Article

Effect of Yarn Folding on

Comfort Properties of
Hemp Knitted Fabrics

Clothing and Textiles

Research Journal
2014, Vol. 32(3) 202-214
The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permission:
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DOI: 10.1177/0887302X14537114
ctr.sagepub.com

Snezana B. Stankovic1 and Matejka Bizjak2

Abstract
The operation of folding provides a complex yarn differing to an appreciable degree from single
components. Although the characteristics of folded yarns have been the subject of many investigations, there is a serious lack of study concerned with the influence of yarn folding on comfort
properties of clothing materials. Therefore, this study focused on the effect of yarn folding on both
thermal and tactile comfort of plain knitted fabrics. In addition to the structural characteristics of the
yarns and knitted fabrics, the transport properties, deformation behavior and surface properties of
the knitted fabrics were investigated. The results obtained indicated that the influence of yarn folding
on thermal and tactile comfort properties of clothing materials is mainly positive. These effects were
caused by the modification of yarn packing density which further influenced the air volume distribution as well as the fiber and yarn mobility within the fabric.
Keywords
textiles, textile performance, comfort, knit, yarn
Modern consumers are interested in clothing with good aesthetic performance, comfort-related properties, and durability. While aesthetic and utility performances are desirable in clothing, comfort is
the intrinsic and essential performance requirement in clothing materials. Therefore, research on
clothing comfort is of great importance for an improvement in the quality of peoples lifestyles.
Generally, comfort is defined as a state of satisfaction indicating physiological, psychological, and
physical balance among the person, his or her clothing, and his or her environment (Slater, 1985).
The science of comfort categorizes it into three broad categories: psychological, thermal, and tactile
comfort. Psychological comfort is mainly based on subjective feelings and fashion trends and bears
little relation to the properties of fabrics. Thermal comfort relates to the ability of the clothing materials to support the thermoregulation system of the body in order to keep its temperature at the mean
value even if the atmospheric conditions or physical activities change. The governing properties of

1
2

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Textile Engineering Department, Belgrade, Serbia
University of Ljubljana, Department of Textiles, Faculty of Natural Science and Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Corresponding Author:
Snezana B. Stankovic, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Textile Engineering Department,
Karnegijeva 4, 11120 Belgrade, Serbia.
Email: stankovic@tmf.bg.ac.rs

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clothing materials by which they influence the thermal balance of a wearer are thermal properties,
water vapor permeability, and air permeability, which are known as transport properties. Tactile
comfort relates to the mechanical interaction between clothing material and human body. A dressed
human body is always subjected to a complex mechanical load arising from the weight of the garment or the load accompanying deformation of clothing material. Thus, the deformation behavior of
textile materials during their stretching, bending, shearing, compression, and so on, is responsible for
tactile sensations. Since the load transmits to the body at skin-fabric contact areas, the surface characteristics of clothing materials are also very important for tactile sensory perception.
Folded yarn is a complex yarn composed of two or more component yarns arranged parallel and
twisted together to make a new quality yarn. Generally, the operation of folding or plying modifies and improves existing single yarns to an appreciable degree by combining them together.
Among the properties improved by yarn folding, those of the greatest importance for the performance of textile materials are yarn evenness (uniform diameter), strength (and strength variation),
liveliness (the reduction of residual torque), and yarns surface characteristics (hairiness). The characteristics of folded yarns have drawn the attention of many scientists from the 1950s to today
(Bennett & Postle, 1979; Honold & Grant, 1961; Milosavljevic, Tadic, & Stankovic, 1998; Park
& Oh, 2003; Skau, Honold, & Boudreau, 1958; Xia, Xu, & Wang, 2012). However, there is a serious
lack of study about the effects of folded yarns on the properties of textile materials, especially those
concerned with comfort properties. Bearing in mind the growing popularity of clothing comfort, this
lack of investigations is surprising, and the knowledge of the effects of folding operation on comfort
properties seems requisite. For instance, folding operation will certainly improve the strength and
evenness of a yarn, but it does not mean that comfort properties of textile fabric made of folded yarn
will always be improved. Pac, Bueno, and Renner (2001) and Behera and Mishra (2007) investigated
the thermal properties of knitted and woven fabrics produced from folded cotton and wool/silk
yarns, respectively. The complex relations between the thermal properties and air permeability of
rib-knitted fabrics and folding density of the yarns used were confirmed by Stankovic, Popovic, and
Poparic (2012). The investigation of handle properties of woven fabrics produced from various
folded (ring, rotor, and vortex) yarns indicated the importance of spinning technique and both twist
and folding direction (Unal, 2010). In the investigation conducted by Stankovic (2008), the folding
technique was used to produce staple/filament hybrid yarns from which the rib-knitted fabrics with
different compression properties were produced. Bueno, Renner, and Pac (2002) compared surface
properties of knitted fabrics produced from two-folded cotton yarns with their counterparts.
For our research, the idea was to evaluate the effect of yarn folding on both thermal and tactile
comfort of the knitted fabrics. Since the structure of knitted fabric and constituent yarn could be
changed by physical or chemical treatment, the knitted fabrics were in the virgin state during comfort investigation. In such a way, the effect of yarn folding on comfort properties becomes more distinct. In our research eco-friendly hemp yarn was chosen to fold and produce knitted fabrics.
Specific characteristics, such as excellent hygienic, antielectrostatic, and ultraviolet radiationresistant properties, make hemp fabrics physiological-friendly textiles. However, hemp fibers have some
limitations concerned with tactile comfort, because hemp by nature is coarse and does not have
much elasticity. Therefore, the main task was to improve the tactile comfort properties of hemp
knitted fabrics without deteriorating their good thermal comfort properties. The results presented
in this article are the part of the project aiming to introduce hemp to the area of high-quality comfort
clothing.

