MFT-004 >> Block-1 >> Unit-1 >>

Unit-1:Introduction
MFT-004 >> Block-1 >> Unit-2 >>

Unit-2:Packaging Materials and Properties of Materials

MFT-004 >> Block-1 >> Unit-3 >>

Unit-3:Recent Trends in Food Packaging

3.0 : Objective
3.1 : Introduction
3.2 : Vacuum Package
3.3 : Gas Packaging
3.3.1 : Oxygen
3.3.2 : Carbon dioxide
3.3.3 : Nitrogen
3.4 : Aseptic packaging
3.5 : Retort packaging
3.6 : Active Packaging
3.6.1 : Ethylene scavengers
3.6.2 : Carbon dioxide scavengers and emitters
3.6.3 : Humidity regulators
3.6.4 : Oxygen scavengers
3.6.5 : Antimicrobial packaging
3.6.6 : Breathing films
3.7 : Biodegradable Packaging
3.8 : Let us sum up
3.9 : key words
3.10 : Answers to check your progress exercises
3.11 : Some useful books

3.0 : Objective

After reading this unit, you should be able to:

Explain different types of packaging systems

Understand the importance of packaging systems

Define functions of packages

Explain the relationship between food properties and properties of

packaging materials

Design and develop packages for different foods

TOP

3.1 : Introduction

You have studied packaging requirement and their selection for different
food products. When you go to super markets you will see newer and newer
packages on the shelf quite often. The shifts in packaging trends are due to
consumers demand for convenience, information, attractive display, address
one or more specific needs etc. In this unit you will study recent trends in
food packaging.
Modern food packaging innovations have made it possible to keep the food
fresh for a much longer time, without changing the taste or aroma. The goal
of developing food packaging is the achievement of a more ideal match of
the properties of the package to the requirements of the food. Hence it
addresses one or more specific needs of the food without necessarily having
any impact on other food properties.
Flavour and odour absorbers like films and sachets have been introduced to
reduce the transfer of aroma or flavour between components. This helps
keeping food items fresh and natural for a long times. Various industries have

introduced specific technologies suiting their special food type.

Drip absorbing pads have been introduced for moisture control and oxygen
removal systems have been used to keep egg fresh for a longer period of time
in poultry industry. Digital technology has been introduced to look into the
freshness of food items. Ripeness indicators have been designed recently to
monitor and communicate information about food quality.
Intelligent or smart packaging is designed to monitor and communicate
information about food quality. Examples include ripeness indicators and
radio frequency identification. These smart devices may be incorporated in
package materials, attached to the inside or outside of a package, or
sometimes the product itself. These smart devices can be incorporated on the
food item itself. Packaging developments such as packages incorporating
antimicrobials and oxygen scavengers established new precedents for
prolonging shelf life and protecting food from environmental influences.
Nevertheless, omnipresent global trends such as increased industrial
processing of food, greater importation and exportation of food products, and
less time for preparation of fresh foods compel the food and beverage
packaging industry to investigate newer, more advanced packaging solutions.
It is said that nano technology will produce the most remarkable new food
packaging concepts. Work has already begun in the field of active and
intelligent packaging, pathogen detection and creating good barriers between
various food materials.
Thermal processing is one of the conventional preservation methods which
assures processed foods to be safe and shelf stable. Thermal processing of
foods in cans and bottles is a well known technology which is a common
operation in food industry. In this the product is hermetically sealed in a
container and heat processed in a retort for required time to arrive at
commercial sterility. It is also known as in container sterilization. Now-a-day,
it has even extended for plastic based semi rigid and flexible containers
known as retort trays and retort pouches respectively. Retort trays are semi
rigid containers with a high barrier core layer and retort pouches are flexible
packages made of multilayer films with or without aluminium foil.
Aluminium foil serves as the barrier layer and is responsible for longer shelf
life of over one year for the product. Silicate SiO2 layer is also being used as
an alternate to aluminium layer as it gives clear pouches and also has the
advantage of being micro ovenable. The most important feature of these
containers is that they are made of plastics amenable for processing in retorts
at temperatures of about 121C.
All new innovations in food packaging have some element of "green"
sustainable with the criteria of 1) It has to be healthy safe and beneficial for
communities and individuals throughout its lifecycle. 2) It meets market

criteria for performance and cost. 3) It is sourced, manufactured, transported

and recycled using renewable energy. 4) It maximizes the use of renewable
or recycled source materials. 5) It is manufactured using clean production
technologies and best practices. 6) It is made from materials healthy in all
probable end-of-life scenarios. 7) It is designed to optimize materials and
energy. 8) It is recovered effectively and used in biological and/or industrial
cradle to cradle cycles.
These are among the many developments emerging from research labs
worldwide where food scientists, materials specialists and others continually
attempt to improve current packaging materials and develop new ones with
optimal barrier properties. Like food products themselves, packaging
materials are constantly evolving to meet the latest demands of the
marketplace. Companies have a significant interest in improving their food
products. New packaging films that offer optimal barrier properties
undoubtedly will help companies meet the challenge of keeping products
fresh and extending their shelf life.
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3.2 : Vacuum Package

In the retail shops you will find products like dry foods such as cereals, nuts,
cured meats, cheese, smoked fish, coffee etc are packed in vacuum. In this
section we will find out why they are vacuum packed.

