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Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities

Vol. 2, 2009, pp. 1339


URL: http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/jissh/index
URN:NBN:NL:UI:10-1-100135
Copyright: content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
ISSN: 1979-8431

The Making of Indonesian Education:


An Overview on Empowering
Indonesian Teachers
Teuku Zulfikar
Monash University

Abstract
Education is one of the fundamental priorities of nation building. For this reason, the
Indonesian government continuously seeks to improve the quality of its education.
Empowering education can be done using many strategies, such as reforming school
curricula or school systems or both. This article approaches the improvement of
Indonesian education from a different angle, by considering teachers and the teaching
profession. Before proposing an agenda for improving teachers, the article considers
two main problems of Indonesian teachers: the practice of teacher-centred classroom
pedagogy; and the emphasis on rote learning in the classroom. In response to these
phenomena, this article suggests two main factors responsible for the persistence of
such teaching styles: institutional cultures and the nature of assessment systems in
Indonesian schools. This article has three recommendations to help Indonesian teachers
improve. However, the author is aware that the agendas for improvement are complex
and institutional reforms are needed; for example, the reform of teacher recruitment;
teacher evaluation and also the reform of assessment systems. This article includes a
discussion of what makes for a good teacher, which will help Indonesian teachers to
gain an insight to their profession, and a discussion of the changes that could be made
to enable the quality of teaching to improve.

Introduction
Teaching is indeed a complex profession; it is also a challenging one in
which teachers have to meet various social and intellectual demands.
Successful teachers are not simply responsible for transferring
knowledge, they must transfer it effectively and successfully, and
for that reason alone, they should organise classrooms, implement
effective classroom pedagogy and work cooperatively with a diversity
of students and colleagues (McCaughtry, Cothran, Kulinna, Martin and
Faust, 2005). Despite the significant role of teachers in the classroom,
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many Indonesian teachers have been found to lack teaching competence


(Azra, 2002). This has been observed by Bjork (2005) and ascribed to
the long tradition of teacher-centred teaching and rote learning in the
Indonesian classroom.
Teacher-centred class instruction is deeply embedded in Indonesian
school settings; this type of instruction has become a part in the
Indonesian school culture (Azra, 2002; Bjork, 2005; Buchori, 2001).
There is a consensus that such an instruction method provides little
room for students to be creative and expressive (Kohl, 1994; Shor,
1992; Wolk, 1998). Teacher-centred class instruction is said to be
undemocratic because it fails to take into account students learning
dynamics and ignores students contributions in the classroom (Wolk,
1998). In addition to teacher-centred instruction, rote learning is still
common in Indonesian schools (Bjork, 2005). There is no suggestion
that rote learning should be totally avoided in the Indonesian context
because this type of instruction has some advantages for students; for
example, rote learning of historical dates. However, excessive use of
rote learning means there is less emphasis on more student-centred
aspects of learning, such as the critical analysis of history itself. Rote
learning plays a large part in Indonesians schools because it is believed
to be able to transfer knowledge to students through memorisation. With
rote learning, students are judged to be successful when they are able to
memorise lessons or topics within their subjects. Even though education
practitioners in Indonesia criticise the use of excessive rote learning and
attempt to eliminate it (Azra, 2002), such methods prevail.
Because teacher-centred and rote learning have become commonplace
in the Indonesian school culture (Azra, 2002; Bjork, 2005;
Darmaningtyas, 2004), this article aims at exploring factors leading to
the long prevalence of such instruction methods in Indonesian schools;
it considers how to minimise the problem; and gives some thought to
the characteristics of successful teachers. This article begins by looking
at factors causing such classroom pedagogy. This first section identifies
two underlying factors to teacher-centred and rote learning: institutional
cultures and the assessment system. The second section of this article
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deals with some suggestions to minimise teacher-centred and rote


learning systems. The third section discusses the necessary attributes of
successful teachers, attributes that Indonesian teachers should emulate
if they are to be successful in the teaching profession. I will conclude
with a discussion of the applicability of these proposed solutions to the
Indonesian education system.
Teacher-centred and Rote Learning: Cultures of the Indonesian
Classroom
Institutional Culture
Discussions of the negative effects of institutional cultures on Indonesian
teachers will be mainly based on the work of Christopher Bjork (2005),
who conducted comprehensive research on the Indonesian education
system. His research reveals that Indonesian teaching practices are
mostly attached to institutional cultures and the education system. I
define institutional cultures as systems played out within the Indonesian
education system; the system of teacher recruitment (by civil service
institutions); the system of teacher evaluation and promotion; and
common practices of Indonesian school systems (school cultures).
Bjork (2005) gives insights on factors leading to the long history of
teacher-centred classroom methods and the system of rote learning in
Indonesian schools. He suggests that most Indonesian teaching practices
in the school setting are to fit in with the institutional culture to which
the teaching profession subscribes (Bjork, 2005, p. 83). This suggests
that teachers are dependent on the rules and regulations imposed on
them through institutional policies (of such civil service institutions
as the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Religious
Affairs) and common practices in Indonesian schools.
Indonesian education is a highly centralised and top-down system.
School teachers are recruited, employed and deployed by the central
government (Gardiner, 2000). Teachers recruited and employed by a
government body, such as the Ministry of National Education (MONE)
or the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA), belong to pegawai negeri
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institutions (that is, they are civil servants or government employees). As


