Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
BY
GEORGE EMUSUGUT
BU/UG/2010/192
(Dip Educ-Kyu)
MAY 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my profound gratitude to Dr. Richard A. Alingu my supervisor for
all the guidance and support; Mr. Patrick Emudong laboratory technician NaLIRRI, for
the support in the laboratory work. Special thanks go my family, institutions NaLIRRI
and Busitema University for the financial, material and logistical support during the
course of my study.
Thanks to all the teaching staff of Arapai campus, the small ruminant farmers who availed
animals for the study. This project would not have been successful without your support.
Last but not least, I want to say thanks to my wife, Juliet, mum, and Brother Stephen for
your love, encouragement and support. You people were always there when I needed you.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the problem....................................................................................................... 1
1.3.1 General objective ................................................................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Specific objectives ............................................................................................................. 2
1.4. Research questions .............................................................................................................. 2
1.5. Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 3
1.6. Justification of the study ........................................................................................................ 3
iii
iv
L.C1
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Local Council One
NAADS
EPG
NALIRRI
GIT
Gastrointestinal tract
PGE
FEC
NEMA
NUSAF
GI
Gastro Intestinal
SEAG
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2. OVERALL DISTRIBUTION OF PREVALENCE IN THE GOATS................... 17
TABLE 3. OVERALL DISTRIBUTION OF PREVALENCE IN THE SHEEP .................... 17
TABLE 4. THE DISTRIBUTION ALONG THE AGE GROUPS OF SMALL
RUMINANTS .................................................................................................................. 17
TABLE 5. THE DISTRIBUTION OF PREVALENCE BETWEEN THE
SEXES.(N=178). ............................................................................................................. 18
TABLE 6. DISTRIBUTION OF PREVALENCE AMONG MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS.. 18
TABLE 7. PREVALENCE BY THE WARDS ....................................................................... 18
, TABLE 8. LEVEL OF ANTHELMINTIC USE AND PREVALENCE OF INFECTION .. 19
TABLE 9. DISTRIBUTION OF PREVALENCE AMONG THE BREED OF SMALL
RUMINANTS .................................................................................................................. 19
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. BREED OF GOATS KEPT, ............................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 2.MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS OF GOATS ............................................................................................ 15
FIGURE 3: LEVEL OF USAGE OF ANTIHELMINTIC DRUGS ............................................................................. 16
FIGURE 4: SOURCES OF ANTIHELMINTIC DRUGS. ....................................................................................... 16
vii
ABSTRACT
Across sectional study was carried out in the 3 wards of Pallisa town council, Pallisa
district between January to May 2013 to determine the prevalence of GIT nematode
infections in the small ruminants and the level of anthelmintic drug usage in the control of
the parasites. Samples were taken from 221 goats and 24 sheep and analysed for presence
of GI nematodes using the modified McMaster technique. A structured questionnaire was
administered to 46 farmers to generate data on the of anthelmintic drug usage. The
clinical and questionnaire data were analysed in Epi -info and SPSS respectively. The
overall prevalence infection in the goats and sheep was 72.7% (CI=95%, 66.6%-78.1%).
In goats and sheep alone, the prevalence was 74.2% (CI=95%, 67.9%-79.8%) and 58.3%
(CI=95%,36.6%-77.9%), respectively.The most common parasite species encountered in
single species infections, were haemonchus 40.0% (CI = 95% 33.8%-46.4%),
trichostronglus 15.1% (CI=95%, 10.9%-20.2%), strongyloides 2.4% ( CI=95%,0.9%5.3%), trichuris 3.3% (CI=95%,1.4%-6.3%), while mixed infections had
haemonchus+trichostrongylus 6.1% (CI=95%,3.5%-9.9%), haemonchus and nematodirus
0.8% (CI=95%,0.1%-2.9%). A high prevalence was recorded in the animals aged 12
months and above (55.6%) and there were significant differences between age (x2
=15.698, df=3, p=0.001), management systems (x2= 10.038, df=4 ,P= 0.040) wards
(x2=9.566, df=2,p == 0.008).and the prevalence.