Fig 3.1 Vacuum packaged food products

Vacuum packaging refers to packaging in containers (rigid or flexible), from
which substantially all air has been removed prior to final sealing of the
container. This method of packaging is actually a form of Modified
Atmosphere since normal room air is removed from the package. Vacuum
packaging helps in extending shelf life; in controlling oxidative rancidity;
preventing the growth of normal spoilage bacteria; in suspending Aerobic
organisms such as Pseudomonas and favouring lactic-acid bacteria. The latter
can grow to high numbers without causing spoilage. Reduces moisture loss
and freezer burn. Prevents movement of water out of the product into the
surrounding headspace. Prevents loss of moisture at product surface and
eliminates freezer burn. Requires minimal storage space Package is drawn
tight around product taking up minimal space. Leakers are easily detected A
small puncture or pinhole in a vacuum pack is easy to detect by looking for
loose packages. This technique has been shown to help maintain the quality
of various frozen products including pizza, seafood, beef and pork.
There are two forms of vacuum packaging, depending on the rigidity of the
package. The first form of vacuum packaging involves a rigid package (e.g.,
glass jar) or a semi-rigid package (e.g., plastic container) in which most of
the air is evacuated, but a headspace still remains in the package. The
removal of air typically reduces the oxygen level in the headspace to as low
as 1%, which significantly helps to reduce the problem of oxidation.
However, frost formation and freezer burn are still problematic since the
headspace exists.
The second form of vacuum packaging involves a flexible package (e.g., a
plastic pouch) in which not only the oxygen is removed but also the
headspace is eliminated. Thus both oxidation and frost formation are
controlled. This form is also known as vacuum skin packaging, since the
food is tightly wrapped by the package. The mechanical stress created by the
vacuum also helps to remove air pockets inside the product. This technique
has been widely used to package frozen meat and seafood products including
meat balls, clam strips, lobster tails, salmon, and farmed rainbow trout.
Several types of materials are used for vacuum skin packaging, such as a
blend of Surlyn ionomer resin with low density polyethylene (LDPE) and
ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA). Vacuum packaging requires the use of gas
barrier packaging materials; otherwise, the vacuum cannot be maintained for
a prolonged period of time.
Vacuum packaging, and reduced oxygen packaging, is an excellent way of
preserving frozen food quality and safety. The exclusion of oxygen from the
microenvironment surrounding the food has benefits to prevent the growth of

aerobic microorganisms and also minimizes the effects of detrimental

oxidative biochemical reactions, which would normally set a limit on the
achievable quality shelf-life of the food. Vacuum packaging is also an
excellent means of minimizing surface moisture loss, both in terms of
dehydration during freezing and drip loss during thawing. The technology is
also beneficial from a processing perspective, as the skin-tight package on
the food readily allows heat transfer from the food to the freezing medium.
This means that foods can be packaged prior to the freezing operation, which
makes the essential requirement of good hygiene practice a little easier for
the food manufacturer.

Fig 3.2 Vacuum Chamber Sealers

External Sealers
External vacuum sealers involve a bag being attached to the vacuum-sealing
machine externally. The machine will remove the air and seal the bag, which
is all done outside the machine.
Chamber Sealers
Chamber sealers require the entire product to be placed within the machine.
Like external sealers, a plastic bag is typically used for packaging. Once the
product is placed in the machine, the lid is closed and air is removed. Once
the air is removed, the bag is sealed and the atmosphere within the chamber
is returned back to normal. The lid is then opened and the product removed.
Chamber sealers are typically used for higher-volume packaging.

We have studied the vacuum packed products. Now we will see some of the
products like potato chips are packed with gases called gas packaging.
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3.3 : Gas Packaging

Gas packaging can be defined as the alteration of the proportional volumes of

the gases which comprise a normal atmosphere. This type of packaging
generally falls into two categories. The most commonly used gases for the
packaging are CO2, N2 and O2. According to EU legislation, foods packaged
in modified atmospheres must be labelled with a phrase like Packaged in a
protective atmosphere. Gases for the packaging of meat are seldom used
alone but in mixtures, which vary according to the application.
Materials used for modified atmosphere packaging are a combination of
different substrates. The materials can be as simple as two-ply laminations or
multi-layer coextrusions, incorporating EVOH as a high barrier substrate.
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3.3.1 : Oxygen

One of the major functions of oxygen is to maintain the red pigment,

myoglobin in the oxymyoglobin state that is responsible for the bright red
colour associated with freshness. Oxygen pressure levels over 240 mm are
thought to greatly increase and extend the fresh appearance of meats.
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3.3.2 : Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is a known inhibitor of microbial growth. Gram-negative

spoilage flora of refrigerated meat is especially sensitive to CO2 while lactic
acid bacteria are less affected. The inhibitory effects of CO2 have been
attributed to alteration of the bacterial cells permeability, pH changes and
enzymatic inhibition. CO2helps to increase the lag phase and generation time,
which delays the overall increase of bacterial populations. Factors such as

initial bacterial load, time of application, storage temperature and gas

concentration will affect the desired end result. The inhibitory efficiency of
CO2 is increased at lower temperatures. This is thought to be due to the fact
that the solubility of gases is much higher at lower temperatures; the
CO2 concentration in the medium will increase as the temperature is lowered.
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid and can actually
dissolve in food products. As the gas dissolves in the water the quantity of
gas within the package diminishes and a partial vacuum is generated. This
may bring about the collapse of the pack.
Carbon dioxide by itself already been recognized for a significant effect of
inhibiting pathogens, but concentrations over 30 percent or 40 percent
usually result in discoloration of fresh meat. But in combination with carbon
monoxide, the colour is greatly improved. With cooked, cured, processed
products, the higher levels of carbon dioxide are acceptable. It doesnt
discolour those products such as ground meat or pork chops.
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3.3.3 : Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an inert gas and is abundantly available at relatively low cost, has
neither colour nor odour and is chemically unreactive. It has a low solubility
in both water and fat. In modified atmospheres nitrogen is used to displace
oxygen in order to delay aerobic spoilage and oxidative deterioration.
Another role of nitrogen is to act as a filler gas so as to prevent pack
collapse. Nitrogen packaging is common for foods like potato chips, snack
foods, fruits and vegetables, and many meat and seafood items.

Fig 3.3 Vacuum and Gas packaging machine

Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer
b) Compare your answer with those given at end of the unit.
1. What is vacuum packaging?
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2. How is shelf life extended under vacuum?
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3. What are advantages of Vacuum Packaging?
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4. What is nitrogen or inert gas packing?
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5. Do you have to use special pouches for vacuum/gas packaging?

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3.4 : Aseptic packaging

Aseptic packaging can be defined as the filling of a commercially sterile

product into a sterile container under aseptic conditions and hermetically
sealing the containers so that reinfection is prevented. This results in a
product, which is shelf-stable at ambient conditions. The term aseptic is
derived from the Greek word septicos which means the absence of
putrefactive micro-organisms. In practice, generally there are two specific
fields of application of aseptic packaging technology:

Packaging of pre-sterilised and sterile products. Examples are milk

and dairy products, puddings, desserts, fruit and vegetable juices,
soups, sauces, and products with particulates.

Packaging of non-sterile product to avoid infection by microorganisms. Examples of this application include fermented dairy
products like yoghurt.