pegawai negeri, teachers are subject to and dependent on government
regulations, which control their working conditions (Gardiner,
2000). For instance, teachers are obliged to fulfil the seven promises
of the Republic of Indonesias employee corps, to follow guidelines
for national discipline at school, and also are expected to follow the
teachers code of conduct. During his fieldwork, Bjork (2005) observed
in various official meetings, the rapat dinas, that a teachers performance
is judged on their loyalty to regulations enforced by the pegawai negeri
institutions. Bjork (2005) also reveals that series of school meetings
are conducted to emphasise teachers obligation to fulfil disciplinary
conditions mandated by the pegawai negeri institutions, but discussion
of teaching performance has no place in the meetings.
There is little discussion of teachers classroom practices at teachers
meetings; teaching performance is not evaluated, constructively criticised
or appreciated. The only basis of evaluation is teachers progress in
transmitting and meeting the curriculum schedule, managerial issues
such as organising examinations, commitment to the flag ceremony, and
attending official meetings and other such bureaucratic requirements
(Bjork, 2005). These conditions discourage teachers from concentrating
on their teaching performance. This also suggests that, institutionally,
teachers have been made powerless and their professional vision
blinkered. The institutions of pegawai negeri have transformed teachers
into dependent entities who follow orders, commit to the government
regulations and fulfil the curriculum schedule; improving their teaching
ability is not so much required (Bjork, 2005). These practices, common
in the civil service, ignore the special nature of education and educational
institutions: at present teachers are given few incentives to attend to their
students learning attitudes and habits. Treating teachers simply as civil
servants and not as professional educators will not enable them to have
a rewarding career nor will it bring about the best education outcomes
for the nation. Understanding how students learn and the factors that
can affect their individual education needs are imperative if a teacher is
to be considered successful (Marjoribanks, 1991; Wolk, 1998).

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Indonesian school cultures (common practices in Indonesian schools)


also cause teachers to be rigid in their teaching schedules. Most teachers
spend little time at school, arriving just minutes before they begin
teaching. After lessons, most engage in chatting instead of evaluating
their students work (Bjork, 2005). Teachers are also not expected to
be substitute teachers during the absence of any permanent teachers.
Indonesian school cultures also do not encourage teachers to be willing
to stay at school after teaching hours for consultation with students
about academic matters. In fact, in his observations, Bjork (2005) found
that teachers frequently put the blame on students for their (students)
academic failure. Worse, teachers are not expected by school cultures to
give any thought to the causes of a students failure. Bjork (2005) also
found that meetings to discuss and consider student failure are missing
from the Indonesian school contexts.
The cultures at play at the civil-service institutions give teachers neither
space nor opportunities to review their classroom pedagogy. Because
they are government employees, loyalty and obedience are stressed
more so than their skills and ability in the classroom (Bjork, 2005);
such treatment indicates that top-down power influence has yet to be
eliminated from the Indonesian education system. It has been suggested
by Bjork that teachers evaluation is more concerned with teachers ability
to transfer knowledge based on the curriculum schedules rather than
on evaluating their classroom pedagogy. Such an institutional culture
discourages teachers from evaluating their instructional pedagogy, and
thus teacher-centred classroom pedagogy remains prevalent.
Systems of Assessment
The Indonesian education system emphasises in-class examinations to
assess student academic achievement. In Indonesian schools, students
sit standardised and highly centralised examinations (Gardiner, 2000),
in which the test questions are set centrally. These types of examination
frequently use multiple choice questions; few require written essays.
Examinations in class are administered to record students academic
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achievement and as a foundation to grant the student a higher grade.


