Techo N Society

' 1) , \llll~l:
A nl~tht lu n U.1 "lon,,, p.tin giv, it .. rntr n th ~ f t1 n t -., tm

with,, I{Fll l ":h p, in ordt:r to nM itnitc rh,.ir c"'pt:n n ,. t th 111 ht u
dh tur, tM~. lw~,1n u~ln th RFID hip nMde b., t>n hlf
t: "
P"''v dl bt!lhr ~,rvkt to hi!'. u tClllll'f"S. ''I tx-11 '\' w ~ht ukf u
to pi\wide ()\If nt_:olutnl'I'S with the bt.~t eit'rvi('t' .md 1'ltt.-rt.unmtnt .. h 1 _ r
l n trod uction
nurin~ Hw lnst 0 t'MS, the Unit d
~ltlh'S ~~pcri,n~;; ~1
I.
1
.j .
th l'rusion ,,(ito; st 'adf.1st

lt'.ldt.rshlp position in the manufacturing
1\l"l'tM. nw n.athm, fon~d with numerous
hall n~c, t() rebuild .mtiqu(1ted factories,
r\!tool pn\CtucUon lines, ond nthink
tndustrialJn,mJgcntnt pnrad1gms, lost ,,
~~~nlfiennt portion of its compdltivt t-dgc in
nltmuffldurtng. 'The c 1sual rt.'<ldcr need only
pkk up ~tcrdny's Wn/1 Strc:d /vrmzal, this
mMnlng'!-i Ncw 'YiJrk Timt~, or nn is ue of
l'c rt1111t! from lrtt>t Y'' lr to ruvi~w y<'t nnothcr
bkn" fm ~-.,~t 1\"gnrding tlw dooint> of America's
n"'nufnrturing bnSt'. Workers around the
l:ountry relnt'C their stories tlb()ut being laid
off unt~p~'t.:t~dly, ts tht>ir cmploy~rs decide
t'O 1\lontt( ptTh.ht\'thm facilities to overseas
~itl~s with lower hourly wnges. Overall, the
m.mufncturin~ shoru of tot.ll employment in
till' Unlte d Stott~s has fllcn 60% since 1970.
In 200S, munufcturinH was les..; than lO'Yu of
the h'tnl mploymlnt in the United Statl's.
Without l)Utstlnn, -.11J Am "'rican
nmnufndurin~ firms hav~ bt.'t!ll confronted
with a dr.unntic inm\1Sl' in fun.oign mmJX."'tition.
In orw tlttempt .tfttr another to matcll foreign
\'ompl'lih'lr'S' low lubor costs .md more relaxed
n~-tul.ations, ~.mtwnt n1.1kers, appliance
numuf11 tmlrs, and clt'\:tnlllics-components
romp mil~ muv~d their tlJX'rations overse.ts.
Th'"~t dt:> isinns we~ m.lde to enablt> the
lwmc f,,cllities to f<Xus on ~se.1rch, design,
development, .1n th pr f
producb. Jn m~t i ra ':'-!, t
took this action to rem.1in
ultimately lx.'Cc1me ma rk tin
cntt>rs, how er, for pr
of the United Statt.-'S.
There .1ppears t be yt tan th r Jn

of revolutionary trend em(r in J
playing field of Americdn manu.1 i l n.n
Companies nearly paralyzed by unfau t ,1
practices, reverse-eng.int."'t~rin f ,lt .md
a lack of long-range strategic pl.m.n i.ng in
the 1980s have come charging b.Kl.
r
the nation, manufacturing empJoyc:rs hJ e
embraced an attitude of ''c.m-do ptimism."
as they breathe new life into mctnufd turin
and production enterpriSt..>S th.Jt had ~tU but
been pronounced dead jus t a few ye.us a o.
Some examples f Amen <~'s
manufacturing resurgenre were displi1y-d
when manufacturing firms ret' nized tlu1t
an overdef>t:'ndence on large-scale flexible
manufu,tunng systems (FMSs) and across-
th('>-tl~r automation is potcnti.-lJJy detrin'lentul
to thetr
A c;:on
~ tempomry automali n
. . succ"""'"'
"~
paradtgm, or pattcm, is being spotlight~
and applau.d ed ~corporate e ocutive offict'r.;
pursue an mgenrous balancE.' amon l
compute..r networks' human
Or"W"o
r,ra t(.'fS, an d
automatJOn.
En
route
t""~ fir
.
. .
~
ms ho1v
dtscovt>red rt rs often much mCl~ ~'f"Cffi .
to use hand ldbor aJongside softw,lre nt"t\.,om~
versus sophisticatt'd rorots. Too mu..n ~
automation .results in Jow("r prt'lfit.lbility.
Scanned by CamScanner
.~
especially when dealing with odd-sized

components, a large variety of complicated
machine tools, and tight tolerances. By
taking some of the automation out of a
facility, a U.S. manufacturer can ironically
outdistance foreign competition in such
critical measures as time to market and
manufacturing flexibility.
General Electric (GE) is gaining an
impressive market share abroad because of the
exceptional time to market and environmental
design of its locomotives at its 100-year-old
Erie, Pennsylvania locomotive plant. GE
invested 6 years and more than $250 million
into creating a new locomotive that reduces
emissions by 40%. The Evolution locomotive
GE produced was the first to meet the
U.S. EPA Tier 2 emissions standards.
Another example of flexible automation
can be viewed at Alcan Aluminum's Oswego
Works (Oswego, New York). Oswego Works
recycles aluminum cans. In the process of
recycling cans into aluminum, unmanned
vehicles dart back and forth between the
machines to deliver and pick up material.
These office desk-sized vehicles are not
similar to the carts in Japanese FMS installations. The Japanese carts travel in rigid
patterns along wire routes imbedd~d in the
factory floor. Innovative technologtes allow
the automated guided vehicles (AGVs) at
Alcan to run around anywhere. Each vehicle
has a range finder that bounces laser beams
off targets placed around the factorr floor to
let it know where it is headed. See F1gure 6-1.
Computer-directed radio signals from a
control center dictate the vehicle's pickups
and deliveries.
.
As one culls the literature associated wtth
manufacturing and production enterprises,
a huge assortment of technical acronyms
becomes evident. Perhaps more than any.
other discipline, the arra~ of_alp~anumenc
abbreviations in manufactunng IS overwhelming. Most of you are at least somewhat
familinr with h'm'~ su h '' t\'"'1'11/t't itll:~nrfctl

tlltlllu.firctu riiiS ( llvf). l'tliiiJ' IIfl't ,,f,fa',l l /,~1,~11
(CAD), n1111 pu t.r'ni,ifd 11111111~/itct 11 "'''" ( 't\M ,,
FM.S. just-i11timr (/IT). 1111111'1'11/ '"'fll lnttu'll/.ol
JIICIIIII iiiS (tdl\(l), and :;ttll i:ltfco/J II\ll't'~'i t'l'lltt'u/
(S PC). Rt.nnt )'t.'l\1'!-l lh\\'t' bl'nught lit' "'' \\'
con!\truc t~, such ns le.m 1\\i\1\UI.wtmlnt), ' t;lh.
nmnufnctmin~. mpld pr'llhll y pln~ (l~P), .\1\d
CE. We nrc nl~,l being r hnll,nftd hl ' " ~iplwr
n host of 1ww ttrms nnd tlll'l l' " ., '" ~ m~.
Tiu~~e ncmnyms includl' 11111111!/ihtIll'ill,!\ n-:;c,llrft'
Jlltlllllillg (Mf\P II), ~ t) IIIJI trd/llcl/11~.'/ (C.'I'), -.\1\ I
dts(o.: 11 ft~r llltHIIIfiJct rm mrd II:>S!'I///1/.'f (I >I'M /\ ).
Ench of these tlchnicnlll't'ms is hhmtiflcd
in the Key Cclllet'pt~ s linn. Rt~,,~n lz~
that this is only n ~mn ll ~.Hllpllng, hnwtvcr,
of what is t-vcryday j1\r.,;on in industry.
Mnnufacturin.,; """"' cr:-> nrc cnntlnuoll)'
Figure 6-1.
L1ser guictnncc for on AGV. n,isguiclm\(:c works

by use of n ln~r scanner mmmt,d lmho.ll\l the
AGV. Referencing on onboard mnp. of the. "'Y''ut of
the fnctory, the vehicle dcl~rmlnts tl!'i posttlon by
sweeping its bcnm ncrnss 1\'tlr<:l<~rs ~~lnct-d ''." wn\ls
or columns. (Stcfrm Knrlsscm, AC1 V hk-ctn)l\ICS)
t84
Collternporary TecJmology
to learn about, evaluate, and

being charged 1
t one or more of what
11 1mp emen
potentia Y
d . 1 rated automated process
might be.labelel "' ~their firms into future
teclmologzes, to aunc
essful ventures.
.
h
succ f
f this chapter is to dtscuss t e
Thedo~:roging technologies affecting the
new an e
th United
manufacturing environment m e
States, as well as overseas. Some of the . .
questions we address include the followmg.
0 Will integrated automated proc~ss
technologies enable manufactunng
enterprises to grasp and hold onto
leadership positions in the global arena?
0 Why do some corporations rem~in.
reluctant to recognize and enthusiastically
support the procedures central to CE?
0 When should the decision to automate
be made? Is there such a thing as too
much automation on a production floor?
0 Assuming that lean manufacturing is
more efficient than traditional
manufacturing, what strategies can
an organization use to become leaner
and more agile?
0 What is the difference between MRP
a~d }IT? What are the .advantages and
disa.dvantages of each in a manufacturing
environment?
0 How do present-day workers respond
to the presence of robots in their daily
work environments? ...... "', .
What n~w man~facturlng ~nd ~rOd,uction

en~erpnses are on the horizon? In h ' h
d' ' }'
,W lC
lS~l~ l~es do.they show the most
- promtsmg applica_tions?
Key Concepts
As you review the material
.
.
h
t
h
contilJn
...!
this c ap er, you s ould learn th
t~ in
of the following terms:
c l'llcanin~
agile manufacturing
bar coding
computer-aided d esign (CAD)
computer-aided manufacturin C
computer-integrated manufactu~~ AM)
concurrent engineering (CE)
g (U\f}
design for manufacture and as b
(DFMA)
sem ly
flexible manufacturing system (FMS

group technology (GT)
)
just-in-time OIT)
lean manufacturing
man~acturin? resource planning (MRp D)
matenal reqmrements planning (MRP)
product lifecycle management (PLM)
software
qua.lity function deployment (QFD)
radio frequency identification (RFID)
rapid prototyping (RP)
statistical process control (SPC)
Organization of the Work.

Environment
In one way or another, every new

change on the production floor challenges
traditional assumptions and contemporary
procedures. Old ways in manufacturing .
are slow to die. The horizon seems much .' .
brighter, however, than it did just a few : . : ;
ye.ars ago. Is manufacturing on the rise in , ~
this country? Although the spread of new :
technology and innovative strategies ac~ ~ -;
the nation is uneven, the following discUssiOO :.
reveals numerous examples of an exciting . ~
U.S. manufacturing renaissance.
. : ~:
As the average consumer attemptsto_. .. ~ :i
make sense of manufacturing bu7.zwords, ..- .; . ~.
.
..
. .. ,'
. {
Mnmifacturing and Production EnleT~JriSCS
it becomes apparent that manufncturingtechnology system~ gener~lly shnre thr~e

mmon featur~s: mtegrataon, automation,
cond computerization.
.
A s1mp
. Ie exp Ianahon
af any manufacturing system is an entity

0
.
1
.
providing concep.t l":'P ementatton, s~art~ng
with design, contmumg through reahzahon
of the product, and culminating with
customer satisfaction. A CIM setting implies
a situation in which all components essen tin I
to the production of an item are integrated.
In the brondest sense, computer-integrated
mmwfacturittg (CIM) encompasses a diverse
array of manufacturing strategies in use today.
These strategies include the initinl stages of
planning and design, all the way through the
final stages of manufacturing, packaging, and
shipping. In actuality, CIM is not a specific
technology that can be purchased one week
and installed the next. Even though much
has been written about the CIM factory of
the future, it is not as much a technology as
it is a management philosophy of operation.
CIM involves strategic and aggressive efforts
to combine all available technologies to
manage and control the entire business of
bringing new products to market. Several of
the manufacturing strategies that can make
for a successful CIM enterprise include CAD,
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM),
artificial intelligence (AI), expert systems, GT,
RP, automated materials handling (AMH),
robotics, manufacturing planning and control
systems, automated inspection methods, and
continuous quality improvement.
COMI'UTEI{-INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING (CIM)
~-,
.}
A host of automation technologies in the

manufacturing environment. This type of
manufacturing does not refer to one specific
technology, but to the integrated use of
computers in all sections of the enterprise,
from the planning of production, through
the design and manufacture of a product,
to the assurance of good quality.
185
Although CIM is a unifying philosophy

of manufacturing production, almost every
company using CLM implements it differently.
Also, the tools each company uses in its CIM
implementation arc dependent on many
diverse factors. From this ever-expanding
list of technology-based activities, it should
be obvious that company-specific planning
is imperative. While CIM might be regarded
as a unifying force among the basic functional
areas of design, production, and management,
management is the central integrating force.
The computer is a tool for execution. Basic
to an effective CJM strategy is a strong
commitment to intracompany communication.
Success in the long-term requires a spirit
of cooperation from the highest level of
management, through each level of production,
on down to the shop floor, sustained by
employees who are not afraid to accept new
technology.
Researchers involved with MIT's
International Motor Vehicle Program initially
popularized the term lean manufacturing.'
To become leaner, manufacturers must
remove obstacles preventing them from
manufacturing with high velocity. Obstacles,
such as complicated setups, excessive
material handling, poor physical flow, and
production interruptions, interfere with an
organization's abi~ty to design and build .t he
best-quality products in the shortest time
possible. Lean manufacturing often begins
with lean design. Although lean manufacturing
began in Japan, American and European
manufacturers have adapted this philosophy
into their manufacturing plants. One such
plant is New United Motor Manufacturing,
Inc. (NUMMI), a joint venture between
General Motors and Toyota, located in
Fremont, California. See Figure 6-2.
An essential element of a successful
lean manufacturer is the use of conc:ilrrmt
engineering (CE). This innovative approach .
to product development is amethod of
-'
. .
~!
-.
... ..
4
Womack, J., D. Jones, and D. Roos. 1991. The machine that changed the world: Tlte story of leat1 pnxluction. New Yorlc,;: ; -_- i
_
-
. . . ... -~ > . -~ . , :.;. '.
Harper Perrenial.
-~
, .
' .
...- .:~ -~
..
.~
186
Figure 6-2.
t~
NllMMI's production method is based on Toyota's lean production ~ystcrn . The sys~l'm ,. an mttgrJ ~
approach to production using mach~ncry, material, and labor as efficiently ns posstblr.
simultaneously integrating the many aspects

?f product design, development, and
manufacture. CE contrasts with the traditionnl
linear ~pproach. In the linear approach,
ma~keting _experts conceptualize the product,
destgn en~eers design the prototype, and the
manufactunng and purchasing departments
make all decisions regarding the production
f~ocess alnd parts-suppliers. Fundamentallv
J'
e resu ts of decisions d
in the traditional linear ~;p:o:~~~ch stage,
0
product design
h
' are t rown over the walls
metaphorically existing bctWL'Cil tl~c v~rious

departments in an organization, wtth httl~, _
if any, interactio n among dcpa rtnu~n~s.
In contrast CE increases the interaction
'
, bcfo~ .
between' designers
and mnnufacturcrs
the product goes to the manu fac t urn 1g. flotlr.-.
_..~ ..
dcswntu,
,.
.
Under CE, once a new prod uc t 1s
o
there should be no problems in_its
h
.
d'
CO\'Ct
I
r
manufncturing. As compatli<'S 1
t:o<.t
. thtngs
11t the
"'" . :
advantages of gcttmg
ng
f pull'
time, the benefits of CE are hnrd to' :hrM
tlJ . .
Design for mamifllcturc mulasscmlriY
. . .~
________...
,
,--~
- -----
Manufacturing atzd Production Enterprises
s n tool used for product simplification.

~is tool is an analysis technique requiring a
strict evaluation of product complexity and
~ystematic development of desi?n alternatives
that simplify the product and tmprove the
incidence of defect-free manufac~ring.
The core objective of just-in-time (JIT)
is to achieve low-cost, high-quality, on-time
production by minimizing instances of idle
equipment, facilities, or workers and reducing
excess work in the process. Instead of making
parts to stock,.JIT emphasizes having the right
parts, at the right time, in the right quantities,
on the manufacturing floor. JIT keeps inventory
costs down. This philosophy, however, also
demands well-structured supply lines and
very cooperative employees.
187
Beginning in the 1970s, companies began restructuring the management hierarchy.

The organizational structures of companies
began to flatten. Instead of six or seven
layers of middle management, companies
reduced middle management to one to three
layers. This flattening of the organizational
structure has a direct effect on manufacturing
enterprises because it puts more responsibility
and decision making in the hands of the
assembly line workers and their first-line
managers.
These are not the only challenges for
the modern manufacturer. There has been
an increasing amount of competition in
manufacturing, not only from traditional
economic competitors such as Japan and
European countries, but also from developing
JUS 1"-IN-TlME ( IT)
'
countries. A growing focus on the quality of
A manufacturing philosophy attempting
products and quality assurance strategies
to eliminate waste throughout the
remains in the forefront of operations planning.
system, including inventory at both ends
New and improved engineering materials
of pr~duction and all machinery and
are being introduced on a routine basis.
manpower not adding value directly to the
Selecting the most effective manufacturing
product. JlT has its roots in the Japanese
system takes time. Start-up costs are often
automobile industry, which sought to get
exorbitant. Companies making systematic and
rid of excess, waste, and unevenness.
informed choices will remain competitive
and emerge as international manufacturing
leaders well into the next century. These
In addition to the manufacturing
agile organizations will most probably be
the ones contributing to the global market
changes in the last 30 years, organizations
with a host of functional products made in.
worldwide have undergone restructuring
the United States. Manufacturing managerial
to reduce the layers of management and
decisions are constantly reshaping the profile
increase profits. These leaner manufacturers
of tomorrow's factories. The implementation
are fundamentally different from their
of integrated, automated systems will most
historical counterparts. Traditionally, U.S.
likely have a visible impact on the U.S. lead
manufacturers had many layers of management
in production, as well as on the credentials
separating the assembly line, or blue-collar
of the present and future workforces of the
workers, from the company's president.
United States.
Each layer of management reported to and
created reports for a higher layer. Most of
the middle management existed to report
and summarize the work of the employees
below them and to give this analyzed
information to the employees above them.
-.
---'--
...
; .
188
Computer-~tegra~)
Manufacturmg (C
kbone of a CIM system

Forming ~he bache medlanical, ell.-ctrical,
is an integratl.on :ubsystems. A successful
and informattOna
. . . 'ble for the
M ration makes Jt possl
Cl ope
k t fons that management,
cort~puter w~a~~f~cturing personnel use to
design;;~~te with one another. Oat~ can be
co~ from the operations of the .entire plant.
~e resultant information is contmuously
ated and sent on demand to
processed, uPd
'
. .
k
any employee for efficient decJston ma m~.
CIM allows in-plant design systems to obtam
data from management, on the current co~t of
raw materials, and also from manufacturmg,
regarding ways to adapt design for more .
efficient production. Likewise, manufacturmg
cells on the factory floor have a direct link
to design data, in order to more effectively
plan the steps for making products. Finally,
managers and operators at all levels can
work from their computer terminals to
acquire up-to-date information from both
design and manufacturing databases.
Ostensibly, this feature of CIM allows for
maximum coordination and centralized
control of many industrial engineering
operations. See Figure 6-3. If one takes a
bird's-eye view of a CIM enterprise, computers
are foun? being used throughout to
accomplish the following:
0 Provide design assistance.
0 Transl~te specifications into drawings,
parts lists, and routings.
0 Sc~~ule work based on machine ava 1'1abthty
eel delivery dates.
Reass' and
. promJs
0 .
gn ~rsonnel to various tasks to k
m-process mventories at a m .
eep
m1mum
0 Control machine tools.
.
0 Provide vital up-to-the .
inf
. '
-mmute
ormation for management
Q Ex
t
ecu e routme clerical tasks.
ot
None of th( department in a moct

. can ""-~
manuf. cturing fac.I1ty
ue allowed l'fTI
to
consider itself a cl
d Ct"ll. in ilb dA1ily
operations. In order to ~ahze.all the~
benefits, all <.'mploy
an de. 1gn, engj~'l'ri
manufacturing, ~ nd a~ mini tration-mus~
be able to work m um 'on from the sarne
manu fa turing database. Among other
items, such a ccntral~zed database might
cons i t of the followmg elements:
0 Computerized drawing of par (CAD).
0 Files for parts programs to be used in
numerically controlled machin (CAM).
0 Files on routing that detail the workstatioos
through which various parts must be
processed.
0 Files for all workstations listing productiat
schedules, tools required, and operator
assigned for each shift.
0 Files on aU tools and equipment, detailing
maintenance, and depreciation timelines.
A large variety of tangible benefits han
been reported among CIM users. Several of
these benefits follow:
0 A reduction in the duplication of data
entry concerning product specifications,
tolerances, order quantities, inventory
levels, and raw materials.
0 Fewer discrepancies in the data. These
discrepancies can occur when a number
of people gather information from
different sources at different times in the
production cycle.
0 Prototypes can be prepared and test~
more quickly, resulting in more preose,.
estimates for customers as to when the.
can expect delivery of their orders.
0 Lower energy bills.
0 Less scrap and rework problems.
Manufacturing managers are more inclined

to implement CIM strategies when they
realize a sizable list of intangibles, su.'!' .~
better quality control; higher compebtl\
- ----=
Mamifacturiug and Pntducticm Enlt'IJJYi~
189
INTGRATED
SYSTEMS
ARCHITECTURE
Figure 6-3.
This ~chcmatic from the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) illustrates one perspective via a
logical dillgrnm identifying many of the foundational components of CIM. This framework implies the
nrcd for critical integration among all subsystems of a manufacturing enterprise. CIM can include many
other mnnufacturing processes. These processes include CAD, CAM, FMSs, and automated storage and
retricvnl systems (ASRSs). (fechnical Council of the Computer and Automated Systems Association of Stvffi)
stnnding; faster product introduction; and

increased flexibility in design, product mix,
production volumes, and process routings.
The increasing use and availability of
communication technologies, particularly
tht! lnternt!t, has expanded the possibilities
of CIM. Many companjes are integrating
CAD, CAM, 3-D product visualization,
nnd product lifecycle management (PLM)
software to allow distributed design and
engineering. Companies such as GE, United
Technologies, and Toyota use their tools, along

with offshore engineering and manufacturing,
to facilitate global product development.
Boeing uses advanced product lifecycle
. management (PLM) softlVare that Dassault
created, to allow an international comnlunity
of people to use the Internet to collaborate
in the design of Boeing's 787 Dreamliner.
Boeing designers and engineers w orked .
directly with component suppliers virtually
at 135 sites around the world during the
14JU
l...Ufl u
"'r'"" :J
design process, thereby reducing th~ ~ime

to market for the new plane. The ab.t hty to
work with suppliers during the dest~ ~tage
dramatically reduced the cost of the fuushed
product. Most successful manufa~t~rers .
have recognized the need to m~xuruze. t~~tr
in-house expertise and expand tt by utihzmg
experts across the world to improve thei~
productivity to stay in business. To remam
both solvent and competitive, manufacturers
are learning to formulate ways to get new
products into the marketplace at an everincreasing rate of speed.
The Concurrent Engineering

(CE) Design Environment
The CE approach to developing a new
product is a way of integrating the many
aspects of product design, development,
and manufacture. The progression of steps
central to product design must proceed
concurrently within the boundaries of the
manufacturing system's infrastructure.
Contemporary design engineers must
regard ~eir design function as a pervasive
activtty mfluencing such labor functions as
research, de~elopment, process planning,
manuf~ctunng, assembly, quality assurance
packagmg, distribution, and marketing At '
the bott?m line, design must truly rep~sent
the dechcated delivery of a solution to a
problem within the parameters of profitability.
custom_er satisfaction, and the prosperity of '
the soctal community.
