2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .

CPIWCIG

Contents
1

Logic



6JG UVWF[ QH NQIKE                                             



.QIKECN HQTO                                           



&GFWEVKXG CPF KPFWEVKXG TGCUQPKPI CPF CDFWEVKXG KPHGTGPEG                   



%QPUKUVGPE[ XCNKFKV[ UQWPFPGUU CPF EQORNGVGPGUU                        



4KXCN EQPEGRVKQPU QH NQIKE                                     



*KUVQT[                                                   



6[RGU QH NQIKE                                               



5[NNQIKUVKE NQIKE                                          



2TQRQUKVKQPCN NQIKE
UGPVGPVKCN NQIKE                               



2TGFKECVG NQIKE                                          



/QFCN NQIKE                                            



+PHQTOCN TGCUQPKPI                                        



/CVJGOCVKECN NQIKE                                        



2JKNQUQRJKECN NQIKE                                        



%QORWVCVKQPCN NQIKE                                        



$KXCNGPEG CPF VJG NCY QH VJG GZENWFGF OKFFNG PQPENCUUKECN NQIKEU

              

 +U NQIKE GORKTKECN!                                       

 +ORNKECVKQP UVTKEV QT OCVGTKCN!                                  

 6QNGTCVKPI VJG KORQUUKDNG                                     



 4GLGEVKQP QH NQIKECN VTWVJ                                     





5GG CNUQ                                                  





0QVGU CPF TGHGTGPEGU                                           





$KDNKQITCRJ[                                                





'ZVGTPCN NKPMU                                               



Sense and reference

16



/QVKXCVKQP HQT CPF FGXGNQROGPV QH VJG FKUVKPEVKQP                            





6GTOKPQNQI[                                                







5GPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG

5KPP WPF $GFGWVWPI                            
K

KK

$0/5&/54


                         