In addition to administering examinations each semester, the central
government also enforces national examinations at the end of Year 6, at
the end of Year 9 (grade 3 of SMP or junior high school) and at the end
of Year 12 (grade 3 of SMU or senior high school). Implementing the
national examination (ujian nasional) is not without problems; it has
attracted severe criticism from many scholars, such as Oey-Gardiner
(2005) and Lie (2004), who assert that the implementation of a national
examination is a poor way to measure students academic achievement.
The system of national examinations has been accused of aggravating
conditions of Indonesian education because it measures students
cognitive ability only, for example, the ability to memorise certain
topics of the lesson (Daud, 2009; Khalifa, 2009; Soaloon, 2009).
Because the assessment system is in-class examinations, which test
students memorisation of particular topics in the lessons, classroom
pedagogy follows suit, in that teachers are trapped into employing
pedagogy that stresses students memorisation skills for success in
the examinations. Indonesian teachers are left with no choice but to
implement classroom pedagogy with its emphasis on rote learning.
As an insider in the Indonesian education system, I am aware of these
factors related to the emergence and existence of rote learning. The
government is also accused of lacking commitment to evaluate the
assessment system. In fact, Gardiner (2005) suggests that the Ministry
of Education finds ways to ignore criticisms on the issue of national
examinations. Lie (2004) also severely criticises government policy on
national examinations. She contends that the enforcement of the current
national examination system implies that the government is displeased
with decentralising authority; that the central government intends to
maintain control and authority over education management Indonesiawide (Lie, 2004).
If in-class summative assessments and national examinations remain
common in the Indonesian schools, the system of rote learning will
continue. In this case, Indonesian teachers are not the only ones to
blame for the implementation of rote learning in Indonesian schools.
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Rote learning takes place at least for two reasons: first, teachers
lack of teaching competence, in which they do not possess sufficient
pedagogical knowledge to conduct instruction and they have been denied
opportunities to empower themselves by improving their teaching skills;
and second, the highly centralised system of assessment.
To sum up, this section has attempted to clarify that the long tradition
of teacher-centred classroom pedagogy and rote learning is a complex
phenomenon. It prevails because of related factors; the system of
teacher recruitment and evaluation, classroom practices common to
so many Indonesian schools, the system of assessment, and teachers
lack of teaching competence; all these combine to ensure that these
instructional traditions continue. Because teacher-centred and rote
learning is complex, the solutions are also complex. The hierarchical
structure of education should be changed, Indonesian education must
be detached from a highly centralised management that administers
teacher recruitment, teaching evaluation and systems of assessment. The
following section deals with some insights on manipulating teachercentred classroom pedagogy and rote learning.
Efforts for Improvement
In this second section, I propose some ideas that might minimise, if
not eliminate, the dependency and the strong attachment of teachers
to institutional cultures and to the current education system. Three
suggestions are proposed in this section: reforming the systems at
the schools and the pegawai negeri institutions; implementation of
appropriate teaching evaluation; and reformulation of assessment
systems. These thoughts, however, are not magic words that eliminate
the use of teacher-centred learning approach and system of rote learning
in the Indonesian schools in no time.
Institutional Reform
Because the civil service institutions or the nature of pegawai negeri are
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assumed to affect the teacher-centred methods of instruction (discussed


elsewhere), the first and most urgent matter is to detach teachers from
their dependence on and deference to the policies and regulations of the
central governments education authorities, that is, MORA and MONE.
One possible way to make teachers more independent is by finding
other methods of recruiting them. This suggestion aims at reducing
teachers dependence on institutional cultures. Currently, teachers are
recruited through the pegawai negeri test. The content of this test is also
problematic because the areas tested are Indonesian civic education,
English as a foreign language and the Indonesian language. Although
these are important subjects, they cannot be used as the foundation to
judge the competence of candidates for teaching positions. The current
recruitment system does not guarantee teacher quality. The test does
not measure the content or pedagogical knowledge of potential teachers
but instead focuses on candidates understanding of four areas only:
maths, English, civic education and the Indonesian language. This
suggests that the test fails to recruit good teachers who have excellent
capability in content and pedagogical knowledge. In the construction
of a better teacher recruitment system, two components should be well
considered.
First, the recruitment process should be decentralised to give schools
the right and authority to recruit teachers who best meet their schools
needs and fit their expectations. At present, teachers are recruited by the
pegawai negeri institutions: the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA),
which recruits teachers for Islamic schools; and the Ministry of National
Education (MONE), which recruits teachers for general public schools.
This centralised recruitment is criticised for not being able to produce
teachers who suit particular school cultures and settings; the centralised
recruitment also forces teachers to submit themselves to disciplinary
regulations imposed by those pegawai negeri bodies (MORA and
MONE).
Second, the test and recruitment procedures should be reformed. The
test contents should range from civic educationif it is still considered
important in contemporary Indonesiato subject content and
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pedagogical skills. The former is knowledge of the subject matter the


teacher will teach and the latter is classroom pedagogical knowledge,
which is teaching skill. Good content knowledge and pedagogical ability
are the most important skills for successful teachers. During recruitment,
teacher candidates need to go through at least four phases: they must
provide schools with their curriculum vitae, teaching portfolio and
qualification documentation; there must be a series of interviews by the
senior teachers and the school principal; a test of content knowledge;
and a test of pedagogical knowledge through practicum tests where
candidates would be scheduled to teach for some minutes in front of
examiners who are senior and experienced teachers. These four phases
of recruitment would enable the school committee to judge prospective
teachers who might suit the school and to recruit teachers who would
understand and be responsible in their teaching obligations.
Such teacher recruitment system has two benefits: first, it enables a
particular school to recruit teachers who best meet their needs. Teachers
who are assigned to a school through centralised recruitment would
not necessarily work effectively in that particular school. Second, a
decentralised teacher recruitment system would detach teachers from
centralised pegawai negeri institutions and the disciplinary regulations
associated with them. Teachers employed through a decentralised
system of recruitment would be primarily responsible to the schools
that recruit them. Finally, the most significant benefit is that teachers
would not need to abide by disciplinary obligations and regulations that
do not directly link to their teaching professionalism.
Teaching Evaluation
In addition to reforming teachers recruitment system, evaluations
of Indonesian teachers classroom pedagogy should be properly and
regularly implemented so that teacher-centred classroom pedagogy can
be minimised and then abolished in Indonesian education systems. The
school should first set the standard of good teaching because attempts
to gain academic improvement should come from within the teaching
workforce itself (Ingvarson and Chadbourne, 1994). Evaluating teachers
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is important; it promotes better classroom practices (McLaughlin and


