Transformer Basics For OM Review

An Introduction to
Transformer Design
Review
By
Ir. Thum Peng Chew
B.E.(Hons), M.Eng.Sc.,FIEM, P.Eng
2 October 2012
Copyright 2012 TPC Solutions
Parameters in Transformer
Design
2 October 2012
Core and Winding Assembly
Core
Core Clamp
Windings
2 October 2012
HV Bushings
Oil Conservator tank
Oil Gauge
Bushing CT
Chamber
Buchholz relay
OLTC
LV Bushings
Neutral Bushing
Pressure Relief Device
Valves
OLTC Control Box
2 October 2012
Copyright 2012 TPC

Solutions
Assembled
Tank
Transformer Tank Parts

Radiators made of anti-corrosion material with filling plugs
and drain plugs and directly connected to tank.
Bushings Leads from winding connections are brought out
externally through the bushings appropriately rated for the
winding voltages.
Pressure-Relief Device operating at a static pressure of less
than the test pressure of the tank with means to prevent
ingress of rain and dust.
Terminal Box A weather-proof steel box mounted on the
transformer tank for connection of all wiring.
Oil-Preservation Conservator Tank with drain valve, oil
gauge, piping connection to the tank via Buchholz relay.
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Transformer Accessories
Dial-type thermometer gauges for oil and winding
temperature.
Oil gauge
Filter and drain valves
Nameplate
Handholds on cover or tank
Lifting eyes and lugs
Jack pad, ladder, ski-base
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Transformer Design Parameters

ONAN capacity, S MVA
Voltage Transformation, kV/kV
Operating Frequency, f Hz
Maximum Flux Density, Bm Tesla
Winding Current Density, J A/mm2
Guaranteed Losses, No-Load and Load Losses, kW
Impedance, %Z = %R + j %X
Vector Group
Tap-Change Range and Step-Size
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Typical Causes of Failure

Initial Causes
Failure, %
Design Defects
Manufacturing Problems
Material Defects
Other Causes
Poor Maintenance
Lightning Surges
Short-circuits
35%
29%
13%
11%
6%
4%
2%
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Transformer Basics
2 October 2012
Winding Voltages and Currents

If the ONAN capacity of a 3-phase transformer is
S MVA,
the power rating of one winding is S MVA.
The transformers rated line voltage is Vr and the
rated line current is Ir; S = 3VrIr.
The winding voltage and current ratings are:
Winding
Connection
Winding Voltage
Rating, V volts.
Winding Current
Rating, I amperes
Star
Vr /3
Ir
Delta
Vr
Ir /3
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Voltage Induction on Winding

V = - N d/dt
= mcos(2ft)
V = 2fN msin(2ft)
Vrms = 2fNm
Vrms = 4.444fNBm AFe or Vrms/N = 4.444fBm AFe
The winding voltage, Vrms is sinusoidal implies that
the magnetic flux density, B in the core of area,
AFe is sinusoidal and Bm is the peak flux density
in Tesla.
Since the B-H curve is non-linear, in keeping the
flux sinusiodal, the magnetising current is nonlinear.
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Magnetising Current
e
Induced sinusoidal
voltage
i exc
Non-sinusoidal
exciting current
i( t)
t +
i( t + )
Sinusoidal flux
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The Winding Ampere-turn

Given the transformer capacity is S MVA and that
the power rating per winding is S = S MVA,
S = VI = 4.444fNBm AFe I x10-6
NI = Sx106/4.444fBm AFe
I is the windings rated current, S is known and Bm
is fixed, the number of winding turns, N is
proportional to the core area, AFe.
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Impedance Definitions
Definition based on rms values:
Impedance Voltage, Vz = {VR2 + Vx2}
Percentage Impedance, %Z = 100Vz/V obtained by
measuring exciting voltage, Vz to force rated
current flow with the winding shorted.
Derived from Losses PL and rated winding capacity,
S
%R = 100PL/S
%X = {%Z2 - %R2}
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Loss Components
No-Load Loss, PNL = Iron Loss + Losses at joints,
bolts and burrs + (also core vibrations and noise)
Load Loss, PLL = I2R Loss + Winding Eddy Current
Loss + Stray Losses
Copper Loss, Pcu = I2R Loss + Winding Eddy
Current Loss
Thus, Load Loss, PLL = Copper Loss + Stray Losses
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Components of Losses
Losses
No-Load
Loss
Iron
Loss
Joint
Loss
Load
Loss
Vibration
Noise
Copper
Loss
I2R
Loss
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Stray
Loss
Eddy Current
Loss
16
Iron Loss
Iron loss depends on the quality of steel
Expressed as
Specific Iron Loss in terms of watts per kg mass.
For a typical design Bm, the specific loss is around
1.1 W/kg.
Amorphous Steel Low Loss
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Core Characteristics to Reduce

Vibration
Reduce cross fluxing by suitable core
dimensioning and design.
Flux distortion minimised.
Use flat steel of low magneto-striction. Careful
annealing of steel lamination to align the grains.
Laser treatment.
Reduce mechanical stress on core.
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Winding I2R Loss

The resistance, R per winding is given by:
R = Ns/a
where = resistivity of winding conductor, ohm-m
N = No. of turns
a =cross-sectional area of winding, m2
s = mean length per turn, m
Current density, J = I/a A/mm2 and Volume of
conductor, Nsa = m/ (mass/density) m3.
The winding loss = I2R
= I2Ns/a = (I/a)2(Nsa) = J2m/
Specific I2R loss, W/kg = J2/
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Minimizing I2R Loss

I2R Losses are attributed to current flow in the
windings and are based on the IEC standard
mean working temperature of 75C for Class A, B
and E insulations.
If the current density in the low-voltage winding is
J1 and that in the high-voltage winding is J2,
The I2R loss is minimized when
J1 = J2
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Estimating Specific I2R loss

Given the electrical resistivity and density of
material, the specific I2R loss, W/kg = J2/ x106
For copper windings at 75C,
cu = 21.4 x10-9 m
cu = 8,890 kgm-3
The specific I2R loss, pe = 2.41J2 W/kg with I2R loss
minimization.
If the winding mass, mcu = (Nas) is known, the
winding I2R loss can be estimated.
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Winding Cross-sectional Area

s
Winding
with N turns
Core
Cross-sectional
area per turn, a
Duct space
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Total Cross-sectional Area = Na

Total Volume = Nas
22
Estimating Eddy Current Loss

The specific eddy current loss in thin sheets in a
sinusoidal field at the maximum flux density, Bm
Tesla, frequency, f Hz and sheet thickness, t
metre with electrical resistivity, and mass
density,
pe = 2Bm2f2t2/6
For copper windings,
Specific eddy current loss = 9Bm2f2t2 x103 W/kg
This is about 5% to 15 % of the winding I2R loss
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Ratio of Eddy Current Loss to I2R

Loss
pe/pR:
3.8(ftBmax/J)2 x 10-9 W/kg.
Reduce eddy current loss by reducing t, the
winding thickness.
To be effective, transpose insulated multi-strand
windings
pe/pR is 0.05 for small transformers and increases to
about 0.15 for large transformers.
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Copper Loss and Stray Loss

Copper Loss per phase, Pcu =
I2R loss per phase + Eddy Current Loss per phase
Load loss, PLL = 3Pcu + Stray Loss
Total Pcu = (1+%P1eddy/100)I12R1 + (1+%P2eddy/100)I22R2
%Pcu = 100Pcu/S
%R = 100PLL/S
This formula is used in the test to calculate R and then
convert to the standard temperature.
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SUMMARY OF LOSSES
No-Load Loss Hysterisis Loss proportional to frequency and peak
magnetic flux density to the power of 1.6 to 2.5.
Loss at joints, bolts and burrs.
Stray Loss at end-edges
Load Loss
Copper loss (I2R)
Eddy Current Loss from circulating current induced by
magnetic leakage flux and proportional to square of
frequency, peak magnetic flux and lamination thickness.
Stray Loss by magnetic leakage to clamps and tank walls,
etc.
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Winding Current Densities and

