Kathmandu, Nepal

November 20-21, 2014

International Symposium
Geohazards: Science, Engineering and Management
Paper No. SL-04

Geotechnical Practices in Nepal

Tuk Lal Adhikari1, 2
President, Nepal Geotechnical Society
2
Managing Director, ITECO Nepal (P) Ltd. Nepal
Email: tuklaladhikari@gmail.com
1

Key words
Geotechnical
Practices, Design
practice, Nepal

1.

Abstract
Traditional geotechnical practices in Nepal were developed during medieval
period, a few centuries BC to 1800 AD with development of bricks and most of
the masterpieces and remains of temples and monasteries of the medieval
civilization and also demonstrate long term survival of those geotechnical
measures. The advancement of geotechnical practices in Nepal developed
together with the era of infrastructural development during post 1950 AD. It is
closely tied up with the road development which was initiated with the first
motorable road construction in the Kathmandu valley in 1924 AD followed by a
42 km long all weather gravel road linking Amlekhganj with Bhimphedi. This
paper explores how geotechnics was practiced in various projects in Nepal along
with its development.

Introduction

1.1. Traditional Geotechnical Practices

Traditional geotechnical practices in Nepal included gully control works with check dams and
bank protection works using masonry and vegetative techniques. In the medieval period,
foundations and retaining works in soils were developed with development of block stones, flag
stones and bricks and most of the masterpieces and remains of temples and monasteries of the
medieval civilization (during Kirat, Likshivi and Malla eras, a few centuries BC to 1800 AD)
demonstrate long term survival of those geotechnical measures. The practice was furthered
during Shah and Rana era (1800 AD to 1950 AD) when multi-storey palaces and temples were
constructed in sandy and clayey foundations. Use of modern geotechnical measures, however,
developed together with the era of infrastructural development during post 1950 AD. Some
traditional retaining and piling works applied in river ghats and foot bridges are illustrated in
Figure 1.

1.2. Modern Geotechnical Practices

1.2.1. Geotechnical Practices in Road Construction
The advance of geotechnical practices in Nepal is closely tied up with the road development
which was initiated with the first motorable road construction in the Kathmandu valley in 1924
AD followed by a 42 km long all weather gravel road linking Amlekhganj with Bhimphedi.
The Tribhuwan Rajpath (115 km), the first long distance motorable road linking Kathmandu
with the Terai was constructed during 1953-1956 AD. The later half of the twentieth century
witnessed a considerable expansion of road network with assistance from bilateral agencies like

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China, India, USSR, USA, UK, Switzerland and multilateral agencies like ADB and WB. The
country has developed more than 10,000 km of road network including strategic and feeder
roads. This length excludes more than 50,000 km of non-engineered rural and agricultural roads
most of which (more than 55%) are not motorable.

Figure 1: Traditional river bank protection work and wooden piling work

During the initial road development period, the issues of environmental and geotechnical
aspects were not addressed. Soon after roads construction in the mountainous terrain, the
problems of slope instability became evident. The awareness on the need of geotechnical and
environmental aspects were reflected in the development Dharan-Dhankuta and Lamosangu-Jiri
roads.
Dharan-Dhankuta road under the assistance of the UK marked the beginning of
environment-friendly road design and construction practices in Nepal. Extensive research,
studies and experimentation were conducted during the road development of the road on bioengineering (DOR/GESU, 1996) and geotechnical slope stabilization measures. The measures
included various bio-engineering solutions such as brush layer, grass plantation, tree/shrub
plantation, wattle fences, brushwood check dams, hedge layers, jute netting, brush matting etc.
and geotechnical solutions such as retaining walls, rock bolts, soil nails, subsurface drains,
check dams, cascades, trap walls etc. Extensive use of light and flexible gabion structures were
applied in road side structures.
Similarly, Lamosangu-Jiri road under the assistance of Switzerland pioneered in
environment-friendly road construction practices in fragile mountainous terrain. The bioengineering, drainage and geotechnical measures were extensively used along the road
combined with labour-intensive road construction practices. Within the road, Charnawati
Rehabilitation Project is considered as a milestone in extensive use of innovative geotechnical
slope stabilization measures. The geotechnical measures designed and implemented in the
Charnawati valley include French drains of various types and patterns, drilled horizontal drains
(up to 45m), rock bolts, passive ground anchors (up to 20m long 32 mm dia anchor steel with
fy ~ 1000 N/mm2), diversion catch drains, composite check dams, composite cascades,
composite chutes, composite spurs, concrete armoured block protection at river bed in