Aseptic packaging technology is fundamentally different from that of

conventional food processing by canning. In canning, the process begins with
treating the food prior to filling. Initial operations inactivate enzymes so that
these will not degrade the product during processing. The package is cleaned,
and the product is introduced into the package, usually hot. Generally, air that
can cause oxidative damage is removed from the interior. The package is
hermetically sealed and then subjected to heating. The package must be able

to withstand heat up to about 100C for high acid products and up to 127C
for low acid products, which must receive added heat to destroy heatresistant microbial spores. Packages containing low-acid (above pH 4.5) food
must withstand pressure as well. Although conventional canning renders food
products commercially sterile, the nutritional contents and the organoleptic
properties of the food generally suffer in the processing. Moreover, tinplate
containers are heavy in weight, prone to rusting and are of high cost.
The three main advantages of using aseptic packaging technology are:

Packaging materials, which are unsuitable for in-package sterilisation

can be used. Therefore, light weight materials consuming less space
offering convenient features and with low cost such as paper and
flexible and semi-rigid plastic materials can be used gainfully.

Sterilisation process of high-temperature-short time (HTST) for

aseptic packaging is thermally efficient and generally gives rise to
products of high quality and nutritive value compared to those
processed at lower temperatures for longer time.

Extension of shelf-life of products at normal temperatures by packing

them aseptically.

Besides the features mentioned above, additional advantages are that the
HTST process utilises less energy, as part of the process-heat is recovered
through the heat exchangers and the aseptic process is a modern continuous
flow process needing fewer operators. Figure shows schematic
representation of aseptic packaging process. Different methods based on
physical process, chemical sterilisers and radiations are used for sterilisation
of packaging materials.

Fig 3.4: Schematic diagram of Aseptic packaging process

Functional requirements
1. High impermeability to water vapour, zero WVTR for prolonged
storage.
2. Very low permeability to gases especially oxygen since its interaction

leads to chemical and biological deterioration.

3. Aroma barrier property to preserve odours and freedom from external
taints.
4. Inertness with the product packed, sterilizing treatments, impartedheat, chemicals or radiations.
5. Perfect package and closure integrity.
6. Capacity to form well on operating machinery.
7. Provide user convenience for unit and bulk packages.
8. Thermal stability for both low and high temperature.
9. Sufficiently robust to withstand rough treatment likely to occur
during handling and transportation.
10. Meet all regulatory specifications.
Aseptic packaging forms: Aseptically processed foods are packed in varieties
of packaging materials and forms comprising flexible, semi rigid and rigid
containers. Their structure, form and application are as follows.
Flexible pouches and bags: Flat or Stand up pouches like PET/PE, met
PET/PE, PET/Al foil/PE and some co-extruded film structures can be used
for this. The shelf lives of aseptically processed foods are given in Table 5.
Cartons in aseptic packaging: Different types of cartons gable-top,
tetrahedron and brick shape are employed for aseptic packaging. The
tetrahedral shape has the advantage of minimum ratio of area to volume and
employed for liquid food. Brick cartons are very popular as they facilitate
easy distribution. The cartons are essentially made of PE/paper/PE/Al foil/PE
with slight differences among manufacturers. Especially for aseptic juice
applications, the inner most layer is PE-Ionomer co-extruded web as this
eliminates PE de-lamination from the foil. A typical six layer laminate
construction used in aseptic packaging is 16 m coating/ 240 gsm paper
board/ 16 m PE/ 9-10 m Al foil/ 11 m Ionomer and 38 m PE. The
outermost PE layer provides water vapour barrier property, paper board
provides stiffness, ease of formation on automatic machines and printability.
9-10 m Al foils afford gas and water vapour barrier property, odour
proofness and light protection. Ionomer eliminate seal failures and leakers
and resist cracking at score lines. However it has been shown that oxygen
transmission rate at the scored area would be 40-50 times higher than flat

area. To eliminate the risk of contamination from the base of carton, all edges
are protected.

Fig 3.5 Composition of Tetra packs Aseptic Carton.

Bag in the box system: Bag in the box is high barrier multilayer bag
contained in a shipping container of CFB or wooden box or metal drum. The
capacity of the bag ranges between 5 liters institutional use to 250 liters (60
gallons) for industrial market (Paine 1987). Even 1135 liters (300 gallon)
bulk containers are also available. Generally these bags are made of met
PET/PE or PA/PE having 4 side seals of width 5-10 mm. Inclusion of a
single web of inner loose liner of LLDPE provides added physical strength.
High barrier Al foil laminates with PET or PA / Al foil / PE / LDPE / LLDPE
are also being used for aseptic bags. The most important factor in bag design
is the spout. In normal use the bag has a welded fitment which contains a
rigid plastic spout which is fitted with a screw cap or pressed fit cap and
some with spigots for easy dispensing. There are different types of
construction of spouts with ability to maintain aseptic conditions.
Bag in drum system: These are bulk metal containers used for aseptic bags.
They are normally 247.5 lt electrolytically tin plated containers. The body
and the components are made from electroplated 18 gauge steel with 6-10
times more tin coating than the normal tin plate cans. The drum is normally
coated with a suitable food lacquer and can withstand a vacuum of 27.
The aseptic packaging is very well accepted in food service applications
worldwide as a safe and high-quality packaging option. Aseptic processing

sterilizes food products by destroying the harmful bacteria and pathogenic

micro-organisms through a tightly controlled thermal process and combines
the sterile product with the sterile packaging material in a sterile
environment; the end result is a shelf-stable product requiring no
refrigeration. The use of plastics in the aseptic packaging significantly
increases the non-refrigerated shelflife and availability of many perishable
products. Today, this is readily being used in the innermost contact layers of
the package, thereby protecting the quality of food.
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3.5 : Retort packaging

Retort is a cooking process that uses heat and pressure to cook food in its
sealed package. Retort Packaging conditions are quite demanding with
temperatures typically ranging from 120C to 130C. Different retort grade
films which are laminated together to provide the strength, toughness,
puncture and burst resistance that enable flexible retort packaging to
withstand the strenuous retort process.

