sugars in various desserts, confections,
baked goods, and other sweet foods. Typical applications for polydextrose include: ice
cream, instant puddings, jams, jellies, pastry, chilled desserts, bakery fillings, cakes,
biscuits, confections, frozen desserts, toppings and frostings, instant drinks, cereal bars,
extruded snacks, sauces, salad dressings, and peanut spreads. In these applications,
polydextrose reduces calories while maintaining the body and texture of full-sugar foods.
Although polydextrose is not a fat-replacer per se, it has a relatively high viscosity in
solution and can therefore contribute to the mouthfeel and creaminess of fat-reduced
formulations. Polydextrose can therefore be considered as a fat-mimetic in some applications.
11.5.1 REDUCED-FAT PASTRY
Polydextrose can be used to make fat-reduced pastry. In shortcrust pastry, the fat content
can be reduced by up to 50% with the addition of polydextrose while maintaining the
texture normally associated with traditional full-fat pastry. Studies have shown that the
addition of polydextrose to shortcrust pastry increased the crispness (especially noticeable in oven-reheated pastry products); reduced pastry shrinkage; improved the machinability of very thin sheets of dough; caused browning under microwave reheat conditions;
and reduced the amount of sugars and fats in shortcrust pastry without affecting the
organoleptic quality of the product. All of these benefits were possible without any
changes in processing conditions.
The effect of adding polydextrose to fat-reduced pastry dough in apple pies has been
studied. Polydextrose was added to the short-crust pastry dough at a rate of 13% on a
flour weight basis as shown in Table 11.3. The flour, fat, and sodium metabisulphite were
placed into the bowl of a planetary style mixer fitted with a pastry knife and mixed on
slow speed for 2 min. The salt, sugar, or polydextrose were dissolved in the water and
added to the flour and fat over a period of 10 s on slow speed. The mixture was then
mixed on medium speed for 45 s. The dough was left to stand for 30 min. For the apple
filling, the glycerine was dispersed with water before blending with the other ingredients.
Subsequently, 45 g of paste was blocked into 11 cm foil trays and filled with 60 g of
apple pie filling. The paste was also sheeted to 2.5 mm and lids cut at 11.3 cm diameter.
A steam vent was cut into each lid before they were blocked onto the base of the pie.
The pies were baked for 20 min in a gas fired reel oven, cooled, and stored in cellulose
film at 20C.
% Flour weight
For the pastry:
100
38
(Fat reduced from 47%)
1.2
19
0.0223
13
% Apple weight
100
100
1
23
10
12
After baking, the pies made from fat-reduced pastry containing polydextrose were
slightly darker than products made from a control pastry without polydextrose. Both the
lid and base pastry were darker in the polydextrose-containing samples. The brown color
development may be due to Maillard reaction or even the polydextrose itself. The
polydextrose pies were approximately 10% larger than the control samples. Since polydextrose reduces pastry shrinkage, thinner sheets of dough may be machined (<2.5mm)
and baked.
Polydextrose has been evaluated in savory and sweet, fat-reduced, shortcrust pastry
and found to give satisfactory products in all respects. Polydextrose produced a slightly
more crumbly, short texture when used as a substitute for sucrose or as a partial fat
replacer. In thin dough sheets, the baked product remained crisp yet friable.
Using polydextrose, the fat content of shortcrust pastry can be reduced to as little as
13 to 15% of dough weight while maintaining acceptable sensory characteristics. The
addition of small amounts of other shortening agents such as cornflour and rehydrated
potato flakes may improve the rework properties of the doughs at very low fat levels. In
general, the use of polydextrose at levels between 5 to 8% dough weight are optimal.
In studies sponsored by Pfizer Inc., light and electron microscopy methods have been
used to examine the structures of raw and cooked samples of pastry containing polydextrose. In addition, the effects of polydextrose on the hydration of the individual flour
components have been assessed using simple model systems (Groves et al., 1990).
Stereolight microscopy of fractured pieces of pastry showed a difference in crumb
structure between pastry containing polydextrose and the control sample. The control
sample had a more solid and continuous structure whereas addition of polydextrose
produced a coarser structure with an increased layering effect. The surfaces of the
polydextrose pastry were also darker.
Cold-stage Scanning Electron Microscopy (Cryo-SEM), was also used to examine
the polydextrose pastry (Groves et al., 1990). The surface of the cooked control sample
was smoother and more continuous than that of the samples containing 10% (dough
weight) polydextrose. Figures 11.7 and 11.8 demonstrate the differences between the
samples. The outlines of the starch grains could be seen more clearly in the pastry with
polydextrose, and larger spaces or cracks were visible (Figure 11.8).
Raw pastry samples were also examined using a resin-embedding technique and light
microscopy (Groves et al., 1990). In the control samples, more protein was dispersed to
form an even, continuous network linking the dark, oval-shaped starch grains. By contrast, in the polydextrose pastry, the protein was not as well-dispersed resulting in a
coarser, less homogeneous structure than in the control samples (Figure 11.8). The effects
of polydextrose were seen at levels of addition as low as 2.5% (dough weight basis), but
were most marked at the 10% level.
To gain further information on the effect of polydextrose on water absorption in pastry,
model systems were prepared using a gluten wash method (Groves et al., 1990). In these
models, 12 g of gluten, wheat starch, or flour were mixed with 18 g of water or 18 g of
water and 2 g of polydextrose and the free water was assessed visually. The observations
showed that there was more free water present in the model containing gluten, water,
and polydextrose than in the model containing gluten and water only, suggesting that
polydextrose was interfering with water uptake by the gluten. Little difference in water
uptake was found in the starch- and flour-based models.
Both the gluten and flour model systems described above were examined using coldstage SEM (Groves et al., 1990). The samples were etched to sublime away some of the
water, leaving a lacy network structure where less bound water was present. Comparison
of the model systems showed that addition of polydextrose resulted in a more icy matrix
(Figure 11.9). This indicated reduced hydration of the gluten in the presence of polydextrose.