Power Capacity
Winding cross-sectional area = aCu
Irms = JrmsaCu
IHV = JrmsaHV ; ILV = JrmsaLV
IHVNHV = ILVNLV
For minimum I2R loss, JHV JLV
The total Cu area, NHVaHV Cu = NLVaLV Cu = Acu
The power capacity per winding =
VrmsIrms = 2.222fN(Bm AFe)(Jrms ACu)
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Frame Size
The Frame Size in MVA, S = 3S MVA = VI x 106 is
related to the physical size defined by physical
dimensions, Afe and ACu .
S = 2.222f(BmAFe)(JACu) per phase
where f = operating frequency, Hz (50)
Bm = Peak Flux Density, T(1.6 1.8)
J = winding current density, A/mm2(3.0 3.5)
AFe = nett magnetic core leg cross-sectional area,
m2 , m=BmAFe
ACu = total copper cross-sectional area, m2
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Voltage per Turn

The Voltage per turn
V/N = 4.444fBmAFe = 4.444f m
= {(8.888fBm/J)(AFe/ACu)} S
For a given S and constant Bm & J, V/N = f(AFe/ACu)
Thus, the winding output coefficient, KVS = (V/N)/S
= {(8.888fBm/J)(AFe/ACu)}
where V/N is the voltage per winding turn does not change much
Generator transformer, KVS = 26.8
Primary transmission transformer, KVS = 19
Secondary transmission transformer, KVS = 20
Distribution transformer, KVS = 19.6
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Winding Arrangement Dimensions

bFe
Core
bLH
bLV
Mean lengths per turn

sLV = 2 rLV
sm = 2 rm
bL0
bHV
rLV
hH0
Core
rm
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rHV
bm = bLV + bHV
Am = sm bm
= (sLVbLV +sHVbHV)
AHV = sHV bHV
hL0
Mean turn Radius
bH0
ALV = sLV bLV
hw
sHV = 2 rHV
Area of Leakage Flux
LV Winding
HV Winding
30
Reactance
The percentage reactance, %X
= 0.79SfN2cw/V2h
Where h = winding axial length, mm
c = all windings mean turn length (sLV + sHV), mm
w = the reactive window width through which the
total leakage flux passes, determined from bLH +
(bLV + bHV).
h = length of leakage flux.
%X = 0.79Sfw/{(V/N)2h/c}
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Impedance Variation
For a given core, capacity and voltage
transformation ratio, a lower reactance requires a
larger magnetic core cross-section reflected in
the windings mean turn length.
As the reactance is increased, the core crosssection decreases and the iron loss also
decreases but the copper loss increases.
The ratio of Cu/Fe losses increases.
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Output Coefficient, KAS

The core output coefficient is approximately
constant and given by:
KAS = AFe/S
Practical KAS Values:
Generator = 0.071
Primary Transmission = 0.055
Secondary Transmission = 0.058
Distribution = 0.057
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Temperature Rise
Losses give rise to Temperature Rise
- Heating up the Windings
- Heating up the Insulation particularly the Oil
Thus, there are allowable maximum temperatures
of windings and insulation (oil).
If the ambient design temperature for oil is 30C,
then the oil maximum temperature rise is 75C.
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Temperature Rise Limits

Insulation System Temp.
Average Winding Temp. Rise
All Classes immersed in oil
60K but for top oil = 55K
Above but hermetically sealed
65K but for top oil = 50K
All Classes in bituminous compound
50K
Classes not in oil or bituminous compound
105(A)
60 K
120(E)
75 K
130(B)
80 K
155(F)
100 K
180(H)
125 K
200
135 K
220
150 K
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Winding Temperature Rise

Limits
Winding Insulation Material limits the
maximum Temperature Rise in the
windings and transformer oil.
Hence, a transformers capacity rating is
determined by winding temperature rise
Class A Insulation
Oil-immersed 40 to 105C
Dry 45 to 105C
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Hot Spot Temperatures

The hottest spot temperature of the insulation is
the limiting factor to transformer loading.
Excessive temperature shortens life.
Thus, winding temperature is critical and depends
on load, cooling efficiency, coolant temperature
and time of application of load.
Transformers have many ratings but is given a
nominal rating for convenience.
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Capacity Ratings Measured at

the Outputs
The insulation has a large thermal capacity which
takes a long time to heat up. Thus, transformers
have long thermal time-constants
approximately 3 hours.
The capacity ratings at the output of transformers
are dependent on temperature rise.
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Cooling
With losses heating up the insulation and oil, a
transformer has to dissipate the heat to the
outside environment so that its maximum
temperature rise is not exceeded.
It is done by natural cooling of the tank surface.
At larger capacities, additional cooling surfaces
has to be added with radiators which are
detachable from the tank.
Assisted cooling can be achieved by adding fans
to blow air across the radiators.
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Cooling Class Letter Description

Code
TABLE 2.1.2 Cooling ClassCooling
Letter Description
Internal
First Letter
(Cooling medium)
Second Letter
(Cooling mechanism)
Code Letter
O
K
L
N
F
D
External
Third letter
(Cooling medium)
Fourth letter
(Cooling medium)
Internal External
A
W
N
F
Description
Liquid with flash point less than or equal to 300C
Liquid with flash point greater than 300C
Liquid with no measurable flash point
Natural convection through cooling equipment and
windings
Forced circulation through cooling equipment, natural
convection in windings
Forced circulation through cooling equipment, directed flow
in man windings
Air
Water
Natural convection
Forced circulation
Table 2.1.2 lists the code letters that are used to make up the four-letter designation.
This system
of identification
has comeCopyright
about through
standardization
between different
2 October
2012
40 international
2012 TPC
Solutions
standards organizations and represents a change from what has traditionally been used in the U.S. Where
OA classified a transformer as liquid-immersed self-cooled in the past, it is now designated by the new
Tank Vibrations
The vibrations transmitted to the tank are altered
by the tanks vibration modes before they are
emitted as audible noise. Thus, no rigid
connections between core and tank.
The tank design/manufacture has to take into
account of resonance modes and reflection
patterns around the tank.
Panel mass-to-stiffness ratio changes the
resonance frequency, vibration patterns and
noise amplitude - stiffeners.
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Noise Measurement
At 0.3m away from the transformer surface

for ONAN noise.
At 0.6 m way from the transformer surface
for ONAF noise
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TRANSFORMER CORE
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Contributions to Iron Loss

Specific Iron Loss of an assembled core is measured
empirically and expressed as watts per kilogram of
material.
This is made up of:
l Hysteresis Loss
l Losses due to uneven flux distribution due to joints
l Losses due bolt holes
l Losses due to burrs on lamination edges
Iron Loss = Specific loss (W/kg) x mass of core (kg)
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Hysteresis and Eddy Current

Loss
Hysteresis Loss:
Proportional to frequency, f , Bm1.6 to Bm2.5.
Eddy Current Loss:
Proportional to f2, Bm, and steel lamination thickness
To keep the eddy current loss low:

l Laminations are thin
Electrically insulated from one another.
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Core Materials
Core loss W17/50 (W/kg)
www.leonardo-energy.org
CHAPTER 2. TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Start of CGO production

3.0
1950s Cold-rolled grain-orientated steel, CGO

1980s Amorphous steel
High permeability grain-orientated steel, HiB
0.
3
5
CG
2.0
O0
.30
1.0
Start of HiB productionHiB
CGO 0.23
HiB 0.23
0.30
Start of domain refining
Laser irradiated HiB 0.23
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
Figure 2.2: Different types of magnetic steel

2 October 2012
46
1. Around 1900, hot-rolled steel became the basic material for the core, made up of
individual sheets separated by insulating layers to reduce no-load losses. Cold-rolled
Grade Losses of CRGO Steel

