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Review
Received 26 October 2007; received in revised form 24 January 2008; accepted 27 January 2008
Available online 10 March 2008
Abstract
A number of industries currently produce varying concentrations of heavy metal laden waste streams with signicant consequences
for any receiving environmental compartment. In recent years, increasing emphasis has been placed on environmental impact minimisation and resulting from this the range and capability of natural and prepared materials capable of heavy metal removal has seen steady
development. In particular considerable work has been carried out on the use of both natural materials and their modications. These
natural materials, in many instances are relatively cheap, abundant in supply and have signicant potential for modication and ultimately enhancement of their adsorption capabilities. This review paper reviews the current state of research on the use of the naturally
occurring material cellulose, its modied forms and their ecacy as adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals from waste streams.
Adsorbents based on direct modication of cellulose are evaluated initially and subsequently modications resulting from the grafting
of selected monomers to the cellulose backbone with subsequent functionalisation are assessed. The heavy metal adsorption capacities
for these modied cellulose materials were found to be signicant and levels of uptake were comparable, in many instances, to both other
naturally occurring adsorbent materials and commercial ion exchange type resins. Many of the modied cellulose adsorbents proved
regenerable and re-usable over a number of adsorption/desorption cycles allowing recovery of the adsorbed heavy metal in a more concentrated form.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cellulose; Modication; Adsorption; Heavy metals; Wastewater
1. Introduction
Heavy metals is a general collective term applying to
the group of metals and metalloids with an atomic density
greater than 6 g cm3. Although it is only a loosely dened
term it is widely recognised and usually applied to the elements such as Cd (cadmium), Cr (chromium), Cu (copper),
Hg (mercury), Ni (nickel), Pb (lead) and Zn (zinc) which
are commonly associated with pollution and toxicity problems. Unlike most organic pollutants, heavy metals occur
*
Corresponding author. Address: Chemical and Environmental Sciences Department, University of Limerick, Castletroy, Limerick, Ireland.
Tel.: +353 61 202691.
E-mail address: tom.odwyer@ul.ie (T.F. ODwyer).
0960-8524/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.01.036
6710
tion/coagulation, membrane technology, electrolytic reduction, ion exchange and adsorption (Kurniawan et al., 2006;
Wang et al., 2003). The advantages and disadvantages
associated with each method are listed in Table 2.
The most widely used method of removing heavy metals
from solution is to increase the pH of the euent, thus converting the soluble metal into an insoluble form (i.e. its
hydroxide). Ion exchange is the second most widely used
method for heavy metal removal from aqueous streams
(Shukla et al., 2002). During removal, recovery, or processing of metals, ion exchange acts as a concentrator of metals. The chemistry of the inuent stream becomes very
important to the success of the ion exchange application.
Coagulationocculation can also be employed to treat
wastewater laden with heavy metals wherein the coagulation process destabilises colloidal particles by adding a
chemical agent (coagulant) and results in sedimentation
(Wang et al., 2004). Coagulation is followed by occulation
of the unstable particles in order to increase their size and
form into bulky occules which can be settled out. Flotation is employed to separate solids or dispersed liquids
from a liquid phase using bubble attachment (Wang
et al., 2004). Adsorptive bubble separation employs foaming to separate the metal impurities. Ion otation, precipitate otation and sorptive otation are the main otation
process mechanisms for removal of metal ions from solu-
Table 1
Signicant anthropogenic sources of metals in the environment
Industry
Metals
Pollution arising
Reference
Metalliferous mining
Agricultural materials
Fertilisers
Manures sewage
sludge
Metallurgical industries
Specialist alloys and
Pb, Mo, Ni, Cu, Cd, As, Te,
steels
U, Zn
Waste disposal
Landll leachate
Electronics
Miscellaneous sources
Batteries
6711
Table 2
Treatment technologies for the removal of heavy metals from wastewaters and associated advantages and disadvantages
Technology
Advantages
Disadvantages
Reference
Chemical
precipitation
Process simplicity
Not metal selective
Inexpensive capital cost
Ion exchange
Metal selective
Limited pH tolerance
High regeneration
Coagulation
occulation
Chemical consumption
Increased sludge volume generation
Flotation
Metal selective
Low retention times
Removal of small particles
Membrane
ltration
Madaeni and
Mansourpanah (2003)
Qin et al. (2002)
Electrochemical
treatment
Kongsricharoern and
Polprasert (1995)
Kongsricharoern and
Polprasert (1996)
Adsorption
Crini (2005)
tion. Membrane ltration has received considerable attention for the treatment of inorganic euent, since it is capable of removing not only suspended solid and organic
compounds, but also inorganic contaminants such as heavy
metals.