Materials and Methods

In the present study, 100% hemp yarn (Linificio Canapificio Nazionale, Italy) with the nominal linear density of 50 tex and nominal twist level of 400 turns per meter (Z direction) was used. By

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Table 1. Characteristics of the Yarns.

Parameter, Unit

Hemp

Hemp/Hemp

Linear density, tex

Twist, m1
Diameter, mm
Bulk density, gcm3
Packing factor
Hairiness, m1

47.8
370
.22
1.258
.84
3.4

95.6
297
.41
.721
.48
6.7

Table 2. Construction Characteristics of the Plain Hemp Knitted Fabrics.

Parameter, Unit
Stitch density

Loop length, mm
Thickness, mm
Mass per unit area, gm2

Course, cm1
Wale, cm1
Surface, cm2

Hemp hempa, 2Cs

Hemp/Hempb, FCs

13.7
5.5
75.4
5.0
.916
360.4

12.0
5.5
66.0
5.3
.948
334.4

Two assembled hemp yarn.

Two-folded hemp yarn.

folding two single hemp components, the folded hemp yarn (hemp/hemp) with the nominal linear
density of 100 tex and nominal folding twist level of 310 turns per meter (S direction) was produced. The folded hemp yarn was produced on a Saurer Allma ring twister having 12 spindles
and ring dimensions of 160 mm  16.7 mm. After folding, the yarn was subjected to treatments
following the standard routines applied at St. George Company (Serbia): steaming 20 min at 80

C in an autoclave and storage for at least 72 hr in a conditioned room (65% relative humidity+
2% and 20  C + 2  C) in order to reduce residual torque. The properties of the yarns used,
which could influence the comfort properties of the knitted fabrics, are given in Table 1. Factual
values of linear density of the yarns used were determined in accordance with ISO 2060:1994
(TextilesYarns from PackagesDetermination of Linear Density [mass per unit length] by
Skein Method). Factual twist of the yarns was determined according to ISO 2061:1995 (TextilesDetermination of Twist in YarnsDirect Counting Method). Diameter of the yarns was
determined using a Nikon SMZ800 microscope. After 50 readings for both yarns, the average
diameters were calculated. The diameter and linear density of the yarns were used to calculate
their bulk density. Packing factor of the yarns was calculated by dividing bulk density of the
yarns by fiber density. Hairiness of the yarns was measured using the Shirley Hairiness Monitor.
The hairiness was registered on traveling yarn samples in 5-sec intervals and later was reduced to
1 m of yarn length. Thirty hairiness tests per yarn were performed, so the hairiness of both single
and two-folded yarns presented in Table 1 was the average of these 30 tests.
From these yarns, two variants of plain knitted fabrics, one having single hemp yarn and the second consisting of two-folded hemp yarn, were produced on a 20 gauge and 3000 diameter Fouquet
circular double jersey knitting machine with positive storage, 36 feeders, and 1,885 needles. The
knitting process was completed for both knitted fabrics with constant machine settings (known to
the company) according to the production standards of the industry. Therefore, as much as possible,
identical structure of the knitted fabrics was obtained. In addition, the variant of knit consisting of
the single hemp yarn was produced by feeding two single yarns simultaneously, side by side,