There is no one set way for a new
product to come to market The tim' ll
to d 1
e a owed
eve op new products is shrinkin
because of the competition existin g d
g to ay.
Four years used to be
b
common from th
pro lem-definition stage to the 1
e
the new product N
re ease of
.
. ow, we are seem
tme-to-market periods of
g
Perhaps you hav
6 to 18 months.
you can design it e heard the saying "If
' we can build it!" The
unspok~n cave~ t or on rn t-1
. h cost an d hm~to-mtJrk
.
- !h>
wtt
tr r 1h~ to
the sky is not the limit, DPMA . Wt , ,
1
important a~pt?ct of E. AI"<.> f . rrw s
. (VIM frtd
desz.gn fior manu1,(.a lurnbillly
t0
. h r ntly ff 'J,.11' "'<

v I
t o ensure a d ~ .gn m
.,
. I
t au nt
econom1ca to make. The nv rail,,
and
of manufactur~
is dir ctly prnnr
ru.Jrl1y
. ,
,_- ~;rt u)natt
to the f trm s succ~ s in contr<JIJ "
..
'"K t
manufacturab1ltty of th-. d c~ign
engineers must be articulate and ~.... ~n
able in the fundamental of the
owhdg
m~ufacturing proces~ applicabl . to
thetr areas of expertise. These fu d
. 1d
.
.
n ament.l
me u. e properties of rna teria 1....
m
t..
~,
a~ na lt~~
fo~g and processing; machining; fa k' .
techniques; tool design and selection ~ng
electronics-packaging, -fabrication 'd
. 'b .
, an
-d.1stri ution
~ .
. . requirements; and gtiQm._.lrl(
d rmens1onmg and tolerancing.
How does CE differ from traditional
~esign engineering? The key difference is
mcreased communication among the differmt
stages of the design process. ln traditional
design, engineers design a new product with
lit~le or no input from manufacturers. Today.
wtth CE, the focus is on increased input
~d feedback in the design stage. The ,oaJ
1s to reduce the product costs by designing
a product that can be manufactured from
the beginning without any problems. It is
~ot only manufacturers, however, that gt>t
mvolved in CE. Quality assurance supports
all functions in the cycle by verifying design
reliability, maintaining supplier assurance
programs, creating and maintaining~
procedures, and monitoring processes.
?ther departments that might be involved
mclude material engineers, marketing, and
personnel. Usually, the departments work
together in cross-functional teams with tht
goal of producing a product with a short
time to market and a low development
cost. Individual companies differ as to tht
composition of their product-dt-veloprllent
191
No matter what the tean\ composition,

teams. the use of CE has significantly
however,
. b . .
he
time
and
cost
m
rmgmg a new
t
d
reduce
product to market.
llli..lnuf.ldu~~ h,\\~
itni-'km nh'd 1 '.ln

manubcturin~ tL"Chni l\ll'~. f ,,r th ':--l'
manuf.l~tu~t;, tlw n~ult h,l:' l '-'Cl\ ~n in n: '~'
in pro dud "l\hllity ;)nd pn.xim:ti\ity. 171 iu~try
\ \'tt.l:, ,, WL~klv bu ~in~~s m.,~~.w.i nt:. lus ht n
givin~ " \ks t P\,\nt" .\w.ud~ ~in ,~ thl.! l~.uly
Lean Manufacturing a11d
199Th-. An nn~lv'i~ , f the winrwr~ ~hnw~ th<1t
Agile Manufacturing
the m~joritv l f ~, innc~ n~ lt,1nm~lmtf<lcturin~
techniqu~~ in their pl.ln~. ln ,,ddition, t~\CS '
5 orts teams might be referred to as lean
pl.1nts ha\'e ~L~n col\ nb\,r.ltin~ with thetr
~" The connotation is one of
streanilined
and "K-'' 11
.
supply -chain p;)rhll'I'S whil Cl'lltinu.llly
fitness and competitive aggres~t~n. v\Then
pursuin~ a st,,ndani of excdl.: t~C\'.
. ..
the word lean is use~ as a modtfte~ for tem1s
Two
of
the
hrdu::.trv \Vt't'.l: lkst Plant
has production and mamifacturmg, we are
sue
d
.
L
winn~rs a~ ~tavtng a~\d muc Oif\.1. The
lined to think of the san\e escnptors. ean
me
.
?vtaytag plant it{ )<1ckson, Tcnncss~--e is the
production, in contrast to era f t prod uchon
sole manufactu~r ot dishw-a~hCI';:; tor ~t<tyt.1g.
and mass production, relies on teams of
~jtaytag bt'g.1n its lean tr.u\Sforn~ation in 1~
multiskilled workers at all ~evels of the fim\.
and so impro\'e<.i its plant that 1t '"'"'S 1 C\f
These workers operate flexible, automated
the 12 recipients of the 200-l Shingo Prize
workstations to produce items in varying
for Excellence in ~t.uutf.lcturin~. Using
lot sizes. The craft producer employs highly
lean-n1anufacturing methods, tvlnyt"~
skilled workers or artisans to build very
transfornu'<i a single n~'t!lnbly line into eight
high-quality products customized for the
assemblv cells. Th.is allowed it to incn?ase its
consumer. The mass production methodology
manufacturing tlexibility, while n1nintaining
employs narrowly skilled p~op_le to design
quality. Also~ rvtayt.lg's implementntion of l~.m
standardized products. Semiskilled laborers
n\anufucturing reduced scrap and rework
crank out these products in large volumes.
by 6-lo/o, increased product quality to 99~~,,
Lean-manufacturing environments tend
and reduced worker injury rate by 65':~.
to use fewer resources-less space, less
The Blue Bird North Georgia plant
inventory, and less workers-to manufacture
manufactures school buses thnt carry n\any
a given product than traditional assembly
of the students in U1e Unite\i States to school
lines do. Also, workers in a lean system are
each day. As could be expected, ~afety is
given more authority. Instead of qu~lity
a prin1e concern for the munufactu~n;
control occurring after the product IS
of school buses. Blue Bird beg.1n its lean

completely built, the emphasis is on preven~on.
progran\ in 2003 and foc~tsed on c?ntin~ous
Workers are encouraged to stop production
in1proven1ent for the enhre n1anutactunng
if they find a defect and work together to
plant, including senior n\anagcnu~nt. In less
solve any problems.
than five years, Blue Bird posted a 100~~,
Lean manufacturing was developed by
on-tin\e delivery rate and an 83% reduction
Toyota in Japan and is part of the Toyota
in in-plant ddect rates.
Production System this company developed.
Lean n1anufacturing is not, howe\'cr,
Using lean manufacturing, a company can
the only new n1anufacturing technique. ln
implement JIT and move a\-vay from a ,
recent vears, the word a~lt> has het'n added
made-to-stock organization to a made-to-order
to the n1anufacturing lexicon. lf a person i."
organization. Since the perfection of lean_ .
described as being agile or havin~ llgility,
manufacturing by Toyota, thousands of
1
192
LOIUCIIIf'V'"' ~
"" .. , . . ... -- o J
ho moves
vision one w
1
you most like y .en ith great balance, m a.
ckly and eas1ly, w
How does this
~:;mingly effortless ~ann~~rprises? With
'd the
en
relate to man ufactunng
. scompet'mg worldwt e,
.
more co~pame r or anizations to destgn
products in the
pressure lS on fo g l'ty
'ld the best-qua 1
and bm
'ble Delivering a top
shortest time posst . res agility, as well
performance today reqm
are explained a bit further in later

.
of this chapter. It is essential ton t~ons
o e, '"-
particular influences on a compan
"1\.' lr
.
h' .
.,
y
s
success m ac 1ev1ng agr e ma11Ufq t .
First and foremost, if the productsc~ttg.
shipped are not acceptable to the C\1!, ng
those customers will quickly take th:~rn~,
orders elsewhere.
Supply-Chain Management
as abil~ty.
the agile manufacturer is
In the 1920s, the Ford Motor Compan
In mdustryk't 'th the lowest total cost and
fastest to mar e Wl
.
River Rouge Complex was the ultimate y
tty to meet vaned customer
the greatest ab1 1
f
manufactur~g plant. ~ord. put all the steps
.
nts The ultimate measure o tts
reqmreme
fy t
in automobtle production m one location.
a ility is its ability to delight ~nd ~ahs. t ~
These steps included blast furnaces, a
g t ers With this explanatton m mtnd, tt
cus om
. . . . d try
glass-manufacturing plant, a tire plant, and
is logical to conclude that ~gthty .ts ~ us
the assembly line. At River Rouge, Henry
specific. The criteria for bern? a~tle m the
Ford reached a level of total self-sufficiencv
textile industry are quite a btt dtffe~e~t than
and a complete vertical integration in
those the automotive industry speCifies.
automobile production. Each part of the
Even still, both types of manufacturing.
Model~ vehicle was built at the River
enterprises must adopt strategies enablmg
them to streamline the physical flow of
Rouge complex of plants. Today, companies
materials; integrate processes; and close the
no longer build all the assemblies and parts
distances among supply, production, assembly,
going into their products. Manufacturers
distribution, and customer fulfillment.
are streamlining their operations and
Although there are similarities, agile
outsourcing their manufacturing to reduce
manufacturing and lean manufacturing are
the overall cost.
not the same. Lean manufacturers see
Companies are now using supply-chain
themselves in partnerships with their
management to make significant changes
suppliers. They generally cultivate long-term
in the way they manufacture a product.
relationships with suppliers to ensure
Most companies, in contrast to the River
quality. Agile manufacturers focus on the
Rouge plant, have always used supplier:
customer and meeting the customer's needs.
to provide parts. The goal of supply-~
They co~tinually find and switch suppliers,
management is to manage these suppliers
depending on their product needs.
.
so production is maximized. Inventory
Whether a company is lean or agile, several
is a key aspect of all supply chains. Too
of th~ ~t technologies underlying a firm's
much inventory has a negative effect on
transtbon are also beneficial for reducing
the bottom line. Too little inventory causes t
frodu.ct defects. On a short list of management
production delays. It is not only the :oun
echni~ues ~sed to reduce product defects
of inventory that matters, however. e d
you mtg~t find quality function deployment
relationships among the manufacturer an
(QFD), nsk management DFMA d .
for defect reduction
d'
. . ' estgn
its_suppliers change as well. .
emeJ\t
control {SPC) Se ' an statistical process
How does supply-chain ma~ag
\0
. veral of these concepts
work? Companies today, in theJr quests
. , ...
M.anujacturi11g and Prod11ctio-n Entrrpri~ . 193
an and agile, are specializing as ne ver
Ie
be
. 1'1zat'1on mcreases,
.
before.
As specta
there is
..
..
dependence on external suppliers or

re
rno
the outsOurcing o f an .mcreased percentage
f manufactured components. Since other
~ornpanies are now supplying critical
components, a manufacturer becomes
dependent on these external suppliers for
the overall quality of the product. Part of
supply-chain manag:ment includes the
certification of suppliers. These suppliers
then are considered part of the product team.
Boeing is using supply-chain management
to achieve lean production. The company
wanted to reduce the time a plane is at each
workstation. Also, it desired to reduce the
immense amount of inventory it had in stock.
One technique was to have Boeing's parts
suppliers do more work on the subassemblies
before delivery. This way, the subassemblies
could be delivered right to the assembly line.
They could be installed faster at the assembly
line. Boeing implemented lean manufacturing
in its development and manufacture of
the two X-32A Joint Strike Fighter concept
demonstrator aircraft for the DOD. See
Figure 6-4. The results of this lean
manufacturing are staggering. Boeing was
able to build these aircraft in half the time of
previous.comparable aircraft with almost no
rework. This is practically unheard of when
building a plane for the first time. Also,
the project came in under budget. Overall
assembly costs were 30%-40% below the
company's estimates.
This company is not the only American
company utilizing supply-chain management.
Companies from Campbell Soup to
Hewlett-Packard to Walmart have used
th~e .techniques to reduce costs. Although
therr 1_m plementations of supply-chain
m~agement differ, each of these companies
b~t new and improved supplier relationships
to Increase their efficiency and, in most
cases, profitability. The widespread use of
Figure 6-4.
The structurally complete X-32A Joint Strike
Fighter concept demonstrator is moved from fmal
assembly to structural proof testing. (NASA)
the Internet in managing supply chains is a

new development. Supply-chain-management
software packages can link the manufacturer
with its suppliers both in the United States
and across the world. When part supplies
run low, the software automatically notifies
the suppliers to ship more parts through .
the Internet.
Just-in-Time OIT)
JIT is a management philosophy that has
been in practice in Japan's production facilities
for over five decades. This philosophy was
a crucial part of the systematic changes
developed at Toyota beginning in the 1950s.
The overall system is called the Toyota
Production System. Many other companies .
across the globe have imitated it since its .
popularization in the 1980s. Interestingly, . .
the model.for.the Toyota Production Systenl"
,_- .
...
...
#_
"
'
was the American supennarket. Taiichi ?hno,

To ota executive, traveled to the U~lted
a Y . the mid-1950s to visit Amencan
States m .l plants During hi s t np,
h was
b
automo I e
.
ke
.
sed with American supermar ets
:~:e way shoppers got the products they
ted in the amount they wanted, when
;~ w~nted them. Also, he noticed that the
h lves were restocked quickly, either from
: s~ockroom or through deliveries. This
observation led him to think of the Toyota
r factory as a type of a supermarket. Each
ca
workstation would get its suppI"tes from
an upstream workstation-an ultimate,
expression of the "supply and demand
principle at work.
.
This philosophy is an attempt to achieve
agility by reducing work-in-process (WIP)
to an absolute minimum. This attempt has
gained notoriety and praise in a number of
American firms. A core objective of JIT is
the elinUnation of waste that interferes with
agile performance. Waste appears in the
manufacturing arena in many forms. These
forms include lead times for start-up, setup,
and changeover periods; defective parts;
excess inventory; unsatisfactory raw materials;
and unnecessary material handling.
Within a JIT operation, production
processes are viewed as the only means
of adding value to the product being
manufactured. The indirect, but necessary,
tasks of transportation, inspection, and
storage are looked at as wastes that should
be minimized or eliminated whenever
possible. }IT managers recognize the
dynamic nature of manufacturing and
subscribe to a philosophy of continuous
improvement, synchronization, and
simplicity. In practice, JIT focuses on
achieving integrated, highly consistent,
short:-crcle operations requiring minimal
WIP mventory. The JIT approach is a
departure from conventional systems. In
conventional systems, the emphasis is on
.
automating ind irect p
erat.on
not add vnlue to the nrod
~ thd d
r
Uct, r th- {)
. . .
.
I
e 1mmahng tht- mdin:ct 0 r .a 'lt:r ~
conventional f?fforts can 1~ at.o~. li. "
. ,,
ead t . ~ .
automation. On the .. , ..
ISlaM.
. .
s1and -~Of
lack of contmUJty in the fl
' there
.
ow of
a
between producton tag
material
JIT assume the prod u ti
0
final assembly tage i sta~J ~ rate at the
the JIT plant, the company'se. u xte~l to
expected to provide part in PPIer a!'\'
on a continuous basis. A man rnf aller bat~
.h.
u acture .
rapport wtt 1ts supplier can uJr r close
ensure quality material , as Well : 'atel.y
from the suppliers when they
pahence
.
are a ked
to dehver smaller amounts moreo ften
The hallmark of JTT purchasing
h
5eerns to
require t e steady purchase of pa"-'
m rnau
"\Just In
hme
~line),
Io t stzes
for use on the
as opposed to conventional purchasin
.
In
.
g
pract I~es. conventional practices, raw
matenals are ordered from suppliers in
anticipation of future production. Amajor
drawback of this approach occurs if a key
supplier's plant shuts down due to a labor
strike, natural disaster, or financial failure.
Also, since there are reduced inventories,
there must be increased quality, both from
the parts suppliers and on the manufacturing
floor. Since parts are ordered in the exact
quantity needed, defects become more
disruptive to the manufacturing line.
Another feature of JlT is the reduction or
elimination of setup times at the individual
machines. Ideally, all setup should. be done
off-line. If a plant is making two differen~
products on a JIT line, the .setup ~or
two will be occurring off-hne while P.
one is being assembled. It is then. a :~k
switch to product ~o on .the mamam Je, it
Although this is a fa1rly ~pie ~ce ~ JIT
illustrates a fundamental dJffere ~ ""
ng Stnce u"
from traditional manuf actun ~~~ ....
the prvuU'"
setup does not add value to . The line
it should not be done on the bne.
P;:uct
0
Matrufacturins ami PmJuctlo11 Ct~lcrpri~
ore efficiently used to produce the

canJ'e ~'The reduced setup times lead to
pro ~~~r feature of ]IT-reduced lot sizes.
a~ot.. setup times are reduced or moved
Stnfcel. a smaller lot size of each product
of. be
.ne, roduced at one time.
.
Th'as a IIows
can orep flexibility on the production floor
(or nt
d :1lso allows the company to produce the
an d'ucts needed. Since the production floor
more flexibility, a company can switch
f~~ one product to another if the sales
den1a.nd changes.
One critical component of JIT production
ntrol is the use of the kanban. The word
co
kmzball translates to mean sagnboard"A
.
n
'tem called a lamban card or ticket usually
~ccompanies WIP parts. A withdrawal
kanban reveals the type and amount of
product the next process should withdraw
from the preceding one. A production
kanban specifies the type and quantity of
product the upcoming process must produce.
See Figure 6-5. The kanban tickets, illustrated
in Figure 6-6, are used in place of job orders
and routing sheets. They emphasize small
lot sizes. Subsequently, less paperwork
is required to coordinate planning and
control operations. JIT is a pull system.
In this system, the user department pulls
hro
II'
195
the pitrts or subassemblies from ~upplier

dcpnrtments. The items necessary to keep
production on schedule are pulled from the
prcctding workstation only as required. This
contrnsts with the push system charactcri tie
~)f traditional manufacturing. In this sys t(m,
1tcms arc pushed indiscriminately onto the
succeeding workstation, even if that center
is not ready to receive and process them.
The basic difference between a pull sys tem
and a push system is the relationships
of these systems to demand . A pull system
such as ]IT starts production as a reaction
to current demand. A push system starts
production in anticipation of future demand.
Most companies that have adopted the
]IT philosophy have also established quality
circles in their workforces. These employl"'e
groups are encouraged to make suggestions
that might lead to improvements in the
company's operations. They strive toward the
goal of simplified synchronous production
and often help to improve design methods,
cut down lot sizes, reduce lead and setup
times, minimize scrap losses, rearrange
process flow, and solve vendor problems.
Through most of the last three decades, JIT
strategies have been used for mass-produced
items in the United States, Japan, and parts
Finished
goods
-o~v-orvo~
Production
kanban
Figure 6-5.
l<anban control. The dark arrows represent the movement of parts. The li.ght arrows show the ci~lation
of kanban cards. Machines are shown as circles. Buffers are shown as tnnngles. The last buffer ts the
finished-goods inventory.
196
51 million per year. Medrad also 1._
4.llcre;~~~d
.
. .. b
overall prod uctiv1ty y 30% and in ~
o'
crea<:o..a
its revenue b y ls t o annual1y. Appli """"
makers including GE, Westinghou:ce
M otorola have also made great strid~:~d
implementation of JIT manufacturin lil the
th eu
plants. g
and.
purchasmg
me th o d s 1n
Des
the numerous advant~ges cited for Usin Ptte
finns still report a vanety of limitationsgIll,
and shortcomings. These limitations in
c1Ude
.
l' bl
farawa~ s~pp1ters, unre 1a e freight systetns
loss o f tndtvtdual autonomy, poor qualit '
o f delivered parts, and worker resistanc!t
change. This simply
verifies that no philasop~ .
.
.
),
)IT oro th erw1Se, ts a panacea, or cure-aU fo
the many challenges confronting contempo~
manufacturing and production enterprises
on a d aily b asis.
Material-Handling Procedures
Material handling refers to the manual,
mechanical, or automatic treatment of material
~ u ually make
when the intended purpose is to move,
rl.u~
ut in a._~ labor productivity,
hold, or control objects either individually
n'h "uwi:!ntnri . redua-.d qu.1Hty-rejection
or collectively. This treatment might entail
r-a . .1nJ rrdurod nt"L~ for plant space.
controlling mate rial quantities, location,
Gmcr~l to
implemt-.-ntcd the IIT
timing, sequence, orientation, alignment,
~-tr; :\' in the ("J.tlv 19
and reduced its
or co ndition. Bar coding is the most widely
nnwl mnntory-~lltw .,.penscs from
used and acce pted automatic ID technology,
... ~ilhcm tC' S2 billion in a few . hort vears.
particularly in material handling. This
l.md
er ntxrtL~ in the mid-1980s
technology is an excellent exampl~ of. a
t.. \\ ilh U\C .1pplirtlti n f }IT conc~pts, it
technological tool that has revolutiomzed
~ n tu incn_~-c;c its vol ume of throughput
the movement of material through all areas
by
ttnd n..J~ rrunuhcturin.g lead times
of a CIM facility. The familiar black bars and
~ -... l l.tr ~--D.l\'idson took its top
white spaces all appear to look pret!Ym~t
ow
~t b!..un to Jap.tn in the earlv 1980s
~ : JrT r~ --: ~ations. The cOmpany the same. There are, however, a vanety
code types, called symbologies, cre~t~d to
. C\1~tl} ~Jmed lost market share.
handle different data sets for specth\ logy
l'h n . =y t: at built in the e.ulv 1990s
applications. The most common sym ~e
~ " di: : ~"t fn.oe. compared- to SOOk
is the Universal Product Code (U~C). Data
~ ~ ~p to~ Etr ~tAt its Heilman
UPC is widely used in retail funch?ns. _,.A
~"';.ll-d
lnJu . u. Pennsvhania1 ~~rad
~
U.- u
I
betng l}!)t"
tha t b ar code scanners gathe~ 15
~
m.1~. had inventory
''i: r.rom unnl..-..~
. comp1e~ conveyor
. t ... ucntin g JIT of 0 \'e-r
to control and dnve
. tan~Y
systems. Critical data is ava.ilable ms
.
" 1!\: "
Ot\l r v~ritk.\l$)n,
t.0maticlllly fnr sortin~
U
"
andllll
'b . t 1011 md slunJm'M .1r l..:lh l'mg 4\lfl'~ts
d' tn u
'
r
~~ lly every facet of the makn.\1-h.mdltn~~

v1rtull
sequence.
.
.J
1
.
has been l'Stttnateo t11nt, m lmutlt(\1\,\l
1
t f" turin\" environnwnts, maleri,\l
maOU uL
o
.
. .
J'ni! l\nd a~soctat cd a ctwttic~ C\H\Slll\\l'
d
. I o
han
.
.i
,
t'
t
re than 90% ot ~ pro(t\lCl s 11\\~ spc...n
10
~ tl manufacturmg cyde. hw thts 1~.\s,m
10 1
e
11
ll '
a1one, the effects of matt>na . mm mh on
.
duct quality d emand seno us .1ltl~nhnn .
pro
.._
.
. I
ma1or negative ctn~ct ot m nttna
nhandling
le
\.
. \t
on product qua tty nug \ ca~tse
. 1age to the point that the. pmduclts. no
d an
1 nger fit for use. lnappropnatc... mnlena 1l~mdling methods can lea~ to P.t$du~tquality
degradation, as a rc~~tlt o l postttonmg
errors in fixtures or pgs, weather, dus t,
static electricity, or contaminnting vnpo rs.
n1e selection of suitable matcrial-hnndling
procedures requires the thoro~tgh annlysis
of materials and process rcqmrements.
Ideally, material-handling systems should
be viewed as an integral part of process nnd
facilities design. Specifically, qunlity a~sur.1ncc
specialists must take into accot~nt the
number of times each product ts hnndled,
the distances over which moves occur, nnd
the length of time the product spends being
handled. Analysis and control of these tlu~c
main variables should result in reduced
incidences of product-quality d egt-.1dation.
Some of the most common mntc rial
quality-related characteristics a manufacturing
firm must deal with aJe fragility, s urface
finish, sensitivity to electrostatic discharge,
sensitivity to magnetic fields, sensitivity to
the environment, and shelf life . From a
material-handling perspective, fragility miHht
translate into impact, vibration, temperaturechange, friction, and weight-support toleranC\.'S.
Furthermore, a product's sensitivitie~ to
weather exposure, moisture, tempernture
conditions, ambient pressures, dust, and
contaminating vapors demand specific
lllll'l,\1\l'\'~ . ., '"':-' ' "''''"'""''~ ~"''~'''l' li'l\tl
'f'""
k.h.l l\' d,,blol\-. 1

H)~ ''l'I"')J-'ril\ll'
1\1,' t ~r i,' l l '.\ 1',I IIt '~ 1'', t l ', i\ l s, ,, '' ' vt 1' \ l' 1' t
i M t h~, 1\1 H l :HOI\ \ t\'-' h '"'' \lui\:. 'l\ ,o d i f\'('l
