ENY-258

Least Toxic Methods of Cockroach Control1

D. M. Miller and P. G. Koehler2

Controlling a cockroach infestation is not simply
a matter of aesthetics. Large indoor cockroach
populations are one of the leading causes of allergies,
asthma and other bronchial disorders in humans.
Additionally, cockroaches are capable of carrying
disease organisms and bacteria on their bodies and in
their fecal material. The presence of cockroach
populations in and around urban structures is an
indication that cockroach food, moisture and
harborage resources are present. These conditions
allow pests to proliferate and lead to cockroach
population explosions.
Until recently, efforts to suppress cockroach
populations in the urban environment have relied
almost exclusively on repeated applications of
synthetic pesticides. Surveys have shown that more
than 1/3 of all the pesticides used in the U.S. are
applied in urban environments and most of these
pesticides are applied in the home. However, the
chemical approach to cockroach control has become
increasingly less popular. This is primarily due to the
development of multi-chemical resistance among
German cockroach populations and increased public
concern about pesticide exposure in their living
environment. These two issues have greatly
emphasized the need for a more holistic and less toxic
approach to cockroach management.
The Principle Cockroach Pest
Species
In order to deal with any particular infestation it
is important that the cockroach pest be properly
identified so that most appropriate and least toxic
control methods can be applied. There are 41
cockroach species present in the state of Florida, of
these only about 6 are considered pests. These pest
species can have very distinct behavior and habitat
preferences.
The predominant pest cockroach species in
Florida (and the world) is the German cockroach,
Blattella germanica (Figure 1). German cockroaches
are small with adults less than 0.75" (1.5 cm) in
length. They are gold in color and have 2 dark
longitudinal bands on their pronotum near the head.
Immature German cockroaches, or nymphs, are
smaller than adults, wingless and dark brown in color.
German cockroaches are primarily indoor pests. They
have strict moisture requirements so they are usually
found in kitchen and bathroom areas. Adults live
about 6 months, and during this time the female

1. This document is ENY-258, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First published: April 1993. Revised: March 2003. Please visit the EDIS Website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. D. M. Miller, graduate research assistant and P. G. Koehler, professor/extension entomologist, Entomology and Nematology Department, Cooperative
Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. The use of specific trade names in this publication
does not constitute endorsement of these products in preference to others containing the same active ingredients. Mention of a proprietary product does not
constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the authors or the publisher.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer authorized to provide research, educational
information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, color, sex, age, handicap, or national origin.
For information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension Service office. Florida Cooperative
Extension Service/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences/University of Florida/Christine Taylor Waddill, Dean.
Least Toxic Methods of Cockroach Control 2

produces from 4-8 egg cases (oothecae). The female

carries the egg case throughout embryonic
development (3-4 weeks) often releasing it from her
body only hours before the nymphs hatch. Each
female produces an average of 28 nymphs from each
egg case. German cockroaches are the most prolific
pest species and therefore the most difficult to control.

Figure 2. American cockroach (actual size, 1 1/2").

Figure 1. German cockroach (actual size 5/8").

The remaining 5 pest species of cockroaches are

more closely related to each other than they are to the
German cockroach. These species include the
American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (Figure
2); Australian (Figure 3), P. australasiae; Brown, P.
brunnea; Smokybrown (Figure 4), P. fuliginosa; Figure 3. Australian cockroach (actual size, 1 1/2").
Oriental, Blatta orientalis; and the Florida Woods
cockroaches (Figure 5), Eurycotis floridana.
Collectively, this group of cockroaches is known to
pest control operators as the peridomestic
(indoor/outdoor) cockroaches. However, the
homeowner would most commonly refer to these
cockroaches as "palmetto bugs".