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through the same hole in each feeder. This was an attempt to ensure both knitted fabrics were produced from the yarns with the same linear density. The samples were kept without tension on a flat
surface in a conditioned room (65% relative humidity + 2% and 20  C + 2  C) for the relaxation
before testing. These commercially produced knitted fabrics in their existing state after last commercial treatment (i.e., virgin state) were used for all tests. Stitch density, loop length, and mass per unit
area of the knitted fabrics were determined according to procedures described in the literature
(Koblyakov, 1989). Thickness of the knits was measured in accordance with ISO 5084:1996 (TextilesDetermination of thickness of textiles and textile products). Construction characteristics of
the plain hemp knitted fabrics are presented in Table 2.
Among the secondary parameters describing the structure of knitted fabric, porosity, open porosity, stitch moduli (planar and volume), cover factor, and structural tightness factor were determined.
Porosity of the knitted fabrics P (%), defined as the portion of all air spaces in knitted fabric both
between yarns and inside them, was calculated using the equation given subsequently:
P 100  rk =rf 100:

where rf (g/cm3) is the fiber density and rk (g/cm3) is the bulk density of the knitted fabrics calculated by dividing their surface density (mass per unit area) by thickness.
Open porosity O (%) expressing the portion of air spaces between yarns was calculated by the
following equation:
O 100  rk =ry 100:

where ry (g/cm3) is the bulk density of the yarn.

Planar stitch modulus, presenting the relationship between the area of a stitch and the area
occupied by the yarn within the stitch, and volume stitch modulus, showing the relationship
between the volume of a rectangular solid outlining a stitch and the volume occupied by the yarn
within the stitch, were estimated by the relations described in the literature (Koblyakov, 1989).
Cover factor CF (tex1/2 cm1), indicating the extent to which the area of the knitted fabric is covered with the yarn, was calculated as the ratio between the square root of the yarns linear density,
and loop length. Knowing the cover factor of the knitted fabrics, the structure tightness factor
(STF; tex1/2 cm1) was calculated by multiplying cover factor by stitch density constant (Knapton,
Ingenthron, & Fong, 1968).
Air permeability of the knitted fabrics, defined as the volume of air measured in cubic meters
passed per minute through a square meter of fabric at a constant pressure (m3/m2 min), was measured according to standard procedure (ISO 9273:1995, TextilesDetermination of the permeability of fabrics to air). A Textest FX-3300 air permeability tester was used. The air pressure
differential between the two surfaces of a sample was 100 Pa. Five tests per each knitted fabric
were conducted. Water vapor permeability and thermal properties of the knitted fabrics were measured using the Permetest. The testing procedure was somewhat different from the standard ISO
11092 (TextilesPhysiological effectsMeasurement of the thermal and water-vapor resistance). Measurements are made at 2022  C isothermal laboratory temperature (instead of 35

C) and relative humidity of 6065% (instead of 40%), which should match the ambient conditions. Water vapor permeability for each knit was investigated by making five separate tests. The
capability of the knitted fabrics to transfer water vapor was indicated by measuring the absolute
vapor resistance and calculating the relative water vapor permeability (the ratio of heat loss from
the measuring head with knitted fabric and without it). The capability of transferring heat was
determined by measuring thermal resistance of the knitted fabrics. During determination of thermal resistance, the measuring head was dry and the temperature was maintained at 32  C. Five
tests were conducted on different portions of the knits.

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Figure 1. (a). Geometry of the single hemp yarn. (b). Geometry of the two-folded hemp yarn.

The mechanical and surface properties of the knitted fabrics were determined using the Kawabata
Evaluation System for fabric (KES-FB). The KES measures 16 mechanical parameters corresponding to the fundamental deformation mechanisms (tensile, shear bending, and compression), surface
coefficient of friction, and geometrical roughness. Many contributions have been published on the
topic of this expert system, and there is thus no necessity to precisely describe the system. Three
replicate specimens were prepared from each fabric. Each of the specimens was subjected to testing
following the prescribed order: surface, compression, shear, and tensile. Due to edge curling of the
plain knitted fabrics investigated, we were unable to perform the bending test. Data were collected
for both the wale and course direction for each tested specimen, except compression for which there
is no direction (normal to specimens plain). The main values of KES parameters for all three specimens (for wale, course, and their averages) were calculated.
Two-sample students t-test procedure is used to compare the means of the results obtained for
the knitted fabrics. Generally, when the probability value (p) is less than .05, the evidence to reject
the null hypothesis of equal means is provided. The standard deviation (SD) at a 95% confidence
interval for tested parameters of each knitted fabric was also calculated.

Results and Discussion

Structure of the Yarns and Knitted Fabrics
The packing density of a staple yarn generally falls in the range of .3 to .7 depending on the fiber
cross-sectional shape, twist level, and crimp density, whereas the ideal packing density of .907 is
difficult to obtain. The packing density of the single hemp yarn of .84 indicates its quite compact
structure, and the value of hairiness (Table 1) indicates its smooth surface. It could be explained by
lower elasticity and flexibility of hemp fiber. The reduced deformability of hemp fibers impeded
their mobility during yarn formation, resulting in the more compact core and reduced hairiness of
the yarn as can be seen in Figure 1a. The complex yarn formed by folding two single components
was expected to have the new quality structure because of the inevitable changes in fiber orientation in the folded yarn. As a result, the diameter of the folded hemp yarn was doubled with a
reduction of 57% in its bulk density and packing factor. It can be seen from the scanning electron
micrographs (Figure 1) that the fibers orientation was altered by twisting together two single
hemp components. Due to introduction of the secondary twist (folded yarn twist) in the opposite
direction to the primary twist (single yarn twist), the hemp fibers in the folded yarn were partially
untwisted. The micrograph of the folded hemp yarn (Figure 1b) illustrates some fibers (indicated
in the picture with black arrows) almost parallel to the yarn axis. Even though the hairiness of the

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Table 3. Secondary Structural Parameters of the Plain Hemp Knitted Fabrics.