Amongst all the treatment processes mentioned, adsorption using sorbents is one of the most popular and eective
processes for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater.
The adsorption process oers exibility in design and operation and in many cases produces treated euent suitable
for re-use, free of colour and odour. In addition, because
adsorption is sometimes reversible, the regeneration of
the adsorbent with resultant economy of operation may
be possible (Kelleher, 2001).
Activated carbon adsorbents are used widely in the
removal of organic contaminants and to a lesser extent
heavy metal contaminants in product purication and pollution control. Carbon is converted to activated carbon by
heating in the absence of air. The activation process results
in the creation of a network of ne pores in the carbon particles. The vast areas (3004000 m2 g1) of the walls within
these pores account for the most of the total surface area of
the carbon (OCooney, 1998). In spite of its prolic use,
activated carbon remains an expensive material and the
higher the quality of activated carbon, the higher its cost.
Also, in practice activated carbon is employed more frequently for adsorption of organic compounds rather than
heavy metal ions.
Characterisation of the adsorption process is often carried out using a number of isotherm models. These include
the most common Langmuir (1918) (Eq. (1)) and Freundlich (1926) (Eq. (2)) isotherms and other related models
as described by Peric et al. (2004) and Altin et al. (1998)
K L Ce
1
qe
1 AL C e
1
qe K F C ne
In the case of the Langmuir model, equivalence of adsorption sites and monolayer of adsorbate coverage is predicted. The amount of solute adsorbed, qe, in mg g1, Ce
is equilibrium concentration in solution in mg L1, KL
and AL are Langmuir constants. A plot of Ce/qe versus
Ce from the linear form of Eq. (1) can be used to determine
the values of KL (intercept) and AL/KL (slope). Saturation
coverage on the adsorbent is obtained as KL/AL.
The Freundlich isotherm model is an entirely empirical
isotherm and assumes a logarithmic relationship between
the level of adsorption and equilibrium sorbate concentration. The Freundlich constants KF and n are related to
adsorption capacity and energy of adsorption, respectively
(Ortiz et al., 2001).
2. Cellulose
Cellulose constitutes the most abundant and renewable
polymer resource available worldwide. It is estimated that
6712
by photosynthesis, 10111012 tons of cellulose are synthesised annually in a relatively pure form, for example, in
the seed hairs of the cotton plant, but more often are combined with lignin and other polysaccharides (so-called
hemicelluloses) in the cell wall of woody plants (Klemm
et al., 2002). Cellulose has been used in the form of wood
and cotton for thousands of years as an energy source, a
building material and for clothing.
The molecular structure of cellulose as a carbohydrate
polymer comprises of repeating b-D-glucopyranose units
which are covalently linked through acetal functions
between the OH group of the C4 and C1 carbon atoms
(b-1,4-glucan). Cellulose is a large, linear-chain polymer
with a large number of hydroxyl groups (three per anhydroglucose (AGU) unit) and present in the preferred 4C1
conformation. To accommodate the preferred bond angles,
every second AGU unit is rotated 180 in the plane. The
length of the polymeric cellulose chain depends on the
number of constituent AGU units (degree of polymerisation, DP) and varies with the origin and treatment of the
cellulose raw material (Klemm et al., 2002).
Cellulose has a ribbon shape which allows it to twist and
bend in the direction out of the plane, so that the molecule
is moderately exible. There is a relatively strong interaction between neighbouring cellulose molecules in dry bres
due to the presence of the hydroxyl (OH) groups, which
stick out from the chain and form intermolecular hydrogen
bonds. Regenerated bres from cellulose contain 250500
repeating units per chain (Klemm et al., 2002). This molecular structure gives cellulose its characteristic properties of
hydrophilicity, chirality and degradability. Chemical reactivity is largely a function of the high donor reactivity of
the OH groups (Klemm et al., 2005).