When flour and water are mixed together, the gluten proteins hydrate, uncoil, and
form a three dimensional visco-elastic structure of large proteins primarily linked together
by disulphide bonds. In order to make shortcrust pastry, the fat in the recipe acts as the
shortening agent, interrupting and preventing continuous gluten development (Patient,
1994). It has been proposed that in fat-reduced pastry containing polydextrose, shortening action is achieved by three mechanisms. First, polydextrose absorption of water
reduces the amount of water available to the gluten and starch; second, polydextrose
reduces the pH of the system, thereby inhibiting formation of gluten; and third, polydextrose binds to the protein. The microscopy and model system studies have indicated
that polydextrose inhibited the rapid development of strands of gluten when wheatflour
endosperm came into contact with water. It is therefore likely that the first mechanism
predominates, although the second and third mechanisms cannot be ruled out.
11.5.2 OTHER APPLICATIONS
Polydextrose can be used to replace part of the fat in soft chewy candies with little effect
on structure. Since polydextrose has a higher viscosity than simple sugars and polyols
at equivalent concentrations, it can contribute to the creamy mouthfeel of the product.
Spoonable and pourable dressings can be made with reduced levels of oil using
polydextrose. Polydextrose provides some of the functionality of the oil by providing
mouthfeel, viscosity, and bulk in this application (Kappas et al., 1993).
Polydextrose functions particulary well as a sugar replacer and fat mimetic in chilled
desserts. A dessert can readily be formulated with polydextrose to achieve a 50% calorie
reduction when used with a high intensity sweetener. Layered desserts and yogurts
(Barrantes and Tamime, 1993) have been successfully formulated using polydextrose as
a low-calorie bulking agent.
b
Figure 11.7 Cold-stage scanning electron micrograph of the surface of cooked control pastry
(a) and cooked pastry containing 10% (dough weight) polydextrose (b). (Courtesy of Leatherhead Food R. A., Surrey and Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)
b
Figure 11.8 Light micrograph of a resin section of raw control pastry (a) and raw pastry
containing 10% (dough weight) polydextrose (b). (Courtesy of Leatherhead Food R. A., Surrey
and Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)
b
Figure 11.9 Cold-stage scanning electron micrograph of the control flour and water model
system (a) and of the flour and water model system containing polydextrose (b). (Courtesy of
Leatherhead Food R. A., Surrey and Pfizer Ltd., Kent, United Kingdom.)
Polydextrose can be used as a low-calorie bulking agent and texture modifier in the
water phase of a variety of emulsion products that can be considered spreads. A 33%
calorie and fat reduction is possible in products such as peanut spread (FAP, 1988; Pfizer,
1989).
Directive on Food Additives other than Colors and Sweeteners (95/2/EC) in Annex 1
(generally permitted food additives at quantum satis levels), and Annex V (carriers and
carrier solvents). Polydextrose is listed as E1200 in Europe and is currently approved in
over 45 countries.
In the U.S., polydextrose is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
for use in the following product categories: chewing gum, confections and frostings,
dressings for salads, frozen dairy desserts and mixes, gelatins, puddings and fillings,
hard candy, soft candy, baked goods and baking mixes, fruit spread, peanut spreads,
toppings, and sweet sauces. The FDA also allows labeling of a caloric value of 1 kcal/g
for polydextrose, as do most countries where polydextrose is approved.
REFERENCES
Achour, L., Flourie, B., Briet, F., Pellier, P., Martealp, Ph., and Rambaud, J.C., Gastrointestinal effects
and energy value of Polydextrose in normal man, Unpublished report of INSERM, Paris, 1992.
Allingham, R.P., Polydextrose-a new food ingredient, in Technical Aspects, Chemistry of Foods and
Beverages: Recent Developments, Academic Press, New York, 1982, 293.
Bachmann, W., Haslbeck, M., and Mehnert, H., Untersuchungen zur diatetischen Vewendung von Polydextrose bei Diabetikern., Akt. Endokr. Stoffw., 3, 124, 1982.
Baer, R.J. and Baldwin, K. A., Freezing points of bulking agents used in manufacture of low-calorie
frozen desserts, J. Dairy Sci., 67, 2860, 1984.
Baer, R.J. and Baldwin, K.A., Bulking agents can alter freezing, Dairy Field, February, 1985.
Barrantes, E. and Tamime, A.Y., Fat-free yogurt-like or dislike, Ingredients Focus, November, 1993.
Beereboom, J.J., Technical aspects of polydextrose, Polydextrose Trade Press Briefing, New York, May
28, 1981.
Commission of the European Communities Report of the 71st Meeting of the EC-Scientific Committee
for Food., Brussels, January 25/26, 1990.
FAP. (7A3998), Use of Polydextrose in peanut butter spread, Fed. Register 53, (16), January 26, 1988.
Figdor, S.K. and Rennhard, H.H., Caloric utilization and disposition of 14C polydextrose in the rat., J.
Agric. Food Chem., 29, 1181, 1981.
Figdor, S.K. and Bianchine, J.R., Caloric utilization and disposition of 14C polydextrose in man., J. Agric.
Food Chem., 31, 389, 1983.
Grossklaus R., Gesundheitliche Bewertung der Risiken durch Lebensmittelzusatzstoffe am Beispiel der
Zuckeraustauschstoffe., Bundesgesundheitsblatt, 12, 578, 1990.
Groves, K., Foster, T., Buchanan, M., and OSullivan, M., An Examination of the Effects of Polydextrose
Addition on the Texture and Structure of Pastry. A confidential report P3125 for Pfizer, Inc.,
Leatherhead Food Res. Assoc., Surrey, U.K. May, 1990.
Hamanaka. M, Polydextrose as a water-soluble food fibre, Food Ind., 30(17), 73, 1987.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants, Thirty-first report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, World
Health Organization Technical Report Series 759, 31, 1987.
Kappas, J.D., Kopchik, F.M., and Moppett, F.K., Litesse, in Science for the Food Industry of the 21st
Century, Biotechnology, Supercritical Fluids, Membranes and other Advanced Technologies for
Low Calorie, Healthy Food Alternatives, Manssur Yalpani, Ed., ATL Press, Mount Prospect, IL,
1(3), 1993.
Kruger, D., Grossklaus, R., Wesolowski, T., and Beier, M., Microcalorimetric investigations into the
metabolic activity of rat caecal flora in the presence of different sugars and sugar substitutes,
Microbios, 57, 42, 1987.
Kruger, D., Ziese, T., and Grossklaus, R., Caloric availability of Polydextrose in rats., Akt. Ernahr.- Med.,
15, 82, 1990.
Kobayashi T. and Yoshino H., Enzymatic hydrolysis of Polydextrose, Denpun Kagaku, 36, 283, 1989.