Thickness, mm
Grade
Core Loss @ 1.7T/

50Hz, W/kg
0.23
M3
0.90
0.27
M4
1.12
0.30
M5
1.30
0.35
M6
1.45
0.23
23ZDKH85
0.85
0.27
27ZDKH90
0.90
0.23
23M-OH
1.00
0.23
TCH-0
0.90
0.27
TCH-1
1.00
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Building the Core of Distribution Transformer
Yoke
End Limb
Centre Limb
Magnetic Flux flow
Mitred Joints
Flux changes
direction at joint
Vanished
Yoke Laminations
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MAGNETIC CORE STRUCTURE

Usually 3 circular cross-sectional limbs forming a
Rectangular Frame on which concentric windings are
arranged.
The magnetic circuit is mitred-joined and completed by the
horizontal yoke pieces at the top and bottom of the limbs
The magnetic core is made up of thin vanish-insulated
laminations of cold-roll grain-orientated steel or
amorphous steel for KVA capacity.
Core is earthed through the tank body
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49
The 3-Limb Magnetic Core
Clamp
Circular Core
To be
Surrounded by
Concentric
Windings
2 October 2012
Core Diameter, d
50
Requirements of Core Steel

Laminations
Hysteresis loss is reduced by cold-rolled grain
orientation of silicon steel such that the magnetic flux
flow in the direction of rolling for least loss.
l When the flux turn at the corners of the rectangular
frame, the loss increases . Hence, use mitred core
joints to reduce loss.
Thus, significant loss reduction is made at the joints.
l Eddy current loss is kept to a minimum by reducing
the thickness of the laminations and providing
adequate insulation between the laminations when
they are packed together.
l
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Treating the Core Laminations

Lamination sheets come in rolled drums. They are
coated with hot-oil resistant bonding insulation.
l The laminations are slit to width reducing burrs
formation at the edges to avoid inter-laminar contact.
l Cut the laminations to length and mitred joint angle.
l Use belt to apply evenly slowly rising temperature up
to 800C on lamination in nitrogen and hydrogen
atmosphere to relieve stress and slowly cool over
temperature-controlled zones - annealing.
l Apply coating to lamination surface and check for
coating thickness and insulation resistance.
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Preparing the Laminations

Cuts to Width
Cuts to Mitred Joint Angle
Direction of Roll
Steel Lamination from Drum
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Core Building
Lamination are laid down flat on a building jig to
avoid deformation.
l Identical laminations are laid on top of one another
before changing to the complementary lamination for
interleaving.
l The smaller the number, the lower the loss but
longer time required to build.
l Add laminations until given stack dimension is
reached.
Stacking factor > 0.97
l Jig is turned for core to stand vertically.
l
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Building the Core of Power Transformer
Interleaved
Mitred Joints
Stepped Pattern Arrangement of Different-width Core Lamination

Vanished Core Laminations
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55
Stepped Pattern and Space

Factor
Stepped Patterns
Laminated Stack
Space Factor ~ 1.0
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Shape of Core Limbs and Yokes

Usually cylindrical with cross-section approximating a
circular contour made by strips with different width in
a stepped pattern.
Thus, the aim is to get the filled area as close as
possible to that of a circle i.e. fill factor or core space
factor 1.0.
Usually the fill-factor is > 0.95 using 9 steps and above
to approximate half the circle. The other half is a
mirror image.
Yoke and Limb widths are equal.
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Core Joints
Usually interleave/ overlapping mitred joints between
limbs and yokes to alternating disposition of different
lengths of lamination to reduce magnetic reluctance,
vibrations and improve mechanical strength.
Minimise the gaps between the abutting plates to
reduce transfer of flux and hence extra eddy current
loss in the steel.
Hence, limit the number of identical plates before
stacking the overlapping plates.
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Stacking and Interleaving

Mitered Joint
Identical Plates
Stacking
Lamination
Abutting
2 October 2012
Interleave
59
The temperature profile in the flitch plate is estimated by

specifying heat transfer co-efficient and using 3-D FEM.
Well, in absolute terms, the stray losses in flitch plates
may not form a significant part of the total losses of the
transformer [3]. Nevertheless, it deserves designers
attention as it could cause abnormal local hotspot rise in the
flitch plates, and that in-turn disintegration of oil in the close
Fig. 9. Flux density variation alo
vicinity, and consequential generation of fault gases, which
could be misconstrued as fault / defect in the transformer.
The effect of using non-magnetic material (stainless steel)
The magnetic
field
impinging
oncombination
the flitchof plates
for flitch
plate
with following
slots wasinduces
studied and
the results
obtained
shown in Table
VIIIbut the
eddy currents.
The
losses
are are
relatively
small
below.
magnitude of a)fluxFlitch
density
is highest
at the top and bottom
plate without
slot
b) Flitch
plate withhot-spots
slots at top andare
bottom
of the flitch plates,
where
formed. To avoid,
c) Flitch plate with slot(s) throughout winding height
Flitch Plate to hold Limb

Lamination Together
slots are provided at top and bottom of the flitch plates.

TABLE VIII
STRAY LOSS IN FLITCH PLATE WITH DIFFERENT DESIGNS
Stray loss, kW
MS Plate
SS Plate
SS Plate
SS Plate with
Mode
with slots at
without
with slots at
slot(s)
top &
slot
top &
throughout
bottom
bottom
winding height
Max. Tap
0.65
1.416
0.485
0.291
Nor. Tap
0.62
1.324
0.458
0.286
Min. Tap
0.52
1.248
0.425
0.252
From the above,Copyright

it is observed
thatSolutions
for a given design of
2 October 2012
2012 TPC
flitch plate,
a) Loss in SS plate without any slot is the highest
Fig. 10. Flux density variation acr

winding edge position
60
The average value of ma

edge stack is computed fro
27.03
53.06
21.86
43.02
osses, calculated as
osses at normal tap
.
edge stack on the stray loss was studied and the estimated
results are reported in Table XIII below.
Mode
Max. Tap
Nor. Tap
Min. Tap
TABLE XIII
COMPARISON OF LOSS IN EDGE STACK
Reduction in
Edge Stack stray loss, kW
loss (%)
Standard design
Modified design
4.90
2.18
55.51
5.40
2.57
52.42
4.38
2.09
52.27
Treatment of Edge Stack to Reduce

Loss and Hot-Spot Temperature
the total stray losses
s are compared with

esults.
The temperature profile of the edge stack is also analyzed.

The losses in the core blade packets including edge stack
and flitch plates are estimated and corresponding loss
density values entered into the program. The various heat
transfer co-efficients at outer core boundary surface are also
specified to solve planar temperature field in core blade
packets. Fig. 12 & 13 show the temperature profile of core
cross-section without & with division of the edge stack. The
temperature profile is differentiated from minimum to
maximum by blue to red colour band.
Edge Stack divided

into 2 halves
Fifteenth National Power Systems Conference (NPSC), IIT B
losses in the
SS RESULTS
timated by software
is shown in Table XI
LOSSES
ray losses, kW
Nor. Tap
Min. Tap
49.95
46.93
53.06
43.02
6.22 %
8.33 %
the estimated values

8.33% at maximum,
ectively.
Fig. 12. Temperature profile in standard edge stack design
It is observed that in the present case the stray loss is

reduced by 52% at normal tap position and hotspot
temperature rise is reduced by 14 K after the division of
edge stack in two halves, which is quite significant.
LOSSES
trolling the structural

le path to the leakage
depends on various
ght, placement with
Fig. 13. Temperature profile in modified edge stack design
2 October 2012
Total
stray losses in transformer after 61
modification
Copyright 2012 C.
TPC
Solutions
The total stray losses estimated in the transformer with
modified shunt and divided edge stack are presented in
Precise estim
may not be pr
computation of
the economic
modern high s
deep insight
asymmetric tra
to exploit these
designs, explor
areas like shun
wise wall shun
The authors a
granting permi
[1] Ramaswamy
non-magnetic
International
September 20
Building the Core of Power Transformer
Limbs
Bolt Holes at Yoke