Parameter, Unit
Bulk density, gcm3
Porosity, %
Open porosity, %
Cover factor, tex1/2 cm1
Structural cover factor, tex1/2 cm1
Planar stitch modulus
Volume stitch modulus
Area of a stitch, mm2

Hemp Hemp, 2Cs

Hemp/Hemp, FCs

.398
74.0
68.4
19.6
369.4
.48
1.60
1.33

.353
76.5
51.0
18.4
341.7
.49
2.06
1.52

Figure 2. (a). Geometry of the knitted fabric made from two assembled hemp yarn (2Cs). (b). Geometry of the
knitted fabric made from two-folded hemp yarn (FCs).

two-folded hemp yarn was doubled in value (Table 1), we would describe both single and folded
hemp yarns as smooth.
In order to obtain constructions as similar as possible, the knitted fabrics were produced under
controlled machine settings. Nevertheless, some slight differences in structural characteristics of the
knits were found (Table 2) as a consequence of differences in internal structure of the yarns. The
knitted fabric having two-folded hemp yarn as a component was characterized by lower stitch density which in turn was influenced by its lower course density. Since the knitted fabrics were knitted
under the same knitting conditions, their different course densities must have resulted from the difference in loop configuration coming from the bending rigidity of the yarns. Bending rigidity of the
two-folded hemp yarn was assumed to be lower than that of the single or two assembled hemp yarn
due to the twist reduction in each single component. By losing a part of the single components twist,
the fiber mobility inside the two-folded yarn was increased, leading to a reduction in bending rigidity. A different loop configuration manifested itself in the slightly greater stitch height (.83 mm) of
FCs (two-folded hemp) knit in relation to that of 2Cs (two assembled hemp) knit (.73 mm), while the
stitch width was the same for both knits (1.82 mm).
In addition to the primary parameters of the knitted fabrics, the yarns used influenced their secondary parameters given in Table 3. The knitted fabric produced from two assembled hemp yarns
(hemp hemp, 2Cs) was characterized by higher bulk density and lower porosity as a consequence of the yarn aggregation into a highly packed (higher stitch density) knitted structure.
Although having lower total porosity, 2Cs knitted fabric was characterized by higher open porositythe parameter known for governing transport properties. The different pore distributions in
these two knitted fabrics were qualitatively confirmed by scanning electron microscope (SEM)

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Table 4. Transport Properties of the Plain Hemp Knitted Fabrics.

Hemp Hemp, 2Cs

Parameter, Unit
Air permeability, m3 m2 min1 (SD)
Thermal resistance, m2 K W1 (SD)
Water vapor resistance, m2 Pa W1 (SD)
Relative water vapor permeability, % (SD)

71.2
.024
1.787
53.0

(2.5)
(.002)
(.143)
(2.7)

Hemp/Hemp, FCs

p Value (a .05)

74.0 (2.1)
.026 (.002)
1.717 (.105)
56.9 (1.6)

.031*
.444
.036*
.001*

*Statistically significant (p < .05).

micrographs (Figure 2). The more open structure of 2Cs knitted fabric seems clearly visible
(Figure 2a). On the other hand, calculated cover factor and structural cover factor showed that
the area of knit covered with the yarn was higher in 2Cs knit (Table 3) as a result of the differences
in loop length and course density between the knits. In addition, the planar stitch modulus of
the knitted fabrics confirmed the more compact structure of 2Cs knit since the lower value of
2Cs planar stitch modulus expresses the reduced size of the interstitial pores (Table 3). This was
also confirmed by the volume stitch modulus, since the higher volume stitch modulus of FCs
knitted fabric indicated the structure had less volume in one stitch filled with yarn; this further
indicates the larger volume of interstitial pores.