A higher proportion of farmers (58.7%) applied anthelmintic drugs with albendazole
being the most (28.3%) applied drug
In conclusion there was a high prevalence of GI nematodes in small ruminants 72.7% (CI
= 95% 66.6%-78.1%) despite the high level of anthelmintic drug usage (58.7%). Age,
Management system, and location played a significant role in the epidemiology of the
disease.
viii
animal performance and weight gain, retarded growth, highest cost of treatment and
mortality are caused by the parasites. According to Magona(1999), prevalence of
gastrointestinal nematodes is estimated at 70% in pastoral goats in Uganda.
Little information is published on the prevalence of GIT nematodes in the present study
areas, where sheep and goats are important assets to the community/ local farmers. The
level of anthelmintic drug usage is unknown.
The current study attempts to provide a better understanding of GI nematodes prevalence
in the small ruminants of Pallisa town council.
1.3 Objectives:
1.3.1 General objective
To determine the prevalence of GIT nematodes infection and effects of risk factors
associated with the disease in the small ruminants in Pallisa town council, Pallisa district.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
i.
To determine the prevalence of GIT nematodes species in small ruminants in
Pallisa town council.
ii.
To determine the relationship between ages, sex, breed location and management
systems and the prevalence of GIT nematodes in small ruminants.
iii.
iii.
therefore that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus and Strongyloides species were the major
contributors to small ruminant helminthiasis in that study area.
Faizal& Rajapakse (2007),also found that gastrointestinal nematode eggs in 89% of the
kids, 94% of the young goats and 84% of the adult goats in their study .Their
identification of gastrointestinal nematodes revealed that Haemonchus contortus had
(90%) followed by Oesophogostomum spp. (8.5%) and Trichostrongylus spp. (1%) in all
three age categories examined. They found that the egg counts in the kids were
significantly lower than that in young goats (P<0.05).
Also,Kanyari et al (2009) in their study in Kenya, found the prevalence of various types
of nematode parasites in the sheep and goats respectively as follows: strongyles 80%,
90%; Strongyloides spp 5%, 13%; Trichuris spp.
Haemonchus contortus was reported to be the most prevalent nematode larvae in faecal
cultures with a percentage composition of 73% in goats and 62.8% in sheep (Mbae.,
2002) while Trichostrongylus spp followed (20.7% and 25.6%) in goats and sheep
respectively. Others were Oesophagostomum spp. (5.7% and 9.8%) and Bunostomum
spp.(0.6% and 1.8%) in sheep and goats respectively. Strongyle eggs per gram (EPG) of
faeces in young animals were significantly higher (P< 0.0001) than in mature animals.
Magona(1999), also reported a prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes at 70% in the
pastoral goats in Uganda, while Maposa(2009) reported 69.7% prevalence in the goats of
Gweru district in Zimbabwe, with the common parasites encountered being
haemonchus,trichostrongylus,teladosargia and oesophagostomum.
2.3. Epidemiology and risk factors of GI nematodes in small ruminants Epidemiology
is the study of diseases or infections in host populations and the factors that determine
their occurrence (Sissay., 2009). In addition, it includes investigation and assessment of
other health-related events in livestock, such as productivity and resistance to the drugs
used to control these infections (Sissay, 2007). Although all grazing sheep and goats may
be infected, low worm burdens, usually have little impact on animal health and as the
burden increases, effects in form of reduced weight gain and decreased appetite occur.
With heavier burdens, clinical signs may develop. The occurrence of nematodes infection
is a result of; an increase in the number of infective stages on pasture, an alteration in host
animals develop immunity with age, the majority remain susceptible until such time as
they have been exposed to infection, for instance, if they are moved into an endemic area.
