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CHAPTER 1:
Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Vertical Monopolies
Within a particular geographic market, the electric utility had
an exclusive franchise
Distribution
Customer Service
Generation
Transmission
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Vertical Monopolies
Within its service territory each utility was the only game in
town
Neighboring utilities functioned more as colleagues than
competitors
Utilities gradually interconnected their systems so by 1970
transmission lines crisscrossed North America, with
voltages up to 765 kV
Economies of scale keep resulted in decreasing rates, so
most every one was happy
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
OFF
OFF
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
ND
MN
OR
ID
WY
NV
SD
WI
CA
AZ
CO
IL
KS
OK
NM
NY
MI
PA
IA
NE
UT
VT ME
MO
AR
IN OH W
KY
TN
VA VA
N
H
MA
RI
C
NT
DJ D
M
E
C
D
NC
SC
MS AL GA
TX
LA
AK
FL
HI
electricity
restructuring
delayed
restructuring
no activity
suspended
restructuring
Source : http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/chg_str/regmap.html
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
10
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
11
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Review of Phasors
Goal of phasor analysis is to simplify the analysis of constant
frequency ac systems
v(t) = Vmax cos(wt + qv)
i(t) = Imax cos(wt + qI)
1T
Vmax
2
v(t ) dt
T0
2
12
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Phasor Representation
Euler's Identity: e jq cosq j sin q
Phasor notation is developed by rewriting
using Euler's identity
v(t ) 2 V cos(w t qV )
v(t ) 2 V Re e j (w t qV )
(Note: V is the RMS voltage)
2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.
13
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
V e jqV V qV
v(t )
Re 2 Ve jw t e jqV
V cosqV j V sin qV
I cosq I j I sin q I
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Time Analysis
Phasor
Resistor
v(t ) Ri (t )
di (t )
v(t ) L
dt
V RI
1t
i (t ) dt v(0)
C0
1
V
I
jw C
Inductor
Capacitor
V jw LI
Z = Impedance R jX Z
R = Resistance
X = Reactance
Z =
R2 X 2
(Note: Z is a
complex number but
X
=arctan( ) not a phasor)
R
15
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
RL Circuit Example
V (t )
2 100cos(w t 30)
60Hz
i(t)
X wL
42 32 5 36.9
V
10030
Z
536.9
20 6.9 Amps
20 2 cos(w t 6.9)
16
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Complex Power
Power
p (t ) v(t ) i (t )
v(t)
= Vmax cos(w t qV )
i (t)
= I max cos(w t q I )
1
cos cos [cos( ) cos( )]
2
1
p (t ) Vmax I max [cos(qV q I )
2
cos(2w t qV q I )]
17
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
1T
p (t )dt
T0
1
Vmax I max cos(qV q I )
2
V I cos(qV q I )
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Complex Power
S V I cos(qV q I ) j sin(qV q I )
P jQ
V I
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
S 1 pf 2
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Conservation of Power
At every node (bus) in the system
Sum of real power into node must equal zero
Sum of reactive power into node must equal zero
This is a direct consequence of Kirchhoffs current law, which
states that the total current into each node must equal zero.
Conservation of power follows since S = VI*
21
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
36.9
pf = 0.8 lagging
SR VR I * 4 20 6.9 206.9
PR 1600W
I R
(Q R 0)
SL VL I * 3 j 20 6.9 206.9
2
Q L 1200 var I X
(PL 0)
22
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
PResistor I Resistor R
Inductors only consume reactive power
2
Q Inductor I Inductor X L
Capacitors only generate reactive power
2
QCapacitor I Capacitor X C
QCapacitor
VCapacitor
XC
1
XC
wC
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Example
First solve
basic circuit
400000 V
I
4000 Amps
1000
V 400000 (5 j 40) 4000
42000 j16000 44.920.8 kV
S V I * 44.9k20.8 4000
17.9820.8 MVA 16.8 j 6.4 MVA
24
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Example, contd
Now add additional
reactive power load
and resolve
Z Load 70.7
pf 0.7 lagging
I 564 45 Amps
V 59.713.6 kV
S 33.758.6 MVA 17.6 j 28.8 MVA
25
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
16.0 MW
28.8 MVR
-16.0 MVR
59.7 kV
17.6 MW
28.8 MVR
40.0 kV
16.0 MW
16.0 MVR
Transmission lines
Generators are
Arrows are used
are shown as a
to show loads
shown as circles
single line
26
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Reactive Compensation
Key idea of reactive compensation is to supply reactive
power locally. In the previous example this can
be done by adding a 16 Mvar capacitor at the load
16.8 MW
16.0 MW
6.4 MVR
0.0 MVR
44.94 kV
16.8 MW
6.4 MVR
40.0 kV
16.0 MW
16.0 MVR
16.0 MVR
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
28
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
30
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
31
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
I n I a Ib I c
V
In
(10 1 1
Z
*
*
*
*
S Van I an
Vbn I bn
Vcn I cn
3 Van I an
32
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Advantages of 3 Power
Can transmit more power for same amount of wire (twice
as much as single phase)
Torque produced by 3 machines is constant
Three phase machines use less material for same power
rating
Three phase machines start more easily than single phase
machines
33
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Vbn
Vcn
V
34
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Vca
Vab
-Vbn
Van
Vbn
Vbc
Vab
( = 0 in this case)
3 V 30
Vbc
3 V 90
Vca
3 V 150
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
j
6
I Line I Phase
S3
*
3 VPhase I Phase
36
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Delta Connection
For the Delta
phase voltages equal
line voltages
For currents
Ica
Ib
Ia I ab I ca
Ic
3 I ab
I b I bc I ab
Ibc
Iab
Ia
Ic I ca I bc
*
S3 3 VPhase I Phase
37
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Vab 13.80 kV
Vbc 13.8 0 kV
Vca 13.80 kV
I ab
13.80 kV
138 20 amps
I ca 1380 amps
38
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
5.7 MVA
5.37 j1.95 MVA
pf cos 20 lagging
39
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Delta-Wye Transformation
To simplify analysis of balanced 3 systems:
1) -connected loads can be replaced by
1
Y-connected loads with ZY Z
3
2) -connected sources can be replaced by
VLine
Y-connected sources with Vphase
330
40
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Z Z
Z
Hence
Vab Vca
Z
Ia
41
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
ZY ( I a I b )
Vca ZY ( I c I a )
Vab Vca ZY (2 I a I b I c )
Since
Ia I b I c 0 I a I b I c
Hence
Vab Vca 3 ZY I a
3 ZY
Vab Vca
Z
Ia
Therefore
ZY
1
Z
3
42
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
43
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
44
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
45
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
46
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
47
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
j
3
49
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
'
Vab
1.56 volts
50
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
Sygen 3Va I a* Va
5.1 j 3.5 VA
j 0.1
"
" Va
Sgen 3Va
' *
Va
5.1 j 4.7 VA
j 0.1
51