McGaw, B.A., The development of a method to measure the caloric availability of bulking agents.,
Unpublished report of the Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen, 1991.
Muhlemann, H.R., Polydextrose-ein kalorienarmer Zuckererstzstoffe. Swiss Dent., 1(3), 29, 1980.
Murray, P.R., Polydextrose, in Low-Calorie Products, Birch, G.G. and Lindley, M.G., Eds., Elsevier
Applied Science, London, 1988, 83.
Moppett, F.K., Polydextrose, in Alternative Sweeteners 2nd ed., OBrien Nabors, L. and Gelardi, R.C.,
Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1991, 401.
Park, J.W., Effects of cryoprotectants on properties of beef protein during frozen storage, Ph.D. Dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 1986.
Park, J.W. and Lanier, T.C., Combined effects of phosphates and sugar and polyols on stabilization of
fish myofibrils., J. Food Sci., 52(6), 1509, 1987.
Patient, D., The chemistry of pastry products, Nutr. Food Sci., 4, 33, 1994.
Pfizer, Inc., Polydextrose in Peanut Butter, U.S. Patent 4,814,195, 1989.
Rennhard, H.H. (Pfizer), U.S. Patent 3,876,794, 1975.
The Foundation for Health and Physical Development, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan.
Thomas, J.W., Brown, D.L., Hoch, D.J., Leary, J.J., and Dokladalova, J., Determination of polydextrose
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White, J.S., Parsons, C.M., and Baker, D.H., An in vitro digestibility assay for the prediction of the
metabolizable energy of low-calorie dextrose polymeric bulking agents., J. Food Sci., 53, 1204,
1988.
Chapter
13
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Fats and oils contribute flavor, palatability, mouthfeel, creaminess, and lubricating action
to foods (Swanson and Akoh, 1994). Frying in fats or oils transmits heat rapidly and
uniformly, evaporates moisture, and provides a high temperature, promoting crisping and
browning. The desirable contribution and functions that fat provides in foods are important to consumer expectations, desires, and acceptance of fat-containing foods.
The basic approach for achieving calorie reduction while maintaining the chemical
structure of the triacylglycerol is by manipulation of the composition of the fatty acids
esterified to the glycerol. This type of compound therefore constitutes a separate group
of fat replacers, i.e., the low-calorie fats. Since replacement of the fatty acids of triglycerides with alternative acids is usually achieved through structuring of triglycerides by
hydrolysis and random transesterification of medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) and
long-chain triglycerides (LCTs), such compounds are commonly referred to as structured
lipids.
Synthetic fat substitutes are compounds that physically and chemically resemble
triglycerides, are stable to cooking or frying temperatures, and theoretically replace fat
on a one to one, gram for gram basis in foods (Rudolph et al., 1991). Fat substitution
1996 CRC Press LLC
1994; Smith et al., 1994). Selection of triglycerides containing specific short-, medium-,
and/or long-chain fatty acids for the initial reaction mixture allows for control of the
functional and physical properties of the resulting fats or oils.
Caprenin was the first structured lipid introduced on the market as a medium- and
long-chain low-calorie triglyceride by the Procter & Gamble Company. Caprenin is a
synthetic triglyceride composed of caprylic (C8:0), capric (C10:0), and behenic (C22:0)
fatty acids. The medium-chain triglycerides are derived from coconut and palm kernel
oils, while the behenic acid comes from hydrogenated canola oil. Because the long-chain
behenic acid liberated in gastric hydrolysis is mostly transported through the intestinal
tract unmetabolized, and because the remaining caprylic and capric fatty acids are
metabolized less efficiently than more common fatty acids, Caprenin provides a caloric
density of 5 kcal/g. Caprenin is approved for use as a confectionery fat, apparently
because the fatty acids in Caprenin occur naturally in other foods. Minor concerns remain
in relation to the limited knowledge surrounding the metabolism of behenic acid. Caprenin was designed to mimic the physical properties of cocoa butter or confectionery fat,
and is being used in conjunction with polydextrose (Pfizer Specialty Chemicals Group)
in Milky Way II and Milky Way Lite (Mars, Inc.) candy bars. The potential utility of
Caprenin as a frying fat is limited by thermal stability and price.
A more recent family of structured triacylglycerols named Salatrim was discovered
by the Nabisco Foods Group (Smith et al., 1994; Softly et al., 1994). Salatrim is composed of a random distribution of short-chain fatty acids (acetic, propionic, and/or
butyric) and long-chain fatty acids (predominantly stearic). The caloric availability of
Salatrim is approximately 5 kcal/g. The melting temperature range of Salatrim is controlled by incorporation of various preparations of short-chain fatty acids on the triacylglycerol with the long-chain saturated fatty acids. The ratio of short-chain fatty acids to
long-chain fatty acids is used to obtain flexibility in the functional and physical properties
of Salatrim. Salatrim preparations are available to emulate cocoa butter, as well as for
use in baked products and filled dairy products. An extensive testing program of the
chemistry, genetics, toxicology, animal feeding outcomes, and human clinical trials
concluded that consumption of anticipated concentrations of Salatrim resulted in no
significant adverse biological, toxicological, or nutritional effects (Hayes and Riccio,
1994; Hayes et al., 1994a, b, c; Smith et al., 1994). In 1994, it was announced that Pfizers
Food Science Group had licensed the Salatrim family of reduced-calorie fats from
Nabisco and was planning to develop and commercialize Salatrim for enrobed and
molded chocolates, ice cream, dairy products, snacks, and baked products (Venardos,
1995).
Jojoba oil, although not a synthetic or structured triglyceride, is interesting in the
context of this chapter because it contributes less than 4 kcal/g to foods due to the
presence of C20:1 and C22:1 fatty acids leading to poor digestibility (Hamm, 1984).
The viscosity and interfacial tension of jojoba oil are similar to other types of edible
oils. Jojoba oil is only slightly hydrolyzed in vitro, suggesting possible resistance to
digestion in vivo. (Artz and Hansen, 1994; Hamm, 1984; Ranhotra and Gelroth, 1989).