Transport Properties of the Knitted Fabrics

Open porosity is known to be a governing factor influencing the transport properties of a fabric, such
as water and air permeability, and heat transfer properties. Bearing in mind that the knitted fabrics
produced from single and two-folded hemp yarn were characterized by some differences not only in
construction characteristics but also in porosity distribution, some differences in transport properties
could be expected. According to the results of air permeability (Table 4), the knitted fabric produced
from the two-folded hemp yarn was more permeable, which is confirmed by a two-sample students
t-test (p value, Table 4). Many studies of structural factors influencing the air permeability of fabrics
confirmed that airflow takes place through open pores (interstices between yarns). Additionally,
Goodings (1964) shows that the increased number of the pores per unit area would reduce the airflow
of the pores with reduced size. Taking these facts into consideration, we concluded that the higher air
permeability of the FCs knit was due to its reduced stitch density or larger area of a stitch. Even
though the spacing of the folded hemp yarn seems higher (Figure 2), the larger stitch spacing (the
area of a stitch; Table 3) in FCs knit resulted in the larger size of open pores between wales, leading
to increased air permeability.
Water vapor permeability of textile materials is defined as the quantity of water vapor passing
through a unit area of the fabric in a definite period of time due to a pressure gradient between inner
and outer surfaces of the fabric. Water vapor resistance is inversely proportional to water vapor permeability and describes the resistance to evaporative transport through the material. Various studies
implicated water vapor diffusion as a dominant mechanism for moisture transport under steady-state
conditions. The diffusion mechanism of water vapor transfer includes diffusion through the interyarn pores and interfiber spaces and through the fiber substance itself as well as the migration of
absorbed water vapor along the fiber surface. Since the vapor diffusion through the air spaces of the
fabric is far faster than diffusion through the fiber due to lower moisture diffusivity of textile fibers,
the transfer of water vapor is considered to be dependent on the fabric geometry and especially on
the inter-yarn pores (open pores). The differences in geometry between the knitted fabrics resulted in
reduced water vapor resistance and increased relative water vapor permeability of FCs knitted fabric
(Table 4). Although 2Cs knit was characterized by higher open porosity (Table 3), the reduced size

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Table 5. Compression and Tensile Properties of the Plain Hemp Knitted Fabrics.
Hemp Hemp, 2Cs

Parameter, Unit
Compression

Tensile

WC, Nm/m2 (SD)

EMC, % (SD)
RC, % (SD)
LC (SD)
WT, Nm/m2 (SD)
EMT, % (SD)
RT, % (SD)
LT (SD)

.505
.462
31.48
.310
15.29
9.51
31.75
.656

(.031)
(.043)
(6.68)
(.08)
(2.85)
(.40)
(6.15)
(.001)

Hemp/Hemp, FCs
.608
.488
32.29
.280
15.39
10.07
30.59
.624

(.021)
(.054)
(6.67)
(.06)
(1.82)
(.14)
(4.57)
(.001)

p Value (a .05)
.008*
.016*
.889
.755
.971
.656
.836
.000*

*Statistically significant (p < .05).

of its interstitial pores, which was previously confirmed by its lower air permeability, decreased
water vapor permeability due to higher resistance to water vapor flow of the pores with reduced size.
It also may be assumed in the case of FCs knitted fabric that due to lower bulk density and packing
density of the two-folded hemp yarn, the migration of absorbed water vapor along the fiber surface
was hastened. The students t-test results confirmed the significant difference between the knitted
fabrics with respect to water vapor resistance and water vapor permeability (p values, Table 4).
Heat transfer through textile materials generally involves all three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation. However, it is generally accepted that heat transfer by conduction is more
significant than others. Since the thermal conductivity of air is lower than that of fibers, the thermal
conductivity of fibers is a major contributor to the heat transfer process. However, the air entrapped
in the fabric structure is also of considerable importance to the thermal behavior of the fabric, since
air behaves as an insulating medium. Thermal resistance of textile materials is determined by the
thermal conductivity of the fiber and fabric thickness. With the increase of the fabric thickness
and/or decrease of the fabric thermal conductivity, its thermal resistance increases. Since the FCs
knitted fabric was slightly thicker than 2Cs knit (Table 2), it could be expected FCs knit to increase
its thermal resistance. In addition, it could be expected that the air immobilized in the loose structure
of the two-folded yarn would reduce thermal conductivity of the FCs knit, whereas more intimate
contact between fibers in the single yarn, manifesting itself in higher bulk density and packing factor, should contribute to the conduction of thermal energy through 2Cs knit. Although thermal resistance of the knitted fabric produced from two-folded hemp yarn was slightly higher in relation to that
of 2Cs knit (Table 4), the statistical analysis did not confirm the significance of the differences.
Therefore, it could be noted that there is no significant deterioration of thermal properties of the
knitted fabrics.
Concerning transport properties of the knitted fabrics, SD values showing how much dispersion
from the mean exists indicated better uniformity of air and water vapor permeability properties for
the knitted fabric produced from two-folded hemp yarn (Table 4).