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combination with extensive drainage and bioengineering measures. The anchors used were
passive anchor bars without polythene sheathing. The anchor tendons with sheathing or active
cable tendons are not yet implemented in roadside anchoring in Nepal. The theory and practice
of slope stability analysis was implemented in the project. The success of stabilization
measures in Charnawati valley are largely reflected in the Mountain Risk Engineering
Handbook (Deoja et al. 1991) developed by International Center of Integrated Mountain
Development. The design and construction of concrete armoured blocks was derived from the
extensive model studies performed in VAW Zurich, Switzerland.
Similar geotechnical and bio-engineering solutions were later replicated in other road
corridors such as Arniko highway, Thankot-Naubise road, Prithvi highway, NarayanghatMugling road, Bhainse-Hetauda road, Malekhu-Dhadingbesi road, Butwal-Narayanghat road,
Hetauda-Narayanghat road etc. with varying degree of success. In addition to the replication of
successful measures from Dharan-Dhankuta and Lamosangu-Jiri roads, further innovative
geotechnical solutions applied in the roads included various forms of composite revetment
structures, various types of spurs with face block protection, launching aprons with composite
frames or articulated concrete blocks, boulder riprap, boulder armouring using interconnected
boulders, rock fall netting etc. Many of such measures and practices are well documented in
principles of low cost engineering practices (TRL, 1997).
In the later period, quite a good number of geotechnical practices were introduced and
advanced in the construction of Japan-assisted Bardibas-Sindhuli-Banepa highway and
Tinkune-Suryabinayak road. Extensive use of geogrids, reinforced earth, ground anchors,
horizontal drains, diverse foundation types, and river training works were applied in the road
projects in conjunction with bio-engineering measures.
For the slope stabilization and gully control works, gabion work (boxes, mattresses, sacks
or bolsters) are extensively used due to its flexible and free draining capabilities instead of rigid
masonry and concrete structures. Gabions are used as walls, check dams, mattresses or event
drains. For filter purpose, extensive use of geotextile is made instead of graded filter due to
difficulty of transport at landslide slope. Other forms of walls such as concrete crib walls are
rarely used. Recently, geogrid material as reinforced earth has been extensively used in
Sindhuli-Banepa highway. The approach and guidelines for slope stabilization works, mostly
along road corridor, are prescribed in Guide to Slope Protection (DOR/GESU, 2003) and more
latest Road Side Geotechnical Problems: A Guide to Their Solution (DOR/GESU, 2009) on
which periodic trainings are imparted to engineers involved in slope stabilization and
mitigation works. In some specific cases other guidelines such as Hong Kong Highway Slope
Manual (GEO, 2000) and TRL Road Note 16 (TRL, 1997) are also frequently used.

1.2.2. Geotechnical Practices in Bridge Construction

Ancient geotechnical practices in bridge substructures mainly consisted of open foundations
mostly with bricks and stones without reinforcements. In the superstructures too, brick/stone
arches were mostly used with no reinforcement. In the later period, use of some sorts of tensile
elements were also used mainly in the form of jack arches with iron strips and
suspended/suspension solutions mainly with iron chains. Reinforced brick constructions were
also used in building floors and bridges.
Major advances in bridge foundations with reinforced footings were introduced during the
construction of Birgunj-Amlekhganj-Bhimphedi road. The practice was more extensively used