Since the majority of jojoba oil is not absorbed, potential problems with anal leakage,
diarrhea, reduced growth, nutrient absorption, and death may result from excessive
consumption (Decombaz et al., 1984; Ranhotra and Gelroth, 1989). Jojoba oil and its
derivatives are being used in a variety of nonfood applications including cosmetic and
pharmaceutical products (Hamm, 1984; Winsniak, 1994).The potential for jojoba oil as
a low-calorie oil substitute may be limited due to its cost and limited availability (Artz
and Hansen, 1994; Ranhotra and Gelroth, 1989).
sucrose mono- and di-esters of oleate, molten sucrose, and methyl oleate, a basic catalyst
(1 to 10%) such as sodium, and potassium carbonate or hydroxide to form a homogeneous
melt at 120 to 180C under less than 10 mm Hg pressure, yielded 95 to 99% sucrose
fatty acid polyester.
A solvent-free single step synthesis combines the sugar, acetate, fatty acid methyl
esters (FAME) and 1 to 2% sodium metal in a three-neck reaction flask prior to heating
(Akoh and Swanson, 1990; McCoy et al., 1989). Formation of a one phase melt is
achieved 20 to 30 min after heat is applied (Akoh and Swanson, 1990). High yields of
sucrose fatty acid polyesters (SPE) are obtained at temperatures as low as 105C, and
synthesis times as short as 2 h by utilizing a vacuum of less than 5 mm Hg pressure
(McCoy et al., 1989). The advantage of the solvent-free single step synthesis is that
acetate groups in the sucrose octaacetate are good leaving and protecting groups against
sucrose degradation and carmelization during SPE synthesis; thus the yield of SPE is
increased and isolation and recovery of SPE are more convenient (Akoh and Swnason,
1988; McCoy et al., 1989; Mieth et al., 1983).
Modification of syntheses by selecting catalysts such as potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, and/or sodium methoxide results in improved yields and more efficient
clean-up procedures (Akoh and Swanson, 1988; Drake et al., 1994; Feuge et al., 1970;
McCoy et al., 1989; Myhre, 1971; Yamamoto and Kinami, 1986). The success of oligosaccharide fatty acid polyester syntheses has led to interest in the possibility of
synthesizing even larger polysaccharide esters such as those based on maltodextrins
(Akoh, 1994; Akoh and Swanson, 1987a, 1989a and b).
Direct esterification of reducing sugars such as glucose and galactose results in
extensive sugar degradation and charring. Therefore, glycosylation or alkylation is necessary to convert reducing sugars with reactive C-1 anomeric centers to nonreducing less
reactive anomeric centers (Akoh, 1994; Akoh and Swanson, 1989a). Synthesis of alkyl
glucoside fatty acid mono- and di-esters for use as emulsifiers (Albano-Garcia et al.,
1980; Gibbons and Swanson, 1959), antimicrobials (Yang, 1993), or additives to culinary
mixes (Myhre, 1971) is reported. However, little is reported on the synthesis of alkyl
glycoside fatty acid polyesters for use as fat substitutes to replace edible fats and oils in
foods. Myhre (1971) describes a two-stage process for synthesis of methyl glucoside
tetrapalmitate utilizing sodium methoxide as a catalyst and methyl glucoside mono-, di-,
tri- and tetra-propionates as intermediates for interesterification with methyl palmitate.
Akoh and Swanson (1989a) reported synthesis of novel alkyl glycoside polyesters by
solvent-free interesterification of the alkyl glycoside tetraacetate with fatty acid methyl
esters of long chain fatty acids from vegetable oils. The potential utilization of methyl
glucoside fatty acid tetraesters as noncaloric fat substitutes is under investigation.
In recent years, the increased availability and reduction in price of specific lipases
have meant that the preparation of carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters by enzymic interesterification is an increasingly attractive proposition (Bjorkling et al., 1989; Riva, 1994;
Seino et al., 1984). Enzymic syntheses offer the advantage of specificity, low reaction
temperatures, reasonable yields, and less purification technology compared to chemical
syntheses. For example, clean-up and purification of chemically synthesized carbohydrate
fatty acid polyesters involves a variety of procedures including washing extensively (four
to five times) with 10 to 20 volumes of water at 70C; washing five times with 95%
ethanol at 80C; clay washing with 5% by weight of bleaching clay; short path distillation;
and finally steam distillation.
The fatty acids selected as starting materials for the synthesis of sucrose fatty acid
polyesters contribute to the functional properties of the synthetic fat substitute including
the melting point onset and temperature, consistency, color, heat stability, and others.
The physical properties of carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters are reported by Akoh and
Swanson (1989a and b, 1990), Jandacek and Webb (1978) and Drake and colleagues
(1994a, b, and c). In general, the color, consistency, density, specific gravity, and refractive
indices of the carbohydrate fatty acid polyesters approximate the physical properties of
the natural vegetable oils and animal fats used in their preparation (Akoh, 1994). However, the melting point onset, hardness, and fatty acid profiles of milkfat blend polyesters
are different than those of milkfat, and are dependent on the fatty acid composition of
the sucrose fatty acid polyesters (Drake et al., 1994a). The viscosities of milkfat SPE
and milkfat-blend SPE are significantly greater than the viscosity of milkfat (Drake et al.,
1994c). The rheological behavior defining the viscoelastic behavior of milkfat SPE as
storage (G ) and loss (G ) moduli are frequency dependent whereas those for milkfat
are not. Milkfat is more elastic than milkfat SPE at 20C as determined by a smaller
loss tangent, the ratio of loss modulus to storage modulus.
Practical applications of sucrose fatty acid polyesters in foods such as ice cream (Wei,
1984), Cheddar cheese (Drake et al., 1994a), sausage (Linares, 1995), and as a vegetable
oil ingredient or frying fat suggest great potential for promoting improved consumer
health as well as achieving functional and economical acceptance and success. For a
detailed discussion of some of the nutritional implications of replacing part of the fat in
the diet by SPE, the reader is referred to Chapter 2.
13.5 CONCLUSIONS
The sucrose fatty acid polyester olestra is currently the only synthetic fat substitute with
a petition in review by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. A November, 1995
hearing on the safety of olestra before the FDA Food Advisory Committee resulted in a
recommendation for approval. Final FDA approval for olestra is expected early in 1996.