Deformation and Surface Properties of the Knitted Fabrics

There is no unique optimal solution for the mechanical and surface properties of textile clothing
materials. However, there are still some universal design guidelines to maximize the tactile comfort
of textile materials. In addition to the extensibility of fabric, which should be maximized even at the
expense of tensile resilience, shear hysteresis and bending rigidity should be minimized so as to
obtain extensible and flexible textile materials. In order to produce soft and smooth textile fabric,
compressibility and compressional resilience (RC) should be maximized, while the surface coefficient of friction, variation of coefficient of friction, and surface geometrical roughness should all be

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minimized. According to various investigations, the deformation behavior of clothing materials in

compression, tension, bending, and shear is dependent on fiber type and both yarn and fabric structure. Since only one fiber type was used in this investigation, and knitted fabrics were produced
under controlled settings, the influence of yarn structure and properties on tactile comfort could
be evaluated.
Compression behavior of textile materials is a determining factor in wearing comfort, since it is
closely related to their smoothness and softness. Four indices can be used as a measure of compression behavior: compressibility (EMC, relative compressibility calculated as a percentage of original
fabric thickness), compression energy (WC), compression linearity (LC), and compression resilience (RC). Higher softness is reflected by higher values of EMC and WC and lower values of
LC (the compression load-thickness curve exhibits higher deviations from linearity). According
to the parameters EMC, WC, and LC (presented in Table 5), the knitted fabric produced from
two-folded hemp yarn was characterized by higher softness in relation to the knitted fabric produced
from single hemp yarn. Having lower bending rigidity, as well as fiber-packing density and consequently, higher fiber mobility, the two-folded hemp yarn contributed to the higher compressibility of
FCs knit. Difference in compression behavior could also have resulted from fabric stitch density.
The previous results have shown that the increase of stitch density (i.e., the increase of the number
of yarn contact points) reduces the inter-yarn and interfiber mobility, leading to the reduction of
knits compressibility (Choi & Ashdown, 2000; Stankovic, 2008). However, it should be noted that
in this investigation the variation of stitch density resulted from the structure of the yarns used. An
easier movement, the slippage of two-folded yarn into knit, and hemp fibers into this yarn due to
lower stitch density of FCs knit enable its more compressible structure in relation to 2Cs knit. The
improvement in compressibility of the FCs knitted fabric was statistically confirmed for EMC and
WC parameters (p values, Table 5). Regarding RC, the greater the RC values, the better the retention
ability of the fabric after compression. Better retention ability of FCs knit (Table 5) can be explained
by the increased friction between single components into two-folded yarn caused by introduced secondary twist. Although better RC of the FCs knit was not statistically confirmed (p values, Table 5),
we believe that folding technique can provide an improvement in retention ability of fabrics under
compression.
Besides better compression, knitted fabrics have greater elasticity and ability of relaxation compared with woven fabrics. For this reason, a knitted fabric substantially contributes to increased
comfort with elasticity of the clothes because of the reduced pressure on the skin, allowing the body
movement to be free. In general, there are three factors contributing to the stretching of a plain
knitted fabric: friction resistance to relative displacement of yarns at the interlacing points, bending
deformation of the loops, and the yarn extension. Since clothing material is rarely stretched to a point
when the yarn is stretched, the most important yarn parameters responsible for the stretching of a
knit are considered to be the inter-yarn friction and yarn bending behavior. Extensibility (EMT) has
a good correlation with fabric comfort. A higher EMT value signifies greater tactile comfort. The
FCs knitted fabric was characterized by higher course extensibility (EMTcourse 8.93) in relation
to that of 2Cs knit (EMTcourse 7.12), which is confirmed by a students t-test (p .0004). The
higher course extensibility of FCs knit is attributed to the lower bending rigidity of two-folded hemp
yarn. In addition, the lower friction resistance to yarn movement in course direction due to lower
course density of FCs knitted fabric and consequently less number of interlacing points contributes
to the course extensibility of FCs knit. However, the knitted fabrics exhibited similar wale extensibility (11.20 and 11.90 for FCs and 2Cs, respectively) and therefore similar averaged extensibility
(Table 5). The lower value of the linearity of load-extension curve (LT) for FCs knitted fabric (Table
5) means higher extensibility in the initial strain range and thus better comfort, which is confirmed
by a students t-test (p value, Table 5). LT is almost the same in the course and wale direction for
both knitted fabrics. Tensile resilience (RT) measures the recovery from tensile deformation and

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Table 6. Shear and Surface Properties of the Plain Hemp Knitted Fabrics.
Parameter, Unit
Shear

G, N/m. (SD)

2HG, N/m (SD)

2HG5, N/m (SD)

Surface properties

MIU (SD)

MMD (SD)

SMD, mm (SD)

Wa
Cb
Ac
W
C
A
W
C
A
W
C
A
W
C
A
W
C
A

Hemp Hemp 2Cs

Hemp/Hemp FCs

p Value (a .05)