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during the construction of bridges in Tribhuwan Rajpath (built by Indian assistance) and Arniko
highway (built by Chinese assistance). The practices were continued during the construction of
the East-West highway, Siddhartha highway, Prithvi highway, and Dharan-Dhankuta road by
the respective agencies.
The use of bored pile foundation for bridge substructure was introduced under Chinese
assistance in construction of Kathmandu ring road and Kathmandu-Bhaktapur section of
Arniko highway. Bored piles of diameter 0.80m to 1.00m and depth up to 30m were
extensively used in most of the bridge along with pile caps. Due to degradation of most of the
Kathmandu rivers, both by natural scouring and sand mining, those piles are now partly
exposed at Tinkune, Bagmati, Manahara, and Balkumari bridges. Limited use of bored piles
(secant piles or contiguous piles) is also made for construction of underground basements in
urban setting. The pit slopes are mostly supported by bored piles instead of sheet piles as most
basement excavations are not braced.
Driven piles are less frequently used in Nepal mainly due to vibrations which are not
permitted near settlements. Driven piles were first used in Bagmati bridge at Shankhamul.
Originally, it was planned for motorable bridge but later converted into pedestrian bridge due to
serious concern raised by the Lalitpur community to protect sanctity of Kumbeshwar and
Bagalamukhi religious area. Later during construction of bridges under Japanese assistance,
driven piles were more extensively used at Bijuli bazaar (red bridge) and half a dozen other
bridges.
The use of well foundation was formally introduced during construction of bridges along
east west highway, east of Dhalkebar, under Indian assistance. After the establishment of
Bridge Unit in the Department of Roads, the well foundations have become almost like an
industry standard in Nepal and such well foundations are designed and constructed in all types
of soils in Nepal. While most of the well foundations in plains and valleys with gravel, sand,
silt and clay have been performing excellent, those designed and being constructed in boulder
stage of rivers such as Sunkoshi bridge at Ghurmi, Karnali bridge and Bheri river at Sallibazaar
have faced with both technical and construction problems leading to construction periods of 8
to 12 years.
The adoption of other types of bridges such as suspension or arch type bridges and their
foundations has become virtually agency-specific. Such bridges are designed and constructed
mostly under Chinese assistance. Karnali (Chisapani) bridge, on the other hand, was
constructed with imported technology, which is not replicated up until now.
While most of the bridge foundation problems can be minimized with adoption of bored
piles, the type of pile has become difficult mainly due to lack of necessary equipment with local
contractors. As bridge contracts are smaller, it has not been practical to attract foreign
contractors for bridge construction. Hopefully, construction of Koshi Bridge at Chatara and
upcoming bridge projects under Department of Roads and Department of Local Infrastructure
Development and Agricultural Roads will introduce some more bridges where further advances
in pile foundations may happen.

1.3. Hazard, Susceptibility and Risk Mapping Practices

Simple form of engineering geological mapping was implemented during the Dharan-Dhankuta
and Lamosangu-Jiri roads. A more extensive mapping exercise was initiated during the
Mountain Risk Engineering Project undertaken by the ICIMOD which resulted in a set of

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comprehensive Mountain Risk Engineering Handbook in 1991(Deoja et al. 1991). The

document recommended developing a series of mapping including topographic map, slope map,
aspect map, engineering geological map, morpho-structural map, land use map, and eventually
hazard map. Apart from field based mapping, further initiatives were undertaken in Arniko
Highway Rehabilitation Project to apply air photo interpretation to develop larger scale
(1:10,000) orthophoto and contoured maps as the base map for further land use, engineering
geology and hazard mapping. More recently, a DFID study undertaken has recommended use
of latest satellite imageries in addition to air photo to prepare base map (Scott, 2004). Recent
efforts are directed towards digital processes to develop and implement hazard mapping. Some
samples of geological and hazard maps prepared for Arniko highway are illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Sample of orthophoto map, engineering geological map and hazard maps developed in Arniko
Highway corridor from km 82 to km 114
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International Symposium
Geohazards: Science, Engineering and Management

