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ELECTRONS
OE
BY
F.R.S.
LONDON
GEORGE BELL AND SONS
1906
Q-CW
L7
TO THE
C>2827
IS
PKEFACE
1902
IN
was asked
ledge
of the
cerning
its
the
the
title
University
Press.
gation
associated
generally
the name
side with
on
the
experimental
lacking
of
PREFACE
viii
acter,
speedily closed.
I
am
some recent
about
theoretical
work,
I have also
substance of Appendix
the
of
Owen,
Gwilym
University of Liverpool, for
assistance in the revision of the proof.
As
"an introduction to
an
book
called
is
of Professor
known.
without
of
'
'
ionisation
overloading the
knowledge
of
which
The
is
it
was
difficult
principles with
nevertheless
to do
so
detail,
necessary
for
treatise of Prof. J. J.
Thomson,
The Discharge of Electricity through Gases, contains a mass of information and original work
investigators.
throughout for
students of general physics, and in places for specialists, but most of it may be taken as an exposition of
all
educated men.
OLIVER LODGE.
THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM,
July, 1906.
CONTENTS
I.
-----
Transmission of Energy,
Accelerated Charge,
II.
ELECTRIC INERTIA,
Mass
Effect of Concentration,
,,-.,-
III.
12
15
16
--17
19
24
IV.
11
continued,
Summary,
Historical Remarks,
7
-
Electrical Inertia or
by Conduction in Gases,
Cathode Bays,
Nature of the Cathode Rays,
V.
24
--26
30
41
47
50
52
Direct
Rays,
Determination
of
the Speed
and
Electric
-
''.
,
of
Cathode
54
CONTENTS
x
CHAP.
VI.
PACK
Positive
VII.
and Negative
66
Carriers,
lONISATION OF GASES,
70
Measurements
of lonisation Current,
Condensation of Moisture Experiments,
VIII.
75
-----
79
84
IX.
86
....
--.-
77
81
-
87
90
IONS,
Confirmatory Measurements
Thomson's Deductions,
Estimate of
Size,
Penetrability of Matter
Effects of
X.
71
73
Result,
58
9t
of Charge,
94
-
95
100
97
by Electrons,
an Encounter,
..
-v
105
106
Radiation,
109
XL FURTHER
116
CONTENTS
xi
PAGE
CHAP.
XII.
INCREASE
OF
of
the
Purely
Inertia of the
XIV.
/?
...
.;.-*'
MOTION,
XIII.
INERTIA
THEORY OF
INERTIA,
Nature
Electrical
122
129
the
of
131
by Radium,
...
RAYS,
XVI.
XVIII.
136
138
146
152
(continued),
Nature of Cohesion,
On Chemical and Molecular Forces,
Molecular Forces, Cohesion,
XVII.
W. Kaufmann,
XV.
152
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM, -
153
155
THE
FURTHER
160
Radio-activity,
Solar Corona, Magnetic Storms,
.
Transformations of Radium,
Emanations,
of
'
168
169
">
171
163
171
174
-176
174
Radium,
Electric Production,
of
Ordinary Materials,
Radio-activity
'
Population Analogy,
163
'
*
Deflexion of Alpha-rays,
all
at
Temperatures,
Activity of Radium
Spectrum
"
and Aurorse,
etc.,
177
-180
CONTENTS
xii
CHAP.
XIX.
PAQE
XX.
185
-
VALIDITY
OF
OLD
PHENOMENA,
Number of Ions in
VIEWS
OF
185
186
181
183
Cosmic Analogy,
Another Account of Atomic Instability,
Electric Theory of Matter,
1.
XXI.
an Atom,
188
188
192
ELECTRICAL
195
Conductors,
198
200
Conclusion,
APPENDICES
A.
204
B.
THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A MOVING MAGNET, ON ELECTRICITY AND GRAVITATION AND DIMENSIONS,
207
209
C.
D.
E.
-.-
G.
H.
F.
-211
212
-
213
214
217
219
J.
L.
ETHER,
M. CONSTITUTION OF ELECTRONS,
221
226
227
UNIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
IN Maxwell's Electricity published in 1873, section
57, the following sentence occurs in connection with
the discharge of electricity through gases, especially
These and
many
other
phenomena of
elec-
trical
when they
medium pervading
space."
and
next, com-
liquids, first,
The net
new
INTRODUCTION
xiv
to enhance the
statics.
"
;
and
it
was becoming
waste their students' time on decoration and superfluities, almost to ignore, or at any rate to scamper
through, the domain of electrostatics, and to begin
the study of electricity with the phenomena of
connection between
and
electricity
magnetism.
And certainly from the severely practical point
of view, as well as from many other aspects, this
part of electrical science remains the most important
but to him who would not only design
dynamos and large-scale machinery, to him who, in
addition to the training and aptitude of the
current,
especially
with
the
meaning
of
all
life
is
so
INTRODUCTION
xv
'
'
electric
indirectly involved
are
now beginning
those
;
known
and we are
have some
hope of obtaining
riddles
such as those conto
answers
unexpected
cerning the fundamental properties of matter which
to
all
occupa-
pursuit
ment,
of
and
philosophical
pure
leisured group I
now
address myself.
= the
atom of negative
=the amount of
about
tive;
this charge,
3xlO~ 10
electricity.
electrostatic unit.
=an
m
a
hundred-thousandth of
b
=the
linear dimension of
the
b).
millionth of a millimetre).
ion
= an atom
= Faraday's
= the
product
v
=the
= the
is
known.]
velocity of a particle.
CHAPTER
I.
we must
I must lay a basis of pure theory
consider the properties of the ancient and long known
FIRST
phenomenon
Two
'
L.E.
represent
that
is
[CH.
I.
and repulsions.
The field of force mapped by the lines can exist
in vacuo perfectly well, but the lines never terminate
in vacuo
or
any moderate
however,
it
purposes, at infinity.
application.
People often feel hesitation about the treatment of
things as at infinity, as if it introduced a conception
of some difficulty but they should realise that this
mode of expression is always employed as a simplification, whenever it happens that for present purposes
the said things can be ignored.
If their existence
it
must
be
attention,
requires
recognised that they
are really at some finite distance, and their location
all practical
remark of general
must be
specified
CHARGE
CH. L]
IN
MOTION
Whenever attention to
location
or
their
immaterial, this
unnecessary,
is avoided by treating them practically
specification
as if they were at infinity, that is by ignoring them.
Every now and then this policy of ignoration must
both ideas and equations.
them
is
it
serves.
what
words
*
it
is
called
'
it is
possibly susceptible is
character in other
'
irrotational
behaves as a perfect
fluid.
and
It
may
possess
[CH.
I.
if so, it is
to the
move
lines of force
CHARGE
CH.L]
MOTION
IN
away and everything to settle down into static conthe phenomena of magnetism make
dition again,
a new set of lines of force quite
their appearance
different from the electrostatic lines (although they,
:
is
that
is
a
H = eu
sin
r
TT
we
6.
weak or
[CH.
I.
Feeble
trajectory is decidedly feeble.
there, and to its existence we must trace
all the magnetic phenomena of the electric current.
rounding
or not,
its
it is
field in
positive assertion.
Transmission of Energy.
CH.
ACCELERATED CHARGE
i.]
by
direction
a quantity
V(EH),
where
is
or
two
fields in
commonly
or as
[EH],
magnitude and
expressed as
EH sin 0,
and H.
The
'
reversed, the
and
its
of energy
amount remains
is
Another way of
steady.
the
is
to
that
the
facts
space in which
say
expressing
two fields are superposed is full of momentum and
is
Accelerated Charge.
What
begun
is
to
[CH.L-
curvature of path ?
Something more* than simple
electrostatics and simple magnetism is then observed.
For whenever a conductor is moved across a
magnetic field it is well known that an electromotive
force acts in that conductor, of magnitude equal to
the rate at which magnetic lines of force are being
cut or in symbols
dN/dt,
.
E=
'
'
This
the fundamental dynamo equation.
called the phenomenon of magneto-electric inis
is
it
the induced E.M.F. discovered by
duction
and
it
Faraday,
necessarily occurs whenever magneand
relative
motion are superposed.
tism
It is quite independent of the conductivity of
the conductor however, and would have the same
value if the motion took place in an insulator,
though of course it could not then produce the
same effect as regards conduction-currents.
The effect of a conductor is to integrate, or add
up, the E.M.F.'S generated in each element all along
its length, and thus to display the effect in an
obvious manner
especially when the conductor is
which
is
in
an
force
CH.
ACCELERATED CHARGE
i.]
no conductor,
no current, but it
which was not there
be in a new direc-
acquainted.
from an
It is
acceleration
10
[CH.
i.
is the speed of
light and u is the acceleration
of the charge e.
After this manner, though of course by means of
a very extensive development of these fundamental
ideas, are all the phenomena of electricity and magnetism and optics summarised, and, so to speak,
where v
accounted
for.
NOTE.
Let
it
two
etherial
all,
constants,
p and
and
easy.
essentially
For
what
is
it
FL
and
CHAPTER
II.
ELECTEIC INERTIA.
a charge may be, and whatever the
of the ether, it must be able
constitution
physical
maintain electric lines and magnetic lines
to
separately, and to transmit energy wherever both
sets of lines coexist and cross each other.
An accelerated charge is equivalent to a changing
WHATEVER
matter
is
coefficient
opposed by
of
the
mechanical
its
electric
The
commonly
inertia.
acceleration
present case the cause' is the acceleration or retardaand so, in each case, this
tion of the moving charge
;
ELECTRIC INERTIA
12
is
generated by it.
Motion is opposed while
and it is assisted while it
an
[CH. n.
effect precisely
increasing in speed,
decreasing in speed
it is
is
inertia
must
lines
and therefore
of a charged
reason of its
the body may
it has a trifle
body.
An
is,
by
Whatever ordinary
inertia
charge.
have, considered as a piece of matter,
more by reason of its being charged
calculated
by
J. J.
3a
Electrical Inertia or Mass, continued.
of energy
for
if
it
assisted
the
CH.
ELECTRIC INERTIA
II.]
13
the action
that
is
react back
such a
to
to oppose it
oppose it
not
actively
elastically,
passively or sluggishly
as by friction.
The reaction ceases the instant the
motion becomes steady
it
is not
analogous to
friction therefore, but to inertia
it is the coefficient of an acceleration term.
in
way
as
or
may
of a
ELECTRIC INERTIA
14
[CH. n.
to the electrostatic
dialectric constant)
where v
of chap,
is
inertia
is
i.)
real
~mv = -e
KCI
charge x potential
= potential
energy.