~h\\h.~~il'. \1:--,d "' ''""""''' pn,d uct qu.\llt '
lhl'\lugh'ultll\ " " '"u[.wht ri ll\ 1' 1'\ Kt..'. Ml'
to m i n l m l ~.~. tlw 1\\un\l,r nf t l nw~ ll\1\k ri.1ls
U\\l~l b, " '""'''" """ "' ~h(\1 ll'l\ ''"' d b ll\1\ l'~
nf t r.w, I bd "'''''" '''('""'="'''t h'"~ ~"'''l' r,, I ',f
" \~ t nnd ''':HH \l muf., tu d ll ~: :-:t rl\h~~l ,:-.

d ~~ ri\wd l'. rl k r ~,,m tn h'~ Pl'"" d ll'l'l'll tu
t\w
tJWSt' l\'~OH\ 1\\l'IH \,\t it \I\~ .
1\llnt 'rial Rcquir 'tl'\ 'nts

Planning (tv\RP)
i\Jcat,riHI l'l'cJIIirtmcfll!'\ l'lcwllirrs (MHP)
i~ a t dmiqul' f,w planning futtm pu r \'"' ~~
orders and m l\nufn turing h't:-< .Kn)r"lin~
h ) wh.\l is t\'quitvd h' ( \H\\pll'll' ,, m.bh' r
prn dudion sdwdu\,. Mcuru.fircturius n.s ou.rrr
~,,,.,,;,S (i\fi~P
ll) b ,, domi1Mnl ,, pphc.,twn
Stlftwat\' stru hm.' m lmu f4tcturin~ m~ nn~l'l'S

nrc using. MRP 11 C\ll\\ll\\lllly ind udes
plnnning 'Pl'lkatinns, l'U s tomc t'-St'rvirl~ .
,lpplk.llit\1\S, pt\ldw:til'll control, p un:hasmg.
itwc...nlory l'"'dud - d,,t,, m n n.l~~ mc...'nt. aml
vnrious fin.1nr inl fum:lll\1\S. ~..Sl'ntinlly, tv\RP 11
ct\'nks n d yn.lm h.: dl.lScd-loop m.ma~lmcnt
~ys tcm intcgt\llin~; nll tlu~ nmjor ~ub~y~tems
of th' ~wgnnizn tion .
.
\Nhih. J.lpnn ~e 1\\\ll\Ul.\chtt~r~ W e t'(\
adopting JlT in the \ 970~, ~meric:"'
mmlufnchu-cr~ were pursum~ n dtff"nnt
nppro,\ ..'h to pl\)l\uctil'n ~~mt rol. This
nppnxwh wn~ MRP. MRP '~ a computt~r-hn~

sv~tl'm dc~lg1\l'd to h,,nd\l' the m\.irrmh of
~ltppHe~ and the ~~hcdulin~ nf work in tl~l'
mnnufndurin~ phmt. J\n MRP ~y~h~m b mlds
on n pl\)dud 's H~t o f 1\\4'\tt'rinl~, l\ 11\ld n hill
of uwtl'rial:' ( IJt >M). The MRP systl'n1 intcgrnh.~
nl\ thl' individual 130M~ and the fon.'Cn~tcd
demand for the individun\ prt)(iucts into
nn ovcmll mnSll'r P"lducti<>n sch edule.
&)e }-:lgurc 67.
Mmuifacturing arrd Production Entrrprises
Demand forecasting provid\?s nn estimate

of the dct~tnn~ for each type of product sold.
An orgamzatton does long-ternt forecasting
to develop an overall plan for one to five
years, to allow the organization to acquire
new facilities, hire people, and buy new
equipment. Short-term forecasting is usually
done from one tnonth to one year and
focuses, instead, on the n1anufacturing of
the company's products.
Once demand is detennined, an nru:,'Tegate
production plan can be developed. Typicnlly,
the sales and marketing departments make
demand forecasts that are a combination of
orders on hand and anticipated forecasts.
These estimates nutst be reconciled with U1e
manufacturing constraints of the plant (such
as plant capacity and workforce). Since a
firm can make thousands of products, this
data is usually cmnbined at smne manageable
aggregate level-therefore, the term aggregate
planning. One of the major uses of an aggregate
plan is to level the production schedule so
production costs can be minimized. Since
the aggregate plan does not provide a plan
for individual manufactured products, this
plan must be subdivided into another plan
specifying quantities of manufactured items
by time period. This resulting plan is the
master production schedule. The master
schedule states which items are going to be
manufactured, the quantities of these items, and
when these items are needed. This schedule
divides the planning into several time
periods. The duration of these time periods
varies greatly from company to company.
After the master production schedule has
been developed, rough cut capacity plam1ing
(RCCP) is performed to determine if the
master production schedule is feasible. In
rough cut planning, some broad guidelines
are used. The guidelines usually relate to a key
resource (such as equipment or direct labor).
If the master production schedule meets the
rough cut capacity, the detailed production
requirements can be planned..
199
O~ce MRP is completed, n dctaiJed

capacaty nnalysis is done to determine
whether or not the production schedule
excec~s the capacity of the plant. If the
capacaty limitations cannot be resolved,
the master production schedule is altered.
The pr~ccss repeats itself. The process of
e~nluating the cnpacity requirements begi:ns
~'tth the due dates of each order. Using lead
tames, BOMs, and routings, each order is
back sch~duled fror:" the due dnte through
the requtred operattons to determine when
individual workstations will be used.
As time passed, various operational
function~ were added to extend the range
of tasks m MRP systems. These extensions
include master production scheduling
(MPS), RCCP, capacity requirements
planning (CRP), production activity control
(PAC), and purchasing. The combination of
these functions is termed closed loop MRP.
With the addition of certain financial
modules, as well as the extension of MPS to
deal with master planning and the support
of business planning in financial terms, this
extended MRP was labeled MRP II. MRP can
be used with JIT, although the structured
environment of MRP makes JIT more difficult
to accomplish. In these cases, JlT is used for
parts ordering. The schedule is maintained
through MRP.
Which is better-JIT or MRP? This is
an impossible question to answer. In an
assembly line where production is constant,
MRP provides a stable way to manage and
plan for production. In a factory where
different products are produced on a daily
or weekly basis, JIT is generally more
successful. Either approach requires
extensive training and expertise to operate
efficiently.
t:'~
enret t ~~latlttfactttrhlg
OJ11 v 1
Technologies
~ tutut\~ st,\tc 0 f th~ nl~U\ufa~turing
. runl~n ~r
"'t""""'
tJlh
h'r tho'~ e hrms that
t--nnn
''""
J
h.l'~ ~tl:'l'-hi\' impkml'l\ll~ k\tn-produchon

~ 1\..~" '" .:k~ .u\d Jn' str.lll1 ;it!S in all phases
..,i t, ir' ~~r"ti lS, " ;ll mn.' t ,,s..,un..~H):
it-...: tu~ ,1S~"-~ l'f ~'ft. cust\lm productiOn.
~ Il'..1m;f.l jurin_~ hrings yet anoth~r
~r ~"'-~ t\' ~ auh:ml.tti~n ~tix. This
:x ui,.,"i\trim: ]di\"l''I"!' ,,, th tl much
s~-.:cr ~.:iti~; t\' tht pl;mt . .. phisticatl~d
~ 1tWL'-n.""'tri''~' mputer networks that
' lful lnd d ':\terous human workforce
t::i " :ld "P'-'rat~ ~pn...~nt th~ b.1ck~\l~\~
i wl'k1t n.~ r.,-pl'rts rd-er "'as the d1srtal
~,m.,. C mp..mit: ure di~"\J\erin~ th~y can
t ~ i ~ n-xiu -ts Ht~r~tly in quantities
..._whH~ c-humiJl$. them out at m~ss
r:t
""tl"V\ ~pc ~s.

~
, tf they are f und at alt play

le5S .,,nirn.~'-nt n'k in the soft-
u. ,urin~ finn. -..r the bst 25 yt-Llrs, a

r. ~be-r f " m:muf.1cturers realizl'\.i that
hll'1h: ~on aut\,mJtion through
hlJ.b~flr.riblt rnarmfachlring
_ :~ (E\Ii
ctually cost them profits.
~ e_:q't"n.~\'\?'.
mplkatt'\.i -)>stems
t ~~ rn
\"Ulner.1blt! tl" failure than
~ ~~ !'f..
~ mJn.ts~.lble rells f mrn:hines.
"> whr~ d xrerity ~1nd judgment arc
' h-un\.!I\ ~J.ron- .m.' ba k in a~~1bly.
' ~ I~-'iPl' ~ hift- "'Humans
rn
--eral well recognized

cum"!ltl}' reaping th~ rewards
\ ru-.ro m.1n u f;1cturing. based

~
ill: - to utdistance foreign
::'1: ._. eti ~in such oitic,\l measures as time
.. ::r ~r~ :.. Wlufacturing flexibility.
~' C0D t~uipme:l.t and RP machines
..t:-;ue t ~ 'he. the world ""'ill entl?r yet
~ '!
~ ~ of custmn manufacturing.
~.dt>d drsign (C.-\D) systems have
evolved from digital drafr

digital prototype systems ~~g software t
complete digital simulati at Provide ao
on of th
end product. Where can a
. e entire
n
avtd
c 1.
a rep Iacen1ent part for an
Yc Ist finct
Ducatimotorcycle when ~t:cale Italian
a country road in northern Mr~aks down 0
. ,
ame? In
n
short years, the nder might
a few
.
stmpi
nde to the nearest town and h
catch a
thumb drive containing all peat~ over a
f1.Ies f or th e motorcycle to the r0 Inent des1.gn
,
perator t
towns comer parts factory. You thou ~ the
24-hour copy shops were a conve g t
ntence'
Contemporary manufacturing .
.
ts movm
toward an era of mass customizatio l ATL g
.
n. nnlle
tIliS
sound s l'k
1 e an oxymoron the ea 1
.
,
r 1er
examples of agtle manufacturing hint at
trend toward customized fabrication. Tha
entire suite of sciences and technologies ~ve
have referred to as rapid proto typing (RP)
provides the foundation to this developing
approach to manufacturing. This is indeed
new territory. RP is ground, however, where
U.S. R&D teams have already established
solid footing. Researchers are presently
experimenting with and creating intelligent
materials that can anticipate failure, repair
themselves, and adapt immediately to
changes in the environment.
Rapid Prototyping (RP)

Before any firm commits to the mass
.
production of a new 1tem,
1t b u1"Ids.different
prototypes for design, ergonomics, safety,
ease of assembly, and fitness for use ed as
(quality). In recent years, RI:' ha:;:~~in
a well-regarded manufactunng . f RP
.
t The aun
the CE design env1ronmen
typeS early
systems is to make full use of :~~ify errors
in the development stage to 1 odificatioOS
in design and make necessary mthe potential
This expanding technology has rototyPf
to allow designers to prod~ce a ~AD
within minutes of completing a
Mtllllljilcl url11s ami fJroduc:l io11 Enterprises
, ng of the part, thus obtaining a

dr"'cal
I
.
model o f a proposeLd d csagn,
whil
WSI
'
PI " :fa' ng the lengthy and costly u sc of
~\'OK
.
..
"ntional
toohng
and
castmg
proces~cs .
convt.:
~
Figure 6-8.
RP systems
use data from a 3-D CAD file

to construct a model. Charles Hull pa tentt:!d
ms in the mid-1980s,
om:) of the first
RP svste
J
ith the founding of 3-0 Syste ms, Inc., to
~cvelop comn1e rcial applications for the
~roC\."55 he called stercolitlzogrnplzy. The number
of commercially available RP sys tems has
increased cons iderably to include lase r
modeling systems, solid ground curing,
fused depo ition modeling, fast casting,
and laminated-object manufacturing. The
purchase of th~se highJ~ sophisticat~d
sy. terns e xcltts tve ly for mterna l u se 1s ofte n
pn)hibitively expensive for many compani~s .
for this reason, a large numbe r of compames
outsourcc their rapid-prototype manufacturing
n..quirements.
An RP System
201
Rem rnbcr our broken motorcycle ? In an

xampl ' of the u ~ o f prototyping to replace
th motor yclc part u~ing fu sed deposition
tTH>dcling, a machine tool receives a geometric
d es ription of the bro ken part from the CAD file on th dis k. The program then divides
the model into e venly spaced ]ayers. Each
lay r is as small as a fe w thousandths of
an inch. The model is built layer by layer
from the bottom up. The program instructs
the tool to d e posit thin layers of liquid, one
laye r at a time . These laye rs subsequently
fu se together to build a comple te part.
A new, and cheaper, RP technology has
recently lmcrgcd on the market-3-D printing.
3-D printe rs wo rk by printing n ew layers on
to p of existing laye rs to create a 3-D object.
Unlike s tc reolithography, 3-D printing
is fa ster, cheaper, and easier to use. This
printing is pa rticularly useful for companies
in the conceptual stages of engineering design.
In these s tages, they develop prototypes of
A Prototype
Figure 6-8.
RP machines use high-performance engineering materials to create parts with superior strength, heat
1'\.'Sistance, and chemical resistance. The FDM Titan1 M fTom Stratasys is the only RP system that can build
p.uts from high-temperature, high-performance, and durable engineering plastics, such as polycarbonate,
polyp~nylsuUonc (PPSF), and ABS plastic. This partially compJeted prototype of a model airpJane_.
..
wa built using an RP machine. Ooe Hiemenz, Stratasys; Phoenix Analysis & Design Technologies) . ::. -
202
d a designer and
roducts. Timberla.n , sed a 3-D printer
new P
f footwear, u
anufacturer
o
1 ed to create new
m
deve op
s
Z Corporatwn
CAD files. Prototype
hoes from
k
prototype s
$1200 and too one
that previously co~t st the company $35
k to carve no\\ co
wee
inutes to create.
.
and take 90 m . e of Machiue Design,
Almost every ISS~ an advertisement
klv contams
a trade wee .'' ved
es of product
for new and tmpro. typdenying the benefits
ing There IS no
prot~typ .
Prototype parts can save
of thts technology. allow the engineer and
costs because they the final product early
.
anufacturer to see
~the design stage. This saves expenstved d
.. ns and rework RP itself has expan e
reVlSIO
'
l'
into two additional areas: rapl~ too ~~g
and rapid manufacturing. Rapid toohng
refers to the use of RP to develop mo~ds ~or
use in production. Rapid manufactur~g IS
the use of RP for low-volume p~oductl?n.
There is no doubt that its use will contm~e
to expand in the future, as more comparues
exploit this technology to decrease costs and
reduce development time.
Cellular Manufacturing
Cellular manufacturing is a type of
equipment layout in which the machines are
grouped into cells, rather than being placed
on an assembly line or divided into different
functions (for example, all drills together or
all lathes together). The parts produced in
a particular cell determine the layout of the
cell. Inoorder to have an effective cellular
arrangement, a company has to group its
products that use similar manufacturing
processes. All parts in one group (called
a family) follow the same route in the cell
althou~ individual products might spe~d
more time at a particular machine than
other products in the same family
.I_-J~storically, the layout of ma~ufactUrin
facilities was classified as a job sh
fl . g
shop, or fixed layout. Cellular ma:Jfa~:g
0
is a new type of p r duction ),1 y

teclmology (G~f) is used in urdcO~t. Cro,p
cellular mllnu filcturing. GT 1......unr ap
() ach, v.
to manufactunng that Slcks torn.-: _ rr~)ach
11
production efficicr~cy by gr upin ~~~r '"'
similar nnd rccurnng tClsk!, prcv- g' g thtr
'
"-('(AUr
problems, and bottlenecks. A key f . . ,
GT is the segrega tion of p&l r~ c1Cc t:dc1~Urt c,f
.
f
or 1n,. t0
their d esi g n s, mnnu &lctu ring feilt
,.,
. .
f
" u rl~ 0
combmat10n o these. \rVhcn simil ' r a
J r PMt
are grouped together, c.1ch collcct1
~
on can
ultimately share setups nnd machine t
Thjs sharing reduces production cos~ ooJs,
is applicable to both automntcd and GT
nonautomated mnnufacturing nnd C;)
be used in new or existing facilities. n
This technology has attracted a gr t
deal of inte~est from manufacturing fi~
becau~e of 1ts proven capncity to simplify
matenal flo\v on the production floor. The
GT approad1 is a marked improvement
over traditional batch-processing methods
~xp~rts esti~ate that most manufacturing.
IS still done m small batches, ranging from
a single workpiece to several thousand
pieces. In n1any cases, these parts cannot
flow smoothly through the manufacturing
process since different parts require different
setups or must be transferred to another
machine. The application of computerization to
manufacturing enabled managers to improw
the production of both small and large batches
through the use of scheduling software,
sequencing software, and MRP systems..
It also became feasible for companies ~o
identify and track the thousands of different
parts being produced through the use of .
GT methods. Design engineers have found.
.
they can use GT systems to detennine
whether or not an existing part can be used.
in a new application, thus eliminating ~e
need to design a new part. This potential
to eliminate design duplication and the
parallel need to build a new jig or ftxtttre
can yield significant economic benefits..
o7
'
Marrufacturittg at~d Production Enterprises
&ically, a GT database is a computerized
203
be most useful, the code should be able
tem that speeds up the retrieval
to describe the part from both a design

fihJ"\S: information, facilitates the design
perspective and a manufacturing perspective.
0
Such physical features as the external
~" and enhances the communication
P g individual functional areas inside the and internal shapes, dimensions, threads,
~~:~ GT y tems also impr~ve the acc~acy grooves, and splines describe the geometric
P. I"()C\:'SS planning and a1d m. the creatJon,
form (morphology). The structure and
t ~ut., and operation of manufacturing cells.
chemistry of the raw material, the surface
1
a) i a criricaJ building block for ClM. A GT
finish, various tolerance requirements, and
the need for heat treatment are examples
d,atdba~ can contain detailed information
of manufacturing specifications. It is easy
bout the parts a company produces, the
~~and equipment available to produce
to visualize a code with a large number of
characters if one tries to capture all significant
th~ parts, and the ~t proces ing methods
attributes. A number of GT coding schemes
t c(ltnplete the job on time as promised.
have been developed, including Metaalinstituut
her advantages of adopting GT trategies
CLASSification (MlCLASS) (12 digits), Decision
Uldud~ reduced material-handling costs,
CLASSification (OCLASS) (8 digits), Vuoso
improved flow of ma~rials, small in-process
Praha (4 digits), and Opitz (5 plus 4 digits).
inn"!ntory, reduced changes in production
Figure 6-9 provides an example of a
planning and control, 1 ~ floor pa e
principal GT coding system called Opitz,
rweded, n.~u~'\."<1 design modifications, easier
serving to illustrate this key aspect of GT.
dt-Sign retri~val , m re accurate cost and
Once the parts are coded, they are further
dclivl'f)' estimate , and improved quality
grouped into families. As you can see, the
anJ prOductivity throu "h the workplace.
Opitz code classifies a part according to
'of the ~alimt benefits of GT is a
its external shape, its internal shape, the
Jin-'d result of u ing a f rmal coding system.
machining of its surface, and its additional
In this tern, ea h part receives a numeric
c ran alph.lnumeric code describing
holes and teeth. The part receives a score from
pecifk char teri tics or attributes. To
zero to nine for each digit in the Opitz code.
Form Code
Supplementary Code
6
D9t
7 8 9
.......__~-,...::,.:.:~-., '1 l ~ i
IJtj
l
F. ........ ...._ L laf9'\ & 0 Diltnlllef
Fw '*ulionlllawta1 A. & c .. 1tw - - . . . . o1 the bm thlt
a.
Fi~6-9.
~ b.lsic structure of the Opitz code.

encta the s-t
..
~ ..:,
! '
.,
I
204
'
'
Conteinp~rary Technology
t .
Under digit two, main shape, a code of

zero represents a smooth extern~! shape. A
code of eight indicates the part 1s threaded
similarly to a screw. The combination of ~o~es
for each digit then gives a complete descnption
of the part. The special codes following
identify the specific design attributes of the
part. These attributes include it_s ?imensio_ns
and material. Using GT codes, 1t 1s far eas1er
to locate one part fitting the current needs at
hand. The engineering department can then
avoid designing a brand new part. As a rule,
GT codes are assigned to both purchased
items and fabricated parts. .
. l"f' d
.
f GT 1. . b h
A srmp 1 le vers10n
n a JO -s op
setting involves the sequencing of similar
parts on a machine or series of machines.
This job-shop facility can process a wide _.
variety.of parts since it is still a job shop.
The parts are processed in families (using
the GT code), however, to realize some of
the benefits of GT.
. A more sophisticated approach to GT
entails the creation of manufacturing cells. A
manufacturing cell is a collection of machine
tools and material-handling equipment
.g~~uped together to process one or several .
part families. Transfer of the piece from one
process step to another within the cell and
possibly O!l to a different cell can-b e automated.
Essent_ia!ly, a manufacturing _cell is a hybrid
pro~uction system meeting:the needs .of a .. . .
specific .firpl. ~~ ~evelopment and application
of ~anufacturmg cells fii'e d.e pendent on the
. typ~ ~f manu,factur~g operations performed;
t:he life cycle 9f products f~brica:ted . the , .
produ~t mix; and projected ciist~mer -... :
dem~~ Cells_are a b~end of job shops
_ - produ~m~ a large vanery_9f parts and flow : ,

.. ~hops d~t~ated to the _mass production.of ~ne
- .~ : proc;l~<:t.J~Igu;te ~-10 p_qrtrays one .vi~W of
:. !~e ~tffere~ces,~_ehy~~it m~ufa~turing parts
.._, m_a JOb _shop -~~g a co~ven~onallayout
and a-cell shop subscrib' t cr . .. '.,
. "
.
. mg C?
.- A full
. prm~tpl~_s .
faster, since parts are moved quickl .

systematically from one workstatio~ 0
next. This allows the manufacturer t the
inventories of partially finished pa reduce
representing significant cost savingrs.s,
:nd .
Radio Frequency Identificati

(RFID)
_.
.. on
d. ~
Ra w ,~equency identification (RFID) is
an automdahc ltD _tdeclu~ofylogy that uses tags or
transpon ers o 1 enti obJ"ects, collect data
and motst important~y, enter the data into a '
compu er system usmg a wireless netwo k
Most RFID tags are attached to a productr
an animal, or a person and have two pa~

These parts are an integrated circuit for .
storing and process~g information and an
antenna to receive and send signals to the
wireless network. There are also simpler
RFID tags without integrated circuits that
can be printed directly on the product.
;rvtost early use of RFID was in supplycham management. One of the early adopters
of this technology was Walmart. As the
largest retailer in the United States, Walmart
uses RFID to read product information from
tags as products are moved from Walmart's
distribution centers into their stores. Walmart
uses passive RFID tags. These tags do not
emit _a w~reless signaL Instead, a special
reader reads the tags. The use of RFID tags
allows Walmart to replace its stock faster
and reduce excess inventory. In the last few
. years, other companies includmg Audi, _
Sony, Dole Food; and Boeing have followed
Walmart' s lead and set up RFID systems t9
~ack products. At its Auburn, Washington
a~~~raft plant, Boemg uses RFID tags to . :.
m~age incoming par~ for~ts:planes~ '{~ay,
?Smg RFID tags, ~e supplies are automatically
scanned when they enter the building: .. a
. .' -... . . Thi
. _9~U:~ s co~puter system ts no~fied. . s
0
:: eel! sJe.e.C!~h~~=~e.xJble.
ma_nufacturing . . . notification ~ramatic_ally red~ce.s IabO:f ~s~ .
. .. . . . . _ . .-_P . -~ . _. ~~~c~g proce~~ . .. : _. f~r :bofl1 Boemg and. Its :s~pphers~ ::: \_ -.':~ =._: . :,-
':-: ,; .. ._.. .,_," \ ....\
' ....
. .
.
.
. . . '-
- . -.
. : ~-:_ ..: . .;
,.;~
--::::
~:_;,_:~.:_'; - -~--
_, ..:,-., ..;_r.:.
-~ ~-
'
__
<- ..;..... :.' .-.. .,
~-: .: , :: :~:! :: :.: :. . -_.::<..,. .~:-:- :,-: : ~ ::,(,=: :;~:;_: . ~-- - : .~ ...><~ : ~-<.;_. :.:>;;:: .. ;.: :: :: :_:,:_. ,:-: ._~_:~, ):_:} :.:\~ :: ~- ..~;:~~~,.;\~:.;~~~;:d~;~~
.
_.
.-
.....,
.-.: _..
' '
. <. '
'
... :
,206
Conttmrporary Ttdmology
:n supply-chain
Since its adoption
u
.
.d
t RFID has been used m a Wl e
manas::en lications. The port of oakland,
ran~ . PP RFID to track delivery trucks
Cahfonu~ u~
.
terminal. RFID is
entering lts mternationa1
also used in wireless-tool pass syste~s on
the nation's highways. One of the blggest
users is the U.S. DOD. The DOD ~gan
using RFID to track cargo and vehicles
during the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Tod~y,
the DOD requires all suppliers, excluding
those of bulk goods, to include RFID ~ags on
their DOD supplies when they are delivered.
Currently, all new pass~rts the U.S. .
government issues contam an RFID c~tp .
with the passport holder's nam~, nationality,
gender, date of birth, place of birth, ~d
digitized photo. The chip also co~t~s the
passport number, issue date, exp1ration
date, and type of passport.
RFID tags are not restricted to products
and supplies. In the last two decades, millions
of household pets have been implanted with
RFID tags. The USDA has a new voluntary
initiative. This initiative is the National
Animal Identification System (NAIS). The
NAIS identifies individual animals through
imbedded RFID tags. The Department of
Agriculture plans on using this animaltracking feature to trace an animal-related
disease back to its source within 24 hours,
thereby reducing any further health threat
to the U.S. public. Xmarl< software's RFID
~ystem for tracking and monitoring patients
lS used both for infants and in nursing homes
for elderly patients. In hospital nurseries
after birth, both the mother and the child
are given wearable RFID tags. If a baby is
re.moved from the newborn ward, an alarm is
triggered. This alarm alerts hospital security.
Xm~k software's Roam Ale~ system for
nursmg h~mes allows wandering residents
to be morutored. ~n the tagged resident
app~ch~ a morutored exit, the tag emits