Typical Stability problems in Nepal

Nepal is situated in the southern flank of the Himalayas, which are among the highest mountain
ranges in the world. The altitude range of Nepal ranges from 70m at Kechna, Jhapa to 8,848m
at Mount Everest within a band of less than 120 km. The hill slopes in Nepal are therefore
steepest in the world. From the geological perspective, Nepal is situated in a young geology
uplifted from Tethys sea due to collision of Gondawana and Tibetan Plates some 50 million
years ago. The mountain range is among the youngest mountains of the world. Due to both
topographic and geological factors adverse, slope instabilities and mass wasting processes are
most prevalent in Nepal. In order to provide glimpses on the slope failures and river cuts, some
typical problems distributed in different regions of Nepal are depicted in Figure 3.

3.

Investigation and design practice

3.1. Geotechnical Investigations in Landslides

In consideration of the multi-disciplinary nature of the landslides, efforts were initiated to
combine related expertise in the investigation, design and implementation of landslide
stabilization measures. Apart from field reconnaissance, photographic illustration and
engineering geological mapping, further investigations such as geophysical exploration, core
drilling, instrumentation and monitoring, field and laboratory testing are also applied
considering the merit of a particular case.
The subsurface geophysical exploration may include resistivity survey, seismic refraction
sounding, seismic reflection sounding, electrical resistivity tomography, ground penetrating
radar etc. The measures are applied in complex landslides and underground works with varying
successes. For roadside problems, electrical resistivity tomography and seismic refraction
sounding are the most useful geophysical exploration methods. The geophysical findings
should however be used with caution, particularly if not confirmed by core drillings and in-situ
testing.
The core drilling is routinely followed in foundation exploration for medium and major
bridges. The procedure can be equally applicable to landslide studies and foundation
investigations of high retaining walls. The procedure was applied in a number of active
landslides along Lamosangu-Jiri road, Arniko highway and Thankot-Naubise road. The bore
hole logs were referenced while deciding on the depth of foundation or bearing strata, fixed
anchor zone for anchors installation and aquifer location for piezometers and horizontal drains.
The practice of geotechnical instrumentation is still innovative in roadside slope
stabilization in Nepal. A range of geotechnical instrumentation such as standpipe piezometers,
discharge meters, rain gauges, rain intensity meters, rod extensometers, anchor tension gauges
etc. were installed and measured in various stabilization works in Charnawati valley of
Lamosangu-Jiri road. Similarly, standpipe piezometers were installed and monitored in
landslides in Arniko highway. The installation and monitoring of inclinometers, strain gauges
and tilt meters are not yet practiced in roadside slope management in Nepal.
Monitoring of various parameters is crucial to assess the effectiveness of the applied
measures in the landslides, drains, walls and check dams. Instrumental monitoring of the levels
and positions of the monitoring points were extensively carried out at Charnawati area and
Arniko highway. The monitoring results provided useful hints on the status of stabilization or
impending dangers. The monitoring exercise included movement monitoring, subsidence
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monitoring, cracks monitoring, stress monitoring, stage or discharge monitoring, water table
monitoring etc.

Figure 3: Typical slope instabilities and landslides encountered in Nepalese Mountains

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International Symposium
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In the recent road design and construction projects, basic field testing such as trial pitting, DCP
testing, material sampling etc. have become routine practice for road pavement investigation.
The tests are performed following appropriate ASTM or AASHTO specifications. Similarly,
laboratory testing for USCS classification, gradation, LAA, AIV, compaction, CBR etc. are
also routinely performed. For slope stability purpose, testing for soil strength parameters (c and
), unit weights (d, and sat), unconfined compression, triaxial, point load, joint friction, etc.
are also performed as per discretion of the geotechnical expert.