Now
CH.
ELECTRIC INERTIA
ii.]
15
Effect of Concentration.
The only way of conferring upon a given electric
charge any appreciable mass, is to make its potential
exceedingly high, that is to concentrate it on a
trostatic
10^
39xl0
20
27
X 10
~ 13
gramme= 10
~8
milligramme.
still
ELECTRIC INERTIA
16
[CH, n.
into
Summary.
All this is a preliminary statement of undeniable
that is to say of fact which follows from the
received
and established theory of Electricity,
whether such things as electrons have ever been
found to exist or not.
All that we have stated is true of an ordinary
fact
made
to
for
later
Apply
application
a sufficiently violent E.M.F.
:
to a charged
and again
it is
HISTORICAL REMARKS
CH.II.]
17
excessive.
oscillation,
moved during
is
its
retardation.
When
and
less energetic
the acceleration
is less
because
it
is
energetic
its
power
less intense
ethereal shell.
The
pulse- shell is strong and thin (see chap. viii.).
thinner the pulses or wave shells the more penetrating
If thin enough they could traverse matter
they are.
without affecting it or being affected by it.
Historical Remarks.
Professor J.
J.
Thomson
in
an epoch-making paper
Magazine
for April,
1881
one of the most remarkable physical memoirs
of our time.
The stimulus
18
ELECTRIC INERTIA
[CH. n.
CHAPTEK
III.
far
we have
electricity
in'
general.
It is
now time
to begin to
"
electricity."
"It
come
we
is
we
20
[CH. in.
seems hostile
The theory of
atom
in electrolysis,
whatever
else it
is,
is
a natural
Electricity (1889.
1885, p. 763):
"
"
its
OF ELECTRICITY
CH.IIL]
atom,
"
was
lysis
is
Johnstons
Stoney
an
electron
What
by Dr.
called
"
21
It matters
substance with which it is associated.
is chosen, whether 100
much
substance
how
nothing
atoms or one, whether an atom or a gramme or a ton,
the amount of electricity associated with it in
electrolysis, and liberated when the substance is
the
decomposed, increases in the same proportion
ratio is constant for each material, and if determined
;
for
silver is
4*025 grammes
'
ampere-hour
22
the electrochemical
of hydrogen,
equivalent
Y^-gth of this quantity, is
4*025 grammes
108 ampere-hours
= '0001035
Hence the
is
being
4*025
108 x 360
c.g.s.
ratio of an
of hydrogen
HL
[CH.
Q gg nn
atom of
'
'
an atom
the
unknown
grammes/
constant M necessarily
its
making
Appendix D).
The numerical part of
*The decimal places are correctly printed above though the fact
that 1 coulomb, or 1 ampere-second, is one-tenth of a c.g.s. unit owing
to the ohm and volt having been inadvertently defined, one as 10 9 and
the other as 10 8 c.g.s., instead of both the same always stands ready to
introduce confusion and error.
;
OF ELECTRICITY
CH. in.]
23
ratio
to e,
a
considerable
plays
part in
The absolute values are of less
what follows.
consequence to us than the ratio, and are only known
approximately, but the ratio is known with fair
for hydrogen is very
accuracy and the ratio e
4
or
more
10
exactly 9,660.
nearly
magnetic units,
Thus what we learn from electrolytic conduction,
briefly summarised, is that every atom carries a
certain definite charge or electric unit, monads
carrying one, diads two, triads three, but never a
fraction
that in liquids these charges are definitely
associated with the atoms, and can only be torn away
from them at the electrodes
that the current
consists of a procession of such charges travelling
with the atoms, the atoms carrying the charges, or
the charges dragging the atoms, according to the
point of view from which we please to regard the
I
or e to ra, because
it
process.
CHAPTEE
IV.
WE
now
by
will
ratified gases,
ceases.
CH.IV.]
VACUUM TUBE
25
is
coming
space
Crookes'.
26
[CH. IV.
Cathode Rays.
So far we have supposed that the cathode is a
brass knob or other convenient terminal introduced
but if we now proceed to use other
into the tube
did first in 1859, followed by
Plucker
as
shapes,
;
ever
it is, it is
CATHODE RAYS
CH. iv.]
27
A
;
signs
light.
is
the
produced,
though
phosphorescent
light
is
28
[CH. iv.
still,
diaphragm.
LENARD RAYS
CH. IV.]
29
He
able to stand the atmospheric pressure outside.
then directed the cathode ray bombardment on to this
window or aluminium film, and showed that the rays
can penetrate it and actually come outside into the
ordinary atmosphere, where they are called Lenard
rays, in honour of this indefatigable investigator, a
friend and disciple of Hertz.
(See Fig. 1.)
FlG. 1. Lenard tube for the production of Lenard rays, which were
discovered before Rontgen rays. C is a cathode in high vacuum ; the
is a metal cylinder behind it ; the whole is screened in metal,
anode
covered with exand the cathode rays impinge on a minute hole
ceedingly thin aluminium foil, through which it would seem the rays
directions
from
in
all
the aluminium
emerge into the air, radiating
window as Lenard rays L, where they are rapidly diffused and absorbed.
30
[CH. iv.
an opaque
is
radiation
Nature of
the
Cathode Rays.
We
The biographical
is
BY CATHODE RAYS
CH. iv.]
31
particles
In
momentum.
their acquired
32
[CH. iv.
which confers
is
their
motion
not to be considered
to temperature
how
BY CATHODE RAYS
CH. iv.j
33
fact of
their
bombardment
like
FIG. 2.
Simplest form of Perrin's apparatus for proving that cathode
rays carry a negative charge. The rays from a pass through an earthed
screen b into a hollow or Faraday vessel c.
with
owing to
its
smallness,
when
a current
34
[CH. iv.
an effect discovered by E. H.
Hall in America, and known as the Hall effect.
The fact that the particles are thrown off the
One
by
vessel
BY CATHODE RAYS
CH. iv.]
35
current.
to be,
electric influence.
condition is called
down the air by
found
to
"
for
time
* J.
S.
Townsend
working in the
36
[CH. iv.
And the
readily occur through direct encounters.
time that thus elapsed before the whole of the
conductivity disappeared from dust-free air suggested
that the moving particles must be very small, so that
intimate collisions were comparatively infrequent.
The mobility or diffusiveness of the molecules
of a gas depends on their mean free path, and
that depends on their atomic size
the smaller
they are, the more readily can they escape
collision.
Hence it is that collisions are so rare in
astronomy the bodies are small compared with the
The behaviour of charged parspaces between them.
ticles seemed to indicate that they must in some
cases be something smaller than atoms
it seemed
hardly likely that material atoms could behave in
the way they did.
It was recollected that it had
occurred to some philosophers, among them Dr.
Johnstone Stoney, that electric charges really existed
on an atom in concentrated form, not diffused all
over its surface but concentrated at one or more
points,
perhaps acting as satellites to the main
bulk of the atom
so on that view it was j ust
that
these
possible
flying particles might be not
atoms
at
but charges without the atoms,
all,
charged
the concentrated charges detached knocked off as
it were in the violence of the discharge, and after;
wards
going
about
naturally travel at an
would
still
free.
be exposed to the
that
CH. iv.]
BY CATHODE RAYS
37
Whereas by
hypothetical, isolated electric charge.
the term "ion" I always signify the atom and its
The ions consist of Faraday's anions
charge together.
and cations. Lord Kelvin prefers the term electrion
to electron.
charged),
'
'
38
[CH. iv.
having inertia
electric repulsion
they
CH.
BY CATHODE RAYS
iv.]
39
'
for concentrating an electron bombardment along the direct route, without any back door
The provision
or side entrance for the positive ions.
arrangement
is
thereby locally
may conveniently
deter-
Ixvii., p.
xlvii., p. 557,
40
prodigious
speed,
but
it
desirable
is
to
[CH. iv.
make
in
is
else.
CHAPTER
V.
the
cathode
particles they
rays
will
of flying
consist
electrified
magnetic
field of
known
The curvature
by
spirality
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
42
more or
[CH. v.
field
mu- =
2
jmeun.,
u= uKr
whence
as usual, or
(/u.
a better
CH. V.]
OF CATHODE RAYS
43
cidences
is
retard
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
44
[CH. v,
J. J.
He
aggregate energy.
Thus he could
determinations
make the
following
simultaneous
mu
In these three equations there are four unknown
but one pair can be treated as a ratio,
quantities
and another, N, can be eliminated, and thus we get
;
2W
When
made
rays
rendered highly improbable
for their speed was
found to be of the order ten thousand miles per
that of light in a
second, or even as high as
;
UNIVERSITY
OP ^THbDE RAYS
B?8
<JH. v.]
45
9
favourable case, being always of the order 10 c.g.s.,
while the electrochemical equivalent was of the order
7
10~ c.g.s., or about T ^Vo that f hydrogen.
Changing the kind of residual gas in the tube, and
changing the electrodes, made no difference to this
The cathode rays were evidently indelast value.
an
pendent of the nature of the matter present
were
If
matter
fact.
at
momentous
they
exceedingly
all, they appeared to be matter of some fundamental
:
where
momentum.
they
The
are travelling
distance apart
by
their
own
of
anode
and
may
if
spark
there
is
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
46
much
[CH. v.
difficult
to
with an electrolytic
ion,
even of hydrogen.
OF CATHODE RAYS
CH. v.]
4T
from
no
the
We
determination made by
another method, and then some striking confirmatory
measurements applied to phenomena which belong
apparently to other departments of Physics.
will
first
describe
Another and perhaps simpler method of determining the two quantities u and m/e was also
employed by J. J. Thomson, was indeed the first
used by him, though it was not safe to draw a full
deduction from it alone viz., by deflecting the
same rays both electrostatically and magnetically ;
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
48
[CH. v.
by introducing a
Fig.
shows
stage
J.
measured
Thomson
J.
the
*
deflexion
overcame
PP', and
this
difficulty,
employed
293 (1897).
this
CH.
OF CATHODE RAYS
V.]
49
act
will
ticle will
be jj-
= Ee
and = juXieu
ijU
the other
= w = e EZ
u m u
s-
and O =
f
L.E.
,,
in the
if small, will
one
in the other.
case,
be
in
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
50
u=
Hence
[CH.