Pfeifer, 1988) and it holds teachers responsible for what they teach
and why they choose a particular teaching approach (Ingvarson and
Chadbourne, 1994).
There are at least two ways teachers can engage in teaching evaluation:
self-evaluation (Dewey, 1933; McNamara and OHara, 2009; Schn,
1983, 1987; Wehmeyer and Field, 2007); and mentoring (Cherian,
2007; McCaughtry et al., 2005; Morton, 2005; Walkington, 2005).
The first strategy is self-evaluation (McNamara and OHara, 2009)
or reflective thinking in Deweys (1933) and Schns (1983, 1987)
term, or self-determination to use Wehmeyer and Fields (2007) term.
Although these authors use different terms, the terms all connote a
similar function, which is to give teachers an autonomous space to look
into their own practices and provide feedback on their teaching. For
Indonesia, this would be a new way of evaluating teaching. Nevertheless,
such an evaluation system needs to gain acceptance in the education
community (McNamara and OHara, 2009) in Indonesia because of its
effectiveness. The basic tenet of self-evaluation is a persistent and a
careful consideration of previous teaching experience that enables new
teaching insights.
Mentoring is another way of helping teachers achieve their best classroom
pedagogy. Mentoring came to prominence in the late 1980s and early
1990s when education reformers believed that on-site assistance would
help new teachers adjust to their life in teaching (Cherian, 2007).
Mentoring is one-on-one assistance between new teachers and their
mentors, senior and successful teachers, which is characterised by a close
collaboration between the mentorial specialists and the new teachers.
Mentors can guide new teachers in their transition time in their new career
and can help them implement their curriculum successfully. Mentors
can also provide advice on classroom teaching, and give feedback on the
classroom practices of new teachers (McCaughtry et al., 2005).
Self-evaluation and mentoring should both find a place in Indonesian
schools. Self-evaluation through reflective teaching, for example,
can be implemented for Indonesian senior teachers because they are
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assumed to have obtained the ability to evaluate their own teaching,


although mentoring may be best utilised for novice teachers who have
less teaching experience (Walkington, 2005).
Assessment System Reform
Teachers are encouraged to use assessment systems that are congruent
with their learning goals. They need to provide feedback on students
work to allow their students to learn from mistakes. Bransford, Brown and
Cocking (1999) propose two kinds of assessment to be used in schools;
formative and summative. Formative assessment is administered in
the classroom and provides feedback to improve students learning;
an example might be teachers comments on their students work. A
good formative assessment is an important component of classroom
teaching; such an assessment will improve dialogue between students
and teachers, which in turn provides opportunities for students to
understand their progress (Carless, 2008). A formative assessment is
also important as a guide that leads students to succeed in summative
assessments that are administered at the end of a learning period. There
is no suggestion that summative assessment should be totally avoided.
Summative assessments may be used as the evaluation method to
understand learning achievement (Bransford et al., 1999; Carless, 2008).
However, such an assessment should be appropriately administered
to enable schools to determine student outcomes because summative
assessments are sometimes not well integrated with teaching and
learning (Carless, 2008, p. 11). This is the case in Indonesian education;
the summative examinations, especially the one administered at the end
of the school year, the national examination, is not integrated with the
process of learning; it is merely with a test of students memorisation
skills (Gardiner, 2005; Lie, 2004).
Understanding the nature of assessment is urgent as a source of
teachers empowerment. Assessments are indeed significant as a
guideline to understand learning outcomes (Looney, 2008), and a
good form of assessment according to Looney (2008) is a formative
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assessment. Therefore, to avoid rote learning, Indonesian teachers are


encouraged to use frequent self-made formative assessments, which do
not necessarily test students memorisation skill. Australian education
has implemented a series of teacher-made formative and summative
assessments because, through such assessments, teachers are better
able to understand their students progress. In spite of the importance of
evaluation as a foundation to understand students academic progress,
misplaced quality control will yield negative implications. In recent
times, Indonesian education has been attacked for its failure to design an
effective summative assessment; there has been much adverse criticism
of the national examination (ujian nasional), which is administered at
the end of secondary schooling (Gardiner, 2005; Lie 2004). Indeed, there
is merit in the criticisms of the ujian nasional because the examination
fails to appropriately define learning success.
Schools in the Australian state of Victoria do not administer a single
examination for a summative assessment; they implement a series
of assessments throughout the Victorian Certificate of Education
(VCE) school years, that is, Years 11 and 12 (grades 2 and 3 in the
Indonesian senior high school system). A summative assessment by
a single examination is only made in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 as a source
of quality control for the government on school quality. The series of
in-class and external assessments in the VCE give a better picture of
students intellectual ability. Indonesian teachers should understand that
learning is a process rather than a product; some students understand
a lesson more quickly, others need a longer time to gain in-depth
understanding. Therefore, judging students intellectual quality through
a single summative assessment does not generate a valid picture of
their intellectual capability. The series of assessments as implemented
in Victorian schools should find a place in Indonesian schools. Such
full assessments throughout the school years allow teachers to learn
students strengths and weaknesses and also enable students to know
their abilities and talents.