a speaal sgnal. Not all the uses are for
medical purposes, however Th

.
.
e Ba
Club m Barcelona, Spain, described)~ Beilch
Dateline section, offers regular
U\ the
the option of implanting RFID ~UStorn~
their skin, in order to provide qa~~llder
and payment for drinks.
Ulc: r entry
As the prices of RFID tags c . .
.
Onhnu
drop, more comparues will use th
~to
ern to

h
manage t eu mventory and suppl c . .
The use of these tags in animals a }'d hatns.
is n:'ore fraught with controversy. ~ th:Pie
an 1mplanted RFID can quicken entry . gh
nightclubs and secured facilities acti ~nto
point to the possibility of RFID ;ags ~~ts
used to monitor citizens. When tags . mg
imbedded in expensive products su~re
as clothing or electronics, will these ta
.
.
h
gs
continue to ~orutor t ese products after the
consumer brmgs them home? At this po t
it is too soon to tell.
ln '
Total Quality Management

(TQM)
Along with the strategic implementation of
manufacturing technologies, the management
of productivity and quality has emerged as
a major business strategy in numerous
organizations. There appear to be several
forces driving this ongoing trend. The first
force is related to an intensive amount of
global competition in all industrial sectors.
There has been an increasing demand for
better-quality goods and services at either the
existing price or a significantly lower one.
A second force stems from the fact that
production costs have gone up conside~a~ly
over the past several years. To offset this
.tnaneW
situation, manufacturers are investiga ... -o
ty of labor,
.
ways to improve the p rod uctiVl
.
f. ovattve
as well as to apply a vanety o ~ th level
manufacturing technologi~. Thir~t.. ed~
of consumer education has mtensift
Manufacturing and Production Enterprises
leading to a more acute awareness of quality.

public acceptance of manufactured goods is
based on strict conformance to specifications.
people commonly expect the products
they purchase to be 100% defect free. They
quickly lose confide~ce in a manufacturer
when these expectations are not satisfied.
A widely accepted generic definition of
q11a!ity is "fitness for use." The manufacturer
views fitness for use from the perspective
of its own ability to process and produce
finished goods with less rework, less scrap,
minimal downtime, and high output.
Customers view fitness for use whenever they
consider things such as product durability,
availability of spare parts, identity, and comfort.
Two main aspects of quality are the quality
of design and the quality of conformance.
The quality of design involves the features
obtained through changes in or manipulation
of design parameters. Differences (not always
improvements) in quality can be achieved
by changing elements, such as the size of
the item, the materials used in the product,
the equipment used in production, and
the tolerances during manufacturing. The
quality of conformance is a measure of
the extent to which the product conforms
to the specifications and tolerances the
design requires. Many factors influence
this measurement, encompassing training,
employee motivation levels, the complexity
of the production process, and the quality
assurance system being used.
Consumers evaluate a product's fitness
for use through a review of certain quality
characteristics. Depending on the item,
any number of features might be critically
considered. If the buyer expects the product
to last fo~ a certain length of time, quality
elements such as its warranty, serviceability,
reliability, and maintainability are important.
Ergonomic features, including comfort, size,
and ease of use, fall into another category.
Finally, one should not overlook the
sensory-oriented qualities, such as the
207
product's
color, taste, fragrance ' beautv
ap
.,, and
' yearance. If you have ever been involved
With the selection and purchase of a new
a~tomobile, you should remember these
thmgs well. Nothing quite compares to the
new-car smell!
T~ere are several quality-management
funchons that must be executed at different
levels of the manufacturing process. The
corresponding control activities and the
types of data collected at each level tend
to va~y considerably. Quality planning is a
funchon parallel to process planning. For
each workpiece handled, the measurement
parameters, tolerances, and test sequences
must be determined. It is also necessary to
esta~lish sampling plans, process-capability
stud1es, and the amount and type of quality
data to be accumulated and stored. The
company's quality expert normally completes
this planning operation with or without the
use of a computerized data storage-andretrieval system.
As previously described, quality is the
sum of all attributes and characteristics of
a product or service contributing to the
usefulness of the product or service or its
ability to perform certain functions. Quality
management is, therefore, a regulatory
process through which performance is first
measured and then compared with preset
standards. If necessary, corrective action is
taken. The backbone of an organization's
quality-management system is the internal,
national, and international standards it
aspires to guarantee. These standards are
essentially akin to a contractual agreement
between the manufacturer and the customer.
Adherence 'to publicly accepted standards
is the aim of a quality assurance system.
In recent years, many organizations have
adopted the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) 9000 standards as
the basic foundation for their total quality
management (TQM) system.
208
(IJtt tempara
ry TecJmo/ogy
ent system
I' manage m
An efficient qua tty mplex adaptive
described as a co
rties and
can be
All critical prope
dentified
control loop.
standards are I
roduct-perforrnanc~ t the factory:
p d checked thtoug ou
anl At receiving. h the parts originate
.
I tion w ere
2. At the oca f turing process.
in the manu ac
.
bly stations.
h
3. At subassemf. I acceptance test of t e
4 During the ma
. f' . hed product.
f
tnts
h the cause o any
Within the system, wf en rrence are known,
, t and its place o occu
de,ec
d feet's correction or
measure~ forth~ . ~ t d Requisite corrective
elimination are tmha e .
fl r
.
. ht take place at the factory- oo
actions m1g
k
oduct
level or might extend bac mto pr .
design. An importan~ asp.ect of q~~tty
management is reaction ttme. This ts the
length of time (seconds, minutes, hours~
or days) between the inst~t ~he defect IS
recognized and the instant tt IS corrected.
Coordinated efforts between plant managers
and shop personnel, combined with advanced
computerization, will eventually lead to
shorter reaction times and more efficient
quality assurance programs. JIT production
goes hand in hand with good quality. Poor
quality requires buffers of inventory ready
for use when bad or unacceptable parts are
found during assembly. As stated earlier,
one goal of lean production and JIT is to
operate with gre~tly reduced inventory.
A new techn1que Motorola pioneered
h~s been added to the TQM movement-Six
S~: Six Sigma refers to the amount of
vanation existing in a product Th
product at
e average
of t
. a company usually has a variation
oudr ~gma. This equates to more than
6000 eects pe u
M
r mJ. Ion. In the late 1980s
otorola started a cam .
'
defects in its prod
paign to reduce
. system reucts.
The company used
a quality
.
VIew to asses th
" .
.
euectiveness of aU th
.
s e
in Motorola. Motorol: md aJorl business units
eve oped the Six
Sigma concept to improve its processes

increase pro~uct and process quality. Sixand
Sigma is equtvalent to products that ar
99.9997/o acceptable or, in other words eh
only 3.4 defects per million opportuniti ave
In 1988, Motorola was the winner of th esfi:
J Qu
e rst
. N ahona
Malcolm Bal d nge

aJity Award
The Six Sigma concept has spread to
hundreds of organizations since its
establishment by Motorola. GE estimated
that its profits in the late 1990s increased
by $6 million because of its use of Six Sigrn
Allied Signa) recorded more than $800 milli a.
. s1gma h as spread beyond on
in savings. Stx
the manufacturing world and is used by
organizations in many areas. These areas
include banks, health-care providers, and
schools. This concept represents a higher
level of commitment by an organ.ization
because it requires a paradigm shift in
thinking about quality. Six Sigma focuses
on selecting projects carefully targeted to
improve selected business operations.
The goal is to eliminate defects before
they occur in an organization. Six Sigma
is often implemented in conjunction with
lean manufacturing.
Statistical Process Control

(SPC)
While quality assurance has traditionally
been accomplished through product control
(such as inspection), the focus of process
control is on individual operations and
the roles they perform in manufacturing.
Pr?cess-control strategies are prevention
onente?, as opposed to inspection driven.
The ultimate goal of process control is to
have each operation functioning within its
~ormal capability limits. This type of control
15 often referred to as statistical process
control (SPC).
- ~--.--.-.-----~-
Mmwfncturit~g n11d Productio11 Eutcrl'riscs
209
'
~~
~
i~
\
l
"i JArtSTICAt PROCESS ~.

CONTI~OL (SPC)
~ ..
An appnl.tdt to ')unhty a~s urnnce differing

fnHH the traditionnl policy of product
(\Httrol vi.t inspt..'Ction. SPC is prevention
oricnttd, versus in~pcction driven. This
nppn,.tch involves statistical analysis
and incn.ttst..'<i personnel responsibility to
l'll!'lll'C all equipment and processes are
opcr.ttin~ within acceptable limits. SPC
implement.ttion focuses initially on hvo or
tim-e critical parameters in each process
th.lt must be controlled.
As a theory, SPC is over 60 years old.

SPC is b.1scd on work Walter Shewhart
did during the 1930s at Bell Telephone
Laboratories. SPC principles were widely
adopted only about 30 years ago. Since that
time, however, they have become a pervasive
feature of manufacturing plants, as well as
mor(' commonly used in other industries.
Process control involves both statistical
analysis nnd increased personnel responsibility
for making sure equipment and processes
are operating within acceptable limits. This
control provides a unifying and validating
fnctor for the overall quality program.
Process control provides management with
critical feedback regarding the condition of
the plant's manufacturing equipment and
machinery and can pave the path toward
excellence in timely machine tool replacement.
Mnnagers who are committed to their quality
assurnnce programs are beginning to real~ze
the urun-it-til-it-drops" strategy for machme
repJacement is not the way to stay ahead in
the international manufacturing race.
The decision to implement process control
should focus initially on the ID of two or
three critical parameters or characteristi~s
in each process that must be controlled m
order for the process to adequately fulfill
its function. Next, the operating ranges of
these critical parameters must be specified.
After this step, it is possible to go back and

evnlunte how each process can be improved
to tighten the acceptable operating ranges
nnd enhance overall product consistency.
Managers can systematically utilize this
input to plnn and rationalize future Cilpital
improvements.
Process control is fundamentally
different from traditional product-inspection
systems. The basic philosophy that seems to
permeate an inspection-based system is first
you make the product. You then check it to sec
how good it is. In many cases, if you make
enough of the product, you ship it out the
door unless it is totally disastrous. This type
of attitude and approach to manufacturing
lies at the heart of the problems many
American firms have had trying to maintain
quality. As an alternative, the basic premise
of process control is thnt the manufacturer
knows enough about the operation to keep
the system up and running and how to
keep it within certain limits. Also, under
a process-control system, the quality
monitoring is delegated to the worker on
the production floor. In this system, the
worker knows how to continually monitor
her process to ensure quality. The worker
measures the critical parameters at her
station, in order to assure that all products
are built with an acceptable quality standard.
The process-control system demands
quality by design. CE, discussed previously
in this chapter, has been effectively used to
increase the quality of the product through the
design process. Design for defect reduction
can be an effective way to quantify and
minimize the probability of product defects.
This requires an analysis of the defects that
will most.seriously affect customer satisfaction
and an examination of the manufacturing
processes to define which ones might cause
defects. Those manufacturing operations
unable to stay within tolerances should be
corrected or not be allowed to keep nuu1ing.
,-: >:. :, ::.!
210 . .Contemporary Tee~ nology
. :
~/??}j~,:~:~.n~:}?~\;f~
..
...
.J ..,.
'
, .
~ ~:I
::
...
,.;
Most companies adapt. this form, howev _._.

to serve their seeci,fi~needs.:A~eyto:au~r'.
implementations is the foct1s ori the.cilsto.
. . QualityF~ction Deploymeri~
-(QFP)
. .
..
.
. . .
'
'
:)
,,
mer.
As stated earlier, today's lean and agile
International Organization 'for

. manufacturers are already th~king about
. qualitfoutcomes during the product .
.
Standardization (ISO) 9000-.
. '
. design:.and-development stage. A technique
'
and
Standards-Based..
.
.
.
known as qualittj fUnction deployment (QFD)
\
: (
has emerged in recent years. QFD .is a . ,
Manufacturirig .
.\
systematic way for the manufactunng firm to
'
.identify customer requirements and convert
Another significant change has been the
therri into design and manufacturing needs.
rise of the quality-standards movement.
ISO 9000 is the most popular quality standard
. _.
Essentially, it is a management planning tool
. '- . that can be used in any phase of production.
iri the world. Thousands of organizations
QFD helps all concerned personnel identify the
have adopted it.- This standard is actua~ly a
'. ,. : ~
critical desigri parameters. These parameters
set of standards. The most recent standard, .
~- .
are then optimized through quality engineering ISO 9001: 2000, applies to manufacturing,
. to .mininlize variation during production. To
service firms, and public agencies..ISO 9001:
. . enstue custo'mer expectations are met in an
2000 is a series three interrelated standards.
economical fashion, adequate resources are
A company f!rst develops a quality systein
_i ~;:a
meeting the standards. There are eight sections
focused on anyareas that can cause failure. .
!
The main feature of QFD is its focus to ISO 9001: 2000. The first.three sections .
provide background. Section 4-Qtiality . .
. . .. . .on meeting customer rieeds. This focus is . . '
Management Sy~tem-.requir~s acompany..
called the Voice of the Customer. The House
. .. . of Quality is the inost recognizedtoolused
to establish and_document its quality system..
-~.
.in QFD.A multifunctional team takes the
Th~ focus is on continuous improvement,
.
. c~stomer requirement~ ?btaiite~from
; potll o(the product ~d of internal processes
.. .
.rr.tarket _resear~h an~ ben~hm~rking a~d' -: :.
in the company. Section 5 foC\l~es <?n
~ :.,
'
'-. . c~nverts_ the.s~ req~reme_nts mto a new_ .. . respon~ibilities of _m an?gement at;1d requires
.....
~~ ;~
. .. : . . _. pro?uct ~estgn, us~g the House_ot QualitY: ~- ~the c~:rp.p~y to satisfy its customers, estab?sh
. .. ~fter the ~ustomers needs ~re translated ....
-a quality-policv andperform management
.~

mto techmcal and d

. J' . -.
.
_ : _:.
. . .. .
estgn ~e~UI~eme~ts,_ .
review~. Resource Management is Sec_ti~n 6:
j }
::: _,. ~ :: te: looks a_t ~e relations~p- ~_~twe_~.n
'Ip~_stand~rd~ state that, .with~ut adequa~e
. ::~ 1
5
0
. .. \
e . ~ategon~s. Say, for example,we
resources aquality plan will not be success.ful.
' !
are destgnmg a n
1 T .
'
..
.
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, .. . .. . _ .
. . . e"Y penc1., wo cus~o~er
Section 7 relates t o ..product design an~ .
;1 ~
..
.
.
.1 -~
.. . ~ req~ements _mtght be that the penctlts . . . . . d
. : easy' to sharpen'and that it ish .
eve1opm~~t. . Secti~~ B..fo~u~:~ .~n . . .
' i .,
: - . 1 .f Aft. ..-- . . ard and lasts . measurement, analysts, and unprovemeP,t.-.
_;(\
: : . a, 9ng ~~~ . er..translating thesetwo . :
an
. ..
.
. - _
.-:~ '\>'
..:,_ . customer needs'irito'technical re -u;
..
ce ~e_ quahty syste~ hasb_ee~.:>'.' -ai
. ~,
. . . , -~~-te~ nuglit'deterinitle thaflli 9 tre~en!~' . ~~v:~lope9., ~e C<?tl1P~Y c~~ out ~-It'~tn l .
. .; ?.
::_: . . .confliCt:] a pencil is harder 'th .ese ~o.n~~ --:audtt to mak~ ~~re.tl!e quality program~~>- .
- : r .
-. d
.
.
, e matenal
w kin Th 1
visit [rom
"' '
. h
....... ...-~se _ha~
stronger: This Would
or . ~ - -~ .. -~st step IS t<;> , ave a . .
;, : .
. .} \
<. -~ the p~ncil harder -to sharpen: Thi ~kef~ - ~ .. an ext~t:z:l.al_eval!Jator. Th~ ev,aluato~. al.:l~~t .,, __.,, . ) :.\
,- _:./;, :; .-infoimation
goes
.ffi the top 0 f th~'Hh!?~-.? .:of
_. .,. -~h~. c~~P~ts
.quality
~:\(,'\
,. , ~ -. =. - .
.
e ouse
.. .
..
..system
.... If..the
. . a.ud~~~- ..': -!.
.:~-.: ,- _~-;: _Qiiality; p:t~the. tecluUc~r co~eiatioii' mat . ..-: ...'.~: app~~ves ~e ne~ syste~Jl:\e ~qropanY...! .. . ...':. .' j 1\
:>-~- Fi~ -~~~~ ~~P.~~ ~ sample Ho_tise of Qti~~. . . re~.etv~s ~ official cer~ifi~~t.~ -~a,~:~-~ :. : . ... . , _::, :.,-;~,->~~\
',., . . .:--,: ..- -- ~- :. "
:
.-. ~ :... - :: . ~ - ; C<>tpp~nytsiS09000regts~~d.__':>.
., :")'''' __, . . 1
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of
the _ ..
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f'![IC
212
With the globalization of busin(~

certification creates a standard corn 1
Pcln
can rely on as they buy good and ~~
from across the world. Not surpri ingi l'5
numbe~ of ISO 9000-ccrtjfied compilnt' the
is growmg each.~ear. ln 2006, th~ n~
of ISO 9000 cerhficate worldwide tot1l
nearly 900,000. ISO certification will r"' ed_
dllc1 1n
a large part o f th e manufacturing world in
the future.
ALOM
Environmental Sustainability
as a Business Practice
Over the past 10 years, a fundamental

change has occurred in the philosophy of
American businesses. Prior to 2<XXJ, there
'
i
were few businesses that followed green
practices in their businesses. Traditional
thinking was that green practices would
automatically increase company costs and
negatively impact a company's bottom line.
Consumer concerns about global warming
and other environmental issues have forced
Figure 6-12.
companies, however, to take a hard look
ALOM Technologies, a small manufacturer and
at developing processes that protect the
distribution center in Milpitas, California, proudly
shO\vs it has l't.'('cived ISO 9002 certification. ALOM
environment. In many communities,
helps high-tech and e-commerce companies get
companies are banding together to promote
their products manufactured and distributed
best practices in reducing energy and waste.
to customers. ISO 9002 is the ISO standard for
One such consortium, based in San Jose,
companies partidpating only in production,
California, is Sustainable Silicon Valley (SSV).
instaUation, and servicing.
SSV is a collaboration of businesses,
governments, and nongovernmental
the products have stringent requirements
organizations that are identifying and
for safety and reliability. Even if a small
addressing environmental and resourct'
companr d~ not seU directly in Europe,
pressures in the Silicon Valley. Most of the
ISO certification can still be useful because
high-tech companies from Silicon Valley :
the sma~ company might sell to other
partners in SSV. These partners ~dude A~ed
comparues that sell in Europe. Also, as a
Systems, Advanced Micro Dev1ces, App and
lcugeft ~mpany achieves ISO 900> certification
Materials, Cisco, eBay, Hewlett-Pa~~nit~
o _en tt pushes
down this requirement to '
.
Its supphers.
Sun Microsystems. Each of these ~ . ~ and
has pledged to reduce its C01 ~c;lO \\'US
to report its emissions annuaJiy. Cisco
I .....J'
,\'.
,,
,.\ .
'
Mnmtjilclurillg and Production
'
'
Entc:rprists
21~~
able to red~cle itsthgreenhou~e-ga~ emissions

Reusc-A-S.hoe progmm. This pro~ram
hme, mcreasing its
d
n
by Uo/o, whi eat 2Qe01 same
1es lSCarded shoes into material
S'
2001
recyc
'
, Adobe
th t
Venue by over ttl. mce
15 used to cover sports surfaces, such
re stems has unprov
ed energy effiaency
a
at its
as b k b
Sy
San J b 1
c
as et n11 courts and tracks. Since the
,,
headquarters in
ose Yrmp ementing
progmm began in 1993, Nike has processed
th
everal green building techniques. Adobe
1
~~ras able to reduce its irrigation-water use
nore an 18 million pairs of sh<>t.">S.
..
Under the old model of manufacturing,
companies designed new products under a
by 76%, by install~g. drought-tolerant
landscaping, and tts mternal-water use
"cradle-to-gmvc" approach. After a product
by 22%, by installing waterless urinals.
ended its useful life, it was discarded. Today,
Sun Microsystems applies environmental
most companies arc taking a different direction
principles both in the design of its product
and using a "cmdle-to-crad1e" approach to
(computer servers) and in its own business
product design and manufacturing. This
practices. Sun's UltraSPAR~ server processors
approach strives to make the entire product
are the most energy efficient on the market.
design and manufacturing waste free. In
Sun encourages its employees to work from
this way, a company takes responsibility for
home, in flexible offices, and at satellite
the disposal of its products and builds this
disposal into the design. This philosophy
locations. Today, over 50% of Sun employees
no longer work from their offices. This saves
transforms existing disciplines and practices
both carbon emissions and real estate costs.
into those promoting sustainability, encourages
Environmental sustainability, however, is
technologically and economically viable
products, and emphasizes the protection
not limited to companies based in California.
A large multinational company, GE, invested
of the earth.
$200 million over four years to increase
production of energy~efficient lighting in
response to consumer demand. Alcan, one
in
of the globe's leading suppliers of bauxite,
alwnina, and aluminum, has a comprehensive
It is hard to believe, but the robot is well
environmental strategy for all its business
into its middle age. In 2002, the robot turned
areas. One of its plants, the Alcan Packaging
40! According to Joseph Engleberger, who
plant in Dublin, Ireland, drastically reduced
is often referred to as the father of robotics,
its waste from 2770 tons, in 1996, to 400 tons,
Unimation installed the first industrial robot
in 2005. Furniture-maker Herman Miller
in the early 1960s on a production line at
is 63% toward its commitment to achieve
General Motors. Since that time, more than
zero emissions in its manufacturing by 2020.
900 000 robotic units have been set to work
Both Herman Millerand Nike were ranked
in f~ctories around t he world. Robots
as two of the most sustainable companies
being used for a variety of operatic~~ !hey- . - .-:
worldwide. Nike has focused on integrating
are familiar entities in chemical-process~ _.... .
.. plants, automobile assembly. lines,~~ : . ". . . >"~:
more environmentally friendly materials
itlto its products, as well as controlling the : electronics-manufacturing ~cilities. Th~ ~ost' :~
waste it produces._Today, over 50% of all . . .- popular .a pplications ~_a~~dw.id~ ..~~l~~~ arc. ~: , ~ ~:.
cotton garments Nike produ~es c~ntain at . - w~l4ing, spot ~eld.~~~ ~~ray p~~~~ P~ . ......
and tool hand~mg; ~~-.a~~m"~y. ~~~~~.~ . :.:. .
least 5% organic cotton. Envuonmentally
preferred rubber ~s used in over 50% o~ all.
~~~~~Y ~sed to ~~~c~.~~~ la ?~ ~:.~. : ,'_...,
Nike footwear. N1ke als~ create~ ~e ~~k~ ... ;i ~petitive,~~ po~~~~ ~~~.~~ - ~~:
Advances
Automation
are ..
. . ,.
.-.
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...
"' ' ~ . ~ , .: ...~ " . ~ ~
.........-J.:.':l~=.~~.L""-
..
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.;
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accepted definition still in use t d