In general, peridomestic cockroaches are much

larger and heavier than German cockroaches. Adults
range in size from 1.5-1.75" (3-4 cm) in length and
are reddish brown to black in color. Some of these
large cockroaches can live up to 2 years in the adult
stage. Adult females can produce an egg case about
every 1-2 weeks. A typical female will produce about Figure 4. Smokybrown cockroach.
20-80 oothecae during her lifetime each containing
females continue to carry the egg case throughout
15-20 nymphs. Peridomestic females release the egg
case from their body soon after it has developed. embryonic development.
They then "glue" the egg case to a surface, usually in Peridomestic cockroaches normally breed
a hidden, moist area. In contrast, German cockroach outdoors in sewers, palm trees, tree holes, fire wood,
Least Toxic Methods of Cockroach Control
Figure 5. Florida woods cockroach.
water meters, well pumps, mulch, and flower beds.
These cockroaches usually enter homes only
occasionally when foraging for food, water or
warmth. In some situations, however, they will
establish breeding populations in attics, crawl spaces,
wall voids and other indoor areas.
Cockroach Prevention: Exclusion
and Sanitation
Long term prevention of cockroach infestation is
the best means of ensuring a cockroach free
environment. This is most easily accomplished by
means of exclusion (preventing cockroach entry) and
sanitation (elimination of cockroach resources). Not
only will these measures prevent a future infestation,
they will also help to reduce an existing cockroach
problem.
Exclusion
Prevent cockroach entry:
1. Cockroaches migrate easily through multi-unit
dwellings via plumbing and electrical
connections. Sealing gaps around plumbing,
wall outlets and switch plates will prevent
cockroaches from migrating from infested units
to others.
2. Keep doors and windows closed and screened.
Also, caulk cracks and gaps that may allow
peridomestic cockroaches to invade from
outdoors.
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3. Peridomestic cockroaches frequently enter
homes by coming up through dry drain traps.
Periodically run the water in spare bathrooms,
utility tubs and toilets to keep the drain trap filled
and off limits to cockroaches.
4. Fiberglass window screen over vent pipes on the
roof will prevent cockroaches from migrating up
from sewer connections and gaining access to
attics and windows.
5. Groceries, produce and other packaged food
products may have been stored in infested
locations before they were purchased. Make an
effort to visibly scan all grocery items for
cockroach evidence before putting them away.
6. Children can transport cockroaches from school
to home in book bags and lunch pails. Inspect
these items on a regular basis.
7. Guests (adults and children) can often transport
cockroaches from their infested home to yours
either on themselves or in packages. Limit guest
access to specific areas of your home and inspect
these areas after they depart.
Sanitation
Elimination of food resources:
German cockroaches can remain alive for
approximately 2 weeks with no food or water and for
42 days if only water is available. Therefore, it is
important to realize that cockroaches can survive on
tiny amounts of food such as crumbs, grease or food
residue.
1. Indoor trash containers should be emptied
frequently, kept clean both inside and out. Plastic
bags lining trash containers can be kept closed
with twist ties. This will prevent cockroaches
from being attracted to the garbage area.
2. Filled indoor garbage containers should be
removed from the dwelling immediately and
placed in outdoor containers with tight fitting lids
or dumpsters.
3. Keeping the area around dumpsters or other
outdoor garbage storage areas clean and free of
Least Toxic Methods of Cockroach Control
debris will also prevent peridomestic cockroach
infestations in the area.
4. Frequent emptying of sink strainers and running
of the garbage disposal and will prevent food
build up in the sink drain.
5. Washing dishes immediately after a meal will
prevent cockroaches from consuming food
residue on dishes. Unwashed dishes are a major
source of food for German cockroaches.
6. Kitchen appliances (toasters, toaster ovens,
microwaves, ovens, stoves, and refrigerators)
should be kept clean and free of food particles
and grease. Additionally, the areas underneath
and behind these appliances should be kept
grease and crumb free.
7. If pets are present, dry food should be kept in
resealable containers. Do not leave food and
water out all the time.
8. Feed your pet at particular times and clean up
after every meal.
9. All foods products should be resealed after
opening, stored in plastic snap-lid containers or
kept in the refrigerator.
10. Regular sweeping/vacuuming of floors and
furniture where people eat (i.e. kitchen table or
in the living room in front of T.V.) help to
eliminate cockroach food sources.
11. Regular cleaning of food storage areas and