Fig 3.6 Retort

Retort packaging was initially developed using glass and metal. Consumer
convenience, safety concerns and cost issues served as the genesis for the
development of plastic resin formulations capable of sustaining the
challenging retort temperatures. The magnitude of the development challenge
is proportional to the thermal and pressure history of the package in the
retort. These attributes of the process are governed by the target Fo value
required to achieve sterilization.
A retortable pouch is a multi-layered lamination structure designed to
withstand extreme conditions, including cooking, freezing, dropping, and
flexing. It can also be heated and sterilized, thereby providing for long term
storage. To properly retort a pouch, temperatures can reach up to 275 F for
up to 90 minutes. Many new pouches feature a clear, see-through lamination
structure and, to provide added convenience, some new retort pouches
feature re-closable zippers or spouts. Retorted pouches are often designed to
remain stable for up to 60 months.
For many food products, retortable pouches have already replaced a metal
can. Two prominent examples include tuna fish and moist pet food. These

products are readily found today on store shelves in pouch form. Also found
on store shelves in retortable packages are: seafood, precooked meats, rice,
sauces, soups, stews, and many others.
Retort pouch packaging has superior barrier and printing qualities and can be
supplied as stand-up, flat or in roll form. Flexible retort packaging offer a
variety of additional benefits over rigid packaging to both retailers and
consumers that include : Superior taste due to reduced retort time. Extended
shelf life in retort packaging. Reduced storage space in retort packaging, both
in warehouse and pantries. Reduced transportation costs. Easier and safer
tear-open/disposal consumer experience. Microwave convenience retort
packaging
Retort packaging and packaging are available in two variants one is
aluminium foil laminated and another transparent see through retort
packaging .
Common flexible retort packaging structures include the following:
PET / FOIL / Nylon / CPP
PET / Nylon / FOIL / CPP
PET-SiOX or AlOX / Nylon / CPP
Due to retort packaging have their thinner dimensions; it takes less time to
cook food in a flexible retort packaging than in other forms of rigid
packaging such as cans and jars. This reduced retort time results in foods that
have superior taste in retort pouches.

Fig 3.7 Retort pouches

Suitable semi rigid containers for thermal processing are
1.

Injection moulded multiple pocket plastic trays of construction PP/

PVDC(or EVOH)/ PP
2. Al Foil based trays made of Body- Epoxy resin / 100-150 m Al Foil /
50 m PP
3. Lid - Epoxy resin / 50- 100 m Al Foil / 50 m PP

Fig 3.8 High barrier polypropylene retort tray

Fig 3.9 Lid material for tray

Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer
b) Compare your answer with those given at end of the unit.
1. What are the benefits of aseptic packaging to the consumer?
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3.6 : Active Packaging

Active packaging is an emerging and exciting area of food technology which

can confer many preservation benefits on a wide range of foods. The aim of
active packaging is to match the properties of the package to the more critical
requirements of the food. Adoption of some of these methods will require
changes in attitude to packaging and a willingness to address regulatory
issues where chemical effects are used. Application of these and other
emerging technologies offers the prospect of greater satisfaction in India as
these are relatively new concepts, and that we are maximising the benefits
from some of our traditional agricultural industries.
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3.6.1 : Ethylene scavengers

Ethylene (C2H4 ) acts as a plant hormone that has different physiological

effects on fresh fruit and vegetables. It accelerates respiration, leading to

maturity and senescence, and also softening and ripening of many kinds of
fruit. Furthermore, ethylene accumulation can cause yellowing of green
vegetables and may be responsible for a number of specific postharvest
disorders in fresh fruits and vegetables. Although some effects of ethylene
are positive such as degreening of citrus fruit, ethylene is often detrimental to
the quality and shelf life of fruits and vegetables. To prolong shelf life and
maintain an acceptable visual and organoleptic quality, accumulation of
ethylene in the packaging should be avoided. Most of these absorbers are
supplied as sachets or integrated into films. Potassium permanganate
(KMnO4), oxidizes ethylene to acetate and ethanol. In this process, colour
changes from purple to brown indicating the remaining C2H4scavenging
capacity. Products based on KMnO4 cannot be integrated into food-contact
materials, but are only supplied in the form of sachets because KMnO4is
toxic and has a purple colour. Typically, such products contain 4 to 6%
KMnO4 on an inert substrate with a large surface area such as perlite,
alumina, silica gel, vermiculite, activated carbon or celite. CFTRI Mysore
has developed KMnO4 and activated brick power based ethylene scavengers
in sachet for storage and transportation and refill for refrigerators
respectively. Rengo Co. (Japan) developed `Green Pack', a sachet of
KMnO4 embedded in silica. The silica adsorbs the ethylene and the
permanganate oxidizes it to acetate and ethanol. The technology of
C2H4 scrubbing has also been transferred to household refrigerators in USA.
Systems containing a zeolite coated with KMnO4 are now available and are
meant to be used in consumer refrigerators e.g. Mrs Green's Extra Life
cartridges from Dennis Green (USA) and Fridge Friend TM sachets from
Ethylene Control.
Furthermore, the adsorbing capacity is often lost when incorporating these
minerals into a polymer matrix. Commercially available examples of these
mineral containing materials are the Orega plastic film (Cho Yang Heung San
Co., Korea), Evert-Fresh (Evert-Fresh Co., USA), Peakfresh TM (Peakfresh
Products, Australia), BO film (Odja Shoji Co., Japan) and ProfreshTM
Europe). PeakfreshTM is a mineral impregnated film that is FDA approved
and complies with current EU directives. C2H4 scavengers are not yet very
successful, probably because of insufficient adsorbing capacity. A large
proportion of the fresh fruits and vegetables harvested each year are lost due
to fungal contamination and physiological damage. The C2H4 adsorbing
packaging concepts could possibly contribute to an increase in the internal
trade as well as export of fresh produce.

Fig 3.10 Ethylene scavenger

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3.6.2 : Carbon dioxide scavengers and emitters

CO2 is formed in some foods due to deterioration and respiration reactions.

The produced CO2 has to be removed from the package to avoid food
deterioration and/or package destruction. CO2 absorbers might therefore be
useful. The active compound Ca(OH)2 of FreshLock reacts at sufficiently
high humidity with the CO2 to produce CaCO3. A CO2 absorbent sachet
includes porous envelope containing CaO and a hydrating agent such as
silica gel on which water is absorbed.
In some cases, however, high CO2 levels (10-80%) are desirable for foods
such as meat and poultry because these high levels inhibit surface microbial
growth and thereby extend shelf-life. Fresh meat, poultry, fish and cheese can
benefit from packaging in a high CO2 atmosphere. Removal of O2 from a
package by use of O2 absorbers creates a partial vacuum which may result in
a collapse of flexible packaging. Also, when a package is flushed with a
mixture of gases including CO2, the CO2 dissolves partly in the product and
creates a partial vacuum. In such cases, the simultaneous release of CO2 from
inserted sachets which consume O2 is desirable. Such systems are based on
either ferrous carbonate or a mixture of ascorbic acid and sodium
bicarbonate. The O2 absorbers/CO2 generators are mainly used in products
where package volume and package appearance are critical.