Kaplan(2004), observed that GI nematodiasis is most severe in young animals in their
first year on pasture since immunity to GI nematodes is slow to develop and is
incomplete , thus even mature goats are at considerable risk. Further, any one or
combination of factors such as poor nutrition, concurrent diseases, stress, over stocking
or pregnancy/lactation can cause loss of immunity to parasites. Most animals become
more resistant to primary infection with internal parasites as they become older but adults
not previously exposed to the helminthes are at risk if moved into an endemic area
(Urquhart et al.1988). There is also an inverse relationship between the ages of the goats
and the mean nematode burden (Boomker et al., 1994). In their study, very young kids
where noted to have low burdens and this was attributed to a diet consisting of mainly
milk and only small amounts of vegetation containing infective larvae. However age was
found not have a significant influence on the faecal egg count (Magona&Musisi, 2002).
There is also a great variation in resistance between genotypes. Some species/genotypes
may be more resistant to helminthes infection than others with the variability being
genetically determined (Urquhart et al., 1988). For example, it has been shown that the
red masai sheep, indigenous to East Africa, is more resistant to Haemonchus contortus
than exotic breeds such as the dorper(Nginyiet al, 2001). Studies have also reported that
goats are more susceptible than sheep to a similar challenge (Baxendell, 1984), other
studies have reported that sheep usually suffer heavier burdens because of the difference
in grazing habits ( Tembley et al.,1996).
The environment has an important role in the epidemiology of helminthes infections as
development of the infective stages depends on temperature and moisture, with levels of
pasture contamination fluctuation in relation to rainfall (Nginyi.,et al 2001). Similarly, the
total gastrointestinal nematode burden were found to be positively related to climatic
conditions especially rainfall (Pandey et al.1994) and similarly to faecal egg counts
(Specht 1982., Yadav and Tendon 1989). The cycle of infection-pasture contaminationreinfection-more pasture contamination can rapidly transform pastures into very
drug
resistance.
Anthelmintic
resistance
involving
particularly the
practically all anthelmintics (Van Wyk, 2001). This is attributed to the frequent use of
anthelmintics to continual use of remedies with the same chemical composition and mode
of action (Urquartet al; 1988).
Resistance may be partial or complete. In the case of some anthelmintics, partial
resistance may temporarily be overcome by increasing the dosage (Maposa, 2009).
Treatment with anthelmintics, when clinical parasitism is apparent is done to prevent
mortalities, not to control the parasites. This is the frequently used method by the rural
small ruminant keepers. Unfortunately, once clinical disease is seen in an animal, it may
take 2-3 months for it to return to a physiologically normal state, during which time it can
be easily overcome by further infections and losses are inevitable (Faizal et al., 2001).
The above factors indicate insufficient knowledge of farmers on the biology/ecology of
the parasites and their reluctance to adopt new technologies.
With the crisis of anthelmintics resistance, there is an urgent need to develop alternative
methods-novel non-chemical controls. As these controls become available and widely
applied, anthelmintics will only be needed for life saving therapy when control
fails(Kaplan.,2004) become It has been realized that there is no single effective method of
reducing worm infections. According to (Venturia., 2002; Sissay., 2007), the alternative
methods include; strategic deworming, grazing management, provision of good housing,
improved nutrition, and use of herbal plants.
2.5. Economic importance of gastro intestinal helminthes
Gastrointestinal parasitism is widely regarded as the most serious constraint to
development of small ruminant enterprises in the humid and tropical conditions
(Carmicel, 1993), particularly in developing countries (Tariq et al., 2010). Economic
losses, lowered productivity, reduced animal performance and weight gain, retarded
growth, cost of treatment and mortality are caused by the parasites affecting the income of
the smallholder farming communities (Perry et al., 2002). Most of these losses are caused
by the gastrointestinal nematodes (roundworms). However, Trematodes (flukes) and
Cestodes (tapeworms) parasites may also contribute to detrimental worm burdens in
animals (Rahmann&Seip, 2006).