In particular, two main approaches have been tried in
the conversion of cellulose into compounds capable of
adsorbing heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. The
rst of these methods involves a direct modication of
the cellulose backbone with the introduction of chelating
or metal binding functionalities producing a range of heavy
metal adsorbents. Alternative approaches have focused on
grafting of selected monomers to the cellulose backbone
either directly introducing metal binding capability or with
subsequent functionalisation of these grafted polymer
chains with known chelating moieties.
3. Adsorbents produced by direct modication of cellulose
Unmodied cellulose has a low heavy metal adsorption
capacity as well as variable physical stability. Therefore,
chemical modication of cellulose can be carried out to
achieve adequate structural durability and ecient adsorption capacity for heavy metal ions (Kamel et al., 2006).
Chemical modication can be used to vary certain properties of cellulose such as its hydrophilic or hydrophobic
character, elasticity, water sorbency, adsorptive or ion
exchange capability, resistance to microbiological attack
and thermal resistance (McDowall et al., 1984). The b-D-
6713
6714
Table 3
Cellulose modication methods with various chemical reagents and associated functional groups
Modication
reaction
Esterication
Wood pulp
Structure
Adsorption
capacity
(mg g 1)
pH
Isotherm
model
Reference
O
Cell
CH
Cd(II) 169
Marchetti et al.
(2000)
CH
O
CH
C
HO
Wood pulp
Cell
CH 2O
OH
Etherication
Cellulose
Carrier
(aquacel)
OH
Cu(II) 24
Pb(II) 83
Hg(II) 288
Navarro et al.
(1996)
HO
Cell
CH2O CH2
CH
OH
(NH CH2 CH2)n
CH2
NH2
Wood
sawdust
Acrylonitrile
Hydroxylamine (Amidoxime)
Cell
CH2
CH2
CH2
Cu(II) 246
Ni(II) 188
C
N
Halogenation
Cellulose
6-Bromo-6-deoxycellulose + 2powder
Mercaptobutanedioic acid
(Carboxyl)
Cell
CH2
CH
CH2
Cu(II) 36
Pb(II) 105
Ni(II) 0.93
NH 2
CH
CH 2
CH2
COOH
a-Thioglycerol (Hydroxyl)
Oxidation
*Cellulose
powder
Cell
3-Mercaptopropionic acid
(Carboxyl)
Cell
CH2
2-aminoethanethiol (Amino)
Cell
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
OH
CH2
CH2
COOH
NH2
Saliba et al.
(2005)
5.0
Aoki et al.
(1999a)
OH
COOH COOH
Cell
6.0
6.0
Cu(II) 22
Pb(II) 28
Ni(II) 8
5.0
Cu(II) 2
Pb(II) 6
Ni(II) 10
5.0
Cu(II) 24
Pb(II) 20
Ni(II) 1
5.0
Cu(II) 6
Pb(II) 81
Ni(II) 5
5.0
Ni(II) 184
Cu(II) 236
Maekawa and
Koshijima (1984)
Cu(II) 246
Maekawa and
Koshijima (1990)
CH OH
*Cellulose
powder
H
C
H
OH
OH
C
HON
NOH
6715
Table 4
Grafting techniques and associated advantages and disadvantages
Grafting
technique
Nature
Advantages
Disadvantages
Reference
Photochemical
initiation
UV light creates
free radicals with
or without
sensitizer
High energy
initiation
Irradiation
causes homolytic
ssion and free
radicals form
Material deterioration,
High cost
Chemical
initiation
Free radicals
created on
surface by
chemical agent
Bhattacharya (2000)
Sharma et al. (2002)
Russell (2002)
Liu and Sun (2008)
6716
Table 5
Chemically modied and grafted celluloses and associated adsorption capacities
Grafted
Cellulose
Adsorbent
Grafting Agent
(Chelating group)
Chemical Initiation
Sawdust
Acrylic Acid
(Carboxyl)
Structure
Cell
CH2
CH
mon
Cellulose
powder
Acrylic Acid
(Carboxyl)
Sawdust
Acrylamide (Amino)
OH
Cell
CH2
Adsorption
Capacity
(mg g1)
pH
Isotherm
Model
Cu(II) 104
Ni(II) 97
Cd(II) 168
Pb(II) 55.9
Cu(II) 17.2
Cd(II) 30.3
Cr(VI) 45
4.9
5.9
5.7
4.5
4.5
4.5
3.0
Hg(II) 712
6.0
Hg(II) 138
5.0
Shibi and
Anirudhan
(2002)
Cu(II) 39
3.05.0
Hashem (2006)
Cr(III) 73.5
Cu(II) 70.5
5.0
5.0
L,F
Cu(II) 68.5
Ni(II) 48.5
Pb(II) 75.8
4.05.5
4.06.0
4.06.0
OConnell et al.