//xi
c;
m
This method, when applicable, appears to give fairly
and the outcome of the measureaccurate results
or C0 2 or Air is in the tube,
ments is, that when
;
2 or 3 x
= from
and
1*1 to 1*5
x 10~ 7
c.g.s. units.
The
is
to
electrostatic
adduced
as
action
an
at
obvious
all,
and
this
was often
argument against
their
but fortunately
observed.
OF CATHODE RAYS
CH. v.]
51
first
equation
and a balanced
force
...
or
u= E
This second
itself; and the
2.
first in
electro-chemical equivalent.
So the determination of 'velocity for the case of
particles 'flying
easy
it
comes
all
is
remarkably
second,
as
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
52
[CH. v.
EM
Note on Dimensions.
"
"
To
is
F=
of dimension
and
is
length
TT
dimension
=^
ratio is
r/
vV)
.,
_.,
where
T?
.,
is force,
(/of )
field
of
is
TjfjdF)
to a magnetic field
1
TT
-=
=a
is
*/(V/K)
velocity.
it
may
be convenient to
sum thus
fields are
adjusted
till
Effect on
Lenard Rays.
Professor Lenard,
OF LENARD RAYS
CH. v.]
53
TO EARTH
FIG. 5. Lenard's apparatus for exhibiting the effect of a longitudinal
electric field in affecting the velocity of cathode or Lenard rays.
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
54
[CH. V.
Rays.
Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate sufficiently the ingenious
device applied by Wiechert, in accordance with a
method of Des Coudres, for directly measuring the
velocity of cathode rays during the time of their
J3/
Connexions of the
FIG.
transit
6.
down
moderate length.
Keferring to either of the figures, the tube has a
C at one end, whereby the rays are
focussed through an aperture in a screen B
they
then travel down the tube to another perforated
screen B', whence the central portion of them reaches
a phosphorescent screen at S.
The tube is excited by a kind of Tesla induction
curved cathode
CH.
DIRECT PROCESS
v.]
coil
T,
cathode
whose
C and
terminals
lead
55
respectively
to
the
to a ring-anode A.
jars I and J can be excited by a Ruhmkorff coil, or in any ordinary manner, and they
Thereby a subdischarge across the spark-gap G.
Ley den
it
MN
S
FIG. 7.
Enlarged portion of fig. 6, showing the vibration of the
cathode rays by an alternating circuit and the adjustment of their range
of excursion by a fixed magnet.
and M'N'.
The
MN
(fig.
7)
is
to
thus
wave the
DETERMINATION OF SPEED
56
[CH. v.
MN
screen.
By
CH. v.]
DIRECT PROCESS
57
MN.
but
tion.
its
directness
and ingenuity
entitle it to atten-
CHAPTER
VI.
THE same
ratio of
to
e,
many
application of a
magnet
affected
DISCHARGE BY LIGHT
CH. VL]
59
This
according to the direction of its lines of force.
a
deflexion
of
the
magnetic
phenomenon suggested
lines of leak, which were shown by Kighi to be
and indicated that
singularly definite trajectories,
the leakage was due to the bodily propulsion of
negatively electrified particles analogous to the
vacuum is not necessary to observe
cathode rays.
the effect, but in a vacuum the effect is more proThe
minent and more accurately measurable.
difference
tube case,
between
is
this case
that there
is
this
light
the surface
electrification
effect
alone
will
is
co-operation
cause a slight positive electrification,* by
a process
the diffusion away of negative corpuscles
Whether
which is assisted by a blast of air.
electrification alone can produce a perceptible effect
when
depends on the temperature of the metal
as was discovered by Guthrie.
that is high, it can
able
to
*This
effect
Hallwachs.
60
LEAKAGE
IN
ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT
[CH. vi.
FIG. 8.
J. J. Thomson's apparatus for measuring the magnetic
deflexion of the electric charge thrown off clean negative metal by
The negative electrode is a clean zinc
ultra-violet light in a vacuum.
which can be raised or lowered, the other is wire gauze
plate
Ultra-violet light enters through the
connected to an electroscope.
CD
AB
To
this
field is applied.
arrangement
DISCHARGE BY LIGHT
CH. VI.]
negatively
light
field
charged
plate,
under
the
61
influence
of
first
between them.
Ga.uze
Zinc
FIG. 9.
Diagram showing the theoretical paths of the electrons
emitted from clean negatively-charged zinc in ultra-violet light, under the
influence of a strong perpendicular magnetic field ; the zinc and gauze
being a magnified representation of the AB and CD in fig. 8. The rays
would naturally reach the gauze and convey a current to the electrometer,
but under the influence of the magnetic field their paths become cycloids
and they fail to reach the gauze unless it is brought nearer. The critical
distance between the zinc and the gauze when they are just able to
reach it is what is measured.
LEAKAGE
62
IN ULTRA-VIOLET
magnetic
The
here
LIGHT
[CH. vi.
field.
calculation
is
so simple that it
may
be given
field of
is, in this
density
(which
M times the intensity, for brevity
of writing) be applied normal to the paper.
Then the motion of a charged particle detached
and propelled from the origin into the region between
the plates, provided that the plates are in vacuum
so that there is no resisting medium to interfere,
will be
taking the axis of x as a perpendicular to
the plate
^
TT
mx = &e
iiey
magnetic
letter
case, to represent
..
my = Hex
is
/,
7 ,x
x = a(l -cos ot)
y a(bt sin bt)
where a =
Era
TT9
He
and
is
= TT
H
e
.
ra
oscillatory in accord-
pleting
its
period in a time
-=--,
and increasing
in
In other
every such period by the amount 2-n-a.
words, the equations represent a cycloid traced by
the rim of a circle of radius a rolling on the zinc
plate.
DISCHARGE BY LIGHT
CH. vi.]
There
is
quite invisible
when
theory
it
is
all
63
And
the critical
a thing easily
would be independent of
experimentally observed
the brightness of the ultra-violet light, and would
merely equal the diameter of the generating circle. In
other words,
the critical distance between the plates,
when effective transfer of charge occurred, should be
2a, or
6-Ll
quantity which by
this
ingenious
64
LEAKAGE
some residual
path of the
IN
ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT
enough
[CH. vi.
again, in this case also, that the ratio e/m came out
10 7 c.g.s., or more exactly 7xl0 6 ; corresponding
closely with the values found by J. J. Thomson,
confirmed subsequently by both Lenard and Kaufmann, for the cathode ray particles.
- =87x
10
c.g.s.,
a value of the
Thomson's plan.
GH. VI.]
DISCHARGE BY LIGHT
65
FIG. 10.
Lenard's apparatus for measuring the electrochemical
equivalent of the discharge of negative electricity from a cathode
illuminated by ultra-violet light in vacuo.
received
measured
to give this
maximum
is
measured
being determined
L.E.
LEAKAGE
66
IN ULTRA-VIOLET
LIGHT
[CH.
VL
and so to give
radius of curvature,
its
which
will
be equal to
The
that
velocity
it is
between
C and
of potential
B.
and Negative
Carriers.
POSITIVE CARRIERS
CH.VI.]
67
for the
slight
hydrogen their
of the order 10
that is to say the
With
proper value for a hydrogen atom or ion.
other substances the ratio has been found to vary
with the substance and approximately to equal the
for
these positively charged
value,
electrolytic
atoms.
J. J. Thomson has likewise made measurements on the positive carriers, by means of the
discharge from incandescent filaments and other
positively charged hot bodies, and has confirmed
Wien's results obtaining an electrolytic value for
their electrochemical equivalent.
ratio
e/m
Thus
is
is forcibly
suggested that whereas the
carriers
of
positive
electricity are always ions, con-
it
sisting of a unit
charge associated with an atom,
the negative carriers are sometimes dissociated from
Ixv. p. 440.
68
LEAKAGE
greater than
ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT
IN
it is
[CH. vi.
gravitation force
on ions
is
vacuum tube, of 3,000 volts per centimetre, onetenth of what ordinary air will stand, or ten electrostatic units.
The force urging one of these carriers
9
10
to move is then 10 x 10~ = 10~ dyne; the mass
being moved, if it is a whole atom of hydrogen, e.g.
in a
The
five centimetres
CH. vi.]
NEGATIVE CARRIERS
69
8
"electrons."
CHAPTER
VII.
IONISATION OF GASES.
constantly necessary to speak of the air or other
ionised by the passage of rays, and
The term means that the
processes.
molecules are split up, or dissociated, into their
constituent atoms which, being oppositely charged,
form anions and cations respectively. It appears to
be an effect due to the violent encounter of an energetically flying particle with a comparatively stationary
molecule a sudden electric wave or pulse, if thin and
the effect in any
forcible enough, may do the same
case is to break the molecule asunder into constituent
IT
is
medium being
by many other
'
'
some
supports.
CH.
HOT METALS
vii.]
71
The
is
still
radio-activity in the
TO CXECrV3OMCT-/?
FIG. 11.
IONISATION OE GASES
*2
[CH. vn.
(ind Geitel
The
transformer, so as to be conveniently insulated.
and must be referred
The Conduction of
but briefly it may be
said that when the gas in the vessel is air, the metal
Electricity through Gases
plate
CH.VIL]
CONDUCTION IN AIR
raised
to
about 300
73
C.,
even after
a process
which
is
known
as ionisation,
electrons.
One
of the easiest tilings to measure is the conductivity of air in this ionised condition, that is to
two
say, the total current transmitted .by it between
electrodes immersed in it and connected to some
a
sensitive current-measuring device
sufficiently
IONISATION OF GASES
74
galvanometer
arranged so
in
as
[CH. vn.
to
others.
all
of Toronto, by
gases from flames, by McLennan
9
H. A. Wilson, 10 and Owen 11 on inRichardson,
Townsend also has made
candescent filaments.
many experiments on the diffusion speed of ions.
Professor Zeleny measured the velocity by a safe
and direct method of making the particles fly down a
tube against a wind, and observing the rate of the
current of air which was just able to withstand their
these measurements constituting a satisprogress
factory confirmation of Thomson's and Rutherford's
8
more
Wied. Ann.,
Phil. Mag.,
*Ibid. t
6
Ibid.,
November, 1896.
November, 1896, and April, 1897.
June, 1897.
Phil. Mag.,
August, 1904.
BY RONTGEN RAYS
CH. vii.]
T5
The
act effectively as nuclei in condensing moisture.
ions were produced by Kontgen rays, and electrolytic
terminals were inserted to effect a separation of
may
much
If
If
cluster of molecules increases to a visible drop.
electrons enter the expansion chamber immediately
IONISATION OF GASES
76
[OH vn.
is still
ion stage.