Beck concluded in 1992 that synthetic fat research is dynamic and exciting; synthetic
fat commercialization mostly isnt. Synthetic fat substitutes share not only structural
similarities and bulk which simulate the properties of fat, but also chemical, sensory,
and functional similarities, as well as a resistance to digestion by pancreatic lipases and
absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Synthetic fat substitutes are not a panacea for
poor dietary habits. The effect of synthetic fat substitutes on reducing fat consumption
remains to be seen, but at the very least, synthetic fat substitutes will improve the
palatability and acceptability of reduced-fat foods (Sowinski, 1991; Swanson, 1992).
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Appendix
The following table groups fat replacers according to the classification presented in
Chapter 1 (Section 1.4.2). In each group, the fat replacers are listed in alphabetical order
of their trade names (or common names). This should enable the reader to easily locate
a particular fat replacer in the table. It should be noted that, while registered trademarks
are not included in the table, the majority of the trade names do in fact carry registered
trademarks and the ownership of these belong to the developers or manufacturers which
are given in the fourth column of the table. Other information given in the table includes
chemical name/composition (with origin of the base material and processes used, where
appropriate and when available), the concentration at which the fat replacer is normally
used, special features, and applications in foods.
All the information given in the table has been compiled over the years at the Leatherhead Food Research Association from published data, ingredient launches, and company brochures, and is exclusively concerned with those ingredients that have been
purposely developed, or, in the case of established ingredients, have been claimed and
used to replace some of the functional properties of fats in terms of mouthfeel, structural,
or textural characteristics. Hence, the list deliberately does not include those ingredients
which have been developed to provide only the flavors associated with particular fats or
oils. Furthermore, standard basic ingredients (e.g., gelatin, caseinate, other proteins, and
starches) are omitted in order to simplify the table, although, as discussed in Chapters 1
and 4, it is well recognized that some play useful supporting roles in replacing fat in
* Reproduced from Jones, S. A., Fat replacers database, Leatherhead Food Research Association. With
permission.
certain products. On the other hand, some fat replacers that made an impact at one time
but were either not commercialized or their production has subsequently been discontinued, are included in the list, and the significance of these is made apparent in Chapter 1
and Chapter 4. Finally, synthetic fat substitutes are included in the table. At the time of
writing, they remained only as possible concepts for fat replacement in the future, since,
so far, none have been approved for use in foods. As mentioned in Chapters 1 and 13,
petitions for the use of olestra in foods have been with the FDA since 1987, and a final
decision was expected before the end of 1995.
It should be noted that, although the table includes nearly 300 individual ingredients
or systems introduced by different companies, absence from the list does not have any
negative implications. Furthermore, the inclusion in this list of a fat replacer from a
particular manufacturer does not indicate preferential endorsement of a product.
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Starch-derived
Amalean I
18%
Starch-derived
Amalean Instant II
Starch-derived
C*Pur 01906
C*Pur 019R7
Starch-derived
CrystaLean
Dairytrim
Starch-derived
Debranched Araban
Starch-derived
Enzymically
debranched starch
Starch-derived
Instant Pure-Flo
Highly crystalline
maltodextrin with high fiber
content
Starch-derived
Enzymically debranched
sugar beet araban
Partially enzymically
debranched waxy maize
starch
HP waxy corn starch
Applications
Cheesecake, pour/spoonable
salad dressings, sauces,
cream fillings, dips, spreads,
bakery, dairy products
Bakery, sauces, gravies,
soups, salad dressings, dairy
products, dips, icings,
cheese spreads, desserts
Salad dressings, sauces, ice
cream, butter cream,
margarine, processed meats
Extruded and baked foods,
biscuits, crackers, cookies
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Starch-derived
Leanbind
Modified starch
Starch-derived
LoDex 5
LoDex 10
Starch-derived
Lycadex 100
Lycadex 200
Starch-derived
Maltrin M040
Maltrin M100
Maltrin M150
Starch-derived
N-Lite B
Starch-derived
N-Lite CL
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Grain Processing
Corporation, IA, USA
Applications
Meat, fish and poultry
products
Starch-derived
N-Lite D
Modified starch
24%
Dairy products
Starch-derived
N-Lite L
210%
210%
N-Lite S
2%
Starch-derived
N-Lite SP
23%
Starch-derived
N-Oil
Instant N-Oil
Instant N-Oil II
Starch-derived
Navadex 120-01
Navadex 120-10
Starch-derived
Novelose
Starch-derived
N-Lite LP
Starch-derived
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Starch-derived
OptaGrade
Starch-derived
Paselli SA2
Paselli Excel
Minimum concentration
20% solids to form a gel
system
Paselli Excel cold water
soluble, flavor free
Starch-derived
Pure-Gel B-990
Grain Processing
Corporation, IA, USA
Starch-derived
Quaker Oatrim
Quaker Oatrim
Quaker Oatrim
Quaker Oatrim
Pro-Oatrim
Starch-derived
Remyline range
Remygel range
1
5
10
5Q
Applications
Fermented dairy products,
processed cheese, frozen
desserts, salad cream, watercontinuous-margarine-type
spreads
Dressings, sauces, spreads,
frozen desserts, toppings,
cakes, butter creams and
fillings
Dips, spreads, sauces,
gravies, sausages, ham and
other meat products
QO 5 processed meat,
bakery, prepared foods
QO 5Q delicately flavored
applications. Generally
bakery products and
ingredients, beverages,
sauces, dairy products,
meat, fish and poultry, salad
dressings, soups, spreads
Dairy products, baby foods,
sauces, soups, salad
dressings, mayonnaise,
baked goods, margarine,
frozen foods, ice cream,
processed meats
Starch-derived
Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin
Rice*Trin