(2006a,b,c)
Cu(II) 60
Co(II) 20
Zn(II) 27
6.0
6.0
6.0
Navarro et al.
(1999)
Cu(II) 51
5.0
Kubota and
Suzuki (1995)
Cu(II) 30
5.0
Kubota and
Suzuki (1995)
Cu(II) 49.6
5.0
Bao-Xiu et al.
(2006)
Cu(II) 76
Hg(II) 280
5.0
5.0
Orlando et al.
(2002)
Fe(III) 7
Cr(III) 7
Cd(II) 4
Pb(II) 6
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
Gaey et al.
(2000)
Guclu et al.
(2003)
F
CH
mon
Cotton cellulose
Acrylamide (Amino)
Sunower stalks
(1) Acrylamide
(2) Ethylenediamine
(3) Succinic anhydride
(Carboxyl)
(1) Acrylonitrile
(2) Hydroxylamine
(Amidoxime)
Cell
CH 2 CH
CONH
(CH2)2
NHCO(CH2)2
COOH
NH2
Cell
CH2
Raji and
Anirudhan
(1998)
Bicak et al.
(1999)
NH2
Banana stalk
Reference
CH2
mon
NOH
Cellulose bead
(1) Acrylonitrile
(2) Sodium hydroxide
(Carboxyl)
Cell
CH2
CH
CH2
CH
mon
mon
COOH
CN
Cellulose
(1) Glycidyl
methacrylate
(Imidazole)
Cell
C
CH2
CH
CH2
OH
Porous cellulose
(1) Glycidyl
methacrylate
(2) Polyethyleneimine
(Amine)
Cell
C
CH2
Photochemical Initiation
Wood pulp
(1) Acrylonitrile
(2) Hydroxylamine
(Amidoxime)
Wood pulp
(1) Acrylonitrile
(2) Tetraethyleneamine
(Amino)
High Energy Radiation Initiation
Cellulose pulp
(1) Acrylic Acid
(2) Acrylamide
Carboxyl (Amino)
CH
NH CH2
CH2
Cell
CH2
mon
CH
C
CH2
O
mon
OH
Sugarcane
bagasse
cellulose
Wood pulp
Urea (Amino)
NH
CH
C
O mon
NH2
O
Cell
Acrylic Acid
(Carboxyl)
CH2
OH
NH2
Abdel-Aal et al.
(2006)
In another study, Aoki et al. (1999b) grafted bead cellulose with acrylonitrile, again utilizing ceric ammonium
nitrate as the initiator. The cyano groups on the poly(acrylonitrile) chains coming o the cellulose backbone polymer
were amidoximated by reacting with hydroxylamine in
methanol. Amidoxime groups can chelate a range of heavy
metal ions. In this study, alkali treatment of amidoxime
functionalised cellulose accelerated the sorption of metal
ions.
Guclu et al. (2003) grafted cellulose powder with acrylic
acid (AA), N,N0 -methylene bisacrylamide (NMBA), 2acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulphonic acid (AASO3H)
and a mixture of acrylic acid (AA) and 2-acrylamido-2methylpropane sulphonic acid (AASO3H). Ceric ammonium nitrate was used as the initiator in all cases. All four
grafted cellulose materials were compared in the adsorption of Pb(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) under competitive conditions. Uptake on each prepared material were 0.27, 0.24
and 0.02 mmol g1 for cellulose grafted with p(AA),
p(AA-NMBA) and p(AASO3H), respectively. Cellulose-gpAA proved to be the most ecient adsorbent under these
conditions with its carboxyl groups responsible for chelating the divalent metal ions.
Gaey et al. (2000) reported a method to graft polyacrylic
chains onto sawdust using KMnO4 as initiator to attain an
inexpensive adsorbent. The material had a high adsorption
capacity for Cu(II) 104 mg g1, Ni(II) 97 mg g1 and
Cd(II) 168 mg g1.