Within Sub Saharan Africa,(De hoan&Bekure,1991), estimated that the endo-parasites
cause mortality and production losses in the order of $2 billion annually.
10
The appropriate sample size for the population survey was determined largely by three
factors that is; the estimated prevalence of the variable of interest, the desired confidence
level, and the acceptable margin of error (Margnani, 1997). The sample size was determined
basing on the estimated prevalence of 70% in pastoral goats in Uganda (Magona, 1999),
using the following formula according to Margnani(1997):
n=t2xP(1-P)
m2
Where:
n= sample size,
t=CL at 95% (standard value of 1.96),
P=estimated prevalence in the area..70% (0.7),
m=margin of error at 5% (standard value of 0.5),
n=1.962 x 0.7(1-0.7)
0.52
0.8067 = 323
0.0025
n=323
Depending on the herd size, 5 small ruminants were sampled from each household giving a
total of 46 participating households. The number of small ruminants sampled and examined
were 245 due to financial and time constraints.
3.5. Faecal samples collection
Faecal samples were obtained per rectum using clean polythene to prevent contamination.
When sufficient amount of 3g was estimated, using with 1-3 pellets depending on their size,
the sample was placed inside a screw-capped bottle that served as a container. 3mls of
formalin (5%) solution was immediately added to each faecal sample and sealed prior to
transportation to National Livestock Resources Research Institute (NaLIRRI) laboratories in
Torero district for analysis.
3.6. Questionnaire data acquisition
A structured questionnaire was pretested and adjusted accordingly. This was then
administered to 46 households to generate data on anthelmintic drug usage.
3.7. Procedure in diagnosis of nematodes infection
The laboratory technician and the researcher carried out nematodes diagnosis, egg counting
and species identification.
The presence of nematodes infection was detected with the Modified McMaster technique
and expressed as number of eggs per gram of faeces (Thienpont et,al.,1986). The Food and
11
All variables were summarized into frequencies and Chi- square (x2) test used was at 95%
confidence level 5% allowable error to determine the association between the risk factors
(breed, age, location, and sex and management system) and the prevalence of the infections.
3.10. Data presentation
Data obtained was presented in the form of tables, and bar charts
3.11. Ethical considerations
Introduction letters were obtained from the concerned authorities (University and local
leadership), putting the researcher in a better position to conduct the survey.
Animal welfare concerns were taken into account to avoid inflicting a lot of pain to the study
animals and ensuring safety of the animals and the researcher, in addition to wearing
protective gear (overcoat, overall, gloves and gumboots) .
13
65.0% of the
practiced a combination of tethering and communal grazing and 2.5% herding and communal
grazing. Sheep on the other hand were both tethered (75.0%) and communally grazed
(25.0%).
15
Frequency
Percent
Once
19.6%
Twice
16
34.8%
Thrice
4.3%
Total
27
58.7%
use (n = 27)
The study also found that all the farmers 27 (n = 27) that used anthelmintic drugs applied
them themselves rather than use animal health workers.
4.5. Prevalence of nematode infections in Pallisa town council:
4.6.1. The overall prevalence in species
The prevalence of GIT nematodes in the goats only was 74.2% (CI =95%, 67.9%-79.8%)
while in sheep only, 58.3 % ( CI =95%, 36.6%-77.9%.)
16
H.contortus was the dominant nematode species of the sheep and goats, 40% (CI=95%,
33.8%46.4%), Trichostrongylus spp, were the next most prevalent parasites 15.1%
(CI=95%, 10.9%-20.2%). Others, including Strongyloides 2.4%,( CI=95%,0.9%-5.3%) and
trichurisspp 3.3%(CI=95%,1.4%-6.3%) in single species infections. Those in mixed species
infections included; haemonchus and Nematodirus 0.8% ( CI=95%,0.1%-2.9%), haemonchus
and trichostrongylus 6.1% (CI=95%,3.5%-9.9%) and Trichuris and haemonchus 0.8%
(CI=95%,0.1%-2.9%).