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3.6.3 : Humidity regulators

This approach allows the food packer to reduce the surface concentration of
water in a food by reducing the in-pack relative humidity. This can be done
by placing one or more humectants between two layers of a plastic film
which is highly permeable to water vapour. An example of this type of
product is "Pitchit" manufactured by Showa Denko in Japan. The film duplex
is described as containing an alcohol, as propylene glycol and a
carbohydrate, both of which are humectants.
A different approach to humidity buffering is being developed for use in the
distribution of horticultural produce which is normally distributed in
fibreboard cartons, usually with a polyethylene liner or made from very
expensive waxed fibreboard without a liner. A recent development has been
the water-barrier coating of the inside of fibreboard cartons to allow moist
produce to be placed directly into the carton. Besides the introduction of
liquid water with the produce, packing into closed spaces allows the build-up
of water vapour. Since temperature cycling is very difficult to avoid during
handling there is every likelihood of condensation and with this the growth
of microorganisms on fruits and vegetables.Two widely different approaches
have been taken to buffering the humidity in the cartons in order to prevent
condensation while not concurrently causing desiccation of the produce. One
is to include microporous bags or pads of inorganic salts and the other is to
line the carton with a protected layer of a solid polymeric humectant.
The most recent alternative involves the use of the carton as the active
package rather the use of an insert. This approach lends itself to combination
with EMA generation less readily as the humidity is buffered at the interface
with the fibreboard. The designs of Patterson and Joyce involve a) an integral
water vapour barrier layer on the inner surface of the fibreboard, b) a paperlike material bonded to the barrier and which acts as a wick, and c) a layer
highly permeable to water vapour (but unwettable) next to the fruit or
vegetable. The latter layer is spot welded to the layer underneath.
Accordingly the multilayer of material on the inside of the carton is able to
take up water in the vapour state when the temperature drops and the RH
rises. When the temperature rises the multilayer releases water vapour back
into the carton in response to a lowering of the RH. The condensation control
system therefore acts as an internal water buffer. The critical characteristic of
the system is the capacity of the wick layer for water. For dried food
applications, desiccants such as silica gel, molecular sieves, CaO and natural
clays (e.g. montmorillonite) are often contained within TyvekTM sachets.
Examples where these compounds are used include the sachets MINIPAX
and STRIP-PAX and the moisture absorbing label DesiMax (United
Desiccants, USA) and the sachets Desipak, Sorb-it , Tri-sorb and 2-in-

1TM(Multisorb technologies, USA).

TOP
3.6.4 : Oxygen scavengers

Oxygen is such a broadly effective agent of deterioration in foods that a

substantial industry has been established to provide a wide range of
alternative means of oxygen removal from package headspaces to reduce
chemical deterioration. The choice of method of oxygen removal depends
upon both economic factors and upon the properties of the particular food. In
practice the application of a short inert-gas flush coupled with use of a
scavenger is likely to be an attractive combination. The performance of
oxygen scavenging sachets depends strongly on the equilibrium relative
humidity of the food and the range of sachets available. The inclusion of
iron-based scavenging compositions in sachets has been improved by
development of adhesive scavenging labels for the inner wall of packages.
Iron based oxygen scavenger
Sachet Based should be Permeable to O2 & H2O; 1gm absorbs ~300 cc of
oxygen; LD50 = 16mg/kg body wt.

Fig 3.11 Oxygen scavenger pouch

Scavenging mechanism:
Fe Fe +2 + 2e

1\2 O2 + H2O + 2e - 2OH

Fe +2 + 2OH - Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)2 + 1\4 O2 Fe(OH)3
Technologies for thin films typically used in MAP systems need an
additional feature to prevent premature reaction if they are to provide
maximum scavenging capacity. The transition-metal-catalyzed (optionally
light-activated) process patented by W.R. Grace, Inc. approaches this by preplanned activation involving generation of full capacity by consumption of
antioxidants. This type of film, involving side-chain oxidation of a polydiene,
appears to be designed as a permeation barrier for chilled, short shelf life
processed meats. Amoco Chemicals have reported some performance data
for their Amosorb, water-activated, masterbatch for blending into a variety
of plastics. No compositional detail is yet provided but the masterbatch and
plastics incorporating it are stable at relative humidities below 40%.
The development of yellow colour or fluorescence in an oxygen scavenging
plastic film has been proposed as a means of monitoring the initial
scavenging capacity of such films or as a heat seal leakage indicator in filled
packages.
The oxygen scavengers were incorporated in LLDPE film fo increase the
shelf life of bread and bun(CFTRI). Ageless (Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co.,
Japan) is the most common O2 scavenging system based on iron oxidation.
The sachets are designed to reduce O2 levels to less than 0.01%. A rule of
thumb is that 1g of iron will react with 300 cc of O2. When the initial
O2 Concentration at the moment of packaging and the O2 permeability of the
packaging material is known, an absorber can be chosen. However, a
potential risk could be accidental ingestion of a large amount of iron, in spite
of the label `Do not Eat'. Other iron-based O2absorbent sachets are the
ATCO O2 -absorber (Standa Industrie, France), the Freshilizer Series
(Toppan Printing Co., Japan), Vitalon (Toagosei Chem. Industry Co.,
Japan), Sanso-cut (Finetec Co., Japan) and Freshpax (Multisorb
Technologies Inc., USA).
An alternative to sachets is the incorporation of the O2 scavenger into the
packaging structure itself. Low molecular weight ingredients may be
dissolved or dispersed in a plastic or the plastic may be made from a
polymeric scavenger. An example is Oxyguard (Toyo Seikan Kaisha, Japan),
an iron-based absorber which can be incorporated into a laminate. The main
alternative to dispersal of iron in plastics is organic reactions of plastics
themselves. Oxbar is a system developed by Carnaud-Metal Box (UK) which
involves cobalt-catalysed oxidation of a nylon polymer blended especially in

PET-bottles for plastic packaging of wine, beer, sauces and other beverages.
It should be noted that the speed and capacity of O2 scavenging films are
considerably lower compared with iron-based O2 scavenger sachets. Other
recent developments include inserts in the form of flat packets, cards or
sheets, as well as O2 scavenging adhesive labels, like Freshmax (Multisorb
technologies, USA) and the ATCO labels (Standa Industrie, France).
Ascorbic acid is another O2 scavenging component which can be used. The
Pillsbury Co. holds a 1994 patent that also utilizes ascorbic acid as reducing
agent. A transition metal, copper, is used to catalyse the oxidation reaction.
The product, referred to as Oxysorb can be included inside a pouch or may
be incorporated into the packaging. Another O2 scavenging technique
involves sealing of a small coil of an ethyl cellulose films containing a
dissolved photosensitive dye and a singlet O2 acceptor in the headspace of a
transparent package. Due to illumination of the film with light of the
appropriate wavelength, excited dye molecules sensitize O2 molecules, which
have diffused into the polymer, to the singlet state. These singlet
O2 molecules react with acceptor molecules and are thereby consumed.