Starch-derived
3 Complete
10 Complete
18 Complete
10
18
Rice-gel L-100
Starch-derived
Slenderlean
1%
Starch-derived
Sta-Slim 142
24%
Available as DE 1, 5, 10, or
15. High bulking ability
13%
Sta-Slim 143
Sta-Slim 150
Sta-Slim 151
Starch-derived
Sta-Slim 171
Star-Dri range
Starch-derived
StarchPlus SPR
StarchPlus SPW-LP
Group
Starch-derived
Trade Name/
Common Name
Stellar
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
A. E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA
Crystalline particles of
modified golden pea
carbohydrate, (90%
carbohydrate in that 10%
dietary fiber)
Partially pre-gelatinized
starch derived from cassava
flour
Enzymically hydrolyzed oat
flour; typically 5%
-glucan, DE 5;
OC 23% -glucan
B-Trim = Reduced viscosity
form
Woodstone Foods
Corporation, Manitoba,
Canada
23% in sausages
Available in granulated,
powder and flake forms
110%
Typically gel formed at 25%
solids and used after 24h
refrigeration period
Instant Stellar
Starch-derived
Still-Water Crystals
Starch-derived
Tapiocaline range
Starch-derived
TrimChoice (Oatrim) =
TrimChoice 5
TrimChoice OC
B-Trim
Fiber-based
Fiber-based
Avicel AC-815
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
Baked goods, frostings,
fillings, gravies, sauces,
dairy products, salad
dressings, cheese products,
soups, spreads, meat
products, confectionery,
frozen dairy desserts
Baked goods, dairy products,
and processed meats
1%
Enhanced flavor release;
opacity
Fiber-based
Fiber-based
Avicel FD-006
Avicel FD-100
Avicel PH-105
Avicel LM
Avicel RC-501
Avicel RC-581
Avicel RC-591F
Avicel CL-611
Better Basics Advanced
Oat Fibre White (780)
Tan (770)
Extra-fine (782)
Cellulon
Fiber-based
Cellulose Powder
Fiber-based
Centu Tex
Centara II
Fiber-based
Enzymically
hydrolyzed cellulose
Fiber-based
FD and PH Powdered
grades of micro crystalline
cellulose (MCC)
LM Reduced porosity
MCC
RC and CL Colloidal
grades. i.e., co-processed
MCC and CMC
Oat fiber
0.25.0%
High shear required for all
grades
FD Liquid foods,
LM Low moisture foods,
RC/CL Improved
dispersability
36%
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Fiber-based
Ex-Cel
Fiber-based
Fibercel
Fiber-based
Fibrex
Fiber-based
Fibrim
Fibrim
Fibrim
Fibrim
Protein Technologies
International, NJ, USA
1020
1250
1255
1450
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
Bakery products, beverages,
sauces, confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, fruits and
vegetables, meat, fish and
poultry products, salad
dressings, mayonnaise,
snack foods
Ice cream, frozen yogurt,
cheese products, processed
meats, puddings,
mayonnaise, salad
dressings, frostings and
icings, fillings, beverages,
soups, canned foods, breads
Baby foods, bakery products
and ingredients, beverages,
breakfast cereals, sauces,
confectionery, dairy
products, desserts, fruit and
vegetables, meat, fish and
poultry products, pet foods,
salad dressings, soups,
snack foods
1020 Liquid beverages
1250 RTE cereals
1255 Extruded snacks and
low calorie baked goods
1450 High fiber and
reduced calorie baked goods
Fiber-based
Fibruline
Inulin
(fructose polymers, DP
260, with one glucose
unit); obtained from chicory
root
Hemicellulose
Fiber-based
Hemicellulose
Fiber-based
Just Fibre
Fiber-based
JustFiber CL-35H
JustFiber CS-35H
Fiber-based
Lean Maker
Fiber-based
Methocel
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose
Methylcellulose (MC)
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC)
Fiber-based
540%
Stable at temp < 85C and
down to pH 2. Bifidus
stimulating properties
3% in low-fat meat
5% in pork sausages
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Fiber-based
P-Fiber 150
Fiber-based
Potex
Potex PPC
Fiber-based
Raftiline
Raftiline
Raftiline
Raftiline
Raftiline
Fiber-based
Snowite
Fiber-based
Sofalite F179
Sofalite M176
GR
HP
LS
ST
ST-Gel
Chemical Name/
Composition
Pea fiber
150C Coarse, particles
1-2 mm
150M Medium ground,
particles 200 mm
150F Fine ground,
particles 30 mm
Potato fiber (75% dietary
fibers (-cellulose, pectin,
hemi-cellulose, lignin), 10%
starch and other
carbohydrates, 0.3% fat)
Inulin (fructose polymers, DP
2 - 60, with one glucose
unit) obtained from chicory
root
GR Granulated
HP High Performance
LS Low Sugar (2%)
ST Standard (8% sucrose)
ST-Gel Instant
Alkaline peroxide treated oat
fibers
Prepared by separation,
purification, drying and
grinding of specific pea
species
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
Bifidus stimulating
210%
Fiber-based
Fiber-based
Swelite
150%
High-shear processing aids
its water retention properties
Fiber-based
Tabulose
Tabulose
Tabulose
Tabulose
BLANVER
FARMOQUIMICA LTDA
(Brazil)/BLANVER USA
(New Jersey)/ZetaPharm,
Inc.
0.520%
Fiber-based
UltraCel range
0.352.50%
Synergistic with xanthan
gum, CMC, and
galactomannans; unaffected
by high temp., high salt,
extreme pH, and freezethaw cycling
101
102
SC-601
SC-681
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
Fiber-based
Vitacel range
Alpha-cellulose powder
produced in several variants
with varying fiber lengths
Protein-based
Protein-based
Dairy-Lo
Protein-based
Dairylight
Protein-based
Finesse
25%
(Water binder and
emulsifier)
Protein-based
Lactalbumin 75
Lactalbumin 70 SGH
Protein-based
Lactomil 9000
Lactomil HF
Protein-based
Lita A
Lita C
Lita D
Lita KC
Protein-based
Miprodan
Protein-based
Nutrilac DR-6010
Nutrilac DR-7015
Nutrilac DR-8080
Nutrilac HA-7570
Nutrilac IC-7702
Nutrilac PSE-7
Nutrilac PSE-10
Nutrilac PSE-54
Nutrilac YO-5010
Nutrilac YO-5011
Nutrilac YO-7703
MILEI, Germany
610%
MILEI, Germany
610%
Hydrophobic
microparticulated protein
Ice cream
YO-5010 and YO-5011
1.02.0%,
YO-7703 0.62.5%,
DR-6010 1.05.0%,
DR-8080 0.54.0%
(DR 6010 needs heat
treatment for best results)
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Protein-based
Pea Protein
Protein-based
Simplesse 100
Protein-based
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Simplesse 300
Protein-based
Simplesse D-100
Protein-based
Simplesse D-500
Protein-based
Soy Protein
Concentrate
Concentration Used/
Special Features
130%
(Initally heat sensitive,
later developed to withstand
UHT, pasteurization and
retorting conditions. 35 days
shelf-life under refrigerated
conditions) Production
discontinued
120%
(Higher viscosity than
Simplesse 100
Short shelf-life under
refrigerated conditions)