I
But
made."
Cavendish Laboratory.
CHAPTER
VIII.
is
great, because we are dealing with an
of
an
enormous and unknown number of
aggregate
these bodies.
It would not be difficult to make a
determination of the aggregate mass of a set of prois the number falling on a
jectiles, say Nra, where
in
a
time,
target
given
by means of the heat which
the blow generates
or better, perhaps, by the
momentum which they would impart to a moving
arm after the fashion of a ballistic pendulum
provided their velocity u were known, as in this
2
case it is.
The aggregate energy ^
or the
but
momentum
found
could
be
thus
Nmtt,
aggregate
howls
to be separated from
?
Again, if the particles are collected in, a hollow
measurements
Nmu
78
not
known
[CH.
vm.
capacity,
is
difficult to
We
chapters:-
gfm
u
Ne
Nw
New
But
we have not
described a method of
measuring separately either e ox m: only methods
of measuring their ratio.
If only it were now possible to count the corpuscles
or electrons,
to determine the number
which are
started into existence, or which enter the hollow
vessel or which take part in conveying the current in
we should no
the case of a leak by ultra-violet light,
longer have to guess at the actual value of e and of
separately, but should have really determined them.
still
OF AN ELECTRON
CH. viii.]
79
by
George Stokes.
must be excused
for
sation
centres,
so
will
be
the
number
of
globules formed.
Every cloud or
cloud
minute
80
because
with
[CH. vjii.
it is
its
of
earth's surface
The
is
In perfectly
clean elaborately-filtered air the dew point may be far
passed without any vapour condensing, and the space
will remain quite transparent in spite of its being
supersaturated with vapour.
The reason for this effect of, and necessity for,
they
fall
by Lord Kelvin's
the
of
curvature
on vapour
effect
theory concerning
a
more
surface
is curved
because
the
tension,*
liquid
the more it tends to evaporate, and an infinitely
nuclei, is. thrown into strong relief
surface
OF AN ELECTRON
CH. VIIL]
81
Thomson and
J. J.
Electrical Nuclei.
Chemistry,
p.
would
surface.
effect of
tension.
surface-
is
The
inwards.
electric tension is
outwards.
are differently affected, therefore, by the size
of the globule ; hence at some size or other they must
balance, and such an electrified convex surface will
L.E.
F
They
82
[CH. vni.
were unelectrified but flat. Accordingly vapour which would refuse to condense on an
unelectrified convex surface, until far below the dew
point, will begin to condense on it, if sufficiently
behave as
if it
electrified,
The
critical size at
dew
point
is
reached.
r
e
r=10~ 8
whence
Sir KT*
10- 21
approximately,
or
is
of
atomic
magnitude.
at
OF AN ELECTRON
CH. VIIL]
rid of
83
again.
for
Electrical
nuclei
can
be
in
produced
various
can
*See
A,
84
[CH.
vm.
is
The mist
to
fall
at
once
slowly,
as
all
down, by watching
*Phil
Trans.,
A, 1897,
upper
OF AN ELECTRON
CH. VIII.]
85
To Earth.
To
Eiectrometer.
FIG. 12.
A represents one
whose rate of
fall is to be
arranged for the ionisation
86
surface,
clear
space
being
left
above
[CH.
it
vm.
which
which it is composed.
next section.
Prof. Stokes
And
and Falling
Spheres.
George G. Stokes*
through
fluids,
and
sizes,
and
is
So
it is
in air
called levigation.
:
raindrops
fall
gently,
during the
fall.
sphere falling slowly, controlled
viscosity alone without waves or eddies, is the
It soon reaches what is called a
simplest case.
by
p. 266.
OF AN ELECTRON
CH. VIIL]
87
9 viscosity of
where p
is
medium
it
air'
other words to
in
coefficient
into
convert
the
numerical
1
-.
J. J.
We
;
Rontgen
from a negatively
rays, or
Phil. Mag.,
88
[CH.
vm.
r=
//9//c\
7/4 '5
V WJ Vi
x '000 18
981
that case
-7rr3
o
and
so, if
=l-6xlO- 10
c.c.
all
the
and the
CH. VIII.]
OF AN ELECTRON
89
90
[CH.
vm.
are counted.
Result.
The
determined.
Hitherto we have determined by many
and various ways the ratio e/m and the speed u. We
have likewise been able to determine Neu and Ne
10
charge,
CHAPTER
IX.
electric field
in the cases
92
electrons.
characterises
[CH.
ix
even the
molecular
magnet.
J.
has
of
e,
10
namely, 3'4 x 10~ electrostatic units.
is
that
lies
in
these
our chance of
thereby
determining ra with accuracy the mass either of
an electron, or of an atom of matter.
CH. IX.]
A CHORD EXPERIMENT
93
of the first direct determinations of the avercharge on a gaseous ion was made by Professor
One
age
FIG. 14.
his
94
[CH. ix.
Thomson's Deductions.
"
concerning the mass of an electron from a determination of the charge on an ion produced in air by
one particular agency?
"
SIZE OF
CH. ix.J
verified later
ELECTRON
on by direct experiment.)
95
Again, the
&
ratio
particles,
for the
cathode ray
same value of
Estimate of
On
Size.
96
[CH. ix.
The
charge by making it concentrated enough.
a
at
of
will
motion
be
proportional
energy
given speed
both to the quantity and the potential, and the latter
can be made as great as we please by making the size
of the body possessing the charge extremely small.
It is the intense region of force close to the wire or
close to the charged particle which is the effective
region and so, as stated, a knowledge of the mass or
;
denominated
self-induction.
Quite
possibly there is no other kind.
we
which
observe
as
that
the
inertia
of
possibly
is
the
electric
matter
or
selfinertia,
ordinary
simply
induction, of an immense number of ionic charges, or
electric atoms, or electrons.
This is by far the most interesting hypothesis,
because it enables us to progress, and is definite.
The admixture of properties partly explained, viz.
the electrical, partly unexplained, viz. the material
lands us nowhere
unless, by some only partially
we
were
able to estimate how much
imagined means,
of the total appertains to each ingredient.
The mass of a corpuscle has been measured as
something akin to j^Vo f an atom of hydrogen, and
Quite
electrostatic unit.
Now this
charge asJ'lO"
amount of electricity will have that amount of inertia
13
if it exists on a sphere of radius 10~
centimetre,
but not otherwise.
Consequently we may assume
its
10
SIZE OF
CH. ix.]
ELECTRON
97
10~
centimetre.
calculation of order
The
of magnitude is quite
because, for them
;
a=
,->i
though
~
as 10
pe
20
10 7 x 10~
10~ 13 centimetre,
it
14
Especially if the
penetrating power of cathode rays.
atoms of matter are themselves composed of such
minute particles.
For the interspaces will be
enormous compared with the filled-up space, and a
point can penetrate far into such an assemblage
The mean
a question of
In a space containing n^ obstacles to the
probability.
unit volume, a space Ax will contain n = Axn l of
them and the chances of a collision, while one of
them travels a length x, will be approximately their
combined areas, as targets, compared with the total
area available for both hit or miss
that is to say,
free
path of a particle
is
mra-2
where x
1.1
which we
"
.,
may
write
px
x
x
or -,
mean
travelled
another,
and
is
the
ft
the
*See Lodge in the Electrician for March 12, 1897, vol. 38, page 644,
where the size is deduced from the then just discovered Zeeman effect.
L.E.
98
[CH. ix.
/yi
Ax _
mra?
d*
n^a"
tra
'
~~
SIZE OF
CH. ix.]
ELECTRON
is
99
twenty-three times
filled space.
100
we have reckoned
of an
[CH. ix.
atom of mercury,
as
=10 10
"
5
3
13 3
10 x 10'
100,000 x |7r(lO- )
Hence the mean free path of an electron inside
9
an atom of mercury will be comparable to 10 times
4
the size of an electron, i.e., it will be 10~ centimetre that is, it may get through, on the average,
the substance of some 10,000 mercury atoms in a
row, before collision with anything.
In any other less dense substance it will go
In ordinary air, on an average free journey,
further.
it would escape collision with a hundred million
molecules in a room, which would be equivalent to
In the case of
a distance of about four inches.
a
dense metal, the actual
corpuscles plunging into
distance achieved by them is very small, only the
thousandth part of a millimetre on the average, and
it need by no means necessarily be a straight line;
;
dense as platinum.
Effects of
an Encounter.
COLLISION
CH. ix.]
101
The
of collision.
so the
near a planet, thereby rendering them permanent members of the solar system.
The ordinary behaviour of a foreign comet, which
comes and goes, may be called a collision with, and
rebound from, the sun; for although there is no real encounter of main substance, that is what it would appear
and
like if it could be seen from the depths of space
the two branches of the comet's hyperbolic orbit would
look like straight lines of approach and recession.
Comets which happen to pass very near a planet,
however, are deflected, swirled round, and often
pass
virtually caught
an insignificant
to carry
by that
differential velocity
them away
which
is
unable
If they do not
then drop.
they will continue to revolve
u 2 = 26
10
r
c.g.s.,
102
[CH. ix.
No wonder
duced.
energy -f time
= -1 DMT
*
'
u
.
^7
ff *^
= 10- 27 (10 9 ) 3 10 8 =
or thus
10 again,
tt
which
it lasts is
/xe
-(u)
10~
for
it,
as deduced in
40
10
uz
so the force required to stop
it is
COLLISION
CH. ix.]
The
"
"
power
of the blow
103
is
is
2
'
,i
therefore
radiating
6Fpower
total
where
is
fu*V_pe*u*.
=
6vP
\2l)
power
~~
'
a u 2a
=T
=
.
vt
is
the velocity
of light.
104
[CH. ix.
target
gets
red-hot.
The
is
power to the
total power,
CHAPTER
X.
AND OF RADIATION.
MEANWHILE
the probability of the existence of electrons and the possibility of regarding them as the
basis of all electric and of most other material
phenomena, had seized hold of the imagination of
several mathematical physicists, notably of Professor
H. A. Lorentz and of Dr. J. Larmor. The former,
who was first in the field (1892 and 1895), was
driven in this direction by the problem of the
astronomical aberration of light and the optics of
moving media treated from the electric standpoint.
The latter reached the same goal independently, from
the dynamics of the free ether, on the basis of
'
106
[CH. x.