5GPUG YKVJQWV TGHGTGPEG                                          





(TGIG CPF 4WUUGNN                                             





2TQRQUKVKQPU CPF UGPUGU                                      





5GPUGU CPF FGUETKRVKQPU                                      





4GNCVKQP VQ EQPPQVCVKQP CPF FGPQVCVKQP                                  





5GG CNUQ                                                  





(QQVPQVGU                                                 





'ZVGTPCN NKPMU                                               



On Denoting

22



6JG FGPQVKPI RJTCUG                                           





4WUUGNNU EQPEGRV QH C FGPQVKPI RJTCUG                              





4GHGTGPEG VQ UQOGVJKPI VJCV FQGU PQV GZKUV                            





'RKUVGOQNQI[                                           



6JG VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU                                         





/CVJGOCVKECN FGUETKRVKQP                                     





+NNWUVTCVKQP                                             





/GKPQPI                                                  





4GUQNXKPI VJG RTQDNGO QH PGICVKXG GZKUVGPVKCNU                              





5VCVGOGPVU CDQWV EQPEGRVU YJGTG VJG QDLGEV FQGUPV GZKUV                     





#ODKIWKV[                                             





(KEVKQPCN PCOGU                                          





%TKVKEKUOU                                                 





4GHGTGPEGU                                                 





5QWTEGU                                                  





'ZVGTPCN NKPMU                                               





#P GZRTGUUKQPU TGNCVKQP VQ UGPUG QT TGHGTGPEG

Theory of descriptions

26



+PVTQFWEVKQP                                                





&GPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU                                            





+PFGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU                                           





%TKVKEKUO QH 4WUUGNNU CPCN[UKU                                       





2 ( 5VTCYUQP                                           





-GKVJ &QPPGNNCP                                          





5CWN -TKRMG                                            





5GG CNUQ                                                  





0QVGU                                                   





4GHGTGPEGU CPF HWTVJGT TGCFKPI                                      



$0/5&/54

KKK



'ZVGTPCN NKPMU                                               





6GZV CPF KOCIG UQWTEGU EQPVTKDWVQTU CPF NKEGPUGU                            





6GZV                                                





+OCIGU                                              





%QPVGPV NKEGPUG                                          



Chapter 1

Logic
6JKU CTVKENG KU CDQWV TGCUQPKPI CPF KVU UVWF[ (QT QVJGT WUGU UGG .QIKE
FKUCODKIWCVKQP
Logic
HTQO VJG #PEKGPV )TGGM  MPHJLF=? KU VJG WUG CPF UVWF[ QH XCNKF TGCUQPKPI=?=? 6JG UVWF[ QH NQIKE HGCVWTGU
OQUV RTQOKPGPVN[ KP VJG UWDLGEVU QH RJKNQUQRJ[ OCVJGOCVKEU CPF EQORWVGT UEKGPEG
.QIKE YCU UVWFKGF KP UGXGTCN CPEKGPV EKXKNK\CVKQPU KPENWFKPI +PFKC=? %JKPC=? 2GTUKC CPF )TGGEG +P VJG 9GUV NQIKE
YCU GUVCDNKUJGF CU C HQTOCN FKUEKRNKPG D[ #TKUVQVNG YJQ ICXG KV C HWPFCOGPVCN RNCEG KP RJKNQUQRJ[ 6JG UVWF[ QH NQIKE
YCU RCTV QH VJG ENCUUKECN VTKXKWO YJKEJ CNUQ KPENWFGF ITCOOCT CPF TJGVQTKE .QIKE YCU HWTVJGT GZVGPFGF D[ #N(CTCDK
YJQ ECVGIQTK\GF KV KPVQ VYQ UGRCTCVG ITQWRU
KFGC CPF RTQQH .CVGT #XKEGPPC TGXKXGF VJG UVWF[ QH NQIKE CPF FGXGNQRGF
TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP VGORQTCNKU CPF VJG KORNKECVKQP +P VJG 'CUV NQIKE YCU FGXGNQRGF D[ $WFFJKUVU CPF ,CKPU
.QIKE KU QHVGP FKXKFGF KPVQ VJTGG RCTVU KPFWEVKXG TGCUQPKPI CDFWEVKXG TGCUQPKPI CPF FGFWEVKXG TGCUQPKPI

1.1 The study of logic

6JG EQPEGRV QH NQIKECN HQTO KU EGPVTCN VQ NQIKE KV DGKPI JGNF VJCV VJG XCNKFKV[ QH CP CTIWOGPV KU FGVGTOKPGF D[ KVU NQIKECN
HQTO PQV D[ KVU EQPVGPV 6TCFKVKQPCN #TKUVQVGNKCP U[NNQIKUVKE NQIKE CPF OQFGTP U[ODQNKE NQIKE CTG GZCORNGU QH HQTOCN
NQIKEU
Informal logic KU VJG UVWF[ QH PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG CTIWOGPVU 6JG UVWF[ QH HCNNCEKGU KU CP GURGEKCNN[ KORQTVCPV DTCPEJ
QH KPHQTOCN NQIKE 6JG FKCNQIWGU QH 2NCVQ=? CTG IQQF GZCORNGU QH KPHQTOCN NQIKE
Formal logic KU VJG UVWF[ QH KPHGTGPEG YKVJ RWTGN[ HQTOCN EQPVGPV #P KPHGTGPEG RQUUGUUGU C QVSFMZ GPSNBM DPOUFOU KH
KV ECP DG GZRTGUUGF CU C RCTVKEWNCT CRRNKECVKQP QH C YJQNN[ CDUVTCEV TWNG VJCV KU C TWNG VJCV KU PQV CDQWV CP[ RCTVKEWNCT
VJKPI QT RTQRGTV[ 6JG YQTMU QH #TKUVQVNG EQPVCKP VJG GCTNKGUV MPQYP HQTOCN UVWF[ QH NQIKE /QFGTP HQTOCN NQIKE
HQNNQYU CPF GZRCPFU QP #TKUVQVNG=? +P OCP[ FGPKVKQPU QH NQIKE NQIKECN KPHGTGPEG CPF KPHGTGPEG YKVJ RWTGN[ HQTOCN
EQPVGPV CTG VJG UCOG 6JKU FQGU PQV TGPFGT VJG PQVKQP QH KPHQTOCN NQIKE XCEWQWU DGECWUG PQ HQTOCN NQIKE ECRVWTGU
CNN QH VJG PWCPEGU QH PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG
Symbolic logic KU VJG UVWF[ QH U[ODQNKE CDUVTCEVKQPU VJCV ECRVWTG VJG HQTOCN HGCVWTGU QH NQIKECN KPHGTGPEG=?=?
5[ODQNKE NQIKE KU QHVGP FKXKFGF KPVQ VYQ DTCPEJGU RTQRQUKVKQPCN NQIKE CPF RTGFKECVG NQIKE
Mathematical logic KU CP GZVGPUKQP QH U[ODQNKE NQIKE KPVQ QVJGT CTGCU KP RCTVKEWNCT VQ VJG UVWF[ QH OQFGN VJGQT[
RTQQH VJGQT[ UGV VJGQT[ CPF TGEWTUKQP VJGQT[