shelves not only eliminates spilled or scattered
food but disrupts cockroach populations that may
be using the area as a harborage.
Elimination of Moisture Resources:
The single most important factor in determining
cockroach survival is availability of water. German
cockroaches live less than two weeks when there is
no supply of free water even if food is abundant.
During periods of drought the incidence of
peridomestic cockroaches indoors will often increase
as the large cockroaches invade structures in search
of moisture. It is therefore important to eliminate all
sources of moisture that contribute to cockroach
survival.
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1. Tightening loose pipes, patch plumbing leaks
and replace used washers in the kitchen sink and
bathroom areas. Outdoor water spigots and
sprinklers should also be checked for drips and
leaks.
2. Water left in the sink or bathtub after dish
washing or bathing also provides moisture for
cockroaches. These sources are eliminated by
drying out sinks and bathtubs after use.
3. A common source of moisture is condensation
under the refrigerator. This area should be
frequently wiped dry or, if possible, a pan should
be placed under the appliance to collect water.
The collection pan should be emptied frequently.
Condensation on pipes (under the sink or in wall
voids) is also a problem. Insulate these pipes if
possible.
4. Pet drink dishes and aquariums are also sources
of moisture. Empty pet water dishes at night
when cockroaches are foraging but the pet is
indoors or asleep. Aquariums should have tight
fitting lids or screens to prevent cockroach entry.
5. Be careful not to over-water indoor plants,
because excess water is available to
cockroaches.
6. Glasses, cups and soda cans containing water or
liquid residue are common sources of moisture
for cockroaches. Be sure not to leave these
containers in bedrooms, sinks, on counter tops or
other areas. Rinse and invert cups and glasses to
dry immediately after use and dispose of soda
cans in trash containers.
7. Steps should be taken to eliminate places where
water collects outdoors (tires, cans, tree holes
etc.). This will not only eliminate cockroach
moisture sources but also mosquito breeding
habitat.
Elimination of Harborage Resources:
The third critical element for cockroach survival
is harborage. By nature, cockroaches avoid open, well
lit areas with frequent air movement. They prefer
dark, warm cracks and crevices. Excess clutter
provides numerous locations suitable for cockroach
Least Toxic Methods of Cockroach Control
habitation. The elimination of these harborages
(clutter) is important in controlling infestations.
1. Adult cockroaches can fit into cracks only 1.6
mm wide (about 1/16 of an inch). Any small gap
or hole that leads to a void is a prime cockroach
harboring area. Cracks and crevices of this kind
should be sealed with a tube of caulking.
2. Removing clutter (boxes, bags, clothing, toys,
food, books, papers etc.) eliminates cockroach
harborages and breeding areas. It is essential to
keep all areas of the home, especially the kitchen
and bathroom, uncluttered and free of useless
debris.
3. Outside, remove debris and trash from around
the house.
4. Stack firewood far away from the house, as this
is a prime harborage area for peridomestic
cockroaches.
5. Filling in tree holes with cement also eliminates
peridomestic cockroach harborage.
6. Keep shrubbery and ornamentals well trimmed.
7. Keep palm trees free of loose and dead palm
branches and remove all palm debris.
Least Toxic Cockroach Management
Strategies
After exclusion and sanitation measures have
been taken the next step is to decide on a treatment
strategy. The most effective cockroach management
strategies rarely eliminate the use of pesticides
altogether but try to reduce the need for pesticide
treatments by employing other less toxic methods.
Many of these methods are currently being used in
structures across the country. The following is a
discussion of some of the non-chemical and reduced
chemical control methods currently available for
indoor and outdoor cockroach control.
The most recent technological advances in
reduced toxic and non-toxic cockroach control have
been in bait formulations, and insect growth
regulators. Other currently used non-toxic measures
include desiccating dusts, traps and biological
5
controls. Each of these treatment methods will be
discussed in detail including how they may be
incorporated into a complete urban cockroach
management program.
Note: Ultrasonic devices are frequently
advertised as a non-toxic method of cockroach
control. However, extensive research has shown that
these devices neither kill nor repel cockroaches so
they are not included in the following discussion.
Cockroach Baiting
Cockroach baits consist of a toxicant mixed with
a food source. Some baits also contain attractants or
feeding stimulants that are supposed to make the bait
more attractive to cockroaches than the other food