Personal communication from Rosemary Viete, the international student advisor at the
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia, in May 2009

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Reforming assessment systems; shifting from rigid summative


assessments to a series of formative assessments would help teachers
reformulate their classroom pedagogy. Indonesian teaching need no
longer be trapped into forcing students to memorise topics of lessons
and, best of all, such a reform would allow teachers to implement
creative classroom pedagogy.
Attributes of Successful Teachers: Insights for Indonesian
Teachers
In the previous section, I made three suggestions to end the long history
of teacher-centred and rote learning. These solutions, however, are
not quick-fix prescriptions; they are ideas for improvement that are
considered applicable to Indonesia. Now, in the following section of this
article, my concern is to provide insights on the attributes of successful
teachers. These attributes allow Indonesian teachers to understand those
important teachers qualities that lead to succeed in teaching.
Promoting a Learning Community
The article suggests that the first attribute of successful teachers is their
understanding of their students attitude to learning because having
knowledge of students learning and the factors that affect their learning
attitudes are necessary for effective teaching (Marjoribanks, 1991).
Teachers need to look closely at their students learning styles and explore
related factors that influence this: factors such as family background
and social status need to be taken into account (Marjoribanks, 1991)
because these affect the way students learn. Giddens (2001) suggests
that students social cultures influence their ways of interaction, and
also affect their subsequent experience at school. For example, Giddens
(2001) states students from poor families use a restricted [language]
code to express themselves compared with an elaborated code used
by students from affluent families. This is because parents from poor
families usually talk to their children in simple and direct language,
which influences the way their children express themselves. On the other
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hand, the parents from affluent families will give reasons when talking
to children about a particular thing. This elaborated code helps children
to develop rational skills, with which they are better able to meet the
demands of an academic setting (Giddens, 2001). Giddens example
suggests that social cultures have significant roles in shaping students
attitudes to learning. This indicates that understanding students ways
of learning is an important attribute of successful teachers.
Understanding students learning styles and the factors that influence
this enables teachers to develop the most appropriate ways of interacting
with their students in and out of the classroom. They would also be
more conscious of their students social circumstances. For example,
when students fail to achieve satisfactory academic results, teachers
will first explore factors affecting students learning attitude without
making unwarranted assumptions. In addition to understanding the
nature of learning and what influences it, the teacher should also
possess sociological and psychological knowledge. Having such
knowledge, teachers would be better able assess and treat their students
(Marjoribanks, 1991)
Understanding how students learn is a prerequisite for successful
and effective teaching (Marjoribanks, 1991); such understanding
allows teachers to teach more effectively. There is a consensus that
most Indonesian teachers are uni-disciplinary; they are not prepared
with a knowledge of sociology, psychology and communication that
would help them shape classroom practices (Buchori, 2001). Acquiring
multidisciplinary knowledge is necessary because it allows someone to
be a better teacher, a better facilitator and a better educator. Instilling
these supporting disciplines should be done through teacher training
colleges or through in-service training (Buchori, 2001).
Effective teachers also need to be conscientious about their students
sociological and psychological maturity; successful teachers act as
teachers and as educators. As educators, Indonesian teachers may need
to transform their perception about the nature of school education.
Schools do not function merely as places to instil knowledge; they
are moral agents where students morality and emotional capacity is
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shaped and moulded (Buchori, 2001). Moulding students morality


and emotional maturity can only be achieved through the passion and
the commitment of educators. Therefore, as a place to mould students
emotional maturity, Indonesian schools should be transformed into
learning communities, or community centre to use Bransford, Brown
and Cockings (1999) term; a place where learning, instruction and
cooperation take place.
Bransford et al. (1999) and Donovan and Bransford (2005) assert that
effective teachers should transform their schools to be community
centred. This kind of environment allows teachers to practise their
skills differently. In community-centred schools, teachers and students
interact cooperatively as do people living in the community. To make
this possible in the Indonesian setting, Indonesian schools, for example,
might design a monthly program such as school camps where lateral
interaction between teachers and students can be possible. During the
school camp, teachers have opportunities to have in-depth exploration
of their students characteristics and social backgrounds.
One other attribute of successful teachers is that they are oriented to
democratic teaching. Democratic teaching regards students mistake as
normal in the instructional process. For example, punishing students for
an inability to solve a maths problem or for their inability to do homework
will discourage students, and hamper their academic improvement.
The basic tenet of a democratic classroom according to Wolk (1998) is
respecting students because only then can meaningful learning occur. A
democratic environment in the classroom will allow teachers to better
understand their students capabilities from any mistakes they might
make. In democratic classrooms, collaborative learning is encouraged
and student competition is discouraged; competition between students
will in fact impede their learning (Wolk, 1998). Watkins, Carnell and
Lodge (2007) assert that in collaborative learning, students adjust their
behaviour to achieve shared goals. For example, students work in groups
to solve a particular problem in their lesson. Therefore, autocratic and
unhealthy classroom cultures should be transformed into healthy and
democratic learning environments.
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Pedagogical Knowledge
This article also assumes that successful teachers are qualified in
pedagogical knowledge and in effective teaching methods. To teach
effectively and successfully, teachers need sufficient pedagogical
knowledge. This means that teachers should be able to build an
effective learning environment which nurtures students intelligence
(Bransford et al, 1999; Donovan and Bransford, 2005). According to
Bransford et al. (1999), one way to improve teaching is to shift from
teacher-centred instruction to learner-centred. The latter recognises
and appreciates students presence in the classroom. In learner-centred
teaching environments, students come to recognise their own potential
talents (Watkins et al. (2007). Teachers adopting a learner-centred
teaching style not only understand their subject matter but also position
themselves as learners so they can be more understanding of students
social background (McCombs, 2007). The most important of all is that,
according to Shor (1992), learner-centred classes allow democratic
dialogue. Such dialogue is significant in the attempt to create a healthy
learning environment because it gives students the space to voice
their understanding or point of view on issues. Shared authority in
the classroom will allow critical dialogue to emerge. In spite of the
importance of dialogue in the classroom, Shor (1999) acknowledges
that most teachers will resist such an idea.
In addition to learner-centred instruction, Bransford et al. (1999) and
Donovan and Bransford (2005) argue that successful teachers should
transform their school into a knowledge-centred environment. In their
classroom pedagogy, effective teachers connect their understanding of
students with the new information they are about to teach. In this case,
students expression of opinion is encouraged (Fraser, 2005). Fraser
(2005) also suggests that effective teachers teach subjects in depth,
covering fewer topics in one session or class rather than teaching wider
topics superficially. Indonesian teachers should be informed regarding
this effective teaching style because they still expect students to study
a great many subjects extensively. In addition, to succeed in teaching,
teachers need to understand pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). PCK
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is an in-depth understanding of the content knowledge of the subject