$)"15&3  -0(*$

1.1.1

Logical form

/CKP CTVKENG .QIKECN HQTO

.QIKE KU IGPGTCNN[ EQPUKFGTGF formal YJGP KV CPCN[\GU CPF TGRTGUGPVU VJG GPSN QH CP[ XCNKF CTIWOGPV V[RG 6JG HQTO
QH CP CTIWOGPV KU FKURNC[GF D[ TGRTGUGPVKPI KVU UGPVGPEGU KP VJG HQTOCN ITCOOCT CPF U[ODQNKUO QH C NQIKECN NCPIWCIG VQ
OCMG KVU EQPVGPV WUCDNG KP HQTOCN KPHGTGPEG +H QPG EQPUKFGTU VJG PQVKQP QH HQTO VQQ RJKNQUQRJKECNN[ NQCFGF QPG EQWNF UC[
VJCV HQTOCNK\KPI UKORN[ OGCPU VTCPUNCVKPI 'PINKUJ UGPVGPEGU KPVQ VJG NCPIWCIG QH NQIKE
6JKU KU ECNNGF UJQYKPI VJG MPHJDBM GPSN QH VJG CTIWOGPV +V KU PGEGUUCT[ DGECWUG KPFKECVKXG UGPVGPEGU QH QTFKPCT[ NCPIWCIG
UJQY C EQPUKFGTCDNG XCTKGV[ QH HQTO CPF EQORNGZKV[ VJCV OCMGU VJGKT WUG KP KPHGTGPEG KORTCEVKECN +V TGSWKTGU TUV KIPQTKPI
VJQUG ITCOOCVKECN HGCVWTGU KTTGNGXCPV VQ NQIKE
UWEJ CU IGPFGT CPF FGENGPUKQP KH VJG CTIWOGPV KU KP .CVKP TGRNCEKPI
EQPLWPEVKQPU KTTGNGXCPV VQ NQIKE
UWEJ CU DWV YKVJ NQIKECN EQPLWPEVKQPU NKMG CPF CPF TGRNCEKPI CODKIWQWU QT CNVGTPCVKXG
NQIKECN GZRTGUUKQPU
CP[ GXGT[ GVE YKVJ GZRTGUUKQPU QH C UVCPFCTF V[RG
UWEJ CU CNN QT VJG WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKGT 
5GEQPF EGTVCKP RCTVU QH VJG UGPVGPEG OWUV DG TGRNCEGF YKVJ UEJGOCVKE NGVVGTU 6JWU HQT GZCORNG VJG GZRTGUUKQP CNN #U
CTG $U UJQYU VJG NQIKECN HQTO EQOOQP VQ VJG UGPVGPEGU CNN OGP CTG OQTVCNU CNN ECVU CTG ECTPKXQTGU CNN )TGGMU CTG
RJKNQUQRJGTU CPF UQ QP
6JCV VJG EQPEGRV QH HQTO KU HWPFCOGPVCN VQ NQIKE YCU CNTGCF[ TGEQIPK\GF KP CPEKGPV VKOGU #TKUVQVNG WUGU XCTKCDNG NGVVGTU VQ
TGRTGUGPV XCNKF KPHGTGPEGU KP 1SJPS "OBMZUJDT NGCFKPI ,CP WMCUKGYKE\ VQ UC[ VJCV VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH XCTKCDNGU YCU QPG QH
#TKUVQVNGU ITGCVGUV KPXGPVKQPU=? #EEQTFKPI VQ VJG HQNNQYGTU QH #TKUVQVNG
UWEJ CU #OOQPKWU QPN[ VJG NQIKECN RTKPEKRNGU
UVCVGF KP UEJGOCVKE VGTOU DGNQPI VQ NQIKE PQV VJQUG IKXGP KP EQPETGVG VGTOU 6JG EQPETGVG VGTOU OCP OQTVCN GVE
CTG CPCNQIQWU VQ VJG UWDUVKVWVKQP XCNWGU QH VJG UEJGOCVKE RNCEGJQNFGTU " # $ YJKEJ YGTG ECNNGF VJG OCVVGT
)TGGM