This
great part of Physics to its simplest terms.
made in 1894, involved definite illusof the structure of an electron,
trative conceptions
of its size on the theory that inertia is entirely
electric, of the velocities with which electrons revolve
in the molecule, and generally of an electronic
theory of matter but in absence of knowledge the
mass of an electron was then naturally assumed
comparable with that of a hydrogen atom.
great
amount of suggestive material is to be found in
Dr. Larmor's contributions to the Transactions of the
Koyal Society for 1894, 5, 7 ; some of them were
summarised in the book called Ether and Matter
published by the Cambridge University Press in
fine attempt,
1900.
Suffice it here to say that the electron constitutes
the basis of the whole treatment, and that there is
supposed to be no true electric current except electrons
in motion.
They may move with the atoms, as in
the electrolysis of liquids they may fly alone, as in
or they may be handed on from one
rarefied gases
fixed atom to the next, as in the process of conduction
;
in solids.
Conduction.
The
modes of conduction
or transmission
possible
of electricity are in fact three, which I may call
respectively the bird-seed method, the bullet method,
and the fire-bucket method.
The bird-seed method is adopted in liquids and
it is exempliusually in gases of ordinary density
the
bird
carries
the
seed with
fied in electrolysis
when
an
it
it
reaches
electrode.
and
it,
only drops
The bullet method is the method in rarefied gases,
as has been clearly realised by aid of the cathode
;
CONDUCTION
CH. x.]
107
The
fire-bucket
conduction in solids, where the atoms are not suscan only pass electrons
ceptible of locomotion and
case.
The same
effect of
108
[CH. x.
common.
A fair approximation to the phenomena of conduction in metals has been worked out in detail by
Riecke, Drude, Thomson, Lorentz, and many others
in which the electrons are supposed to remain free
for periods so long that their mean energy of motion
is a function of the temperature, as in gas-theory.
;
Most
known about
is
conduction.
electrons,
In
when
gaseous
free,
fly
much
Report,
Birmingham Meeting,
1886,
RADIATION
CH. x.]
109
in gases, especially in
rarefied gases,
is
very
Radiation.
But it is not only the progressive motion or locomotion of the electric atomic appendages that we
have to consider we must assume also that they
are susceptible of motion in the atom itself, either
vibrating like the bead of a kaleidophone, or revolving in a minute orbit like an atomic satellite.
Indeed it is to the concerted vibrations or revolu;
110
accelerative connection
it
is
[CH. x.
If
the time since some early geologic period.
revolves faster it will emit light of higher reand the particular kind of radiation
frangibility
emitted by the atom of any substance, when in a
fairly free state, will depend on the orbital period
of its electrons, if they could be considered as independent. But if that were so, every atom would soon
The condition that an
radiate itself to destruction.
atom must fulfil in order to have a chance of survival
it
I.
and IX.,
also
Appendix G.
MAGNETISED RADIATION
CH. x.]
condition
further
is
quite
imposed by dynamics.
Every frequency of
consistent
111
with
those
cause,
radiation
must be
susceptible
to
magnetic
112
[CH. x.
of this
Larmor wrote
effect
in
Nature
in
must be the
but concluded must
be too small to
see.
On
of,
The
components.
it
see,
* See Proc.
Roy. Soc.
vol. 56, p. 237
The
vol. 38.
vol. 60, pp. 466, 513, and vol. 61, p. 413, or Nature,
t
also several articles by Lodge in The Electrician, for 1897,
ZEEMAN EFFECT
CH. x.]
113
that
became
possible, indeed,
amount
of the
a given
field,
by making a measurement
One
L.E.
out.
114
[CH. x.
by
ratio, viz.,
^x
10 7
c.g.s.,
Zeeman
Likewise an extremely
hinted at.
of the motion is
of
the
theory
way
expressing
in
the
the
writer,
given by
following form
Consider the resolved part of any orbital motion
projected on to a plane normal to the applied magnetic
field
and let the angular velocity be o>, at any
an orbit where the radius of curvature is
of
point
r then the field will exert a radial component
effect is
short
which
will
centripetal force
whence
it
2\
a (mrur)
-,
magnitude, that
doo=
2m
,
'
be
4-Trm'
CH. x.]
ZEEMAN EFFECT
115
strong magnetic
field,
CHAPTER XL
FURTHER DISCUSSION OF THE ELECTRON THEORY
OF THE MAGNETISATION OF LIGHT AND DETERMINATION OF THE m/e RATIO IN RADIATION.
AMONG
plane.
MAGNETISATION OF LIGHT
CH. XL]
117
originate a doublet in the spectrum for of the two component circular vibrations into which the motion can be
analysed, one has been made more rapid and therefore
;
its
kind of perturbation,
allied
closely
the
of
to
equinoxes in the case
precession
analogous
of the earth, would result in a triplet in the spectrum.
This precessional motion occurs in an orbit subject to
Another
Instead of
force.
viz.
MAGNETISATION OF LIGHT
118
It
[CH.
light emitted
XL
by the
two side
Fig.
lines
would be
15 consists
circularly polarised.
of diagrams illustrative of the
and C
lines of force, resolves itself into two lines
which are circularly polarised in opposite directions.
This is due to the acceleration of one circular
This is due to a
right angles to that of A'.
precessional movement of the plane of the orbital
motion, the axial vibration continuing unchanged,
and the two at right angles being one accelerated
at
CH. XL]
MAGNETISATION OF LIGHT
119
tt
FIG. 15.
all
MAGNETISATION OF LIGHT
120
At
[CH.
XL
that
'
MAGNETISATION OF LIGHT
CH. XT.]
121
line
CHAPTER
XII.
THE
H. XIL]
123
of rapid
l
movement
in astronomy.
But however
this
its
It will
At
ordinary, at even violent speeds, this secondorder electric effect is insignificant, but it is there all
the time, and must not be ignored when the speed
becomes extravagantly high. It rapidly rises into
prominence when the speed approaches the velocity of
but at any speed much smaller than this such a
light,
second-order effect
is
negligibly small.
INCREASE OF INERTIA
124
[CH.
XIL
alter the
AE
AB
AF
EF
field
make
It
however
H. xii.]
125
Or
(cf.
it
experiments of
Kaufmann probably
suffice to
is
prove
symmetrical
manner
of
On
avoided
XL
We
INCREASE OF INERTIA
126
[CH.
XIL
in the
FIG. 17.
The
force
sin 0,
which equals
sin 0.
CH. xu.]
127
must
occur.
The
medium.
shown both by Mr. Heaviside and
J. Thomson that if the speed of motion
of a material
It
by
has been
Prof. J.
INCREASE OF INERTIA
128
[CH. xn.
travels with a sufficiently rapid bullet, and is demonstrated in Mr. Boys' bullet photographs.
No known speed which exists in ordinary matter
sufficient to
bring any
The quickest
earth's
velocity
is
go
still faster.
CHAPTER
XIII.
BUT
for
self-induction.
There
is
If
postulating two methods of explaining one thing.
inertia can be explained electrically, from the pheno-
mena
L.E.
130
[CH.
xm.
afford a criterion.*
to heat
Hitherto, however,
might
no adequate measurements have been made in this
direction.
another more likely avenue to a conWe have seen that when an electric
a speed approaching that of light,
moves
with
charge
its inertia is theoretically no longer constant, but
rapidly increases and becomes infinite when the
light- velocity itself is reached and rather complicated
But there
is
clusive result.
See Appendix
difficult
It
is
p. 416.
VARIATION OF INERTIA
CH. XIIL]
131
ft
electrical
Radium.
132
to magnetic
[CH.
xm.
and
to
electrostatic deflexions,
is
we cannot
complicated but calculated law
that
the
in any
electric
varies
suppose
charge
with
motion
hence
the
electrochemical
way
equivalent m/e is proportional simply to the mass, and
ought to be a function of the velocity u, nearly
constant for ordinary values, but increasing rapidly
as it approaches within hail of the velocity of
to
light.
J.
it
is
CH.
VARIATION OF INERTIA
xm.]
on
Lectures
/
Electricity
133
and Matter,
p.
44,
as
11
mu = electric momentum =
where
sin
= ^/-y
it
in a fairly
The momentum of a
where the
is
ratio of the
sm 2
sin 20
We
3l ~~ 2GOs20
~ COS 2e
l-cos20~sin20
Now
the highest
l-cos20/
speeds measured by Kaufmann
10
272, 2*85 times 10 cm. per sec.
10
while the speed of light is well known to be 3*0 x 1C
787, '817,
'863,
'907,
'95.
134
[CH.
xm.
theoretical
1-5,
3'1,
Now
the corresponding values observed experimentally by Kaufmann for these same quantities that
is to say the factor by which the moving mass
exceeded the same mass when stationary were
1'65,
particle
is
its
usual value
the
inertia
of electrons
is
electrical
inertia.
of agreement as specially
regard
for
it
was
not
the first deduction of the
surprising,
W.
himself: his deduction
Kaufmann,
experimenter,
rather was that the electrical mass constitutes about
one-third or one-fourth of the whole; but then he
I
this
closeness
CH. XIIL]
VARIATION OF INERTIA
135
by Professor
J.
J.
his
it
own
out on
CHAPTER
XIV.
in Chaps. V.
IX., for measuring u and e/m, made the determination look very simple, if the precaution is taken of
the
Thomson
electric
found
first
deflexion
undiluted,
feasible.
as
J.
J.
particles differ
18);
and,
since
this
spectrum
is
continuous,
RADIUM RAYS
CH. xiv.]
possess no
137
features which
enable anything
made
on
be
unless some
like measurement
it,
device
be
still further ingenious
employed, such as,
for
for instance, that of Kundt
making experiments
on anomalous dispersion.
it
will
to
at Gottingen
FIG. 18.
Diagram of the deflexion of high-velocity rays from radium.
The radium is in a cavity in a lead block a the rays pass through an
and
are spread out by a magnetic field into a spectrum d :d2
aperture 6,
;
little
distance,
spectra will be
it
may
VARIABLE MASS
138
[CH. xiv.
electric
KAUFMANN'S APPARATUS
nEWtl
5tfui7
139
VARIABLE MASS
140
[CH. xiv.
The slow-moving
as target.
presumably strike the bounding
surfaces and be stopped,
only the very rapid ones
will reach the plate; which is protected from alpha-rays
by aluminium foil, while the undeflected gamma-rays
would probably mark the direct line of fire, and thus
photographic
plate
'
and
deflexion,
deflexions
mu
if.
wherefore
XT
y
mu =
7Le,
2
,,
TT
u.e}u,
and
fJLtiU
-r,
AT HIGH SPEEDS
CH. xiv.]
where
ki
on the relative
a constant depending
is
141
reach
the plate are all emitted with nearly the same velocity, the photographic trace will be an approximate
straight line, whose slope is a measure of that
velocity.