3.2. Slope Stability Analysis and Design

Preliminary slope stability analysis was practiced in assessing stability of abutment slope in
suspension bridges using simple infinite slope or simple slope models. The slope stability is
indirectly represented in the form of slope hazard rating specified for feasibility level study of
road alignments. For more detailed slope stability analysis manually, Hoek & Bray charts were
recommended and used by geotechnical practitioners.
The use of computerized analytical tools for stability analysis was initiated from
Charnawati rehabilitation project where LARIX BS software (German version) was extensively
used. Later, geotechnical experts from different institutes applied software of their choice such
as SB-SLOPE, STABL, FLAC, Phase2, DIPS, SFEM, etc. Recently, there has been a
breakthrough in the software capabilities, versatilities and speed. Latest version of SLIDE, for
example, offers most capabilities for soil slope stability analysis including windows
compatibility, non-circular slip surface, effective stress analysis, back analysis, sensitivity
analysis, graphic interface etc. With the advance of user-friendly software, the analysis part has
become mechanical, but it demands for a sound judgment of geotechnical engineering to obtain
information and to eliminate uncertainties on subsoil layers, water table and pressure, soil
strength parameters, possible slip surface, pre-sliding condition etc.
Apart from standard slope stability analysis software, different modules such as RETAIN
(for design of retaining wall), SAST (stability analysis of talus slope), BAST (back analysis of
talus slope), FEAP (finite element analysis program), SAP (structural analysis program) etc.
were also in practice for different component analysis and design during adoption of MRE
Handbook (Deoja et al, 1991).
For hazard mapping purpose, a SHIVAD was extensively used for Second Roads
Improvement Project and Hazard Assessment in Sunkoshi-Bhotekoshi Water Catchment Areas.
The recent trend is to use GIS-based hazard mapping module. Some of the geotechnical
measures applied for mitigation or stabilization of slides along road corridor of Nepal are
illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5. While most of these successful measures are referred from
standard solutions applied internationally, some Nepal-specific modifications are made
depending on the availability of expertise, skills, materials and technology.

3.2.1. Pavement Investigation and Design

The pavement investigation generally consists of pavement materials testing as well as
characterization of subgrade, sub base and base material through field and laboratory testing.
The testing equipment such as Benkelman beam transient deflection measurement, roughness
measurement with bump integrator and dynamic cone penetration testing are customarily used.
More advanced equipment such as falling weight deflectometer is not yet applied; instead,

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Benkelman beam in combination with high speed camera was used for deflection bowl
measurement in the current Road Network Development Project to back analyze elastic moduli
of multiple pavement layers. Accordingly, pavement design is generally based on CBR values.
More sophisticated pavement design method based on elastic moduli of layers is applied in
recent projects which require deflection bowl measurement techniques both during
investigation and quality control (static or dynamic moduli) of each pavement layer.

Figure 4: Mitigations measures applied at Arniko Highway corridor

3.2.2. Tunnel Investigation and Design

With advent of a number of tunnels for hydropower, drinking water, irrigation, sewerage, road
and railways, the practices of tunnel investigations and design have recently been initiated both
by national agencies as well as independent power producers. The sizes of tunnels range in
diameter from 3m to 10m and in length from few hundred meters to 15 km. Along with linear
utility tunnels, larger caverns are also investigated and designed for underground powerhouse
caverns, surge shafts, transformer caverns etc.

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Figure 5, Protection works applied in Arniko Highway, Bhainse Hetauda Road and Lamosangu Jiri Road

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The investigation for underground services comprises a series of works including:

Engineering geological mapping of the project area, discontinuity mapping, rock
identification, sampling and testing, determination Bartons NGI Q value and GSI
values, determination of weathering grade with Smidth hammer test and suggesting on
appropriate geotechnical parameters and solutions;
Site specific seismicity analysis and recommendation of appropriate seismic parameters
for design and analysis;
Geophysical exploration including electrical resistivity tomography, chargeability
measurement, seismic refraction method, seismic reflection method, multi channel
analysis of surface waves, micro-tremor analysis etc.;
Confirmatory core drilling works, vertical, inclined or horizontal, and sample testing in
laboratory for unconfined compression test, sulphate soundness test, impact / abrasion
tests, Brazilian test, point load test etc.;
Rock mechanical tests in tunnels / drifts in a few projects to measures insitu rock
locked in stresses using flat jacks, dilatometers, hydraulic fracturing etc.
Geotechnical instrumentation such as convergence measurement, extensometers,
inclinometers, tiltmeters, piezometers etc.;
The investigations for tunnels and caverns are, however, scanty and largely dependent on
agencies choices rather than following of uniform set of investigation and analyses. Based on
available data, empirical and numerical analyses are performed with varying degree of details
and sophistication which are again agency-dependant.
The tunneling construction is usually performed following New Austrian Tunneling
Method and the lining requirements are adjusted to the encountered during actual tunnel
excavation as judged by and instructed by the supervision team for each run of drill and blast
tunnels.
Options of Tunnel Boring Machine have been discussed and will possibly be applied in
Bheri-Babai and Sunkohsi-Marin water diversion schemes which need to pass through
Mahabharat range of mountains with no possibilities of intermediate construction audits.
Almost all tunnels constructed so far are drill and blast tunnels. A smaller tunnel at
Tilganga sewerage tunnel was constructed in soft ground, mainly sand, using fore poling and
pre-grouting method. Some limited sections of hydropower tunnels also require fore poling
methods. Special remedial measures are applied in rock squeezing zones like that of Chameliya
hydropower plant. Most of tunnels constructed so far range in diameter from 3m to 10m mostly
for water conveyance. Road and railway tunnels are at initial stage of planning and design.

3.2.3. Dam Investigation and Design

With a demand for larger water supply, irrigation and hydropower projects, dams have become
essential element of the system. The investigation for the dams included the following:
Engineering geological mapping, discontinuity mapping, rock sampling and testing,
determination of RMR value and GSI values, determination of weathering grade and
suggesting on design parameters and possible solutions;
Site specific seismicity analysis and recommendation of seismic parameters for design;

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Geophysical exploration including electrical resistivity tomography, chargeability

measurement, seismic refraction method, multi channel analysis of surface waves,
micro-tremor analysis etc.;
Confirmatory vertical core drilling works and sample testing in laboratory for
unconfined compression test, triaxial compression testing etc.;
Testing for elastic moduli;
Geotechnical instrumentation such as extensometers, inclinometers, tiltmeters,
piezometers etc.;
Groutability testing;
Design of dams is carried out following appropriate guidelines such as USBR design of
small dams and recommendations made by ICOLD and WCD. Stability analysis of both water
side and outer slopes is carried out using proven finite element techniques for both stability and
deformation analysis.

3.3. Adoption of Standards and Guidelines

3.3.1. National Standards and Guidelines
During the early development of roads, the DoR had generally adopted codes of practice and
standards of the respective bilateral donor agencies such as BS, ASTM, AASHTO, TRL, DIN,
SIA, IRC, Chinese and USSR codes and standards. With the introduction of Nepal Road
Standards and DoR Standard Designs, more uniformity was accomplished in the design and
construction of roadside structures. As a part of institutional strengthening of the DoR, a series
of guidelines such as Roadside Geotechnical Problems: A Guide to Their Solution, Guide to
Road Slope Protection Work, Roadside Bio-engineering (reference manual and site handbook),
Environmental Management Guidelines, Reference Manual for Environmental and Social
Aspects of Integrated Road Development, Traffic Safety Manuals, Guideline for Inspection and
Maintenance of Bridges etc. are prepared and adopted. The present guide intends to
complement the existing set of standards and codes.