sources that may be available in the immediate area.
Current indoor bait formulations are applied as
dusts, pastes, gels or bait stations. The bait station is
one of the more popular application methods for
cockroach baits. This is because the stations are easy
to put out, safe around children and pets and have
residual activity.
Gel and dust bait formulations that are
formulated for injection into cracks and crevices, but
not accessible to people are considered reduced risk
tactics..
Outdoor baiting products are used primarily for
the control of peridomestic cockroaches. Spreadable
granular baits or bait stations are the most common
formulations used for peridomestic cockroach
control.
Spreadable baits are usually applied as a
perimeter band around a structure. It is difficult to
determine the residual longevity of these products
particularly in areas where precipitation is frequent.
Even "weatherized" baits have difficulty retaining
their residual properties where there is heavy rainfall
or irigation. This is particularly true in the
southeastern United States where precipitation can
ruin bait effectiveness within a single day.
Bait stations for peridomestic cockroaches are
simply larger versions of those used for German
cockroach baiting. The problem with this baiting
system is that peridomestic species live and breed in
Least Toxic Methods of Cockroach Control
outdoors in palm trees, woodpiles, tree holes and
other areas where bait station placement is difficult.
The homeowner will often want the large bait stations
placed inside the structure in order to kill
peridomestic cockroaches that are caught foraging
inside. This, however, does nothing about the
population of cockroaches that continues to breed
outdoors.
Insect Growth Regulators
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are a group of
compounds which disrupt the normal growth and
development of insects. The IGRs are considered
reduced-risk tools. They generally have very low
toxicity to mammals because they act by disrupting
the hormonal processes that are specific to insects.
IGRs that mimic the juvenile hormones of
insects are called juvenile hormone analogues
(JHAs). JHAs are chemical compounds whose
structural chemistry is very similar to the hormones
that the immature cockroach produces naturally.
JHAs interfere with the proper development of last
instar cockroach nymphs. Instead of the nymphs
molting into reproductive adults they molt into
"adultoids", which often have twisted wings and are
sterile. Because the adultoids are unable to
reproduce, over time, the cockroach populations
begins to decline. JHAs are an effective method of
long term German cockroach control. However,
because JHAs eliminate reproduction but do not kill
existing, cockroaches they are very slow acting (from
four to nine months to achieve control). JHAs are
often combined with residual insecticides. In this
manner most of the population can be eliminated
quickly by the insecticide, cockroaches that survive
the insecticide treatment are then sterilized by the
JHA.
Insect Growth Regulators are available in spray
formulations or point source dispensers (where the
IGR is released on a filter paper contained in a
permeable plastic station then transmigrates
throughout the infested area).
Chitin synthesis inhibitors (CSI) are another type
of insect growth regulator that is being developed for
use in management programs targeting a variety of
insect pests. Exposure CSIs results in the abnormal
6
molting of nymphs causing them to die during the
molting process. CSIs also cause adult cockroaches to
form abnormal egg cases and interferes with the
hatching process. However, chitin synthesis inhibitors
are not yet available commercially for cockroach
control.
Inorganic Dusts
Inorganic dusts, such as silica gel and boric acid,
have been used frequently for indoor cockroach
control. The dusts are applied with a squeeze-bulb
duster into cracks and crevices under sinks, stoves,
behind refrigerators, along baseboards, in electrical
outlets, cabinets and wall voids. Silica gel is simply
finely ground sand or glass that adheres to and
absorbs the protective waxes on the cockroach cuticle
resulting in cockroach death from dehydration. Boric
acid is a stomach poison that is picked up by
cockroaches walking across dusted areas. The boric
acid adheres to the cockroach cuticle so when the
cockroach grooms itself it ingests the boric acid and
soon dies.
Traps
One of the non-chemical tactics available for
reducing a cockroach infestation involves the use of
traps. Sticky traps can be purchased and placed,
indoors, near the garbage, under the sink, in the
cabinets, under and behind the refrigerator, and in the
bathroom. Outdoors, sticky traps are not
recommended because they tend to capture many
non-target animals (snakes, lizards etc.) and are not
resistant to weathering.
A second trapping method is the use of baited
jars. Any empty jar (pickle, mayonnaise, peanut