But to get the electrochemical equivalent
also write, from the above equations,
e~
u*~
we must
2 ''
where k is another constant expressive of experimental conditions so in so far as the masses of the
;
But
page 133,
with u
= v sin 0.
= 0(=T
T
</>(
-| we
\v y)
\vj
arrive at the conclusion that the actual equation to
So
calling;
this
function
\o y
At the highest
VARIABLE MASS
142
[CH. xiv.
possible.
If it is possible to find a value for the constant k t
which shall bring out the calculated value k 2 constant
overcome,
is
remarkably good.
of
for the
ft
is
7
1'84 x 10
c.g.s.
H.
AT HIGH SPEEDS
xiv.]
143
m
where
form
of function
to
be verified
VARIABLE MASS
144
[CH. xiv.
and then
after reckoning out <(#), which represents the theoretical ratio m/m according to Thomson's
2
which should
theory, I have put a column of y/x
sin 0;
*The
results of
Appendix M.
will be discussed in
AT HIGH SPEEDS
II
145
11
CO
<M
CM
<M
iOOCOlOOOOOOOOCOI^
I
o-2s
>H
o o o o
OlOOOOiOOiOOO
lOt^oe^iOt^ocMiOi^I-H
L.E.
OB
Q>
S^'S
rt
-E
O 4)
'.
TS
;?S
a
"*
^ d
(<M(M(M<MCOOCOCO
CHAPTER
XV.
WHAT
CONSTITUTION OF ATOM
CH. xv.]
and
simplified
and
explained
as
electromagnetic
phenomena.
For observe that though an electron has been
shown to possess purely electrical inertia, the same
the
proof has not yet been extended to an atom
an
is
far
and
is
atom
so
the
of
constitution
unknown,
Moreover
the
only
subject of hypothesis only.
electron observed, so far, has been the negative
:
the positive has hitherto escaped observaisolated form, since it has never been met
with apart from a mass comparable with an atom in
It may be that it can have no
bulk and weight.
separate existence apart from the atom of matter,
but in that case it will hardly be proper to speak of
it may be that an indiit as an electron at all
visible positive charge itself constitutes the bulk of
in any case its nature must be
an atom of matter
and
many have been the attempts
investigated,
made in that direction, among the best known in
recent times being the experiments of Prof. Wien
and others on " Canal rays." According to Larmor
positive electricity must be the mirror image of
electron
tion in
any
and
148
[CH. xv.
when we come
and,
to
ask what all the rest of the atom is composed of, all
we can say definitely is that the specific structure
must depend on the nature of the chemical element
under consideration. But if we consider the simplest
known atom, namely that of Hydrogen, we can make
various hypotheses somewhat as follows
(1) The main bulk of the atom may consist of
ordinary matter (whatever unknown entity is hidden
by that familiar phrase), associated with sufficient
:
each atom.
(2) Or the bulk of the atom may consist of a
multitude of positive and negative electrons, interleaved, as it were, and holding themselves together
in a cluster
'
CONSTITUTION OF ATOM
CH. xv.]
149
150
[CH. xv.
'
'
'
'
And
'
bination.
if
CONSTITUTION OF ATOM
CH. xv.]
151
is
own
Professor J. J.
Thomson
in the Philosophical
Maga-
Were
it
account of
it
in a
mode
CHAPTER
XVI.
(CONTINUED).
Nature of Cohesion.
WE
we may
call electrons,
which for
even though
some are
positive
arranged in kinetic patterns and
keeping apart by reason of the vigour of their own
orbital motions.
also
elsewhere.
CH.
MOLECULAR FORCES
XVL]
153
Forces.
known
molecule.
*See Lodge,
154
[CH. xvi.
CH CH = C H
3
H.
its
appropriate charge.
charge an assemblage of neutral
molecules with an excess or with a defect of one or
more electrons, by processes of ordinary electrification,
such as friction but the attachment of these supernumerary electrons is loose and they can be shaken
away by the agitation of ultra-violet light and in
many other ways. Even splashing of water into
spray shakes some loose, and can thus perturb an
electroscope, although the liquid was not charged
beforehand ; * a fact which adds to the probability
that the water unit is a molecular aggregate.
And
in the case of massive atoms, of high atomic weight,
they occasionally appear automatically to reach a
condition of instability, and rearrange themselves
in such a way as to throw off one or more electrons
It is possible to
electrification
above, on ionisation.
near waterfalls.
CH.
COHESION
XVL]
155
rise to
the
name
so that their
this is
and
Lord
only one.
Consider the outer surface of an atom consisting
of a regular group of interleaved electrons of alternately opposite sign.
156
[CH. xvi.
by the
instance,
have
to
assume
distribution.
static
0*0*0*0
0*0*0*
0*0*0*0
0*0*0*
0*0*0*0
o
o
o
0*0*0*0
o
o
o
0*0*0*0
CH. xvi.]
COHERER
157
oppositely charged
chemical, and if they were similarly charged they
would strongly repel each other. But if ions arrive
at a metallic electrode, or are provided with other
doubtless instructive.
The effect of electric polarisation on such a
The effect
neutral group of electrons is noteworthy.
of a charged body in the neighbourhood is at once to
disturb the equilibrium, and to perturb the grouping
throughout the atom, more or less it will cause the
is
be oppositely
would be
electrified,
the
intensified momentarily,
forces
of cohesion
by something akin
p.
176.
158
[CH. xvi.
0000
FIG. 21.
cohesion.
Two
Polarised Atoms,
undergo.
CH.
COHESION
XVL]
159
CHAPTER
XVII.
CH. XVIL]
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
161
finite size"
;
of any weight.
Another suggestion can be made and that is that
the main bulk of the atom, in which electrons are
embedded, consists not of positive electricity alone
but of a close admixture or combination of positive
:
and negative
L.E.
electricities
rigidly connected
162
[CH.
xvn.
of water
might
tion
easily be dissolved, in a relatively free condithat is to say, not forming part of the fixed
constituent- oxygen
CHAPTER
XVIII.
that
electric
constitute
radiation
charges
radiators,
in
revolution
or
vibration
thereby dissipating
less
radiation
called 7 rays
of
2nd,
rays analogous to cathode rays consisting of electrons bodily shot off: called ft
rays;
3rd, of positively charged ions or atoms, or
:
164
[CH.
xvm.
activity.*
Eontgen
rays.
Also in mil.
quantitative determinations concerning it.
Other references are M. and
Mag., July and November, 1902.
Mme. Curie, Comptes Rendus, November, 1899 Hon. R. J. Strutt,
Phil. Trans.,
1901, vol. 196, p. 525; Sir W. Crookes, Proc. Roy.
Soc., vol. 66, p. 409 (1900), vol. 69, p. 413 (1902), also "Electrical
Evaporation," 1891, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 50, p. 88; and many other
References to them are now conveniently collected in
workers.
Professor Rutherford's excellent treatise.
Madame Curie's original Thesis on Radio-activity for her Doctorate,
of date 1903, is a masterly production.
witn
ATOMIC RADIATION
CH. XVIIL]
165
follows
The
to
occurring, it would be necessary
zero
suppose the body in an enclosure at absolute
when undoubtedly its kinetic energy would rapidly
leak away, and be dissipated.
But this refers to
radiation,
so
166
radiation
goes
on
[CH.
xvm.
the
expense
of
the
it
the electric
to ask
of electric charges,
it becomes necessary
further
Why are not all atoms temporary and
unstable ? Why are they not all liable to internal
catastrophe and disruption, akin to earthquakes and
volcanoes? Why do they not all exhibit the phenomena of radio-activity ?
The whole subject of radio-activity is a large
one, upon which I do not propose to enter at any
length here. Suffice it to realise that any difficulty
of explanation, in connection with it, is not the fact
itself, but rather the question why it is not more
:
notorious.
far as that
ing phenomenon
the
H.
RADIO-ACTIVITY
xvni.]
show
167
it to an extraordinary
Dr. Russell,
degree
however, appears to have traced his at first interesting
effects to the merely chemical action of hydrogen
He has quite recently shown that leaves
peroxide.
:
phenomenon
ment called
When we consider
spinthariscope.'
the speed with which these particles are ejected, such
an idea is not surprising, although it is novel to have
to contemplate any perceptible effect produced by a
But taking these projectiles to be
single atom.
atoms of hydrogen or helium, of mass 10~ 24 grammes,
the
flying with say one-tenth the speed of light,
of
one
of
them
molecular
within
dimension,
stoppage
that is within its own thickness as ordinarily estimated,
10~ 8 centimetre, would require, for an exceedingly
minute fraction of time, the expenditure of 80 horsea
power.
*
July, 1902
168
[CH. XVIIL
the
Comets'
1893 (Electrician, vol. 31, p. 390). See also FitzGerald's collected "Scientific Writings," at date 1882.
The earth is in fact a target exposed to cathode
rays, or rather to electrons, emitted by a hot body,
viz. the sun.
The sun is evidently intensely radioactive
and the result of its discharge of electrons
into the approximate vacuum of its immediate
neighbourhood is not unlikely to be the appearance
known as the corona. The gradual accumulation
of negative electricity by the earth is a natural
consequence of this electron bombardment extending
to greater distances across space, where no residual
matter exists and the fact that the torrent of particles
constitutes an electric current of fair strength gives an
easy explanation of one class of magnetic storms
these storms having long been known, by the method
of concomitant variations, to be connected with sun:
spots
and
aurorse.
The
electric
nuclei,
when they
AURORA
CH. XVIIL]
169>
form
The following
are
thrown
off.
./
170
[CH.XVIII.
by an amount
atom of helium. It
will be observed that the gamma or Rontgen rays
always accompany the emission of a beta particle or
also that it is
electron, and never appear otherwise
in
some
of
the
electrons
are thrown
that
only
changes
weight
must change,
presumably
understood that the so-called " emanations" are all of the nature of gas, while the other
These
products are like a solid deposit or coating.
"
excited activities," can be subactive deposits, or
jected to ordinary chemical tests some of them are
off.
It will be
some of them
some are not
Mme.