Production discontinued
130%
Powder form with
performance equal to
original liquid form (S100)
45%
3%
Applications
Meat products, dressings,
sauces, baked products,
biscuits
Frozen desserts, dairy
products, baked goods,
salad dressings, spreads,
sauces, toppings, frostings
Protein-based
Supro range
Protein Technologies
International, NJ, USA
Protein-based
Trailblazer range
Microfragmented protein
formed through
protein/polysaccharide
interaction, e.g., whey
protein concentrate/egg
white and xanthan
Trailblazer II Whey
protein based
Trailblazer III Skim milk
based
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Aquagel
Aquavis
Milkgel
Milkvis
BenGel
Benvisco
Benlacta
Carrageenan
Carrageenan
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Genu carrageenan
Iota carrageenan
Kelcogel range
Gellan gum
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Kelcoloid LVF
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Keltrol range
Xanthan gum
0.10.5%
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Konjac-N
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Liangels
Spraygum
Gelamix
Emulgum
Nutricol Konjac Flour
Carrageenan
Acacia gum
Xanthan gum
Colloides Naturels
International, Neuilly sur
Seine, France
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Procol range
Guar gum
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Rhodigel
Xanthan gum
Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Slendid 100
Slendid 110
Slendid 200
Gums/gels/
thickeners
0.41.5%
100 and 110 require
calcium ions to form gels
(30mg Ca++/1g) and high
shearing of the gels formed
200 Water binder
Applications
Salad dressings, sauces,
frozen desserts, bakery
products, margarine,
spreads
Sponge cake, soft biscuits,
bread, frozen foods,
sausages, processed meat
and fish products, soups,
sauces, dressings, ice cream
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Gums/gels/
thickeners
Supercol F
Guar gum
Xanthan gum
Xanthan gum
Jungbunzlauer Inc.,
Switzerland
Emulsifiers
Atmos range
Emulsifiers
Atmul range
Emulsifiers
DATEM
GMS
SSL
Emulsifiers
Dimodan range
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers
Dur-Em 114
Dur-Em 117
Dur-Em 204
Dur-Lo
Emulsifiers
Emulsilac SK
DATEM Biscuits
GMS Cakes, spreads, nondairy whipping systems
SSL Bread and biscuits
0.11.0%
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Emulsifiers
Myvacet 9-45
Distilled acetylated
monoglycerides
Emulsifiers
Polyaldo range
Emulsifiers
Triodan R90
Polyglycerol ester of
interesterified ricinoleic
acid
Bulking
agents
Maltitol
Bulking
agents
Polydextrose
Litesse
Litesse II
Bulking
agents
Sta-Lite
Low-calorie
fats
Aldo MCT
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
Bakery products and
ingredients, breakfast
cereals, sauces, dairy
products, spreads
Frozen desserts, margarine,
shortenings, peanut butter,
whipped toppings, and
bakery goods
w/o spreads
A. E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA
Fast dissolving
Low-calorie
fats
Caprenin
Triglyceride composed of
caprylic (C8:0), capric
(C10:0) and behenic
(C22:0) fatty acids
Low-calorie
fats
Captex 300
Captex 350
Captex 355
(New AKomed range)
Neobee M-5 MCT Oil
Karlshamns, Sweden
8.3 kcal/g.
Delivers quick energy
Lower tendency to form
depot fat
7% in oatmeal cookies
8.3 kcal/g.
Delivers quick energy
5 kcal/g.
Designed to replace primarily
confectionery fats
0.250.5%
Fat replacer and flavoring
system
Contains 13.5% fat
Availability depends on FDA
approval for Olestra
Low-calorie
fats
Low-calorie
fats
Salatrim
Fat extenders
Fat extenders
Olestrin
Fat extenders
Prime-O-Lean
Prime-O-Lean Vit
(or Algesteren)
< 25%
Replacement for animal fat
No longer available from
Devro Inc.
Chocolate, confectionery
products, (salad dressing,
mayonnaise, baked goods,
frozen dinners, margarine,
spreads, milk, cheese)
Primarily as a replacement
for liquid vegetable oils in
products
Margarine, mayonnaise,
salad oils, processed cheese,
baked goods and frying
foods (Below 325F)
Chocolate coatings,
confectionery products,
baked goods. Patent
applications include
natural and processed
cheese, cultured products,
and ice cream
Dairy products
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Fat extenders
VanSystem PC-50
VanSystem CF-50
Fat extenders
Veri-Lo 100
Fat extenders
Veri-Lo 200
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
PC-50 Partially
hydrogenated soybean and
cotton seed oils, mono and
diglycerides, BHT, citric
acid
CF-50 PC + Lecithin
O/w emulsion containing:
water, soya oil, modified
starch, agar, mono- and
diglycerides, polysorbate
60, potassium sorbate,
phosphoric acid
O/w emulsion containing
ingredients as for Veri-Lo
100 except that soya oil is
replaced by anhydrous milk
fat and polysorbate 60 is
replaced by polysorbate 80
AGFAPs
Alkoxylated alkyl
glycosides esterified
with fatty acids
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
Bakery products, bakery
ingredients
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Shortenings, margarines,
butter, salad, cooking and
frying oils, mayonnaise,
salad dressings,
confectionery coatings
Baked goods, shortenings,
spreads, frying oils, meat
products, confectionery
products
Dairy products
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Carboxy/carboxylate
esters
Carboxy/carboxylate esters,
e.g., didecyl stearoyloxymethanedicarboxylate
Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Colestra
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
DDM
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Diol lipids
Synthetic fat
substitutes
EEEP
Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric
EPG
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Ether-bridged
polyesters
Ether-bridged polyesters
(two multibasic acids joined
by ether linkage)
Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Ethyl esters
Partially digestible
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Non-digestible
Non-caloric*
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Olestra (sucrose
polyester)
Synthetic fat
substitutes
PEP
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Polyhydroxyl esters
Polyhydroxyl ethers
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Polyorganosiloxanes
Partially digestible
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the use of olestra in selected savory snacks.