Table 2. overall distribution of prevalence in the goats
Result Goats (n = 221)
Frequencies
Percent
Negative
57
25.8%
Positive
164
74.2%
Total
221
100%
Percent
Negative
10
41.7%
Positive
14
58.3%
Total
24
100%
99
55.6%
1-4
27
15.2%
5-12
52
29.2%
Total
178
100%
17
134
75.3%
Male
44
24.7%%
Total
178
100%
21
11.8%
Communal and
21
11.8%
Tethering
132
74.2%
Zero grazing
2.2%
Total
178
245
tethering
Hospital
Kaucho
Westward
Total
Percentage
71
94
13
178
39.8%
52.8%
7.3%
100.0%
anthelmintic drug users, 98 (n=178) compared to 80 (n = 178) with non drug users. However,
there was
80
44.9%
Yes
98
55.1%
Total
178
100%
43
24.2%
EA blackhead
1.7%
Red masai
11
6.2%
Saanen
11.7%
SEAG
112
63%
3.4%
178
100%
Toggenburg
Total
19
This is in agreement with the findings of Boomker et al., 1994; Kaplan (2004) and
Assoku(1981) It is generally recognized that young sheep/goats are more susceptible to
parasite infection than are sheep/goats older than 1 year of age due to increased resistance to
infection and or re-infection with age from intake of infective larvae on contaminated
pasture. However, in this study the apparent high egg output of the adult sheep/goats was
likely to be due to a failure of their naturally acquired immune responses to parasitism
(Sissay.,2007),
The findings, however, disagree with Magona & Musisi(2002),who found that age does not
to play a major role.
5.2.2. In relation to sex
There was higher rate of prevalence in females (73.1%) against26.9% in males. However,
there was lack of significant difference between prevalence of nematodes infection and sex of
the animals.(x2=1.629, df=1,p= 0.202,).
This disagrees with the findings of Urquhart et al (1998), who reported existence of some
evidence that male animals were more susceptible than females to some helminthes infection.
However, the physiological status of the host, such as gestation and lactation may have
increased susceptibility to parasitic infection, especially if nutrition is not increased to meet
fetus and milk needs.
5.2.3. In relation to the breed of small ruminant:
The study also looked at the effect of breed of small ruminant in the prevalence of GI
nematodes infection with absolute figures indicating higher overall prevalence in the goats
breeds than in sheep breeds There was no significant difference of prevalence in relation to
the breed of small ruminants ( x2=8.994 ,df=6,p= 0.174,). These findings disagree with
Nginyi et al(2001);Urquhart et al,(1988) that reported great variation in resistance between
genotypes.
The lower prevalence in the red masai than EA blackhead could be due to genetic variations
as the red masai has been shown to more resistant to haemonchus (Nginyi et al.,2001),while
the higher prevalence in the small east African compared to the boer and toggenburgs could
be due to the common practice of tethering indigenous goats with less use of anthelmintics as
opposed to the improved breeds.
5.2.4. In relation to the management system:
The percent prevalence of infection within the management system indicates that prevalence
was highest in communal grazing(80.8%), followed by communal grazing and
21
22
Ensuring proper utilization of locally available feed resources like crop residues,
natural pastures and browses and nutritional supplementation for young and lactating
animals
ii.
Goats are natural browsers, so browse areas should be used as much as possible, to
reduce the parasite transmission as the goats ingest forages farther from the ground.
iii.
23
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Anonymous, (2005): Faecal egg counts (interpretation).New South Wales department of
industries www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/vetmanual/specimens-bydiscipline/parasitolgy/eggcounts.
Boomker,J.Horak,I,G.,Ramsay,K.A,(1994):Helminths and arthropod parasites of indigenous
goats in the northern Transvaal, Onderstepoort journal of veterinary research,61;13-20.