Curie,
Polonium
RADIO-ACTIVITY
H. XVIII.]
171
Emanations.
full activity of
When
magnetic
Deflexion of Alpha-rays.
alpha-rays are submitted to
field
they
are
deflected,
though
strong
very
172
[CH.
XVIIK
by
letting
known
reversal of
short slant line with a slight curvature
the field slanted the line the other way, thus giving
a resultant impression like the conventional two wings
Subseof 'a flying bird drawn at a very acute angle.
different
of
the
distance
of
measurement
apart
quent
positions of the two wings gave the data sought.
;
CH. xviii.]
RADIO-ACTIVITY
173
To
174
[CH.
xvm.
no more
active.
The
of liquid
hydrogen
provided
the
as
at
luminescent
ordinary
screen
is
temperatures,
not likewise
chilled.
Spectrum of Radium.
In speaking of the spectrum of radium there
is
an
is
very
difficult
to
but the
has
William
and
of
Sir
Huggins
Lady
experience
enabled them to examine it, and to show that it
is
chiefly
which
is
faintness,
SPECTRUM OF RADIUM
CH. XVIIL]
175
when
raised to a temperature
176
[CH.
xvm.
immense
by a milligramme of
fully
active
every
particles expelled
radium
second.
Electric Production.
more
attached, to
vacuum by
the vacuum
radium
RADIO-ACTIVITY
CH. XVIII.]
177
Even
charged electro-
FIG. 22.
Strutt's
mode
by radium.
178
certain leakage
[CH.
xvm.
K.
FIG. 23.
The
fig.
vital parts DECB, with the gold leaf, are shown on a larger scale in
24.
They are contained in a metal case, with a movable wire G, by
as
much
moderate amount
RADIO-ACTIVITY
CH. XVIII.]
179
to internal
effects
with each.
D.
E.
FIG. 24.
small.
The
180
[CH.
xvm.
it
is
favour of a specific
each
to
metal, not due to
radio-activity belonging
any impurity.
It is not yet absolutely proved that this is identical
with orthodox radio-activity, of the kind which is
accompanied by atomic change or transformation of
substance but, inasmuch as the rays appear to consist
to a great extent of alpha-rays, there is not much
doubt but that the complete identity of the process
will be established before long.
the
indication
is
rather
in
Population Analogy.
Since radio-activity is a sign of, and is accompanied
by, disintegration and loss of material, it is manifest
that substances of exceedingly high radio-activity
must be comparatively
scarce.
Ordinary permanent
be
materials cannot
violently radio-active, though
each gramme of them might lose a few thousands of
atoms per second without any probability of our
being able to detect the loss by weighing not even
The
by weighings continued through a century.
rate
a
its
substance must depend on
plentifulness of
CHAPTER
XIX.
ALTHOUGH the
number of
it
particles
182
[CH. xix.
light in its
ing power at
all.
p.
681.
CH. xix.]
ATOM
INSTABILITY OF
183
by chemical
Instability of
an Atom.
/I
*325
Ne
J^L
or
'57c
Whenever their
called in the next chapter.
below
that
value, they adjust themselves
speed
at the corners of a tetrahedron or triangular pyraas
it is
falls
184
[CH. xix.
;.
corpuscles.
INSTABILITY OF
CH. xix.]
occurrence
by
is
ATOM
185
radio-activity.
XVIII.,
170.
p.
Cosmic Analogy.
An analogy may be drawn between the occasional
disruption of one of a large group of atoms, and the
phenomenon observed from time to time in the sky
called a new or temporary star.
Both are outbursts
kind of radio-activity, though they may be
excited by different causes
both are comparatively
rare occurrences, when the whole available number
of bodies capable of such outburst or collision is
of a
contemplated.
Assuming that in a gramme of average terrestrial
material there are a thousand such eruptions every
second, that would correspond to about one new
star per century among a cosmic assemblage of ten
Instability.
was
petal force
186
[CH. xix.
must come
a time
increases.
when the
Accordingly
electrical attraction
it
it
still
in,
by
and a rearrangement of
its
thrown
off too.
The sudden
Gamma-rays.
INSTABILITY OF
CH. xix.]
ATOM
187
of
series
or
akin
family likeness
to
Mendelejeff's series
is
by Professor J. J. Thomson
Magazine for March, 1904.
in the
Philosophical
hypothesis
XX. I think
still
necessarily vague
and development
CHAPTER XX.
DIFFICULTIES CONNECTED WITH THE ELECTRIC
THEORY OF MATTER.
1.
lines.
H. xx.]
189
2
where we have written Ne 2 //cmfr 3 as c
The frequencies c and o> belong to vibrations
.
radiation.
V^
),
When
is
known
excessively weak, barely perceptible and it is
and
that the radiation which emits light
produces a
clash
chemical
spectrum is the result of violence and
;
that
it
of collision
requires something of the nature
190
[CH. xx.
it out.
But then anything in the nature of
would give a series of vibrations characterised
by the square of the frequency. Hence there is a
to bring
collision
difficulty.
The difficulty seems to be capable of being overcome by the suggestion already made on page 182
that during the chemical collision in question,
the perturbation is of the nature of a disturbance
of the centre of gravity of a revolving system.
Such an eccentricity, or any other destruction of
symmetry, would at once develop strong radiating
power; but it might nevertheless leave the harmonic
constituents, and peculiarities of the radiation, to be
governed by the simple frequency law appropriate
to the revolving constituents, rather than to the
CH. xx.]
191
c2
2
= Ne^,
So
while
m=
2V
or
=v
I!
c=
of electronic
AlO
*.8
V( N
x !0~ 5 )
lO'VW
P er second,
is
where, since Ne measures the positive charge,
contained
practically the total number of corpuscles
in the atom
not the number contained in any one
ring of it.
A compound satellite will rotate round the centre
of force with the same angular velocity as if it were
for its mass and charge are increased in the
simple,
same proportion there is no concentration of the
charges into a single point, such as would be required
to increase the mass beyond the simple multiple.
:
192
[CH. xx.
2.
1906
Attempt
to
November, 1901.
corpuscles in
effective
an Atom.
It seems an
weight, reckoning hydrogen as unity.
improbable result but the only way to get round it
is either to question the validity of the experiments
and the theory applied to them, or else to realise that
what is being measured is, not the total number of
electrons, but the number of free or available or
;
Cf. p. 162.
of the arguments may be simplified as follows
If the atom is composed of positive and negative
electricities, these constituent charges will tend to be
separated, against their mutual attraction, when subsuch for instance
jected to an external electric field
as the field existing in a wave of light
and since
a light- wave is large compared with an atom, there
will be time for a certain amount of this separation
to be effected by each pulse.
Accordingly the wave
"
"
will be as it were
loaded
by the electric charges,
its velocity of propagation will
be reduced, and
One
loading, that
is,
the
amount of
two
of the
UNIVERSITY
DIFFICULTIES
CH. xx.]
193
an atom.
is,
that
if
is
number
so
that the
M + mn
we
get,
n being
their
is
with the aid of Ketteler's measurements for the refractive index of hydrogen for light
of different wave-lengths,
=1
approximately.
This shows that for a hydrogen atom n is approximately 1 (and it has to be a whole number) and it
also shows that
in
is not small compared with nm
fact that it is much bigger,
which is an unexpected
and puzzling
result.
194
[CH. xx.
it
CHAPTEK XXL
VALIDITY OF OLD VIEWS OF ELECTRICAL
PHENOMENA.
Now
that
the
doctrine
charged bodies is
current can be treated as the locomotion of actual
electricity, it may seem as if some doubt were thrown
doctrine, which a little time ago was spoken
upon the
"
modern view," that the energy of an electric
of as a
current resides in the space round a conductor.
There is no inconsistency, however. The whole of the
fields of an electron are outside itself; it is in its
round
it
round
it,
for it is accounted
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA
196
Is there
no inconsistency here
[CH. xxi.
field
on which
its inertia
depends
at ordinary
speeds
simply inversely as the radius of the sphere
which holds it, as stated in Chap. II. but the
is
localisation of this
momentum, which
may
is
the point
we
be realised approximately
CH. xxi.]
197
regards direction,
It is proportional, at ordinary
vector at any point.
the
sine
of
the angle between the radius
to
speeds,
vector and the direction of motion while in magnitude it falls off as the inverse fourth power of the
All this can be realised by common sense
distance.
;
with very
little trouble.
Between
its
moving
surface
diameter, 99 per cent, of its momentum is contained ; because, to reckon it, we should
have to integrate the factor
times
its
is
electron.
electric current
a transfer of electrons, and that the energy of a
current travels in the space surrounding the moving
each
electricity, are statements not inconsistent with
other.
Nor are the statements inconsistent that the
is
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA
198
[CH. xxi.
vf
true.
Number
of Ions in Conductors.
estimated
so,
also,
it
is
number
and
CH. XXL]
199
u=W~
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA
200
[CH. xxi.
experimental possibility.
Conclusion.
to
mass
is
due
to
electric
If
nuclei.
it
is,
then
we encounter another
<
,-
'
CH.
XXL]
VIEWS OF ATOMS
201
nebula
may
no
detection
by
any
optical
means.*
Nor do
Trans. 1893, vol. 184, pp. 750-754; also vol. 189, p. 166.
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA
202
[CH.
XXL
phenomenon,
At
it is
it
is
not clear
more sluggish
positive charges
The
CH.
XXL]
203
removed
is it
highest order.
*See Ether and
and
Matter, p. 326
1897, pp. 209-212.
APPENDIXES.
APPENDIX
A.
Let
magnitude
eu,
and
it
its
distinctly less
constitutes a current element
circuit is
closed
ment currents
by
displace-
For electric
and subside
When an
electric field
generates a magnetic
circular lines round the line of motion;
charge is an element of a linear current.
for the
moving
The generation
it.
When
they subside,
APR
CALCULATION OF INERTIA
A.]
205
it
sidence of the
is
to
constrained
magnetic
persist
which
field
its
and maintains.
Its
it is
it,
and
if it is
in
TT
ti
6
= eu sin
=
where v
is
April,
CALCULATION OF INERTIA
206
[APP. A.
H = K^U sin
The
0.
yuH
expression
viz.,
/87r,
all
from a to
oo all
sphere,
to be superficial, so that
no energy
is inside.
In the general
case this expression is a little long, but in the most important case, when the speed of motion u is decidedly less
fsi
J J
J_
COS 2 0-1
Comparing
we
see
m= 2/ze
3a
This
may
ra =
Q
or,
-r
rai>
also be written
/UiK
2
= o~2
2
3t>
e
e
2
= ^~9
x charge x potential,
2
charge
electricity.