IZMF QH VJG KPHGTGPEG
6JG HWPFCOGPVCN FKGTGPEG DGVYGGP OQFGTP HQTOCN NQIKE CPF VTCFKVKQPCN QT #TKUVQVGNKCP NQIKE NKGU KP VJGKT FKGTKPI
CPCN[UKU QH VJG NQIKECN HQTO QH VJG UGPVGPEGU VJG[ VTGCV
+P VJG VTCFKVKQPCN XKGY VJG HQTO QH VJG UGPVGPEG EQPUKUVU QH
 C UWDLGEV
GI OCP RNWU C UKIP QH SWCPVKV[
CNN
QT UQOG QT PQ
 VJG EQRWNC YJKEJ KU QH VJG HQTO KU QT KU PQV
 C RTGFKECVG
GI OQTVCN 6JWU CNN
OGP CTG OQTVCN 6JG NQIKECN EQPUVCPVU UWEJ CU CNN PQ CPF UQ QP RNWU UGPVGPVKCN EQPPGEVKXGU UWEJ CU CPF CPF
QT YGTG ECNNGF U[PECVGIQTGOCVKE VGTOU
HTQO VJG )TGGM LBUFHPSFJ VQ RTGFKECVG CPF TZO VQIGVJGT YKVJ 6JKU
KU C ZGF UEJGOG YJGTG GCEJ LWFIOGPV JCU CP KFGPVKGF SWCPVKV[ CPF EQRWNC FGVGTOKPKPI VJG NQIKECN HQTO QH VJG
UGPVGPEG
#EEQTFKPI VQ VJG OQFGTP XKGY VJG HWPFCOGPVCN HQTO QH C UKORNG UGPVGPEG KU IKXGP D[ C TGEWTUKXG UEJGOC KPXQNXKPI
NQIKECN EQPPGEVKXGU UWEJ CU C SWCPVKGT YKVJ KVU DQWPF XCTKCDNG YJKEJ CTG LQKPGF D[ LWZVCRQUKVKQP VQ QVJGT UGPVGPEGU
YJKEJ KP VWTP OC[ JCXG NQIKECN UVTWEVWTG
6JG OQFGTP XKGY KU OQTG EQORNGZ UKPEG C UKPING LWFIGOGPV QH #TKUVQVNGU U[UVGO KPXQNXGU VYQ QT OQTG NQIKECN
EQPPGEVKXGU (QT GZCORNG VJG UGPVGPEG #NN OGP CTG OQTVCN KPXQNXGU KP VGTO NQIKE VYQ PQPNQIKECN VGTOU KU C
OCP
JGTG . CPF KU OQTVCN
JGTG % VJG UGPVGPEG KU IKXGP D[ VJG LWFIGOGPV #
/& +P RTGFKECVG NQIKE VJG
UGPVGPEG KPXQNXGU VJG UCOG VYQ PQPNQIKECN EQPEGRVU JGTG CPCN[\GF CU m(x) CPF d(x)  CPF VJG UGPVGPEG KU IKXGP
D[ x.(m(x) d(x))  KPXQNXKPI VJG NQIKECN EQPPGEVKXGU HQT WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKECVKQP CPF KORNKECVKQP
$WV GSWCNN[ VJG OQFGTP XKGY KU OQTG RQYGTHWN /GFKGXCN NQIKEKCPU TGEQIPK\GF VJG RTQDNGO QH OWNVKRNG IGPGTCNKV[
YJGTG #TKUVQVGNKCP NQIKE KU WPCDNG VQ UCVKUHCEVQTKN[ TGPFGT UWEJ UGPVGPEGU CU 5QOG IW[U JCXG CNN VJG NWEM DGECWUG
DQVJ SWCPVKVKGU CNN CPF UQOG OC[ DG TGNGXCPV KP CP KPHGTGPEG DWV VJG ZGF UEJGOG VJCV #TKUVQVNG WUGF CNNQYU
QPN[ QPG VQ IQXGTP VJG KPHGTGPEG ,WUV CU NKPIWKUVU TGEQIPK\G TGEWTUKXG UVTWEVWTG KP PCVWTCN NCPIWCIGU KV CRRGCTU VJCV
NQIKE PGGFU TGEWTUKXG UVTWEVWTG