and the methods of teaching that content knowledge, as distinct from
pedagogical knowledge discussed earlier. The notion of PCK is rooted in
the belief that teaching is more than transferring the content knowledge
to students (Loughran, Berry and Mulhall, 2006). The basic tenet of
PCK is that teachers develop their knowledge of subjects over time and
also learn how to pass on this knowledge effectively. The combination
of teachers understanding of content knowledge and pedagogical
knowledge will allow professional learning to occur (Loughran et
al., 2006). Developing PCK is expected to be able to help resolve the
problem of Indonesian teachers classroom pedagogy. In the attempt to
transform Indonesian teachers in accordance with the mandate of PCK,
teacher training should aim at teachers content knowledge and at their
pedagogical knowledge. The prajabatan training, therefore, should
play this role instead of being used to merely instil civic education as it
is currently practised.
Discussion
Making Sense of the Proposed Solutions
In this section, I attempt to link the two factors that cause teacher-centred
and rote-learning to continue in Indonesian schools to the solutions
provided. Systems played out within the civil service institutions and the
school cultures are assumed to contribute to teacher-centred traditions.
Teachers are subject to the civil service disciplinary regulations (Bjork,
2005; Gardiner, 2000) because they are recruited and governed on the
authority of the central government (Gardiner, 2000). In response to
this fact, Shor (1992) suggests that the way schools are governed is
political; the design of curriculum is not negotiated with teachers; and
school practices are mandated by the school authority, which leaves
little space for teachers to be creative in their teaching. This statement
is very true in the Indonesian education context. Bjork (2005) illustrates
how Indonesian teachers are influenced by various elements; there is
the influence of the state, of parents, of the students and the teachers
are also governed by their own values on education (Bjork, 2005,
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p. 162). For those reasons, it is imperative that teachers should be


detached from the civil service system. If this is done then reform of
teacher recruitment will follow. Decentralising teacher recruitment is
assumed important in the attempt to recruit professional teachers. In
making decentralisation of teacher recruitment possible, the Ministry
of Religious Affairs and the Ministry of National Education should be
willing to share power with local school committees. In fact, the two
ministries should cooperate to help the schools running the tests by
supplying facilities and staff that can help schools administer the test.
In this case, candidates for teaching positions would be expected to
apply directly to the school they wish to teach at. The school board or
committee would then select the candidates after carefully considering
their formal and other qualifications and then arrange for a written
examination and a practicum test. If this procedure is employed, schools
will be better able to select from the best possible candidates and have
more control over their teachers classroom practices.
Having been given authority to recruit teachers, schools would have
greater autonomy to design recruitment tests, the procedure for the
tests and the areas to be tested. To teach successfully, teachers need
to acquire necessary teaching skills or pedagogical knowledge. In
addition, teacher candidates should also acquire in-depth knowledge
of the subject matter or the content of the subject. The areas of testing
should be in the specific areas to which teacher candidates apply. For
example, in recruiting English teachers, schools should employ tests
that evaluate knowledge of the English language (content knowledge)
and teaching skills (pedagogical knowledge). In evaluating content
knowledge, the school could design various examinations that test all
the skills necessary for teaching English; and to gauge a candidates
teaching skills, the school could use practicum as a means of evaluation
(Belliveau, 2007). The pegawai negeri institutions (the Ministry of
National Education and the Ministry of Religious Affairs), which assess
subject knowledge, have failed to recruit properly qualified teachers
because their testing neglects the prerequisites for a good teacher, that
is, pedagogical ability. Because basic pedagogical ability of teachers is
neglected in their recruitment, most Indonesian teachers lack teaching
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competence, which results in poor student academic achievement.