an industrial robot is "a reprograo ay for
multifunctional manipulator d ~rnabJe,
.
esignect
move matenals, parts, tools, or s e . .to
devices through variable motion~ fCiahzect
performance of tasks."2Robots 0 or the
,
several degrees of freedom and ter~te With
either fixed in place or mobile. Tha~ e
in this.definition is reprogram mabie They Word
e. e
.
reprogrammabl e robotic feature diff
industrial robots from other fonns oferentJates
hard automation. These forms do not :~ed
for easy changes. Research efforts in th .f
of AI and expert systems will contin e ields
1
expand the capabilities of these steel~~r[
employees.
ar
Regardless of their size or functio
industrial robots have three main pa nst'Se
6 13 Th
.
F1gure
- .
e ma.n
body of the robr 0s.t. e
called the manipulator. The body's base c~~
be fastened to the floor, modified to move
on tracks, or hung from
an overhead support.
.
The power mechantsm moving the arm of
.- k in llllZlrdous conditions .. In
l lu.y
~~ '~r hh'h temperatures, toxtc
'4i ~ \OilCilh(lO:;,
o
~
tt lt:~c .
~
I' :lCtivc substances art!
(hCn\lc,ll~. t)f r~lt.~,s lllso moved into
pn~nt. J{l)bOtl~ .'
d '('civin functions.
r ~lousing, slllppmg, till n
. g
,, ~n:
i"'.Jt"'lled in some offces and
Rob() t~ arc ~ .. .
.
l
r"l"'"rvicc
industncs.
T lese
tsc"f 1n r.c\'r '' ""
ts
~ndtt~trics include hotels, hospitals, n.'Stauran ,
.md l;mdscaping.
.
InJu trial robots arc a crih~nl component
of factory automation. Alongsde .penpheral
t lulologics such as CAD, n~mcncn! control,
.u uJ .mtom.,tic 10, ttu-se t'vcr-mprovmg
fa tory-tloor helpers come in all shnpcs and
izcs. Very few of them bear ~ny resc~1blance
to thr humJnli~, tlndroids p1ctured m
sci~ncc fiction movies. Most of them can
\)( dcsnitx.-.d a~ cnmputer mechanisms, to
which limb~, tools, and other appendages
h.wc bt-cn t~ tt.1ched . Although somewhat
ll~S exotic, a more technical term for a
pn.scnt-J,,y robot Ls an automatically controlled
l'rngrmmmlblr m.tmirulalor. Titc most commonly
,.m
? l
- - - - Manipulator - - - -
Office
computer terminals
Networked to
other systems
Controller
Figure 6-13.
~ thn.~ nuin sv.;.t .
J
%.~ l~t~ of A
~ ems of an mdustrial rob