1.1.2

Deductive and inductive reasoning, and abductive inference

&GFWEVKXG TGCUQPKPI EQPEGTPU YJCV HQNNQYU PGEGUUCTKN[ HTQO IKXGP RTGOKUGU

KH B VJGP C *QYGXGT KPFWEVKXG TGCUQPKPI
VJG RTQEGUU QH FGTKXKPI C TGNKCDNG IGPGTCNK\CVKQP HTQO QDUGTXCVKQPUJCU UQOGVKOGU DGGP KPENWFGF KP VJG UVWF[ QH NQIKE

 5)& 456%: 0' -0(*$

5KOKNCTN[ KV KU KORQTVCPV VQ FKUVKPIWKUJ FGFWEVKXG XCNKFKV[ CPF KPFWEVKXG XCNKFKV[

ECNNGF EQIGPE[ #P KPHGTGPEG KU
FGFWEVKXGN[ XCNKF KH CPF QPN[ KH VJGTG KU PQ RQUUKDNG UKVWCVKQP KP YJKEJ CNN VJG RTGOKUGU CTG VTWG DWV VJG EQPENWUKQP HCNUG #P
KPFWEVKXG CTIWOGPV ECP DG PGKVJGT XCNKF PQT KPXCNKF KVU RTGOKUGU IKXG QPN[ UQOG FGITGG QH RTQDCDKNKV[ DWV PQV EGTVCKPV[
VQ KVU EQPENWUKQP
6JG PQVKQP QH FGFWEVKXG XCNKFKV[ ECP DG TKIQTQWUN[ UVCVGF HQT U[UVGOU QH HQTOCN NQIKE KP VGTOU QH VJG YGNNWPFGTUVQQF
PQVKQPU QH UGOCPVKEU +PFWEVKXG XCNKFKV[ QP VJG QVJGT JCPF TGSWKTGU WU VQ FGPG C TGNKCDNG IGPGTCNK\CVKQP QH UQOG UGV QH
QDUGTXCVKQPU 6JG VCUM QH RTQXKFKPI VJKU FGPKVKQP OC[ DG CRRTQCEJGF KP XCTKQWU YC[U UQOG NGUU HQTOCN VJCP QVJGTU
UQOG QH VJGUG FGPKVKQPU OC[ WUG OCVJGOCVKECN OQFGNU QH RTQDCDKNKV[ (QT VJG OQUV RCTV VJKU FKUEWUUKQP QH NQIKE FGCNU
QPN[ YKVJ FGFWEVKXG NQIKE
#DFWEVKQP=? KU C HQTO QH NQIKECN KPHGTGPEG VJCV IQGU HTQO QDUGTXCVKQP VQ C J[RQVJGUKU VJCV CEEQWPVU HQT VJG TGNKCDNG FCVC

QDUGTXCVKQP CPF UGGMU VQ GZRNCKP TGNGXCPV GXKFGPEG 6JG #OGTKECP RJKNQUQRJGT %JCTNGU 5CPFGTU 2GKTEG
 TUV
KPVTQFWEGF VJG VGTO CU IWGUUKPI=? 2GKTEG UCKF VJCV VQ BCEVDF C J[RQVJGVKECN GZRNCPCVKQP a HTQO CP QDUGTXGF UWTRTKUKPI
EKTEWOUVCPEG b KU VQ UWTOKUG VJCV a OC[ DG VTWG DGECWUG VJGP b YQWNF DG C OCVVGT QH EQWTUG=? 6JWU VQ CDFWEG a HTQO b
KPXQNXGU FGVGTOKPKPI VJCV a KU UWEKGPV
QT PGCTN[ UWEKGPV DWV PQV PGEGUUCT[ HQT b 