1.14 (.18)
1.73 (.15)
1.43 (.16)
4.36 (.74)
6.76 (1.03)
5.56 (.86)
4.83 (.22)
7.55 (.84)
6.19 (.31)
.192 (.011)
.255 (.037)
.224 (.024)
.0137 (.001)
.0469 (.005)
.0303 (.003)
5.501 (.533)
27.956 (1.682)
16.728 (1.022)

1.56 (.05)
1.45 (.15)
1.50 (.09)
6.25 (1.02)
5.56 (.86)
5.90 (.91)
6.81 (1.03)
6.05 (.52)
6.43 (.77)
.189 (.009)
.232 (.011)
.211 (.009)
.0145 (.003)
.0336 (.006)
.0240 (.004)
7.404 (.926)
27.976 (1.683)
17.690 (.542)

.030*
.040*
.554
.024*
.253
.672
.042*
.030*
.643
.769
.360
.427
.680
.027*
.032*
.037*
.989
.223

Note. MIU surface coefficient of friction; MMD mean deviation of MIU; SMD geometric roughness of fabric surface.
a
Wale.
b
Course.
c
Average.
*Statistically significant (p < .05).

indicates dimensional stability of textile material. In the course stretching of 2Cs knit, the lowest
EMT was followed by the highest RT (37.61%), which is significantly different (p .013) from that
of the FCs knit (34.9%). Being more resilient to tensile deformation in course direction due to
increased inter-yarn and interfiber frictional forces, 2Cs knit was characterized by better recovery.
However, higher averaged resilience of 2Cs knitted fabric (Table 5) was not statistically proven as a
consequence of similar RT values in wale direction (25.9 and 26.3 for 2Cs and FCs, respectively).
Better uniformity of the measured tensile parameters for the knitted fabric produced from two-folded
hemp yarn was confirmed by calculated SD.
Shear deformation is very common during the wearing process since fabric needs to be stretched
or sheared to a greater or lesser degree to conform to new body movement. Shear rigidity provides a
measure of the resistance to rotational movement of the threads within a material subjected to low
shear deformation. The lower the value, the more readily the material conforms to the intended
shape. As can be seen from Table 6, the knitted fabrics were different in shear rigidity (G). The shear
rigidity of FCs knit was quite uniform in both (wale and course) direction, whereas the shear rigidity
of 2Cs knit was much higher in course direction than wale direction. In addition, during shear deformation in course direction, the shear rigidity of 2Cs knit was higher than that of FCs knit due to the
increased course density of the former, which in turn increased the resistance to slippage between the
yarn intersections. When comparing the values of shear rigidity in wale direction, the reduced value
for 2Cs knit was supposed to be a consequence of both the lower inter-yarn and intra-yarn frictional
forces in wale direction. Unlike the two-folded hemp yarn composed of two single components
twisted together in order to obtain new linear structure, in the assembled yarn, two single yarns
have been brought together immediately before knitting. Therefore, their inter-cohesion is mainly
determined by the number of interlacing points in 2Cs knit, which causes greater yarn slippage in
wale direction in relation to that of the two-folded yarn. In a two-folded yarn, even though fibers