TOP
3.6.5 : Antimicrobial packaging

The surfaces of plastics can be made not only sterile but also capable of
having an antimicrobial effect on the packaged food or beverage. This type
of effect has already been achieved in outer layers of laminates by use of
modified printing presses. Horseradish extract on a cyclodextrin carrier has
been used in a drip sheet for fish or in a film wrap for lunches in Japan.
Approaches to antimicrobial packaging can be classified as either of two
types. The first consists of binding an agent to the surface of packages and
this would require a molecular structure large enough to retain activity on the
microbial cell wall even though bound to the plastic. Such agents are likely
to be limited to enzymes or other antimicrobial proteins. The second
approach involves the release of agents into the food or beverage or localized
removal of a food ingredient essential for microbial growth.
Release of antimicrobial agents will be restricted by regulatory approval as
intended food additives. This is not necessarily a serious restriction as the
goal of the approach is merely to maintain an appropriate concentration of
the agent on the surface of the food which may have been effectively
inoculated with microorganisms due to cutting or slicing. This concept has
been advanced in the case of an edible coating. An alternative approach

which has been developed in Japan by Mitsubishi is based on the inclusion of

zeolite particles in the surface of the food-contact layer in laminates. The
zeolite has some of its surface atoms replaced by silver which appears to
release silver ions as aqueous solution from the food enters the exposed
cavities of the porous zeolite structure. The extent of food contact depends
upon the zeolite particles having a diameter greater than the thickness of the
layer in which they have been embedded. The water then appears to leach
traces of silver from the particles giving the highly efficient antimicrobial
activity of this ion. The effect is unlikely to be as great in foods where there
is a substantial content of amino acids capable of reacting with silver ion.
These include acids such as cysteine. The use of edible coatings to apply
relatively constant concentrations of permitted antimicrobial agents at the
food surface has been developed. The relative rates of diffusion within the
coating and within the food itself are very important. Such a process could be
important where antimicrobial, such as sorbate, are lost by degradation.
Application of antimicrobial via edible coatings appears likely to gain
importance with minimally processed foods distributed under MAP
conditions.
To control undesirable microorganisms on foods, antimicrobial substances
can be incorporated in or coated onto food packaging materials. The
principle action of antimicrobial films is based on the release of antimicrobial
entities, some of which could pose a safety risk to consumers if the release is
not tightly controlled by some mechanisms within the packaging material.
The major potential food applications for antimicrobial films include meat,
fish, poultry, bread, cheese, fruits and vegetables.
Several other compounds have been proposed and/or tested for antimicrobial
activity in food packaging including organic acids such as sorbate,
propionate and benzoate or their respective acid anhydrides, bacteriocins e.g.
nisin and pediocin, enzymes such as lysozyme, metals and fungicides such as
benomyl and imazalil. A film contains a natural antimicrobial compound
derived from grape- fruit seed. A rarely mentioned possibility for
manufacturing antimicrobial films is to incorporate radiation-emitting
materials into films. However, little direct evidence for the efficiency of this
technology has been published in the scientific literature. Many of the
incorporated antimicrobials are not yet permitted for food use. The choice of
the antimicrobial is often limited by the incompatibility of the component
with the packaging material or by the heat liability of the component during
extrusion. One per cent potassium sorbate in a LDPE film inhibited the
growth of yeast on agar plates. The LDPE resin and potassium sorbate
powder can be mixed, extruded and pelletized to produce a masterbatch.
These pellets can be added to LDPE resin. The masterbatch should be
produced at low temperature to prevent heat decomposition of the potassium
sorbate. Another study, however, found the relatively polar sorbate, benzoate

and propionate to be incompatible with the apolar LDPE. Acid anhydrides

were thought to be more compatible than free acids and their salts because of
their lower polarity. Two commercial biocidal films are currently marketed.
One is composed of a chlorinated phenoxy compound and the other consists
of chlorine dioxide. A commercial antifungal coating containing chitosan is
also sold as a shelf-life extender for fresh fruit. Specific trade names or
effectiveness of these commercial products were not mentioned. An
interesting commercial development is the recent marketing of food-contact
approved Microban (Microban Products Co., USA) kitchen products such
as chopping boards, dish cloths, which contain triclosan, an antimicrobial
aromatic chloro-organic compound, which is also used in soaps, shampoos,
etc. In EU countries, however, the use of triclosan for food-contact
applications is not allowed and the SCF (Scientific Committee for Food) has
currently major objections against the use of triclosan in food contact
materials.
Another compound that exhibits antimicrobial effects is ethanol. Spraying
ethanol onto foods prior to packaging can be applied, but another option is to
use sachets generating ethanol vapour. Ethicap or Antimold from Freund
Industrial Co. (Japan) consists of a 55%/10% ethanol/water mixture adsorbed
onto silicon dioxide powder (35%), contained in a sachet of a laminate of
paper/ethyl vinyl acetate copolymer. Ethicap acts by absorbing moisture
from the food and releasing ethanol vapour. Using Ethicap ,yeast growth
was suppressed completely in all packages during 21 days at 200C.
Negamold (Freund Industrial Co.), scavenges O2 as well as generating
ethanol vapour. Other ethanol generators are Oitech TM(Nippon Kayaku,
Japan), Ageless type SE (Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co.) and ET Pack
(Ueno Seiyaku, Japan). Ethanol vapour generators are widespread in Japan
and are mainly used for high moisture bakery goods, fish products and
cheese. A major disadvantage of ethanol vapour is its absorption by the food
product. In some cases the ethanol concentration in the product might cause
regulatory problems. If the product is heated prior to consumption the
accumulated ethanol may evaporate. Another drawback is the cost of the
sachets, which limits their use to products with higher profit margins.
TOP
3.6.6 : Breathing films

Permeability regulations via. Thermally sensitive packaging materials.