45 Mitred Joints with Interleaving
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62
Core Cross-Sectional Areas

The gross core cross-sectional area is defined by the
circumscribing diameter of the core circle, d
AFe,g = d2/4
And the nett core cross-sectional area,
AFe = kFeAFe,g
Where kFe is the core space factor < 1.0.
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Completed Core Limbs
Slotted Flitch plate
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Core Bolting and Clamping

Bolting:
Bolts have to be insulated and temperature resistant,
thus cooling required.
Bolts are potential source of faults.
Bolt hole and cooling slots increase local flux density
whose direction is changed from the roll direction
and hence increase iron loss.
Increases cross-fluxing and eddy current loss.
Hence, better with Boltless Core design.
Use Clamping with bands of insulating material and
steel beams and tension members outside windings.
Use laminated wood to support core and to separate
steel support from leakage field of windings.
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Frames, also called yoke beams, are made of mild steel sides of transformer at extreme tap positions. The loss in the
scale, taking care
material and are used for clamping of yokes and supporting frames calculated from magnetic field values is as shown in
FEM technique.
the windings. The frames are modeled as epures coinciding Table VI below.
in such structura
with their physical locations for magnetic field plotting and
TABLE VI
magnetic field o
estimation of losses.
STRAY LOSS IN FRAMES
area leading to
Stray loss, kW
Fig. 5 & 6 below show the plots of the modulus of flux
Mode
shows the vector
Top Frame
Bottom Frame
Total
density components (Bx, By, Bz) in top & bottom frames
temperature rise
Max. Tap
0.98
1.74
2.72
along the height of the frame (from bottom to top) on the
Nor. Tap
0.82
1.43
2.25
value differentiat
HV side of the transformer at normal tap position. For
Min. Tap
0.58
1.24
1.82
being the highest
estimation of loss in the frames, it is essential to obtain the
The loss in the bottom frame, which is higher as compared
maximum and minimumFifteenth
values National
of flux densities
occurring
to the
top frame,
is commensurate
with the higher flux
Power Systems
Conference
(NPSC),
IIT Bombay,
December 2008
along the height of the frames, which is represented by Fig.
concentration
invariation
the bottom
5. Flux density
alongframe.
the height of the Top Frame
notations
B1
&
B2
in
Fig.
5
&
6.
The stray loss values in shunts, estimated based on above typically at normal tap position, obtained for top and bottom
D. Estimation of Stray Loss in Flitch Plates
magnetic field values, are indicated in Table IV below.
frame are as under. See Table V.
Flitch plates, made of MS
andV with slots at top and
TABLE IV
TABLE
STRAY LOSSES IN SHUNTS
bottom positions
are used
inONCENTRATION
the presentINcase.
The flitch
FIELD C
FRAMES
MAGNETIC
Stray loss, kW
Magnetic
(B), T to the
plates are 200 mm wide and 12mm
thickfield
modeled
Mode
Bottom
Frame
has
higher
loss
HV Side
LV Side
Side Shunt
Total
Top
Frame
Bottom
scale, taking care of the slots and analysis carriedFrame
out using
Flux
density
Max. Tap
0.78
2.51
0.54 from
3.83
Maximum value (B1)
0.00744
0.02022
FEM
technique.
It
is
important
to
note
that
the
stray
Nor. Tap
1.38
2.54
0.36 effect.
4.28
Minimum value (B2)
0.00032
0.00139 losses
proximity
Min. Tap
0.76
1.47
0.25
2.48
in such
elements are
quite
low but
the isincident
The structural
field concentration
in the
bottom
frame
over 2.7
Loss
is
proportional
field
on
them
can
be
quite
high
for
the
exposed
It is observed that the stray loss values in HV side shunts magnetic
times of that in top frame. This is attributed to lesser
leadingbetween
to unacceptable
local
hot spots.
Fig.the
7 bottom
& 8
are lower than those on LV sidetodue
to their
smaller height area
flux
density.
distance
the winding
bottom
edge and
2
shows
the
vector
plot
of
eddy
current
density
J
(A/m
)
and
and larger distance from the outer most winding.
frame.
temperature
risetheprofile
(K) from
minimum field
to maximum
Similarly,
maximum
and minimum
values are
C. Estimation of Stray Loss in Frames
value
differentiated
by
a
colour
band
from
blue
to
red,
obtained
for
top
and
bottom
frames
both
for
HV
andredLV Fig. 7. Vector plo
Power Systems Conference (NPSC), IIT Bombay, December 2008
Frames, also called yoke beams, are made of mild steel being
theofhighest.
sides
transformer at extreme tap positions. The loss in the
material and are used for clamping of yokes and supporting frames calculated from magnetic field values is as shown in
mated based on above typically at normal tap position, obtained for top and bottom
The magnetic
the windings. The frames are modeled as epures coinciding Table VI below.
Table IV below.
frame are as under. See Table V.
eddy
currents. T
their
physical
locations
for magnetic
field
plotting and
Fig.with
5. Flux
density
variation
along the
height
of
the
Top
Frame
TABLE
VI
TABLE V
Fig. 6. Flux density variation along the height of the Bottom Frame
solid and slotted
estimation ofMlosses.
STRAY LOSS IN FRAMES
TS
AGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATION IN FRAMES
flux density bein
Stray loss, kW
Fig. 5 & 6 below show the plots
of the
of flux
kW
Magnetic
fieldmodulus
(B), T
Mode that owing to the proximity effect, the
It
is
observed
edges, it results
Top Frame
Bottom Frame
Total
ide Shunt
Total
Frame
Frame frames
density components (Bx, By,Top
Bz)
in topBottom
& bottom
regions of the flit
Max. Tap
0.98
2.72of top
maximum flux
density occurs
in the 1.74
bottom part
0.54
3.83
(B1)frame0.00744
along theMaximum
height value
of the
(from bottom0.02022
to top) on the
Nor.
Tap
0.82
1.43
2.25
the slots are pro
0.36
4.28
Minimum value (B2)
0.00032
0.00139
frame and the top part of bottom frame.
HV side of the transformer at normal tap position. For
Min. Tap
0.58
1.24
1.82
0.25
2.48
The field concentration in the bottom frame is over 2.7 The maximum and minimum values of flux densities, bottom locations.
of loss in the frames, it is essential to obtain the
The loss in the bottom frame, which is higher as compared
es in HV side shunts estimation
times of that in top frame. This is attributed to lesser
maximum
and
minimum
values
of
flux
densities
occurring
to
the top frame, is commensurate with the higher flux
o their smaller height distance between the winding bottom edge and the bottom
along the height of the frames, which is represented by concentration in the bottom frame.
500
winding.
frame.2 October 2012
66
notations
B1 & B2 in Fig. 5 & 6.
Similarly, the maximum and minimum field values are
D. Estimation of Stray Loss in Flitch Plates
s
obtained for top and bottom frames both for HV and LV
Flitch plates, made of MS and with slots at top and
e made of mild steel sides of transformer at extreme tap positions. The loss in the
bottom positions are used in the present case. The flitch
Loss in Frames
Core Clamping
Bands
Steel Support
Steel Beam
2 October 2012
67
Core Clamping
Bands
Steel Beam
Wood Laminations
2 October 2012
68
Core Building Factor

Calculated Core Loss = Specific Loss of Core Material
x Total Core Mass.
Core Building Factor = Measured Core Loss/
Calculated Core Loss
Mill test certificates should contain the measured
specific loss of the steel, W/kg.
Typical figures: 1.07 W/kg for limbs and yokes, 1.17 W/
kg for complete core with mitred joints.
Thus, the largest loss is in the joints.
2 October 2012
69
Core Magnetising Current
Magnetising current is affected by:

Direction variation in the steels permeability
l Air gaps
As distinct from core loss factors
2 October 2012
70
Core Temperature Rise

No limit is set for Core Temperature Rise.
The IEC recommends that no part of the core should
become hot enough to damage itself or its adjacent
parts.
To reduce the risk of damage to inter-laminar insulation
or core bolts,
l the maximum temperature of the internal core hotspot is 120C.
l increase the thermal conductivity of all core materials
l provide cooling means by ducts.
2 October 2012
71
Core Insulation
When the core assembly is completed, its insulation is

measured by applying an alternating voltage at 2 kVrms
between:
The Core Bolts
Side Plates
And Core itself.
2 October 2012
72
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
2 October 2012
73
WINDING CONDUCTORS
Copper in oil-type
Aluminum in dry-type
For economy, in the form of:
Wires low current (< 10A) but poor space factor.
Strips (> 10A, J = 3.5 A/mm2)
Foils and Sheets (current limited by thickness of foil or
sheet) and have high space factor and good cooling
ability.
2 October 2012
74
transposing operation.
Stray losses can be a constraint on high-reactance designs. Losses can be controlled by using a
combination of magnetic shunts and/or conducting shields to channel the flow of leakage flux external
to the windings into low-loss paths.
1.4.4 Short-Circuit Forces
Continuously Transposed
Conductor (CTC)
Forces exist between current-carrying conductors when they are in an alternating-current field. These
forces are determined using Equation 1.15:
F = B I sin
where
F = force on conductor
B = local leakage flux density
= angle between the leakage flux and the load current. In transformers,
sin2.1.6is Schematic
almost of single-phase shell-form construction.
FIGURE
always equal to 1
For multi-strand conductor to share same flux.
FIGURE 1.10 Continuously transposed conductor cable.
2 October 2012
FIGURE 2.1.7 Continuously transposed cable (CTC).

2004 by CRC Press LLC
2004 by CRC Press LLC
75
WINDING INSULATIONS
Those within a winding to prevent electrical inter-turn
breakdown by having appropriate insulation, cooling
by circulation using paper board-type spacers of high
dielectric strength.
Major insulation between windings and between a
winding and earth requiring good mechanical
strength and electrical properties (puncture
strength) .
2 October 2012
76
Insulation Types
For wires, Synthetic Enamel for low voltage
withstand.
For Strips, Paper for higher voltage.
For two or more strips in parallel and
transposed, synthetic insulation on
individual and paper for overall wrapping.
2 October 2012
77
Overall Insulation
Oil or SF6 gas
OIL QUALITY
Max. Viscosity = 40 mm2s-1 at 20C
Max. Acidity = neutralised by 0.03 mg KOG per gram.
Breakdown Voltage = 40 kV at 2 kV/s between 13 mm
dia. Spheres at 25mm apart.
Same permitivity of other insulants
Maintenance:
Keep out Moisture oil conservator, silica gel and
breather, drycol
2 October 2012
78
Power Frequency Test Voltage

Windings are tested for their ability to withstand power
frequency test voltages according to IEC 60076.
The purpose is to prove that the windings have
adequate insulation to withstand indefinitely power
frequency voltages experienced in the power system.
Induced over-voltage test to prove insulation within
winding.
Separate source test to prove low voltage winding
insulation withstand to other windings, and to earth.
2 October 2012
79
Winding Temperature
The Thermal Image Method
Thermometer immersed in top oil and
connected to a dial-type instrument.
Transformer load current injects heat through a
current transformer.
The temperature indicated = top oil
temperature, 0 + k c the temperature
difference across the coil insulation.
k =1.1 1.5
2 October 2012
80
Stray Loss Sources

Winding Eddy Current Loss from
eddy current and circulating current loss
Edge Stack Loss
Structural Loss from
Frame/Clamps, Flitch Plate, Wall Shunt and Tank
Body
2 October 2012
81
as parameters (factors) for design of experiments,

material in which eddy currents are produced. The ANOVA
The magnetic
circuit,
i.e. the iron
Each factor is assigned3 equidistant
levels, as given
in was subsequently
carriedcore.
out to quantify the effect of each
Table I (all dimensions in mm), to examine non-linear factor on the flitch plate loss. Results of ANOVA are shown
relationship between factors
The levels
in Fig. 3. and
It can be
seen that only winding.
fhctor Q (LV-HV gap) has
and
Theresponse.
primary,
secondary
regulating
correspond to range of these factors for transformers of a more or less linear relation to the loss. Variation of factor
rating fkom 5 MVA to 315 MVA. Five factors viz., half x5 (HV winding to tank clearance) has a relatively less effect
The
clamps.
winding height (xl), end clearance
(x2)yoke
, core-LV
gap (x3), on the loss as compared to other factors. For fixed ampere
LV-HV gap (Q) and HV winding to tank clearance (x5) turns, as axial length'of winding reduces, leakage field
which affect the losses considerably,
onlyflitch
have been
chosen increases correspondingly. Also, as the axial height of
The
plate.
for the analysis, reducing the number of experiments [5]. windings is reduced (with other factors unchanged) the
Radial depths of windings are kept fixed for all experiments. radial leakage field incident on the flitch plate will increase.
taken,
Thesince
tank
the tank
(shunts).
Effect of fiame is indirectly
the band
e height
Henceshields
there is an increase
in flitch plate loss with reduction
varies in accordance with the level of factor x2. The of winding height. Similar explanation can be given for the
regression model has a constant term and 20 variables effect of variation of other factors on the loss. Regression
(regressors) : 5 linear terms, 5 quadratic terms, and 10 analysis was subsequently carried out to compute regression
coefficients of the quadratic surface.
The quadratic surface generated can be used by designer
for a quick estimate of loss in the flitch plate after correcting
Radial Leakage Flux in

Transformer Parts
Top Yoke Clamp
Flitch Plate (laminated & slotted)
LV Winding
XI
x2
Fadorlevds
x3
x4
Fig. 3. ANOVA results

Fig. 2. Leakage field plot
HV Winding
Regulating Winding
Iron Core
Radial Flux
Tank Shunt
Slotted Flitch Plate
and laminated tank
shunt reduce losses
Authorized licensed use limited to: INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY. Downloaded on October 25, 2008 at 01:26 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Fig. 2.3
The bending of the leakage flux at the

end discs produces radial fluxes
that create localised hot-spots.
The flux shunt diverts the flux
direction to reduce the radial flux.
A 2-D transformer cross-section illustrates essential parts subject to leakage flux
2 October 2012
As mentioned in the previous section, the stray flux has the effect of creating eddy
82
Stray Losses
The Total Stray Loss =
20% 25% of Total Load Loss
But can be reduced to
8% 10% of Total Load Loss
By flux control methods magnetic shunts
2 October 2012
83
Min. Tap
with above modifi
4.38
F. Total stray load losses

The stray losses in winding i.e. eddy losses are also
measured as part of total stray losses during testing and are
practically inseparable; hence same are calculated through
another 2-D package and added to the structural losses to get
the total stray losses. The total stray losses in all structural
parts and windings are computed at normal and extreme tap
positions and the details are as summarized in Table X
below.
Stray Loss Components
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
TABLE X
TOTAL STRAY LOAD LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
Component
Stray losses, kW
Max. Tap
Nor. Tap Min. Tap
Tank
13.60
13.48
11.95
Shunts
3.83
4.28
2.48
Frames
2.72
2.25
1.82
Flitch Plates
0.65
0.62
0.52
Edge Stack
4.90
5.40
4.38
Winding eddy losses
27.67
27.03
21.86
Total Stray + Eddy losses
53.37
53.06
43.02
Distribution of component stray losses, calculated as

percentage of the total stray load losses at normal tap
position is represented in Fig. 11 below.
2 October 2012
84
COMPARISON OF
Mode
St
Max. Tap
Nor. Tap
Min. Tap
It is observed
reduction in the t
have the effect of
marginal and hen
losses with modifi
B. Modification
In large transfor
considerable eddy
abnormal local h
bubbling of oil in
edge stack on the
results are reported
COM
Mode
Max. Tap
Nor. Tap
Min. Tap
Stand
The temperature
Stray Loss Control