The monomer glycidyl methacrylate was also chosen by
Bicak and Senkel (1998) as a reactive monomer for grafting
due to the subsequent availability of its reactive epoxy
groups for further functionalisation. These epoxy groups
are highly reactive to amines, alcohols, phenols, carboxylic
acids, carboxylic anhydrides, lewis acids and their complexes (Kondo et al., 1989).
OConnell et al. (2006a,b,c) grafted glycidyl methacrylate to a cellulose backbone and further functionalised
the grafted product with the imidazole ligand. Adsorption levels on this material for Cu(II), Ni(II) and Pb(II)
reached 68.5 mg g1, 48.5 mg g1 and 75.8 mg g1, respectively.
Navarro et al. (1999) modied a porous cellulose material (aquacel) for heavy metal adsorption through graft
polymerisation of glycidyl methacrylate using ceric ammonium nitrate as the initiator. This was followed by the functionalisation of the reactive epoxy groups present in
poly(glycidyl methacrylate) with polyethyleneimine to
introduce nitrogenous ligands. This material showed an
adsorption capacity of 60 mg g1 Cu(II), 20 mg g1 Co(II)
and 27 mg g1 Zn(II) from aqueous wastewater.
5. Regeneration of modied cellulose adsorbents
Natural polymers or biopolymers are biodegradable.
This may be a serious disadvantage for long-term application in sorption processes as sorbent recycling is necessary
for cost ecient use of these biopolymers for environmen-
6717
6718
Table 6
Cellulose based adsorbents, potential desorbing solutions and metal recovery percentages
Cellulose adsorbent
Desorbing solution
Reference
Cellulose-g-acrylamide[Hg(II)]
Cellulose/Orange peel/Citric acid [Cd(II)]
Cellulose/Chitin beads [Pb(II), Cd(II), Cu(II)]
Carboxylated polyacrylamide grafted
Sawdust [Cd(II), Cu(II), Ni(II)]
Cellulose-g-polyacrylic acid
Cellulose-g-acrylic acid/acrylamide [Cu(II)]
Bagasse/Urea [Cu(II), Hg(II)]
Spheroidal cellulose/carboxyl [Cr(III)]
Amidoximated wood sawdust
[Cu(II), Cr(III), Cd(II), Ni(II)]
Cellulose-g-GMA-imidazole
[Cu(II), Ni(II), Pb(II)]
Carboxylated polyacrylamide grafted banana
stalk [Pb(II) and Cd(II)]
1 M HCl
NH3 8 %(v/v)
N/A
1.2 M HCl
EDTA
0.1 M HCl
0.1 M HNO3
0.2 M HCl
OConnell (2006)
Shibi and Anirudhan (2006)
6. Discussion
Tables 3 and 5 clearly indicate the signicant adsorption
capabilities of the modied cellulose materials. In the case
6719
Table 7
Selected heavy metal adsorption capacities for selected low cost adsorbents
Metal
Isotherm model
pH
Reference
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Zn(II)
Cd(II)
Cr(III)
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Zn(II)
Ni(II)
Cd(II)
Cr(III)
0.9
25.4
124
2.7
3.7
2.4
4.5
5.1
6.0
3.6
68
70
118
4.05.0
4.87.0
4.0
4.05.0
4.05.0
4.05.0
4.05.0
4.57.0
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Pb(II)
Cd(II)
3.6
3.0
1.7
10.8
9.3
22.0
2.8
M
M
5.5
5.5
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.5
Pb(II)
Cu(II)
Cr(III)
Zn(II)
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
64.2
16.1
9.6
4.3
55.9
133.4
88.5
95.2
16.2
32.2
10.9
19.7
L
L
L
L,F
F
F
L
L
L
L
L
L
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Cd(II)
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Zn(II)
26.5
85.9
27.8
57.0
116.9
229.9
109.2
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Ni(II)
Ni(II)
Cu(II)
Pb(II)
Pb(II)
10.1
65.6
80.0
10.6
10.1
49.9
73.8
Lignin
Lignin (sugar cane bagasse)
Tree bark
Pb(II)
Cu(II)
133.6
21.6
Adsorbent
Zeolites
Clinoptilolite
Chabazite
Scolecite
Clays
Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
Organophilic bentonite
Industrial by-products
Blast furnace sludge
Agricultural waste
Hazelnut shell
Peanut hulls
Orange peel (citrus reticulate)
Grape stalk waste
L, Langmuir; F, Freundlich.