A significant development is that of side-chain-crystallisable (SCC) polymers
with the ability to effectively and reversibly melt as the temperature increases
and thus foster increased gas transmission through them. SCC polymers are

acrylics with side-chains independently of the main chain. By varying the

side-chain length, the melting point can be altered. By making the
appropriate copolymers, it is possible to produce any melting point from 0 to
68C., well within the extreme distribution temperature range of minimally
processed foods. When elevated to the switch temperature, SCC polymers
become molten fluids which are inherently high in gas permeability. The
permeation properties may be modified by inclusion of other polymers to
change the carbon dioxide to oxygen permeability ratios, for example. The
resulting materials can permit the packaging technologist to achieve the
lowest oxygen concentration without going anaerobic within the package.
Thus, the optimum gas concentration may be employed from the outset of
distribution with minimum concern for elevated temperatures. In addition to
the reversible temperature sensitivities, the materials are generally capable of
100 times greater oxygen permeability than mainstream polyethylene films
without compromising the carbon dioxide to oxygen permeability ratio. This
is accomplished by coating a porous substrate with a proprietary SCC
polymer and applying the membrane as a package label over an aperture on
an otherwise reasonably well sealed package. Membranes with high carbon
dioxide to oxygen ratio selectivity are best for products with carbon dioxide
sensitive contents to allow the carbon dioxide to escape at rate faster than
oxygen can enter. Conversely, membranes with low ratios are more
applicable to products in which high carbon dioxide values can inhibit
microorganisms. Thus, the materials can be tailored to the exact requirements
of the package contents. These SCC materials are manufactured by Landec
Corp. Menlo Park, California.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer
b) Compare your answer with those given at end of the unit.
1. What an oxygen absorber is made of?
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2. Why use oxygen absorber?
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3. What are the benefits of using O2 absorbers?
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4. What is Intelligent Packaging?
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TOP

3.7 : Biodegradable Packaging

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that will decompose in natural aerobic

(composting) and anaerobic (landfill) environments. Biodegradation of
plastics can be achieved by enabling microorganisms in the environment to
metabolize the molecular structure of plastic films to produce an inert
humus-like material that is less harmful to the environment. They may be
composed of either bio plastics, which are plastics whose components are
derived from renewable raw materials, or petroleum-based plastics which
utilize an additive. The use of bio-active compounds compounded with
swelling agents ensures that, when combined with heat and moisture, they
expand the plastic's molecular structure and allow the bio-active compounds
to metabolize and neutralize the plastic.
ASTM International defines appropriate testing methods to test for
biodegradable plastic, both anaerobically and aerobically as well as in marine
environments. The specific subcommittee responsibility for overseeing these
standards falls on the Committee D20.96 on Environmentally Degradable
Plastics and Biobased Products . The current ASTM standards are defined as
standard specifications and standard test methods. Standard specifications
create a pass or fail scenario whereas standard test methods identify the
specific testing parameters for facilitating specific time frames and toxicity
of biodegradable tests on plastics.
Examples of biodegradable plastics
Most aliphatic polyesters are biodegradable due to their potentially
hydrolysable ester bonds: Naturally Produced: Polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs) like the poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV)
and polyhydroxyhexanoate (PHH); Renewable Resource: Polylactic acid
(PLA); Synthetic: Polybutylene succinate (PBS), polycaprolactone (PCL),
Polyanhydrides, Polyvinyl alcohol, Most of the starch derivatives and
Cellulose esters like cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose and their derivatives
(celluloid).

Fig 3.12 Utensils made from biodegradable plastic.

Advantages and disadvantages
Under proper conditions biodegradable plastics can degrade to the point
where microorganisms can metabolise them. Degradation of oil-based
biodegradable plastics may release previously stored carbon as carbon
dioxide. Starch-based bioplastics produced from sustainable farming
methods can be almost carbon neutral but could have a damaging effect on
soil, water usage and quality, and result in higher food prices. There are
concerns over "Oxo Biodegradable (OBD)" plastic bags. These are plastic
bags which contain tiny amounts of metals such as cobalt, iron or
manganese. They degrade in the presence of sunlight and oxygen, but there
are concerns about the metals leftover and the time it takes for the plastics to
degrade in certain circumstances. Microbial consumption of polymers are
available through addition of hydrophilic type additives onto the surface of
the polymer chains. These types of additives are readily available and are
used worldwide. The advantages of using these types of materials are heat
stability, methane capturing and product performance.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: a) Use the space below for your answer
b) Compare your answer with those given at end of the unit.
1. What are the main types of biodegradable plastics and how do they differ?
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2. What are the end products of biodegradation and do they have any harmful
effect on the environment?
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TOP

3.8 : Let us sum up

Convenience is the latest word in the food packaging industry with

consumers on the constant look out for ready to eat meals. In recent times,
food packaging innovations have made it possible to preserve the food fresh
with good shelf life without changing the quality of the packaged food.
Rising income, changing lifestyles and technology, as well as the widespread
popularity of microwaveable foods is driving the use of portion and plastic
packaging. In the future, partnerships between the food processor and the
packaging industry are likely to be a crucial step toward more rigid, stable,
and resalable packages. Development in commonly used packaging materials
such as glass, plastics, light metals, and paperboard throws light on certain
food packaging techniques namely aseptic packaging, retort packaging,
active packaging, controlled atmosphere storage, and modified atmosphere
packaging
Vacuum packaging is removes all headspace air from the package before
final sealing of the container/ pouch. This helps in extending the shelflife. It

requires gas barrier packaging material. Gas packaging is another way of

extending of shelf life of different foods. For the fresh meat oxygen is
required to maintain the red colour. CO2 is used to inhibit the microbial
growth and nitrogen is used as inert gas to displace O2 is order to delay
oxidative deterioration of foods.
Aseptic packaging is a presterilization of food and packaging in sterile
package and sealing hermatically to prevent the reinfection of the foods.
Basically the processes used in dairy products, fruits and vegetables and
juices.
Retort packaging is cooking process of foods inside package itself at higher
temperature and pressure. packaging requires strength toughness, puncture
and burst resistance. Materials used are glass metal- cans and thermally
stable multilayer pouches.
Active packaging is another emerging area where the extra properties are
provided from the package by incorporation of active ingredients package
material. Ethylene scavengers are necessary to delay the ripening of fruits
and vegetables. KMnO4 is used to oxdise ethylene, Ca(OH)2 is used as active
compound to react with CO2 formed due to respiration of fresh produce,
Humectent are used to reduce surface water by reducing the pH in pack. Iron
based O2 scavenger are used to reduce the O2 level less than 0.01% are highly
O2 sensitive foods.
The food package industry is realizing that with the increasing health
consciousness among consumers, understanding the interactions between the
food, package, and the environment are essential for more efficient food
packaging solutions. Multidimensional functionality is the key goal in the
packaging industry today, Packaging is now more inclined toward aspects
such as increasing shelf life, ensuring food safety through control of the
environment within the package, and minimizing damage resulting from
microbial attack.