Use laminated material
Use high resistivity material
Reduce Flux Density by using material of lower
permeability
Reduce Flux Density by parallel magnetic path of low
reluctance
Reduce Flux Density by using a magnetic shielding
plate of high conductivity
2 October 2012
85
Reduction of Stray Losses
Item
No.
Source of Loss
Loss Reduction
Tank
Provide shunts of right material and

adequate dimensions.
Edge Stack
Slit the core lamination into 2 or 3 parts to

separate edge stacks from middle stack
Flitch Plate
Laminate, Slot and Stainless Steel
Frames
Aluminium or non-magnetic inserts

(stainless steel)
2 October 2012
86
permeability at the entry point reduces making it less effective as compared to the
edge-wise shunt. The flux distribution at the entry point is quite complicated. The
presence of inter-laminar non-magnetic gap reduces the average permeability in
the direction normal to the laminations to a low value, hence the flux tends to stay
within a particular lamination until it saturates. The flux finds its way through the
next lamination when the earlier lamination saturates and so on. Thus, it can be
seen that the effectiveness of the width-wise shunt is less as compared to the edgewise shunt.
The manufacturing process of edge-wise shunts is quite elaborate. In one of the
forms, a set of laminations are epoxy moulded (like that of laminated flitch
plates). In another design, it can be made into a wound form. The loss advantage
with the edge-wise shunts has to be assessed vis--vis their higher cost and
manufacturing time as compared to the width-wise shunts. The performances of
these two types of shunts are compared in [64] by finding their effective
anisotropic permeability. A substantial reduction in tank stray losses is reported in
[26] by the use of edge-wise shunts. It is preferable to experimentally check the
quantum of stray loss reduction before standardizing the use of edge-wise shunts.
Magnetic Shunts
Stray Losses in Structural Components
Figure
5.28 Width-wise shunt
Width-wise
Shunt
209
Figure 5.30 Edge-wise shunt
Figure 5.29 Optimum

width-wise shuntShunt
Optimized
Width-wise
Edge-wise Shunt
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.
A practical formula for calculation of thickness of width-wise tank shunt is

given
[6,32] with 2012
reference to figure 5.16:
2 inOctober
Copyright 2012 TPC
(5.34)
Solutions
87
Magnetic Shunt Combinations

213
Figure 5.32 Combination of vertical and horizontal magnetic shunts

2 October 2012
88
paper [34] 1999 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from IEEE Transactions on
TheDelivery,
directionVol.
of eddy
currents
indicates
the9961001.
predominance
of radial field
at the
Power
14, No.
3, July
1999, pp.
The dependence
of flitch
crossloss
section,
mm
fromofthe
surface.
There gap,
are no
eddy to
current
loops in
plate
on the0.5
axial
length
windings,
core-LV
winding
yoke clearance
thickness
ofgap
the is
plate
(see figure
These
are the
reasons
for the
effectiveness
and
LV-HV
observed
to be5.14).
high. The
flitch
plate
loss varies
almost
linearly
of slots
in thegap.
SS plate.
The eddy
current
loops by
aremultiple
parallel to
the surface
(on which
with
LV-HV
A quadratic
surface
derived
regression
analysis
can
theused
fluxby
in designers
incident) indicating
the eddy lossestimation
in the SS plate
predominantly
be
for a quickthat
but approximate
of theisflitch
plate loss.
due loss
to the
radial
field. can
Hence,
the to
slots
in the
SS(with
plateslots/without
are more effective
as
The
value
obtained
be used
decide
type
slots) and
compared
to the MS
plate.
This means that
the loss
should
reduce
material
(magnetic
mild
steel/non-magnetic
stainless
steel)
of the
flitch approximately
plate to control
byloss
a factor
of (n+1).
FromThe
theeffectiveness
first two results
givenand
in table
we see
that the
its
and avoid
hot spots.
of number
length5.2,
of slots
in reducing
reduction
in the
loss is more
(12 times)
than
expected
(8 times).
may
be due
losses
can be
ascertained
accurately
by 3-D
field
calculations.
In theThis
paper,
in-depth
to fact that
each slot
is 5 paths
mm wide
causing
a further
reduction
in steel
the loss
to the
analysis
of eddy
current
has been
reported
for slotted
mild
anddue
stainless
reduced
of conduction.
steel
flitcharea
plates,
having dimensions of 1535 mm200 mm12 mm, used in a singleDue33toMVA,
higher220/132/11
resistivity of
the losses in the SS plate are lower than the MS
phase
kVSS,
autotransformer.
plate.
results
from tables
and(MS)
5.2 are
compared
for the
no slots
it can6
ForIfthis
analysis,
a mild5.1
steel
flitch
plate with
r=1000
andcase,
= 410
be seen has
thatbeen
the SS
plate loss
not significantly
themm
MSatplate
lossThe
for
mho/m
studied.
The iscorresponding
skinlower
depththan
is 1.1
50 Hz.
12 mmobtained
thickness.areFor
a higher thickness,
the loss
thevalues
SS plate
mayare
exceed
the
results
summarized
in table 5.1.
The in
loss
shown
for one
loss in of
thethe
MS
plate, which
fourth
complete
plate.is in line with the graphs in figure 5.5. It shows that in
order to get lower losses with SS material, its thickness should be as small as
possible with due considerations to mechanical design requirements. With the SS
Table
Loss in effect
MS flitch
plate
Mildalthough
Steel losses
Flitch
Plate
plate, 5.1
shielding
is not
available. Hence,
in the
flitch plate are
reduced
with
SS
material,
the
stray
loss
in
the
first
step
of
the
core
Case number
Description
Loss inmay
wattsincrease
substantially
if
it
is
not
split.
Therefore,
thicker
flitch
plates
with
a
low
incident
1
No slots
120
flux density should be of MS material.
2
1 slot throughout
92
A laminated flitch plate (consisting of M4 grade CRGO laminations) has also
3
3 slots throughout
45
been analyzed through 3-D FEM analysis by taking anisotropy into account. The
7 slots
throughout
direction 4along the flitch plate
length
is defined as soft direction32
and other two
5
1
slot
of
400mm
100
directions are defined as hard directions. Thelength
loss value obtained for
the laminated
6 is just 2.5 watts,
3 slots
of 400mm
flitch plate
which
is quitelength
lower than the SS52
plate. Hence,
7 slots
of 400mm
length
laminated7 flitch plates are
generally
used
for large power 45
transformers,
particularly generator transformers, where the incident flux density is quite high.
Types of Flitch Plates

187
Table
Losses
in Dekker,
SS flitch
Copyright5.2
2004
by Marcel
Inc. plate
Case Number
1
2
3
4
Stainless Steel Flitch Plate
Description
No slots
7 slots throughout
7 slots 400 mm long
3 slots 400 mm long
Loss in watts
98
8
11
17
2 October 2012

Figure 5.8 Types of flitch plates
89
current source in a laboratory, the loss measurement is very difficult

impossible) at a low voltage (of few volts).
5.8 Evaluation
of Stray Loss
Due to High Current Lead
High Current
Bushing
Mounting
In furnace transformers and large generator transformers, the stray loss
Plate induced eddy currents in structural components in the vicinity of high c
leads can become substantial. It could lead to hot spots if adequate ma

clearances are not provided or shielding measures are not taken.
Use
Figure 5.20 Bushing mounting plate with non-magnetic inserts