1.1.3

Consistency, validity, soundness, and completeness

#OQPI VJG KORQTVCPV RTQRGTVKGU VJCV NQIKECN U[UVGOU ECP JCXG

Consistency YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV PQ VJGQTGO QH VJG U[UVGO EQPVTCFKEVU CPQVJGT=?
Validity YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV VJG U[UVGOU TWNGU QH RTQQH PGXGT CNNQY C HCNUG KPHGTGPEG HTQO VTWG RTGOKUGU # NQIKECN
U[UVGO JCU VJG RTQRGTV[ QH UQWPFPGUU YJGP VJG NQIKECN U[UVGO JCU VJG RTQRGTV[ QH XCNKFKV[ CPF WUGU QPN[ RTGOKUGU
VJCV RTQXG VTWG
QT KP VJG ECUG QH CZKQOU CTG VTWG D[ FGPKVKQP=?
Completeness QH C NQIKECN U[UVGO YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV KH C HQTOWNC KU VTWG KV ECP DG RTQXGP
KH KV KU VTWG KV KU C
VJGQTGO QH VJG U[UVGO
Soundness VJG VGTO UQWPFPGUU JCU OWNVKRNG UGRCTCVG OGCPKPIU YJKEJ ETGCVGU C DKV QH EQPHWUKQP VJTQWIJQWV VJG
NKVGTCVWTG /QUV EQOOQPN[ UQWPFPGUU TGHGTU VQ NQIKECN U[UVGOU YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV KH UQOG HQTOWNC ECP DG RTQXGP
KP C U[UVGO VJGP KV KU VTWG KP VJG TGNGXCPV OQFGNUVTWEVWTG
KH # KU C VJGQTGO KV KU VTWG 6JKU KU VJG EQPXGTUG QH
EQORNGVGPGUU # FKUVKPEV RGTKRJGTCN WUG QH UQWPFPGUU TGHGTU VQ CTIWOGPVU YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV VJG RTGOKUGU QH C XCNKF
CTIWOGPV CTG VTWG KP VJG CEVWCN YQTNF
5QOG NQIKECN U[UVGOU FQ PQV JCXG CNN HQWT RTQRGTVKGU #U CP GZCORNG -WTV )FGN U KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU UJQY VJCV
UWEKGPVN[ EQORNGZ HQTOCN U[UVGOU QH CTKVJOGVKE ECPPQV DG EQPUKUVGPV CPF EQORNGVG=? JQYGXGT TUVQTFGT RTGFKECVG
NQIKEU PQV GZVGPFGF D[ URGEKE CZKQOU VQ DG CTKVJOGVKE HQTOCN U[UVGOU YKVJ GSWCNKV[ ECP DG EQORNGVG CPF EQPUKUVGPV=?

1.1.4

Rival conceptions of logic

/CKP CTVKENG &GPKVKQPU QH NQIKE

.QIKE CTQUG
UGG DGNQY HTQO C EQPEGTP YKVJ EQTTGEVPGUU QH CTIWOGPVCVKQP /QFGTP NQIKEKCPU WUWCNN[ YKUJ VQ GPUWTG VJCV
NQIKE UVWFKGU LWUV VJQUG CTIWOGPVU VJCV CTKUG HTQO CRRTQRTKCVGN[ IGPGTCN HQTOU QH KPHGTGPEG (QT GZCORNG 6JQOCU *QHYG
DGT YTKVGU KP VJG 5VCPHQTF 'PE[ENQRGFKC QH 2JKNQUQRJ[ VJCV NQIKE FQGU PQV JQYGXGT EQXGT IQQF TGCUQPKPI CU C YJQNG
6JCV KU VJG LQD QH VJG VJGQT[ QH TCVKQPCNKV[ 4CVJGT KV FGCNU YKVJ KPHGTGPEGU YJQUG XCNKFKV[ ECP DG VTCEGF DCEM VQ VJG HQTOCN
HGCVWTGU QH VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU VJCV CTG KPXQNXGF KP VJCV KPHGTGPEG DG VJG[ NKPIWKUVKE OGPVCN QT QVJGT TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU=?
$[ EQPVTCUV +OOCPWGN -CPV CTIWGF VJCV NQIKE UJQWNF DG EQPEGKXGF CU VJG UEKGPEG QH LWFIGOGPV CP KFGC VCMGP WR KP
)QVVNQD (TGIG U NQIKECN CPF RJKNQUQRJKECN YQTM $WV (TGIGU YQTM KU CODKIWQWU KP VJG UGPUG VJCV KV KU DQVJ EQPEGTPGF YKVJ
VJG NCYU QH VJQWIJV CU YGNN CU YKVJ VJG NCYU QH VTWVJ KG KV DQVJ VTGCVU NQIKE KP VJG EQPVGZV QH C VJGQT[ QH VJG OKPF
CPF VTGCVU NQIKE CU VJG UVWF[ QH CDUVTCEV HQTOCN UVTWEVWTGU