The other test that is also considered important is testing of emotional
maturity by which teacher candidates emotional quotient can be
identified. This suggestion might be inapplicable in the Indonesian
setting unless the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Ministry of National
Education delegate authority to their provincial branches. Decentralising
authority is not common in Indonesia though there have been efforts to
do so (Bjork, 2005).
Decentralising teacher recruitment is difficult but not impossible.
Christopher Bjork during his research observes that the central
government is not very committed to decentralisation. Bjork (2005, p.
171) contends if the government is indeed committed to decentralisation,
it is imperative that more attention is paid to the implications for local
agencies and actors. This quote suggests some of the difficulties of
decentralisation of teachers recruitment. In another instance, Bjork
(2005, p. 172) asserts the MOEC is now asking them [Indonesian
teachers] to act autonomouslyto shape policy and practice at schools,
and Indonesian teachers may voice their support for decentralising
control of the curriculum and claim to have modified their practice
but their actions rarely match their word (Bjork, 2005, p. 173174).
The last two quotes clarify that what makes decentralisation of
teachers recruitment difficult is, on the one hand, that the government
is not very committed to transferring authority to local schools and
education practitioners (Gardiner, 2000); and, on the other, that local
schools and teachers themselves lack the capability to accommodate to
decentralisation. This effort, however, is not impossible as long as the
central government is committed to decentralisation and provides full
support during the transition period. The key point to the success of
decentralisation of teacher recruitment is the governments discretion
to commit and support the decentralisation process.
This article also provides two other ways of evaluating teachers: selfevaluation and mentoring. The notion of self-evaluation has yet to a place
 Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) now replaced to Ministry of National Education
(MONE)

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in the Indonesian school setting. In self-evaluation, teachers rely on their


own commitment to evaluate their teaching to enable them improve their
classroom pedagogy. One popular strategy that Indonesian teachers can
engage in self-evaluation is through reflective teaching. Engaging in
reflective teaching enables teachers to think and learn about their own
teaching and then allows them to make a decision on how to improve
their teaching (Kreber and Cranto, 2000; Rogers, 2001). Teachers may
engage in reflective teaching through various methods: video recording,
collaborative teaching, and journaling (York-Barr, Sommers, Ghere and
Montie, 2006). All three methods of reflective teaching have strengths
and weaknesses. The advantage of the video recording is that it enables
teachers to watch their own teaching. By watching their teaching style
in video cassettes, teachers will be better able to examine and provide
feedbacks about their teaching. However, the drawback of this method
is apparent in the Indonesian school settings. Reflection through video
recording requires a fully equipped teaching laboratory; such facilities
are absent from most Indonesian schools.
The second method of reflection is collaborative teaching. This is a
very effective way to reflect on teaching; collaborating in examining
ones teaching will yield better results than individual reflection (YorkBarr et al., 2006) This method is promising in the Indonesian context
because it is not very costly and it can be realised through careful
selection of colleagues who are willing to collaborate in their teaching.
However, this method also has a weakness; most Indonesian teachers
feel reluctant to criticise their colleagues and are not very comfortable
accepting criticism from them. If this is so, improving teaching through
collaborative learning will not give an effective result because the basic
tenet of collaborative teaching is in sincere and constructive criticism of
colleagues teaching (Dewey, 1933).
Writing journal, the third method, makes invisible thoughts visible

The benefits of video recording as a method of reflective teaching have been proven during
my practicum program at Ohio University. In the practicum, I was obliged to video-tape my
own teaching and reflect on it. By watching my own teaching, I could identify my teaching
styles and reflect on their strengths and weaknesses. My reflection through video recording
allows me to understand my own teaching and make some improvement.

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(York-Barr et al., 2006, p. 87) because it helps teachers to criticise,


praise and evaluate their teaching individually in a written form. In
addition, such a technique seems to be applicable in Indonesian settings.
By using a journal, teachers can write about any issues concerning their
own teaching. The strength of this method is in its confidentiality; it
remains personalonly the owners of the journal have access to what
has been written. However, writing a journal has yet to become a custom
in Indonesian school teaching; teachers are not very keen to do this.
Writing a journal takes much time and it needs a great effort to produce
even a single journal. In spite of weaknesses of these three introspective
methods, they are worth trying to help improve teachers classroom
pedagogy. To encourage reflective teaching, Indonesian schools should
provide space, opportunities and encouragements to enable this.
The second method of teacher evaluation is through mentoring.
Indonesian schools should consider implementing a mentorial system,
and make it a part of the school system. Improving teachers classroom
pedagogy through mentoring is popular because it has been implemented
elsewhere in the schooling system. School principals, superintendents
and successful, experienced teachers play major roles in making
mentoring possible in Indonesian schools. Successful principals are
those who are concerned with their staffs development, in which they
engage in intellectual stimulation, and in modelling important values
and practices (Raihani, 2008). With mentoring, for example, senior
teachers are appointed to mentor their juniors (McCaughtry et al.,
2005). Mentoring is important in the educational settings because it
allows junior teachers to learn from their senior colleagues. However,
in Indonesia, junior teachers might well have obtained a higher degree
than that of the senior teachers; this difference of degree status can
cause resistance to the mentors from those who are mentored.
Although some issues may arise in the implementation of self-evaluation

The findings of my research conducted at Ohio University in 200506 indicate that inservice teachers find journaling beneficial to improve their teaching. Even though they
realize that writing journal is difficult in their hectic schedule, being committed to writing
a journal about ones teaching will generate greater benefits that may boost their teaching
confidence.