TOP

3.9 : key words

CO2

Carbon dioxide

O2

oxygen

N2

Nitrogen

PET

Polyethylene terephthalate

PE

Polyethylene

AL

Aluminium

LLDPE

Linear low-density polyethylene

PA

Polyamide

CPP

Coextruded polypropylene

C2H4

Ethylene

CaO

Calcium oxide

EMA

Ethylene Methyl Acrylate Copolymer

MAP

Modified atomospheric pressure

PLA

Polylactic acid

PHA

Polyhydroxyalkanoates

PHB

Polyhydroxybutyrate

EVOH

Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol

HTST

High Temperature Short Time

Head Space

The gaseous constituents of a closed space above liquids or solid in the container

Shelf life

Shelf life is the recommendation of time that products can be stored, during which the
proportion of the goods remains acceptable under expected (or specified) conditions o

Scavengers

A chemical substance added to in order to remove or inactivate impurities or unwante

Emitters

The substance (chemical or combination of chemicals) used to give or send out requir

Aseptic processing

The process by which a sterile (aseptic) product (food) is packaged in a sterile contain
which maintains sterility.

Co-extrusion

The process of extruding two or more materials through a single die with two or more
extrudates merge and weld together into a laminar structure.

Retort

an airtight vessel in which substances are heated at required temperature.

Inhibitor

A substance that decreases the rate of or prevents a chemical reaction.

TOP

3.10 : Answers to check your progress exercises

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Your answer should include the following points:
1. The process of removing air around a food product and then sealing
the product in an impermeable package.
2. Removing the air that surrounds food inhibits growth of bacteria,
mold, and yeast because these and other spoilage microorganisms
need oxygen to grow. Once most air is removed and the pouch is
sealed, oxygen levels continue to drop while carbon dioxide levels
increase. The low oxygen, high carbon dioxide environment
significantly reduces the growth of normal spoilage organisms,
allowing longer shelf life.
3. Some of the advantages include:
o Vacuum packaging reduces product shrinkage. There is no
moisture loss or evaporation in a sealed vacuum bag.

Therefore, the weight you package will be the weight you sell.
o Vacuum packaging reduces trim losses by eliminating
oxidation and freezer burn.
o Vacuum packaging can enhance product quality. Vacuum
packaged meat held at 32 to 35 does not hinder aging or
tenderizing.
o Vacuum packaging allows more efficient use of time. Food
can be prepared in advance without loss of freshness, so slack
times are more productive and busy times are more
manageable.
4. The process of controlled purging of inert gas inside a flexi pouch
and sealing the mouth of the pouch with gas inside in sequence, is
called inert gas packing. You can vacuummize and purge the pouch
inside the INDVAC chamber type machine or you can vacuummize
and purge or only purge a flexi pouch in INDVAC nozzle type
machine.
5. Yes, the conventional monolayer pouches are not suitable as they do
not have barrier property. You need to use multi layer pouches with
either polyester, nylon or aluminium foil barrier layers.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Your answer should include the following points:
1. The special aseptic process yields a shelf-stable product, which can
be kept in a cupboard for extended periods of time without
preservatives or refrigeration. In describing their preference,
consumers often point to the safety, nutrition, and ease of handling of
the aseptic package. Others prefer the aseptic carton because it is
shatter-proof and tamper-evident.
2. Aseptically processed liquid foods and beverages are sterilized
outside the package using an ultra-high temperature process that
rapidly heats, then cools, the product before filling. This flashheating-and-cooling aseptic process substantially reduces the energy
use and nutrient loss associated with conventional sterilization. As a
result, aseptically packaged products retain more nutritional value,
and exhibit more natural texture, colour, and taste.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Your answer should include the following points:
1. An oxygen absorber is made of a chemical compound, the active
ingredient of which is an Iron Powder (Fe).
2. When food has an oxygen environment, it can become moldy. It can
oxidize, the colour can change, microorganisms can thrive, and the
taste can change. With oxygen present, toxins can grow as by
products of bacteria.
3. It extends food shelf life.
It prevents the growth of aerobic pathogens and spoilage
organisms, including molds.
It eliminates the needs for additives such as BHA, BHT, sulphur
dioxide, sorbets, benzoates, etc.
Use with gas flushing packaging to absorb virtually all oxygen
and absorb any oxygen that may permeate the package.
4. Intelligent packaging refers to packaging systems that influence of
packaging so that the condition of food is monitored. It helps to
extend the shelf life, to monitor freshness and to improve safety of the
packaged product.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Your answer should include the following points:
1. There are 2 main types of biodegradable plastics: oxo-biodegradable
and hydro- biodegradable. Both will first undergo chemical
degradation by oxidation and hydrolysis for oxo- and hydrobiodegradable plastics respectively. This results in their physical
disintegration and a drastic reduction in their molecular weights.
These smaller, lower molecular weight fragments are then amenable
to biodegradation.
2. The end products of biodegradation are carbon dioxide, water and
biomass. Extensive studies and tests have been conducted by EPI
with internationally recognized laboratories and institutions to
confirm that they do not leave harmful or toxic residues to the
environment.
TOP

3.11 : Some useful books

1. Aaron L. Brody, Eugne R. Strupinsky, Lauri R. Kline. (2001) Active

packaging for food applications Technomic Pub. Co., Technology &
Engineering.
2. Gordon L. Robertson (2006) Food packaging: principles and
practice Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, 2006 - Technology &
Engineering.
3. Jung H. Han (2005) Innovations in food packaging Academic
Press, - Technology & Engineering.
4. David K. Platt,(2006) Rapra Technology Limited Biodegradable
polymers: market report iSmithers Rapra Publishing.
5. Matche Rajeshwar S (2001) Packaging Machinery, in Handbook
of Frozen Food Processing and Packaging Edited by Da-Wen Sun,
Taylor & Francis/CRC Press.

MFT-004 >> Block-1 >> Unit-4 >>

Unit-4:Packaging Machinery