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are partially untwisted with increased mobility inside the yarn, the slippage of the yarn is reduced
due to well-integrated fiber assembly in its structure enabled by secondary twist. Additionally, due
to the higher covering power of the two-folded yarn, the areas of frictional contact inside the stitches
were increased which caused the slippage of the yarn to decrease. As can be seen in Figure 2, the
areas of frictional contact between yarn segments forming a loop are lower in 2Cs knitted fabric,
thus providing reduced resistance to shear deformation in wale direction. The differences in wale
and course shear rigidity between the two knits were statistically confirmed (p values, Table 6);
however, there is no difference in averaged shear rigidity between the knits due to the compensating
effect of directional (wale and course) rigidity. Shear hysteresis is defined as the friction force occurring among interlacing points of the treads when they are moving over each other measured at +.5
shear angle (2HG) and +5 shear angle (2HG5). The lower the 2HG and 2HG5, the better the recovery from shear deformation. Similar to shear rigidity, the knitted fabrics were characterized by different 2HG and 2HG5 parameters. The ability of FCs knit to recover from wale- and coursedirectional shear deformation was converged, whereas the values of 2HG and 2HG5 parameters for
2Cs knit were lower in wale than those in course direction (Table 6). According to the parameters
similar profiles of the knitted fabrics regarding shear behavior, it can be concluded that the stitch
density of the knits and friction between fibers and yarns, which in turn resulted from yarn characteristics, are responsible for directional shear hysteresis (as confirmed by statistical analysis). But,
again, there is no statistically proven difference in averaged shear hysteresis parameters. An
improvement in course-directional shear deformation of the FCs knitted fabric was followed by
an improvement in uniformity of the measured KES parameters, which is indicated by the calculated
SD (Table 6).
Generally, the knit surface has a number of ridges formed by yarns and, in the case of a staple
yarn, is covered with a large number of fibers protruding out of the yarn bulk. Since the skinfabric contact areas as well as surface fibers act as the transmitting media of the mechanical load,
the surface properties of textile materials are considered to be an important determinant of tactile
comfort. Surface properties are represented by the surface coefficient of friction, the mean deviation
of coefficient of friction (MMD), and geometrical roughness of the fabric surface (SMD). A lower
value of MIU, MMD, and SMD indicates the smoother surface of the knit. According to the results
presented in Table 6, MIU and MMD for the knitted fabric produced from two-folded hemp yarn
were less than that of the knit produced from two-assembled yarn. However, it should be noted that
the t-test results did not confirm this for the MIU. Nevertheless, SD indicated improved uniformity
of FCs knit with regard to the MIU (Table 6). This is also confirmed by the MMD, especially in
course direction, which can be explained by improved uniformity of two-folded yarn. Namely, the
diameter of the two-folded hemp yarn was expected to be more regular than that of the single yarn,
since the irregularities of both single components were partially compensated. The results of surface
roughness indicated quite different values of the parameter SMD in wale and course directions
(Table 6). This directional difference resulted from stitch formations in the weft-knit structure.
Roughness is generally greater in course direction since stitches are connected in the wale direction.
Having the same wale density (i.e., the density in horizontal direction; Table 2), the knitted fabrics
were characterized by the same roughness. However, in wale direction, FCs knit was rougher than
2Cs knit probably due to higher packing density of single yarn. The higher packing density of single
yarn together with the closer aggregation of yarn in a vertical direction (higher course density of 2Cs
knit) seems to cause more regular contours in the wale direction at least as it was recorded by KESFB4 unit. Although the t-test results verified these comments (p values, Table 6), we believe that the
difference in SMD value of the knitted fabrics in course direction was not as large as measured by
the KES-FB4 unit, thanks to the compensating effect of yarn spacing. The lower packing density of
the two-folded hemp yarn, as well as the slightly higher loop length of FCs knit, made this yarn even
bulkier since it was not stressed in compression. Due to this relaxation of the yarn, which can be seen

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in Figure 2, FCs knitted fabric has higher softness (compressibility, Table 5) and larger real contact
area than the one made of single yarn. During the measurement of surface roughness using the KESFB4 unit, a contact between the probe (steel wire) and the surface exists which causes the yarn to be
stressed and not relaxed as is the real case.

Conclusion
In the scope of this study, the knitted fabrics composed of single or two-folded hemp yarn were compared from the aspect of comfort properties in order to bring to light the potential of yarn folding for
clothing comfort. On the basis of the results obtained, some conclusions can be drawn. The operation
of yarn folding influences both primary and secondary parameters of the knitted fabric structure
through the effectiveness of fiber aggregation, which manifests itself in packing density and bulk
density of the complex yarn. Moreover, the new quality structure of the two-folded hemp yarn,
with the new properties coming from the changes in fiber orientation in the first place, was proved to
have a great influence on comfort properties of the knitted fabrics. The results indicated an improvement in air permeability and water vapor permeability of the knits produced from two-folded hemp
yarn, whereas the increase of thermal resistance was not proved. The results concerning deformation
behavior indicated a mainly positive effect of yarn folding on compression behavior and coursedirectional tensile and shear deformations. An improvement in transport and deformation properties
was followed by an improvement in uniformity of the measured parameters. As a consequence of
reduced two-folded yarn mobility in wale direction, higher resistance to shear deformation of the
knit was noticed. This mainly positive influence on comfort properties was reflected through the air
volume distribution within the fabric as well as the intra- and inter-yarn mobility which are highly
related to the transport properties, deformation behavior, and surface properties of clothing
materials.
Since the deformation properties of the knitted fabric composed of two-folded hemp yarn are
improved (with the exception of the resistance to shear deformation in wale direction) without serious deterioration of its transport and surface properties, the folding operation merits further consideration as an effective means for improving tactile comfort properties of hemp textile materials.
Although the results obtained cannot be explicitly extrapolated to clothing materials other than
those tested in this study, it could be said with certainty that the influence of yarn folding on fabric
comfort cannot be neglected. Further investigations including various fiber types, textile materials
with a wide variety of structures, and yarns with a wide range of folding density are needed in order
to ascertain the general guidelines for design of clothing materials with satisfactory comfort
properties.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia by the Project OI-171029.

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Author Biographies
Snezana B. Stankovic, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Textile Engineering Department at Faculty of
Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade (Serbia). Her research interests are in the area of clothing
comfort: thermal and tactile comfort, as well as the structure and properties of textile materials.
Matejka Bizjak, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Textiles at Faculty of Natural Science and
Engineering, University of Ljubljana (Slovenia). Her research interests are in the area of clothing comfort,
structure, and properties of textile materials as well as structure of historical textiles (Coptic weaving and
woven structures).

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