Applications
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Polyoxyalkylene
Polyalklene oxide
Polyoxyalkylene
Polyalklene oxide
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Polysaccharide
polyesters
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Polyvinyl ester
Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Propylene glycol
diesters
Low- to non-digestible
Low- to non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
TATCA
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Synthetic fat
substitutes
THMA
Synthetic fat
substitutes
Trialkoxyglyceryl
ethers
Trialkoxyglyceryl ethers
(Example of alkyl glyceryl
ethers)
Non-digestible
Non-caloric
Cooking/salad/frying oil,
shortening, cakes, ice
cream, confectionery,
mayonnaise, margarine,
potato chips, snack food
Deep fat frying, salad
dressings, non-dairy sour
cream
Frying oils, baked goods,
frozen desserts, margarine,
salad dressing, meats,
frostings and fillings
Chocolate flavored products
Group
Combination
systems
Trade Name/
Common Name
Atmos 378K
Atmos 659K
Chemical Name/
Composition
378K Mono and
diglycerides, polysorbate
60, sodium stearoyl
lactylate
659K Mono and
diglycerides and propylene
glycol mixed esters
Mono and diglycerides,
sorbitan monostearate,
polysorbate 60
Carrageenan, dairy protein
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Applications
Bakery products
Combination
systems
Atmos 758K
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
Bindtex
California Raisin Paste
Combination
systems
CarraFat
Carrageenan Marketing
Corporation, CA, USA
Combination
systems
Dariloid
Xanthan gum/galactomannan
blends
Combination
systems
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
EC-25
Combination
systems
Enrich 301
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
Fat-Tastic
Suppliers:Caravan Prodts.
Co. Inc./Henry and Henry,
Inc./Mariani Packing Co.
Inc./Natural Fd Techn.
Inc./The Plumlife Co.
Inc./Skjodt-Barrett Fds
Inc./Sokol and Co.
Inc./Stapleton-Spence
Packing Co./Sunsweet
Growers Inc./SYSCO
Corp./Valley View Packing
Van den Bergh, Food
Ingredients Group, IL, USA
1.52.5%
515%
Also available in dry powder
form and based on modified
starch instead of
carrageenan
Bakery products
Vaessen-Schoemaker
Chemische Industrie B.V.,
Holland
Bakery products
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Combination
systems
Gatodan 415
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
Kel-Lite * BK
Kel-Lite * CM
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
LeanMaker
K-Blazer
Matricks
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Blend of distilled
monoglycerides and alphatending emulsifiers
Dried plums, apples, water
Concentration Used/
Special Features
(Readily disperses in water)
Applications
Low-fat batter systems,
muffins
Bakery products, sauces
Shortening replacement
system for bakery products
e.g., breads, rolls, cakes,
brownies and other
confectionery products
Also available in Europe
without propylene glycol
and polysorbate 60.
Shortening replacement
systems
Meat applications
Meat, fish and poultry
products
Combination
systems
MichaeLite range
Combination
systems
N-Flate
68%
Developed for cake mixes to
increase air incorporation
Combination
systems
N-Lite F
Novagel RCN-10
Novagel RCN-15
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
Nu-Rice
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Combination
systems
NutriFat
NutriFat
NutriFat
NutriFat
Combination
systems
PALs (ALACO)
Combination
systems
Pioneer
Combination
systems
Prolestra
Combination
systems
Prolo 11
Combination
systems
Prune Tec
C
PC
Instant PC
PC Supreme
Chemical Name/
Composition
C Blend of specific
hydrolyzed dextrins,
derived from wheat, potato,
corn and tapioca, and
soluble fiber
PC C + series of animal
and veg. proteins
Instant PC same as PC but
req. no heating
PC Supreme dextrins and
protein particles (piezo)
Whey protein concentrate,
milk protein concentrate, (or
other milk proteins),
cellulose gel
MCC, mono- and
diglycerides, cellulose gum,
carrageenan
Up to 30% sucrose polyester
and a mixture of animal and
vegetable proteins
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
Germantown Manufacturing
Company, PA, USA
Reach Associates, Inc. NJ,
USA
Combination
systems
Rhodilean SD
Combination
systems
RP Lean I
RP Lean II
RP Lean III
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
Sherex Enlite
Combination
systems
Simplesse Bakery
Blend 720
Combination
systems
Simplesse Bakery
Blend 730
Combination
systems
Simplesse D-550
Combination
systems
Slimgel 100
Slimgel 100/i
Slimgel 200
Simplesse Bakery
Blend 710
Tricalcium phosphate,
Quaker Oatrim, (Rhodigelbrand) xanthan gum
I = Quaker Oatrim, iota
carrageenan
II = Quaker Oatrim, Quaker
oat bran, corn syrup solids
III = Quaker Oatrim, kappa
carrageenan
Emulsifier/stabilizer blend
Blend of whey protein
concentrate,
monoglycerides, and
sodium stearoyl lactylate
Blend of whey protein
concentrate, propylene
glycol monoesters, distilled
monglycerides, and sodium
stearoyl lactylate
Blend of whey protein
concentrates, mono- and
diglycerides, lactic acid
ester of mono- and
diglycerides and lecithin
Blend of whey protein
concentrate (D-500) and
hydrolyzed oat flour
100 Guar gum, gelatin
100/i Cold soluble gelatin
with guar gum, pectin,
maltodextrin
200 Gelatin, locust bean
gum
Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA
Rhone-Poulenc Food
Ingredients, NJ, USA
Quest International
Bioproducts, CA, USA
The NutraSweet Company,
IL, USA
Cakes
PB Gelatins (a division of
Tessenderlo Chemie,
Vilvoorde, Belgium)
0.62.5%
Group
Trade Name/
Common Name
Combination
systems
Solex
Combination
systems
Superbase
Combination
systems
Supercreme C
Supercreme SD
Combination
systems
Tandem
Combination
systems
Combination
systems
Ultra-Freeze 400
Ultra-Freeze 500
Chemical Name/
Composition
Developer/
Manufacturer/
Supplier
Concentration Used/
Special Features
Applications
A stabilizer/emulsifier
system which will work
synergistically with
Simplesse
Hydrolyzed rice starch,
modified starch, whey
protein concentrate and
xanthan gum and 0.73% fat
Germantown Manufacturing
Company, PA, USA
0.91.2%
Ultra-Freeze 400
0.751.25%
Ultra-Freeze 500
0.751.5%
(500 can be dry blended
and dissolves readily in
water)
Combination
systems
UltraBake NF
Combination
systems
Viscarin carrageenan
Viscarin SD 389
A. E. Staley Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA
FMC Corporation, PA, USA
23%
Bakery products