butter etc.) with a rounded inside lip will suffice. Coat
the inner lip of the jar with a thin film of Vaseline (to
keep trapped cockroaches from escaping). The jar
should then be baited with a quarter slice of bread
soaked in beer (a cockroach favorite). If beer and
bread are unavailable try other foods like cookies,
dog food, apples, etc. The outside of the jar should be
wrapped in paper towel so cockroaches have a
surface to grasp as they climb up the sides of the jar.
To kill trapped cockroaches simply pour dish
washing detergent into the jar and add hot water. The
cockroaches can then be dumped outside or in the
Least Toxic Methods of Cockroach Control
garbage. Wash out the jar and repeat the process
every 2-3 days. Indoor jar traps should be placed in
the same locations as those listed for sticky traps.
When trapping outdoors, jars should be placed in
trees, tree holes, mulched areas, firewood, near the
garbage cans, compost piles, air conditioning units
and storage sheds. Covering the jars with a dome
shaped piece of aluminum foil taped to the sides will
prevent rain from filling the traps. Jar traps are very
suitable for outdoor use because they presentlittle to
non-target organisms and are not easily damaged by
weather.
Biological Controls
Almost all animals have natural enemies.
Cockroaches are no exception. However, biological
control is not always considered when we think of
controlling a cockroach infestation. However, natural
controls do play an important role in managing
cockroach populations. Natural cockroach enemies
include wasps, nematodes, spiders, toads and frogs,
centipedes, birds, lizards, geckos, beetles, mantids,
ants and small mammals (mice). It is very important
that these populations of natural enemies be
maintained to help keep cockroach populations in
check.
Oothecal Parasitoids
Parasitic wasps are an important natural enemy
of cockroaches. The wasps are parasitoids of the
cockroach egg case (ootheca) and can have a
significnt negative impact on outdoor cockroach
populations. Most species of parasitoid wasps are
associated with peridomestic cockroaches. The
majority of these wasps are very tiny (1-5 mm) and
do not sting humans. Peridomestic cockroaches like
the American and Smokybrown, live in outdoor
harborages such as palm trees, tree holes, and
woodpiles. The parasitoids live with the cockroaches
in the harborage parasitizing their egg cases. When
the adult male and female wasps emerge they mate
immediately. The female then begins to sting other
oothecae laying her eggs inside them. The wasp
offspring eat the cockroach embryos inside the
ootheca before hatching. This natural system results
in 60-70% of all cockroach egg cases being
parasitized without any human interference.
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Oothecal wasp parasitoids have been tested for
potential indoor use. Domestic populations of
brown-banded cockroaches were successfully
controlled in a California animal rearing facility by
these wasps. However, it is doubtful that parasitoid
wasps will ever be reared for commercial use. Very
few individuals would welcome a population of
200,000 wasps in their home even if they promised to
eliminate a severe cockroach infestation.
Note: Wasp parasitoids are extremely
susceptible to pyrethroid insecticides. When
attempting to eliminate an outdoor cockroach
infestation it is important to realize the insecticide
applications in peridomestic cockroach harborages
may not kill all of the cockroaches but it certainly will
eliminate the parasitoids. This can result in future
cockroach problems as surviving cockroaches can
reproduce unchecked the following year. The
application of bait around an infested area is the best
way to treat a population of peridomestic
cockroaches and preserve the wasp parasitoids.
Summary
German cockroaches are the most important pest
in the indoor environment. Peridomestic cockroaches
live primarily outdoors but often invade structures
looking for food, warmth or moisture. The treatment
measures for indoor versus outdoor cockroaches are
very different so it is extremely important that a
problem cockroach population be correctly identified.
Once the cockroach and its habitat have been
determined, the magnitude and location of the
population needs to be evaluated. This can be done
by performing a thorough inspection in and around
the structure and monitoring with traps. The
population information should then be used to choose
treatment strategies. A combination of treatments is
recommended for a complete approach to cockroach
management. Several least toxic treatment choices
are available for cockroach control, they include bait
products (available for indoor and outdoor use),
insect growth regulators (IGRs), inorganic dusts and
traps. Oothecal parasitoids occur as a biological
control for peridomestic cockroaches. However, these
wasps are very sensitive to insecticides and should be
protected from outdoor applications, particularly
those involving pyrethroids.