Alternatively, use Non-magnetic Mounting Plate
2 October 2012
90
Tank Stray Loss
Stray Loss due to HV leads tends to be lower than that from LV leads
because of the proximity of LV leads to tank wall.
Control tank loss with shunts.
2 October 2012
91
given in figure 5.4 (c), an explanation similar to that for Case 1 can be given. The
application of Amperes circuital law gives double the value of current (i.e.,
2HL=I) as compared to Case 1. Hence, as the thickness (2b) decreases, the current
has to pass through a smaller cross section of the plate and thus through a higher
resistance causing more loss.
In the previous three cases, it is assumed that the incident magnetic field
intensity is tangential to the surface of a structural component (e.g., bushing
mounting plate). If the field is incident radially, the behavior of stray loss is
different. Based on a number of 2-D FEM simulations involving a configuration in
which the leakage field from the windings is radially incident on a structural
component (e.g., tank or flitch plate), the typical curves are presented in figure
5.5. The figure gives the variation of loss in a structural component as the
thickness is increased, for three different types of material: magnetic steel, nonmagnetic steel and aluminum. The curves are similar to those given in [4] wherein
a general formulation is given for the estimation of losses in a structural
component for any kind of spatial distribution of the incident magnetic field.
Let us now analyse the graphs of three different types of materials given in
figure 5.5.
Loss in Different Materials due

to Radial Flux
Figure 5.5 Loss in different materials for radial excitation
2 October 2012

92
Fig. 13. Temperature profile in modified edge stack design
wise wall shunts [4] etc
It is observed that in the present case the stray loss is

reduced by 52% at normal tap position and hotspot
temperature rise is reduced by 14 K after the division of
edge stack in two halves, which is quite significant.
ACK
The authors are grate
granting permission to p
Reduction
in inStray
Losses
C. Total stray losses
transformer after
modification
The total stray losses estimated in the transformer with

modified shunt and divided edge stack are presented in
Table IXV below.
Sr.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
TABLE IXV
TOTAL STRAY LOAD LOSSES WITH MODIFIED SHUNT
AND DIVIDED EDGE STACK
Stray losses, kW
Component
Max. Tap Nor. Tap Min. Tap
Tank
12.13
11.68
10.59
Shunts
3.83
4.36
1.35
Frames
2.72
2.25
1.82
Flitch Plate
0.65
0.54
0.62
Edge Stack
2.18
2.57
2.09
Winding eddy losses
27.67
27.03
21.86
Total Stray + Eddy losses
49.18
48.43
38.33
[1] Ramaswamy E, Sarma D

non-magnetic shunts fo
International Scientific
September 2005, pp. 70
[2] Turowski, J., Turowsk
dimensional network
transformers, IEEE T
September 1990, pp. 29
[3] D A Koppikar, S V K
Evaluation of flitch
Transections on Power
[4] Prof.
S V Kulkarn
Engineering Design a
pp. 169-230.
About the Authors:
D. Comparison of total stray losses after modification

The comparison of stray losses after modification in shunt
and edge stack is shown in Table XV below.
2 October 2012
Sr
TABLE
XVTPC Solutions
Copyright
2012
COMPARISON OF STRAY LOSSES AFTER MODIFICATION

Total stray losses, kW
Design
93
WINDING TYPES
Selection dependent on current and voltage ratings.
Helical
l Multi-layer
l Disk Coil
l
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94
HELICAL TYPE
A turn-by-turn formation of helix of constant diameter
for low voltage and heavy current.
Capacitance to earth, C and is large.
With wire type, applicable to the high voltage windings
of small capacity distribution transformers.
With strip type, applicable to the low voltage winding of
distribution transformers.
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95
Helix Wound Wire Winding
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96
Helix-Wound Strip Winding
Single Layer, 2 strand wound in parallel
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97
High Current Helical Coil

For high currents, a helical coil of several
conductors can be wound in parallel with
transposition.
Transposition reduces stray loss.
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98
Multi-Layer Helical Winding

FIGURE 2.1.14 Layer windings (single layer with two strands wound in parallel).
2 October 2012
FIGURE 2.1.15 Helical winding during assembly.
2.1.5.3 Taps-Turns Ratio Adjustment
99
Helical Multi-Layer
For a wide range of currents, a helical coil can be
wound over another layer.
Multi-layer helical windings can be formed by
connecting each helical layer in series. This
found in 132 kV windings.
2 October 2012
100
DISK TYPE
Continuous disk coils consisting of a number disks
wound alternatively inside-to-outside and outside-toinside for higher voltage and low current and great
short-circuit strength.
Relatively low series capacitance to high capacitance to
earth.
Tendency is large but as the transformer gets larger
reduces
Applicable to high voltage windings.
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101
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Disc Winding Arrangement and

Crossovers
Turn No.
"#$%&' !!()
.'$++/$0&' 1$23+4 2*(&'1$23 1$**&
FIGURE 2.1.16 Basic disc winding layout
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102
Multi-Parallel Conductors MultiTurn Discs

160
Chapter 4
Turn 1
Outside Crossover
8-Parallel, 3-turn
Continuous disc Winding
Turn 2
Turn 3
Inside Crossover
Figure 4.15 Continuous disk winding
2 October 2012
The circulating current loss in the winding is
103
Typical Winding Applications

Service Type
Rating
(MVA)
High-Voltage Winding
Low-Voltage Winding
kV
Type
kV
Type
<1
11, 33
Foil,
Crossover
or multilayer
0.43
Helix
System
1 - 30
33, 66
Disc
11
Disc, Helix
or Disc-helix
Transmission
> 30
132 - 500
Disc, Multilayer
11, 33, 66
Disc or
Disc-helix
Generator
> 30
132 - 500
Disc, Multilayer
11 - 22
Disc-helix
Distribution
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104
Disc Wound Strip Winding

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105
Disc Winding Inner and Outer

Crossovers
FIGURE 2.1.16 Basic disc winding layout
2 October 2012
FIGURE 2.1.17 Disc winding inner and outer crossovers.
106
With larger units, a dedicated tap winding may be necessary to avoid the ampere-turn voids that occur
HOW DISC WINDING IS WOUND
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107
Drum Rotation
Ducts
Inside to Outside Wound
2 Layer Continuous Disc Coils

In Inside to Outside Wound
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108
Prepare Transposing Coils

And Reinforcing
Insulation at Crossover
2 October 2012
109
Transposing Coil
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110
Preparing Outside to Inside Wound

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111
Outside Layer Brought Inside

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112
Layer Formed in Reverse

Drum Rotation
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113
Completing Inside-out Layer
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114
Preparing Transition to
Outside-in Coil Layer
Temporary transition
Temporary Inside-out Coil Prepared

2 October 2012
115
Re-arranging Inside-out Coil Layer

To Outside-in Layer
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116
Stacking Outside-in Coil Layer to Position
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117
A Core Assembled with Windings
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118
Assembled Windings
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119
Winding Pull-through Lead to Bushing
Tapping Leads
Winding Tap Connections
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120
2 October 2012
Terminal Bushings
and Surge Arresters
121
TRANSFORMER TANK
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122
Tank
Stiffeners
Drain Valve
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123
Tank
Hot-oil Resistant Paint on Smooth Surface
Lifting Point
Hot-oil Gasket
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124
2 October 2012
125
Tank Design
Achieve mechanically strong vessel for supporting
the mass of core, windings and oil during
transportation and lifting. Optimised to hold
minimum oil to a safe and reliable amount.
Provide rigidity with stiffeners yet reduce vibration
to limit panel size whose length is proportional to
the wavelength of vibrations in air.
Stiffeners are for lifting holds, jacking pads,
supports and draw holes.
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126
Tank Cover
Tank cover can be bolted or arc-welded. Gasket
material is protected from excessive
compression by limit stops.
All plates, sections, lifting points are welded.
OLTC may be attached to tank cover.
Tank is tested for leakage and able to withstand at
least 25% excess internal pressure.
Space at bottom for collection of sediments.
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127
Magnetic Screening
To reduce stray loss
Some magnetic flux flow from the core to outside
the winding and to the tank.
A magnetic screen converges the magnetic flux to
itself by forming a low-reluctance path.
The screen surrounds the windings or are mounted
as core-plates on the internal tank walls.
They carry a lower flux density (0.4 T) at normal
current.
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128
Tank Tests
Type Test
Low-Oil Pressure test at 6.6 kN/m-2
Oil-Pressure Test at twice normal; oil pressure or
normal oil pressure plus 35kN/m-2
Plates do not deflect above specified value.
Routine Test
Oil-leakage test at 35 kN/m-2
Above normal pressure for 24 hours.
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129
Oil Preservation
Oil is used for Electrical Insulation and for
Transformer Cooling
Oil Preservation serves to maintain the quality and
properties of oil for the long-term so as not to
affect the winding paper insulation.
Do not allow the oil temperature to exceed a
maximum value and to prevent the ingress of
moisture.
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130
Transformer Temperature
Chapter 2 Transformer Losses and Temperature Rise
Hg
Top of winding
Average oil
Bottom of winding
Top oil
Hot-spot
Average winding
Bottom oil
Temperature rise
Fig. 2.4 Transformer thermal diagram according to IEC 354
October
Copyright
2 The
hot 2012
spot temperature rise
at the 2012
top ofTPC
theSolutions
winding
is higher than the131