3.3.2. International Standards and Guidelines

A large number of international standards and codes were reviewed during the preparation of
the present guide. The relevant extracts from those standards are appropriately incorporated in
the assessment sheets, investigation procedures and solution options.
ASTM: The agency has an extensive set of publication related to material testing and are the
most referred documents for laboratory and field testing in road sector in Nepal.
AASHTO: The publications of the agency relevant to geotechnical engineering include: R01303-UL: Standard Recommended Practice for Conducting Geotechnical Subsurface
Investigations; R022-97-UL Standard Recommended Practice for Decommissioning
Geotechnical Exploratory Boreholes, T306-98-UL Standard Method of Test for
Progressing Auger Borings for Geotechnical Explorations etc. Apart from geotechnical
core areas, the agency has an extensive publication on the design of road and bridges
including all sorts of off-road works.

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GCO: Hong Kong Geotechnical Control Office has an extensive set of codes, standards and
standards on various aspects of geotechnical engineering field. The list of such documents
is frequently referred in the present guide, which includes: Guide to Rock and Soil
Descriptions. Geoguide 3; Guide to Slope Maintenance; Geoguide 3; Guide to Site
Investigation. Geoguide 2; Highway Slope Manual; GeoGuide 3: Guide to rock and soil
descriptions etc. The Geoguides provides as the most comprehensive literature on the
geotechnical engineering and is widely in use in Asia including Nepal.
ASCE: The agency publishes extensive literature on geotechnical engineering for practical as
well as research purposes. The publication Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering is the most notable publication.
The relevant recommendations of the above standards, codes and guidelines are appropriately
incorporated in assessment sheets, procedures and solutions included in this guide.

4.

Geotechnical Education

Higher level education is geotechnical education has been recently initiated with limited seats
in Institute of Engineering (under Tribhuwan University), Nepal Engineering College (under
Pokhara University) and Kathmandu University. In undergraduate courses (Bachelor level) too,
soil mechanics and foundation engineering has been given some credit hours under compulsory
syllabus with choice of optional advanced courses. A number of theses are performed annually
on various fields of geotechnical investigation, testing, instrumentation and numerical modeling.
This is expected to further advance the geotechnical practices in future Nepal.
Apart from formal educational agencies, there are a number of dedicated professional
societies to provide advices and services on specific geotechnical studies and implementations.
Such professional agencies include Nepal Society of Earthquake Technology, Nepal Geological
Society, Nepal Landslide Society, Nepal Geotechnical Society, Nepal Tunneling Society, Nepal
Society of Rock Mechanics etc. These societies have played informal but crucial role for
advancement and furthering of the geotechnical studies and practices in Nepal.

5.

Concluding Remarks

As such, geotechnics was practiced in Nepal too from very early times mostly with the building
structures, material used, and their foundations. Some of these structures, such as temples and
monasteries have survived hundreds of years. However, only a limited use of the modern
geotechnics has been made after 1950, basically in the field of road building, rockfill dams,
hydropower development, etc. The first motorable road was built in Kathmandu about a century
ago. Today, it is being practiced mostly in high rise building construction, road and bridge
construction, dam construction, tunneling, landslide and slope stability, etc. Up until the
beginning of 21st century, most of the geotechnical engineering-related projects were dealt by
either the basic civil engineering knowledge or specialized geotechnical knowledge from
overseas, but today graduate courses in geotechnical engineering are also run within the
country to produce geotechnical experts. As a mountainous country with frequent earthquakes
and short-period heavy precipitations, most geotechnical engineering designs in Nepal are
governed by disaster-safe concepts.

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References
1. Deoja, B, Dhital, M., Thapa, B., and Wagner, A., 1991. Mountain Risk Engineering
Handbook. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal
2. DOR/GESU., 2009. Roadside Geotechnical Problems: A Guide to Their Solution.
Department of Roads, Nepal
3. DOR/GESU., 1996. Bioengineering Handbook. Department of Roads, Nepal
4. DoR/GESU 2003. Guide to Road Slope Protection Works. Department of Roads, Nepal
5. GEO., 2000. Highway Slope Manual. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering
Department, Hong Kong
6. Scott, WK., 2004. Landslide Risk Assessment in the Rural Access Sector. DFID-DoR
Manual
7. TRL., 1997. Principles of Low Cost Road Engineering in Mountainous Regions, ORN 16
Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK

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