APR
CALCULATION OF INERTIA
A.]
207
that
charge
when standing
still.
APPENDIX
B.
moment
x the
The
its
axis
and in
equatorial plane it is
M/r
direction it is, as regards magnitude alone
;
moving
provided
its
light.
CALCULATION OF INERTIA
208
The
[APP. B.
electrostatic
AcE 2 /87r
of radius a, viz.
Energy
^J = 5
1 (
3
STrJJJV r
2
_AcM & ~~
_
2/
5<z
sin 2
cos 2 $
dr.rdO.r sin
dd>
/'M'X
'
Spa? \v/
which would
inertia
possess.
And
the
amount
2
_2*M
=2
=
3
5a
5"^~'
,uaV
15
is
itself
APR
DIMENSIONS
B.]
209
APPENDIX
On
Electricity
C.
being length.
to turn out that a mass
now going
is
composed
similar kind.
electricity
and
electric.
As
have
2
_F _
^ ~~ m2 ~~ mP ~"
L.E.
we
GRAVITATION
210
[APR
r i-7
T z-
F2 =
electrons at the
KT2
at
where
is
the
electrons in contact,
electric
and v
force
FI _
~
F2
Kfy
is
2
1
/
/m\ 2 _
_1_\ _
"
20
7
\eJ ~9xl0 xl-5xl0 \10V
-,
_ 42
When
two
my
lysis,
is
made
If the
APR
DIMENSIONS
c.]
211
weight of 12 tons.
APPENDIX
D.
The
of
reciprocal
it
as a certain large
constant.
the order 10 18
Another way
whence
it
is
of
is
obtained by writing
follows that
m/u.e
and
-,
so
The
em can be expressed in
/
-.
-,
//c
centimetres\
-
A /(
\
V grammes/
that
artificiality of these
and
m
;
e,
//,
Electricity,"
Appendix
p), the
electrochemical
equivalent
SATURATION
212
It
is
dimensions as
^/(/c/x)
[APR
is
same
of the
D.
where
is
an electrochemical equivalent.
APPENDIX
E.
In
Report on Electrolysis to the British Association
for 1885 (see the Aberdeen volume, pp. 762, 763), I call
attention to the possibility that an atomic theory of
electricity would give rise to a maximum charge possible
my
~ 10
,
16
being 10
possible
is
it
(r=10
maximum
surface density
would be 4?ro-= 10 7
or 3,000 megavolts per centimetre; and the corresponding
tension would be 27r<7 2 = 6 x 1() 12 c.g.s. = 40,000 tons to the
square inch. Of course no dielectric would stand this
pressure, but absolute
of potential
vacuum might.
centimetre = 400
ordinary air
and
is
c.g.s.
2-7n7
= J gramme per
the maximum
square
wherefore
or
in
this quantity
hundred thousand of a
air.
ORBIT OF ELECTRON
APR
E.]
It
is
shown on
760
p.
my
of
213
attraction
which
is
and
to a molecular layer contiguous to an electrode, and accordingly something of the order of a volt or two difference
of potential
and
is sufficient,
liquid is required,
for decomposition.
APPENDIX
F.
The
force
But the
r.
between them
acceleration
is
is e //cr
2
,
so the acceleration
also expressible as
47rVr.
is
There-
fore
which
"
"
is
is
~8
centimetre; in other
roaming over the surface
10
stance,
it
RADIATING ELECTRON
214
oscillations
trons
F.
may
among
by shocks and
The most
is
be excited
[APP.
that
of the
it
mass
of
an electron
is
electric,
and none
of
it
is
APPENDIX
G.
any point
magnetic
of space,
and
mean value
^
V
+ cos
^v
'
STT
rL
And
*See Lodge
March
we
APP.
CALCULATION OF RADIATION
a]
215
man
first
time;
is
therefore the
moving,
9 ..,,2
w
But the
radiating power of
a single
electron,
so
is
Ai=
y TO-*
"9xio">
~
x 1Q46= 2 x 10 5 ergs per second
total available
its
namely
away
or
amounts
dissipate
electrostatic
it
cannot radiate
energy),
and
to
1
0~ 40
-r,
3xlO- 13 (2-7T
x 10 U x 10- 8 ) 2 = 3 x 10- 13
ergs,
this
RADIATION OF ELECTRON
216
[APR
7
velocity being 3 x 10 centimetres per second, or onethousandth that of light. So if the electron were isolated
its
pace,
~8
of a second, that is to say in three or
energy in 10
four million revolutions. This may seem a rapid rate of
cooling, but it is not surprising for an isolated and
luminous atom
simple
it
is
type.
number
The
must make
of
revolutions
which
an
electron
in
sodium light, is
which have passed since the Christian
We may
era.
v \u/
a ^n
/0
2 =
= 70
= 2a (27m)
S7r2 n
,
^-
-n-
it is
must be compensation
it is
very significant
of
is given in
the concluding sentence of Larmor's paper above quoted
Phil. Mag., Dec., 1897.
APR
HISTORICAL REMARK
G.]
217
the stopping distance must be comparable with the electrons' own diameter; which accordingly accounts for the
extreme thinness and consequent penetrating character of
APPENDIX
H.
discovered
"
The Magnetisation
"
fit
of enthusiasm,
of Light
:
tion of his
own
discovery.
of conceiving the
phenomenon
and surprising
interest.
It
HISTORICAL
218
incited Maxwell,
many
years
REMARK
later, to
[APR
H.
now
Do
they not
indicate
is
enthusiasm of discovery
the
Zeeman
rotation
means
are
Remember
effect,
effect,
all
magnetic "lines of force are illuminated" by flying electrons from the sun entangled and guided by them. In the
Hall effect this same influence is felt by the slowly moving
crowd
to
a source
of light
light emitted,
The
which
and
wherefore
is
made
visible
by spectrum
analysis.
first
lies
diverse
in his slight
differential rotation of
was
most affected.
Hence the title which he
The
"
RADIUM
APP. H.]
219
sation of light
genius.
not
dissimilar
altogether
flash
has
already
been
referred
APPENDIX
On the
/2-rays
who presumed
J.
from Radium.
into
sort
of
illustrates
of
the
spectrum
with different velocities from radium.
Some
did
<**
the
impression
deflected rays.
RADIUM
220
[APR
j.
In a uniform magnetic field the rays will all be segments of circles, and it is easy to estimate the radius of
curvature of the ray corresponding to any point in the
spectrum, since only one circle can be drawn through
three given fixed points (Euclid, IV. 5 or III. 25), such points
for instance as a, 6, and d
so, these three points being
known, the circle of which the ray forms a part is known,
;
and
radius of curvature
its
is
therefore determined.
The
fact
electrified
that
ordinary
cathode-rays
are
negatively
charge to an electroscope.
b\
I
It is
c
i
^
I
""""^e. Electroscope
this metal
a simple and
interesting manner by hanging up a radium tube in a
Strutt exhibits
in
APR
j.]
CHARGE
IN
RAPID MOTION
221
to
be
many
centuries.
mena
APPENDIX
K.
act on charges at rest, or would cause corresponding displacement' in force ether; the former must be normal to
medium rays
wave fronts.
a moving
their
CHARGE
222
IN
RAPID MOTION
[APR
K.
if
its
charged
line,
when
diameter,
itself,
to
which
The
the
ordinary case
when mass
is
constant
for,
as
the
ratio
of
momentum
kinetic
proached
is,
;
until the speed of light is very closely apno material case of great velocity or
so that in
APR
CHARGE
K.]
IN
RAPID MOTION
223
is
entirely electrically
that among free corpuscles
it
speeds,
1902, Dr.
"
And
all
further complicated by a
effect of acceleration itself, which,
consideration of the
still
is
CHARGE
224
RAPID MOTION
IN
[APR
K.
euB. at
is
p.
in the negative,
It has
of Lorentz.
97),
rrV
eHThis,
U2 /V,
(?r-l
\2u
V+U
v u
!)
/
in
considered
that
Larmor's view
As has been
effective
main theory.
But
no
real
there
is
Heu
viz.
it
variety
by
appears to be
ambiguity
of
different
and
now
that
is correct.
inertia
thus
APR
K.]
and
is
CHARGE
RAPID MOTION
IN
225
dynamical
method
from
ii.,
Mr.
p.
an expression equivalent to
quantity
514
Heaviside's
expression
a
r being the squared speed ratio u 2 /v 2
In Larmor's original treatment of electrical inertia, Phil.
Trans. 185A (Aug. 1894), pp. 806-818, there was no reason
.
velocities greater
than one-tenth
with
associated
the
electron
and
dependent
on
its
structure.
It is the
its
modification at
momentum
J.
J.
is
in the
L.E.
(see also
page 133)
DISTORTION
226
[APR K
verified
when u = 0,
or even
APPENDIX
when u/v
is
small.
L.
^(l
1> 1
>
But
what a sphere
is
in
for the negative result in Michelson's experiment, by postulating a change of dimensions in solid bodies according to
theory
(^Jther
and
Matter, ch.
xi.)
APP.
L.]
cisely
zero
in
resultant,
the
227
of
dynamical
molecular theory.
The change
is
gradually
and
because
all
it.
It
a remarkable thing that this imperceptible and unrneasurable uniform distortion of all matter should ever
is
APPENDIX M.
Constitution of Electrons.
CONSTITUTION OF ELECTRONS
228
[APR
M.
It
is
way
of
argument has
now,
however,
gained
the
independent
support of Lorentz (1904), whose investigation has suggested, what in fact is easily verified, that Larmor's
all
along
presents itself
every new negative result is a steady
corroboration of it: but like any other physical repre:
sentation
it
cation.
Only negative
It
electrons
are
known
symmetrical.
is
LARMOR'S THEORY
APP. M.]
229
in
empty
space.
definite
which
J. J.
Thomson's
statical illustra-
system
tive electron.
If the
volume density
resulting stability will be but slight, and a small displacement will upset the system, and lead to its break-up ;
which
But
fluids,
CONSTITUTION OF ELECTRONS
230
[APP. M.
ducing magnetic
field.
of Kaufmann
know something
The experiments
we
should get to
about intrinsic
have
They
proved sufficiently the
fundamental fact that a free electron has no independent
material sub-stratum
they have made it very probable
electron
definite
structure.
it
affect the
volume
relations of this
but
(Bucherer);
by the
GLASGOW
imagine.
CO. LTD.
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