average
temperature rise of the winding. To consider non-linearities such as the increase
Maximum Insulation Hot-spot

Temperature and Oil Temperature
Maximum insulation hot-spot temperature is 98C.
For every increase of 6C above this temperature,
the rate in insulation ageing is doubled with the
transformer life reduced.
Oil temperature in excess of 75C causes the oil to
deteriorate by oxidation with oxygen.
Thus the life of oil and insulation is affected by
temperature and they in turn, affect transformer
life.
2 October 2012
132
Assembled Active Parts Ready

for Drying for a Few Days
2 October 2012
133
After Drying Ready for Tanking
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134
Tanking within 4 Hours
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135
Radiators
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136
Installed Radiator
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137
The Presence of Oxygen in Oil

The presence of oxygen with moisture and high
operating temperature deteriorates oil and
insulation by oxidation of the oil in the presence
of copper, iron, water, vanishes, etc.
Use a Nitrogen Buffer to prevent oxygen in contact
with oil.
Heat insulation to remove water from paper
insulation and then apply a vacuuming process
to reduce the remaining water to less than 0.5%.
Use degassed and dry oil to fill transformer.
2 October 2012
138
Water Content in Oil and

Insulation
Water content increases with the life of the

transformer because:
Of the natural deterioration process by oxidation
of oil under high temperature.
By entry of moisture from the atmosphere during
cyclic loading with about 6% volume change due
to temperature change.
Ingressed moisture in oil migrates to paper
insulation to cause deterioration.
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139
Conservator with Breather

Conservator space is one or is divided into 2
spaces with a diaphragm layer to prevent oil
exposure to air.
Air in contact with limited oil has moisture removed
by a breather.
Air has limited contact with oil to dissolve oxygen.
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140
Oil Expansion System

To accommodate increased oil volume:
Allow air space confined in main tank of small
transformers e.g. in hermetically-sealed.
Provide separate expansion chambers or
conservators in medium and large transformers
such as to limit the exposure of oil to
atmospheric moisture.
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141
Synthetic Diaphragm
Place inside the conservator to compensate for oil
volume variations due to temperature changes.
Prevent condensation of moisture in the
conservator and keeps the oil dry.
Inside the diaphragm is air at say, 0.1 bar and
outside is oil.
Made up of high elastomeric nitrile-coated fabric
that can resist oil and oil contamination.
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Oil Conservators
OLTC Conservator
Main Tank Conservator
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143
Oil Gauge at Conservator
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144
Transformer Accessories
Dial-type thermometers for oil and winding
temperature.
Oil gauge
Pressure Relief device
Filter and drain valves
Nameplate
Handholds on cover or tank
Lifting eyes and lugs
Jack pad, ladder, ski-base
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145
Temperature Gauges
Oil Temperature
Gauge
2 October 2012
Winding Temperature
Gauge
146
OLTC Panel
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147
Pressure Relief Device (Top View)
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148
Breathers
2 types:
Most common Silica Gel Cobalt Chloride
The other Freezer Dehydrator or Automatic
Insulation Drier - Drycol.
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149
Silica-Gel Type Breather

Silica-gel is a desiccant. Air passing through it is
dried by its microscopic capillary structure.
Its rate of drying depends on the amount of
moisture in it. If it exceeds 23%, it becomes
ineffective and to reactivate it, the moisture
inside has to be removed by drying it in an oven.
When dry, its colour is deep blue and it changes its
colour to pink when it absorbs moisture.
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2 October 2012
151
Gas-actuated Protection of
Transformer
This requires that the main tank is full-filled with oil
and gas produced within has to be released
quickly and directly to the air via a pressure
relief-device attached to the top of the main tank.
Thus, the conservator is connected by an oil-filled
pipe from the main tank and has only one space
for atmospheric contact via the breather.
Hence, the Buchholz Relay.
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152
Pressure Relief Device
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153
Buchholz Relay
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154
Buchholz Relay
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155
Transformer Surge Protection

Protects the transformer windings from surges
exceeding its impulse withstand levels by
discharging them to the earth.
Place surge arresters close to the HV terminals for
effective protection.
Monitor the surge arrester operation by leakage
current measurement and count the surges
discharged.
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156
Transformer Surge Arresters

Surge Arresters mounted on Transformer
2 October 2012
157
Leakage Current Measurement

and Surge Counters
Counter
Leakage Current
Meter
Earth bar
Site Connection to Earth
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158
Terminal Bushings
Surge
Arresters
Bushings
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159
Installed HV Bushing and Surge

Arrester
Surge Arrester
HV Bushing
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160
Transformer Bushings
Two re-entrant types:
Synthetic-resin-bonded paper bushing
Oil-impregnated paper bushing for EHV.
Both of which layers of electric screens to grade
the stress of the insulant enclosed in porcelain
The requirement is to ensure thermal stability of
the insulation hence, lower dielectric dissipation
factor and permittivity and high thermal
conductivity.
The bushing can accommodate a current
transformer.
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161
Lead Connections
The winding is connected with a flexible pullthrough lead which is connected internally to the
top-end helmet of the bushing. The whole space
is filled with oil.
The lead is fitted with a gas-bubble deflector to
prevent gas released from getting trapped in the
space.
Externally, arcing gap prevent damage to the
porcelain by power arc.
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162
Bushing Tests
Type Tests:
Thermal stability, Wet voltage withstand, surgevoltage, visible corona, temperature rise, oilimmersed voltage withstand, power factor and
internal discharge.
Routine Tests:
Oil leakage, voltage withstand, internal discharge,
surge-voltage, power factor.
2 October 2012
163
Low Voltage Termination

2 Cables per Phase
Cable Gland
2 October 2012
164
Transformer Body/Frame Earthing
Lifting Lug
Frame Earth
2 October 2012
165

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An Introduction to

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Core and Winding Assembly

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Oil Conservator tank

Pressure Relief Device

OLTC Control Box

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Transformer Tank Parts

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Transformer Design Parameters

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Typical Causes of Failure

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Winding Voltages and Currents

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Voltage Induction on Winding

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The Winding Ampere-turn

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Core Characteristics to Reduce

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Winding I2R Loss

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Minimizing I2R Loss

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Estimating Specific I2R loss

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Winding Cross-sectional Area

Total Cross-sectional Area = Na

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Estimating Eddy Current Loss

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Ratio of Eddy Current Loss to I2R

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Copper Loss and Stray Loss

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Winding Current Densities and

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Voltage per Turn

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Winding Arrangement Dimensions

Mean lengths per turn

AHV = sHV bHV

ALV = sLV bLV

Area of Leakage Flux

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Output Coefficient, KAS

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Temperature Rise Limits