Cabaret.J, and Gasnier,N. (1994): Farm history and breeding management influences on the
intensity and specific diversity of nematode infection of dairy goats. Veterinary Parasitology
53.219-232.
Coles, G.C, 2001: The future of veterinary Parasitology. Vet. Parasitol. 98:31-39.
Faizal, A.C.M, Rajapakse, R.P.V.J; (2001): Prevalence of coccidian and gastrointestinal
nematodes infections in crossbred goats in the dry areas of Sri lanka. Small ruminants
research 40;233-238
Hood G.M; (2004): Anthelmintics resistance in small ruminant parasites: implications for
small holders in South East Asia: Australian centre for international Agricultural research.
MagonaJ.W. and Musisi.G.,(2002): Influence of age, grazing
S.W.,
Bain
health
research
to
alleviate
poverty.
InternationalLivestockResearch
Institute,Nairob,.Kenya. 148.
Rahmann .G.andSeip.H.( 2006): Alternative strategies to prevent and control endoparasite
diseases in organic sheep and goat farming.
Ray .M.Kaplan.,(2004): Responding to the emergence of multiple drug resistant haemochus
contortus. Department of infectious diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine.University of
Georgia,Athens,Georgia 30602.
SissayMenikorMekonnen., (2007): Epidemiology and anthelmintic resistance and its
management. Swedish university of agricultural sciences, Uppsala, 2007. ISBN: 1652-6880.
Soulby.J,(1982): Helminthes, anthropods and protozoan of domesticated animals,7 Edition,
TindallLondon,u.k.pp579-624,766-766..9.
SpechtE.J.K.,(1982): Seasonal incidence of helminthes in sheep and goats in South
Mozambique. Vet.Parasitol.,11:317-328.
Tembley.S,Hansen .J.W.,(1996): Helminthes diseases of small ruminants in the tropics:
Review of epidemiology and control strategies.pp123-127.
The RVC/FAO Guide to Veterinary Diagnostics Parasitology.
Thienpont.D.,Rochette,.F.,Vanparijsi,.O.F.J.,(1986):
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25
APPENDICES:
Appendix 01. The questionnaire administered
Dear sir/madam,
Iam Emusugut George a student of Busitema university,carrying out aresearch project on
Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in the small ruminants of Pallisa Town
Council.
Section A: Household identification
Questionnaire number
Animal number .
Name of village..
Name of Parish/ward...
Name of respondent
Gender of respondent
Male
No formal
education
Female
Primary 2
Lower
3
Secondary
Higher
4
Secondary
26
College 5
University
& beyond
Livestock category
Number
Cattle
Goats
Sheep
Pigs
Other (specify)
Exotic 2
Exotic 2
Other (specify) 3
SEAG 1
Other (specify) 3
Herding
herding
Other (specify) 3
Red masaai 2
Other (specify) 3
Tethering 2
Paddocking 3
zero grazing 4
Other
(specify)
Tethering 2
Paddocking 3
zero grazing 4
Other
(specify)
Bore hole 2
River/stream
27
Other
4
(specify)
Goats 2
Sheep 3
Twice 2
Levamisole 3
Other (specify) 5
Other (specify) 6
Four times 4
Other (specify) 5
Farmer 1
Levafas
Thrice 3
selected
sheep/goats 1
Pigs
Once 1
Albendazole 1
No
Cattle 1
Extension worker 2
Other (specify) 3
Open
market 1
Veterinary department
2
28
Other (specify) 3
If yes, which anthelmintic drug were you using before the current one?
Albendazole 1
No
Ivermectin 2
Levamisole 3
e
Other
t
5
(specify)
c
Levafas 4
Advice from
the vet
Not effective
Not available
THANK YOU
29
4 Expensive
under
the
microscope:
nematodirus(11),haemonchus(17),trichuris(9)
and
30
31