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and mentorial systems, these teacher evaluation systems should have a


place in Indonesian schools.
Self-evaluation should be instilled through a series of pre- and inservice teacher training. The mentorial program may be applicable
through careful management from the schools and also the Ministry
of Education. In this case, the MONE and MORA may assign senior
and experienced teachers from other schools to a particular school. By
so doing, the assigned mentors will gain respect from those who are
receiving help and advice. The other solution is that the experienced and
respected teachers in a particular school should be assigned as specialist
mentors. This strategy is expected to eliminate resistance that may arise
when a mentorial program is run.
The third proposed solution is to reform the assessment system. Tan
and Towndrow (2009) contend that there is agreement on the link
between assessment and learning achievement. Assessment is indeed a
powerful way to understand students learning achievement. However,
discrepancies occur when discussing the best types of assessment to
administer. This article suggests that there are criticisms of the current
Indonesian system of academic assessment (Daud, 2009; Khalifa,
2009; Soaloon, 2009) and that a series of formative assessments be
used as system of measurement instead of summative assessment. The
formative assessment is significant because it is frequently used to
assess learner understanding and academic progress and can be used
as a foundation to identify needs and shape teaching (Looney, 2008).
Such an assessment is also known as assessment for learning, distinct
from assessment of learning, which refers to the summative assessment
(Looney, 2008, p. 22). This indicates that implementing formative
assessment yields two benefits: it improves teachers awareness of
effective classroom pedagogy; and it also provides insights to students
academic achievement.
In spite of this wonderful system of assessment (the formative
assessment), reforming the system of school assessment is complex and
challenging, but it is not impossible if the central government intends to
review methods of assessment constantly and is committed to listening
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to criticisms of the current system. Simply to say, to solve the problem,


that the central government should only administer centralised national
assessment in the Year 11 (grade 2 of SMU in the Indonesian system).
This centralised national examination cannot be used as an indicator of
students academic achievement; in fact, this examination becomes the
barometer and guideline for the government to measure school quality.
This national assessment should have two purposes: to assess the school
and also to assess students academic progress. In the upper grade, Year
12 (grade 3), schools are authorised to administer a series of in-class
formative assessments to identify students progress. If the summative
assessment, such as the national examination (ujian nasional) can be
altered and shifted, rote learning can be abolished in Indonesian schools.
This reform, however, can be made only through central government
commitment and the positive response of the local school committees.
Empowering Indonesian Teachers
The article suggests some emergent attributes of effective teachers: first,
effective teachers need to promote a learning community; and second,
successful teachers must acquire pedagogical and content knowledge.
In the attempt to promote a learning community, the article suggests
that effective teachers understand the nature of learning, how students
learn and the factors influencing their learning. Successful teachers also
acquire multi-disciplinary knowledge that helps them understand their
students better; and they employ democratic instruction practices. The
two effective classroom pedagogies are teacher-centred and knowledge
centred. These proposed solutions are indeed promising. However,
whether these solutions are applicable and can be easily implemented
in Indonesian schools needs further analysis. One way to make this
solution applicable in Indonesian schools is by preparing teachers with
multi-disciplinary skills during their pre-service training as student
teachers. For example, faculties of education should offer subjects on
the nature of learning, educational psychology, educational sociology
and communication skills. These subjects actually have been offered in
the curricula of teacher colleges; however, they are not integrated with
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teachers classroom pedagogy. Student teachers are not informed about


how to integrate such subjects with their classroom practices upon
entering a real teaching career. As a result, student teachers only sit
these subjects for the sake of getting a passing score. Because instilling
multi-disciplinary skills into the curriculum of a faculty of education is
considered insufficient, the other strategy that might be considered is
through in-service teacher training. During in-service teacher training,
the school and the government body should make an attempt to prepare
teachers with multi-disciplinary skills.
Closing Remarks
This article has considered problems of Indonesian education in general
and in particular problems associated with Indonesian teachers. The
article identifies that Indonesian teachers are employing teacher-centred
teaching approach and rote learning as the instructional method. The
long history of teacher-centred and rote learning in Indonesian schools
is because of the influence of institutional cultures and the assessment
system employed in the education system. To minimise the use of
teacher-centred and rote learning, the article suggests that educational
policymakers in Indonesia alter the recruitment system; reformulate
teaching evaluation; and reform assessment systems. These three
solutions are expected to be able to improve teachers instructional
methods, in which the use of teacher-centred approach and rote
learning system can be minimised. This article also provides attributes
of successful teachers in a special section of discussion. The section
aims at giving insights to Indonesian teachers, policymakers and school
practitioners on characteristics of successful teachers.
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id.acehinstitute.org

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Personal Communication
Rosemary Viete (international student advisor) at the Faculty of Education, Monash
University, April 2009

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