F
F
F
L
L
4.2
4.2
3.58.5
3.58.5
5.28.5
5.28.5
5.6
Dimitrova (1996)
L
L
L
L,F
L,F
L,F
L,F
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.0
4.06.0
4.06.0
4.06.0
L
L
L,F
L
L
L
L
3.07.0
5.0
6.0
5.56.0
5.56.0
5.5
5.5
6.0
5.5
6720
tant aspect of unsaturated nitrogen donors such as imidazole is the possibility of p-backbonding between it and the
metal ion (Hancock and Martell, 1989).
In particular, in a signicant number of studies outlined
in this review paper, the inuence of solution pH is critical
and optimum pH or pH ranges are provided in Tables 3
and 5. Variation in pH can aect the surface charge of
the adsorbent and the degree of ionisation and speciation
of the metal adsorbate. At very low solution pH, the binding sites on the modied cellulose materials are likely to be
protonated resulting in poor metal binding levels. An optimum pH range usually between pH 4.0 and pH 6.0 leaves
the binding sites unprotonated and metal binding is maximised. At pHs above this optimum range, most metals
tend to precipitate out of solution in the hydroxide form.
Table 7 outlines the heavy metal adsorption capabilities
of a host of naturally occurring adsorbent materials. Comparison of the capacities of the modied cellulose adsorbents with these natural materials shows clearly that, in
many instances, the cellulose based adsorbents are equally
eective as heavy metal adsorbents. In comparison to the
adsorption of copper on commercial resins (Table 8), copper uptake on cellulose powder modied by sodium
metaperiodate and hydroxamic acid is superior (Table 5)
(Maekawa and Koshijima, 1990). This is also the case for
wood sawdust modied with acrylonitrile and subsequently
hydroxylamine (Saliba et al., 2005). Further studies by
Gaey et al. (2000), Liu et al. (2001, 2002), OConnell et al.
(2006a), Navarro et al. (1999) and Orlando et al. (2002),
as outlined in Table 5, also show strong and equivalent
comparisons of Cu(II) uptake with the commercial resins.
The use of various models for isotherm modelling of the
uptake of the various metals indicated that many of the
adsorption processes can best be described in terms of the
Langmuir approach (Langmuir, 1918). This general model
describes a situation where at low metal adsorbate concentrations in solution, strong uptake of the metal on the modied cellulose adsorbent is observed but beyond a certain
adsorbate concentration a plateau is reached in metal
uptake. The latter corresponds to maximum binding of
the metal to the adsorbent or a type of saturation coverage.
The model itself is based on a number of assumptions
Table 8
Cu(II) adsorption levels on commercial adsorbent/ion exchange materials
Adsorbent/ion
exchanger
Chelating
group
Commercial adsorbents
Dowex 50WX4 Sulphonic acid
Amberlite
Carboxylic
IRC-86
acid
Duolite GT-73 Thiol
Amberlite
Iminodiacetic
IRC-718
acid
Amberlite 200
Sulphonic acid
Lewatit TP207 Iminodiacetic
acid
Cu(II)
Uptake
(mg g1)
Reference
71.4
130
61.6
127
89
85
6721
6722
6723
Nordberg, G., Fowler, B., Nordberg, M., Friberg, L.F., 2007. Handbook
on the Toxicity of Metals, third ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 743758.
OConnell, D.W., 2006. Development of a modied cellulose material and
assessment of its adsorption capabilities in the removal of heavy
metals from aqueous solutions. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Limerick,
Ireland, pp. 244263.
OConnell, D.W., Birkinshaw, C., ODwyer, T.F., 2006a. A chelating
cellulose adsorbent for the removal of Cu(II) from aqueous solutions.
Journal of Applied Polymer Science 99 (6), 28882897.
OConnell, D.W., Birkinshaw, C., ODwyer, T.F., 2006b. A modied
cellulose adsorbent for the removal of Ni(II) from aqueous solutions.
Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 81, 18201828.
OConnell, D.W., Birkinshaw, C., ODwyer, T.F., 2006c. Removal of
lead(II) from aqueous solutions using a modied cellulose adsorbent.
Adsorption Science and Technology 24 (4), 337347.
OCooney, D., 1998. Adsorption Design for Wastewater Treatment. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, pp. 925.
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