. .
;.
.
ot are the controller, the manipuJat~r and the end effeetor.
m~c.l. 1981. World..;-'

nue Sllrvty alld di
.- .
'
. .
rectory on mdustrU1/ robots. Dearborn, Ml. 1.
..
.......
, -,
s contingent on its size. Hydraulic

the rob~t sed (or heavier arms. Electric or
1
power
ower is used on lighter units.
uJllauC P
.
..
e
pn cal robots can return to a gavcn posat1on
EleCtrl. ly and do it quicker and more
tinve
.
repe atel than hydrauhc or pneumatic
accur a~ On the other hand, these smallfr
robots
c .a limited Ioa d capacaty.
. 'l'hc
. have
UJlltsb r of Joints, or degrees of freedom of
nurn e determines the ro b ot ,s d cxtenty,
. as
rrn
the a '
I . k
.
well aS its cost. For examp e, 1t ta cs SIX
degrees of freedom to emulate huml\n-arm
tion (t\vo degrees of freedom at the shoulder,
rno at the elbow, and three at the wrist).
oneThe second essential part of the robot
an end effector. This is the gripper, the
~elding gun, or another tool allowing the
arm to execute assigned tasks. Grippers arc
normally custom-made. They vary a great
deal from one application to another. A
gripper designed to pick up a book looks
quite different from one used to grasp an
egg. The grasping of an item by a robot
emulates human-finger motions. Some
grippers can lift several heavy objects at one
time. Other mechanisms can grasp a fragile
component without damaging it. Examples
of grippers include vacuum cups, hooks,
electromagnets, clamps, scoops, or
fingerlike devices.
The third essential part of a robot, the
controller, is the program and computer used to
activate the robot, guide it, and direct its
movements. One very common way to program
the unit is to lead it through the desired
sequence of operations. A human operator
moves the robotic arm physicaJly or with
switches on a control panel. The controller
records the path. This is an effective
programming method for tasks such as
recording the curved motions needed to
produce an even coat of spray paint or to pick
up parts from one location and move them to
another. On the other hand, the path is difficult
to edit or revise without completely
rerecording or reprogramming the task.
1
::u
)ff.Jaw proHr.muu ing t wl wl\ m

oplr.,tor wrih 1 tit'\\' pnl~f"" tl t rrninnl.
( ff.. Jirw pwgr,Ull! l\lll ltl "'' ithn wlt hout
int rrupling produ tlou. 'I ht c.m t'c t L J
to i~~ tu a dlfftnnt ~t't ,,( ln. tru ti on~ '" th
robot that tlw ~ itu.ttlon 1t h.uuf d lct.\tl~s (f r
cxarnpll, If n(l part I. av.,ll.,hl (nr tn..llrnt.nt.
~ tny em hold and Wcllt (pr th next <.yrlc .
In the mid - I'J<JOs, It ht:r.1m po~~ i b ll to
program indu~ t r i n l whot~ with \l\1 ind n w~
operating ~ y~ tc m -typ ttchnology (In a P
in nn oHict with int 'rllctl vt vidlo. In n: ~tnt
ycors, computers hove not only mod n1bc't ~
smorter. They have o l ~o nwdc it po. s iblc
to control, progmm, nnd nUlnitl.lr these
mochines from remote ~ it (~ nnywhcre.
I<obot mnnufoc turcr~ dils..'> ify robots with
respect to their ohililil~s . A point-to-point
robot u~es rncchanical stops or limit ~wit ch~-s
to go from one predefined point to ;mother.
This type of robot is IL~s expensive nnd
generally usccl for simple maneuvers. A
controlled-path robot continuously follows
a prescJected geometric path. A servocontrolled robot uses softworc to control its
movements. This robot can senst points on
o path and feed the information back so the
controller can take alternntive nctions. Du~ to
the greater flexibility and the controllability
of the sequence of motions in scrvo-controlk~
robot~, most contcmpornry industrial robots
arc servo controlled.
Applications in Industry
and Elsewhere
Whether robots are simple or sophistirot\.~,
the decision to implement robotk"S into
manufacturing and production operations
should be based on a comprehensive annlysis
of the entire opcmtion. Until tht mid-1980s,
the robotics industry grew fnst, as companil'S
invested heavily in robots to automutt.:. their
factories and replace blue--collar ~mployl.'L:.s.
Industrial managers discovcn."'Ci industrial
216
tiOlution, f<H'
t i.l p Ult\(Cll,
robots were no ' .
N0 t cv _,rything can
.
g
JOb~
aU manufactunn
"' , , , rob(lts con
be automated. Jn s~mc cnstc!'1A, ~ nsscmblcr:o;,
. d' poantmcn
be a m~JOr ~sapbl nttcmpl to jom n nut
they mrght um y' '( l'l (tos not fit. AH
g l'Vt.'ll J
"''
into an opcnm , I 1111

. . ht 'tdually pnmt
sur fnee fmi ~hers' t lCY. t I'SIll' It is c~scn tw 1to
,, ol'
th melves on the palll ' ,,

t' I
. e ::, .
b"ts (or their realistic potcn ro :
re<:ogmze ro l
0 Robots arc not mcchnnical pcop1c.
0 Robot do not replace humn~1 lnbor.
They do, however, enhance rt.
0 Robots arc tools within an intcgrotC'd
manufacturing system.
The u.s. robotics industry hns only
recently recovered from the downswings of
the 1980s. There is only one U.S. company,
Adept, still producing industrinl robots.
Most of the other companies went out of
business, were consolidated, or were sold to
European and Japanese companies.
Robots work os an integral component of t1
production system. Environmental conditions
such as hc.1t, humidity, s t;~tic electricity,
and dust determine the surrounding~ and
should, therefor~, influence the selection of
the robot. The range of motions and speed
at which robots arc required to operate
determine the capabilities demanded of the
robot. If robots arc used to perform materialhandling tasks, sensors arc necessary to
make them aware of the work environment
at ~ny given moment. Improvements arc
be~g made to robotic devices on a regular
ba.s1~ !~lese changes usually involve speed,
prens10n, and remote control.
. Wh~t i the functionality of today's
mdustnal roboL-,? Milny early robots were
~-d ~nd ~ill are) for monotonous or
g us .jobs and for loading and unloild'
heav}
parts More sophisticated b , .mg
~apabl.c of a \'ariety of valuc-addro ?ts are
mduding asscmbl'
I
ed JObs,
missile wings . a ~ng e ~ctronics, sanding
' n movmg parts from one
mn 'hinc tool to another. In some case

robots nlmost nppcar to be replacing s,
mnchinc toolt>. To summarize the mo t
. I operatJons
common .m d us tna
assigns d
. d d. cvtces
. m
. factones
. worldwid
e to
robot1zc
the list minimally contains these tasks e,
materials handling, assembling, sprayi
cutting, dcburring, and inspecting. Theng,
need for sensing devices is most acute wh
en
. .
.
robots nrc uscd m mspechon processes Th15
oren might involve some form of monit~rin
detection, an" lysis, or calibration. Robots g,
nrc usl'd to gnuge and measure tolerances
on mnnufnctured parts, as well as used with
ultrasound to detect leaks in assemblies.
As ''senses" are added to industrial
robots, these robots become evennore valuable
to m"nufncturing enterprises. The cost of
technologies such as sight, touch, and voice
is decreasing. Equipped with camera eyes
or optical scanners, robots are able to select,
inspect, nssemble, and place parts or products
on machines, trolleys, and warehouse
shelves. Look away from the factory floor
for just a moment. See Figure 6-14. In the
ncnr future, household robots might provide
companionship and assistance for the
cddcrly or for people with physical disabilities.
Using electronics, servomechanisms,
controllers, sensors, communication equipment,
active and passive beacons, and receivers
for the GPS will enable household robots
to navigate living spaces in an effortless
manner. Consumers might soon purchase
these robots for their capacities to give
ambulatory aid, fetch and carry, cook, dean,
monitor vital signs, entertain, and even get
in touch with relatives in case of emergency.
As discussed in the chapter on space .
exploration (Chapter 4), robotic explor~r.s al
have already gone to Mars to collect cntiC
data. In the medical field, robots hold th~ 1
. o. f.mcreased access1'b'l't
promase
1 1 Y to medica
care for people living some distance ~~ayat

from specialists. The promise of mediCI~e
. . . <:
Manufacturing and Production Enterprises
EHONDA
217
HMC
Dltllll
NYSf
P~wering Dreams Together

,
1' .,
_____
"~
.....
Figure 6-14.
Advanced Step in Innovative MObility (ASIMO) first appeared in the United States on February 14, 2002.
On this date, it rang the opening bell at the New York Stock Exchange. (American Honda)
a distance-telemedicine-allows a person
to receive specialized care from a surgeon,
using a robot. For example, people requiring
medical assistance might find robotic devices
have the capacity to save their lives, even
when human surgeons are miles away. With
the use of robots, it might be possible to
perform complicated surgery at remote sites
or even on the battlefield! See Figure 6-15.
Implications for Workers and

Their Job Environments
Robots and other automation have been
successfully integrated into the American
manufacturing and production scene without
the catastrophic consequences some

projected in the early 1980s. It was theorized
that robots would migrate through factories
and displace people. This problem never
became a reality. The role of robotics in
reducing the percentage of the workforce
employed in manufacturing has not been
as dramatic as initially projected. Industrial
robots, similar to other forms of technology,
are tools allowing people to become more
productive and skillful. Industrial robots have
not replaced shifts of workers. "Lights-out"
factories are not expected to become a reality
in the near future.
Employees might express concern about
job security when confronted with a discussion
on automation. The extent to which automation
218
Conlt!IIIJWfl
try Tt.clt ttOIOS.If
Figure 6-15.
.
.
.
A surgical team operating at a console in New York sent mstructwns to a set of robo tic arms that
removed the gallbladder of a patient across the Atlantic in Strasbourg, France. "Operation lindbt?.r);h"
was a world first in telesurgery. (IRCAD)
is successfully implemented is a reflection on

the amount of cooperation and communication
among management, supervisors, employees,
and the design-engineering staff. In industries
where automation is being implemented,
employees must be open-minded in their
reactio~ to changes in their work environment.
. . An mdustrial organization's future success
IS hnked directly to the organization's ability
to manage and support a manufacturing
system focusing on producing a high-qualit
y
product at a competitive price Lab
continue to R bo
.
or costs
nse. o t-eqwpment prices dro
Secondhand robots are a viable opt In p.
on.
instances when it is strategically and financially

determined that a corporation's needs ca~
best be served through the use of ind us~al
robots, the decision to invest in the appropru1te
equipment is a wise one. The primary .
consideration for robotics implementatJO~
must take into account product charc1ctens~cs
Plus the n1anufacturing processes. required.
As previously stated, not every t1 ung c.111 ~
(
}
lst' ('
h
successfully automated throug t lC l ~ d
robots. A number of companies han~ foun
they can be more compctiti\'e if they u~ ~t,f
. . l ll I Ull\:
softer perhaps even n1ore tr;-~ d ttt N ' '
I \'
human labor nnd rnnchine techno 0 b.
I

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Mnmifacturing and Production EnleT~JriSCS

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Manufacturing atzd Production Enterprises

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