$)"15&3  -0(*$

1.2 History
/CKP CTVKENG *KUVQT[ QH NQIKE
+P 'WTQRG NQIKE YCU TUV FGXGNQRGF D[ #TKUVQVNG=? #TKUVQVGNKCP NQIKE DGECOG YKFGN[ CEEGRVGF KP UEKGPEG CPF OCVJGOCVKEU
CPF TGOCKPGF KP YKFG WUG KP VJG 9GUV WPVKN VJG GCTN[ VJ EGPVWT[=? #TKUVQVNGU U[UVGO QH NQIKE YCU TGURQPUKDNG HQT VJG
KPVTQFWEVKQP QH J[RQVJGVKECN U[NNQIKUO=? VGORQTCN OQFCN NQIKE=?=? CPF KPFWEVKXG NQIKE=? CU YGNN CU KPWGPVKCN VGTOU
UWEJ CU VGTOU RTGFKECDNGU U[NNQIKUOU CPF RTQRQUKVKQPU +P 'WTQRG FWTKPI VJG NCVGT OGFKGXCN RGTKQF OCLQT GQTVU YGTG
OCFG VQ UJQY VJCV #TKUVQVNGU KFGCU YGTG EQORCVKDNG YKVJ %JTKUVKCP HCKVJ &WTKPI VJG *KIJ /KFFNG #IGU NQIKE DGECOG
C OCKP HQEWU QH RJKNQUQRJGTU YJQ YQWNF GPICIG KP ETKVKECN NQIKECN CPCN[UGU QH RJKNQUQRJKECN CTIWOGPVU QHVGP WUKPI
XCTKCVKQPU QH VJG OGVJQFQNQI[ QH UEJQNCUVKEKUO +P  9KNNKCO QH 1EMJCO U KPWGPVKCN 4VNNB -PHJDBF YCU TGNGCUGF
$[ VJG VJ EGPVWT[ VJG UVTWEVWTGF CRRTQCEJ VQ CTIWOGPVU JCF FGIGPGTCVGF CPF HCNNGP QWV QH HCXQWT CU FGRKEVGF KP
*QNDGTI U UCVKTKECN RNC[ &SBTNVT .POUBOVT
6JG %JKPGUG NQIKECN RJKNQUQRJGT )QPIUWP .QPI
E  $%' RTQRQUGF VJG RCTCFQZ 1PG CPF QPG ECPPQV DGEQOG
VYQ UKPEG PGKVJGT DGEQOGU VYQ=? +P %JKPC VJG VTCFKVKQP QH UEJQNCTN[ KPXGUVKICVKQP KPVQ NQIKE JQYGXGT YCU TGRTGUUGF
D[ VJG 3KP F[PCUV[ HQNNQYKPI VJG NGICNKUV RJKNQUQRJ[ QH *CP (GK\K
+P +PFKC KPPQXCVKQPU KP VJG UEJQNCUVKE UEJQQN ECNNGF 0[C[C EQPVKPWGF HTQO CPEKGPV VKOGU KPVQ VJG GCTN[ VJ EGPVWT[
YKVJ VJG 0CX[C0[C[C UEJQQN $[ VJG VJ EGPVWT[ KV FGXGNQRGF VJGQTKGU TGUGODNKPI OQFGTP NQIKE UWEJ CU )QVVNQD
(TGIG U FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG QH RTQRGT PCOGU CPF JKU FGPKVKQP QH PWODGT CU YGNN CU VJG VJGQT[ QH
TGUVTKEVKXG EQPFKVKQPU HQT WPKXGTUCNU CPVKEKRCVKPI UQOG QH VJG FGXGNQROGPVU KP OQFGTP UGV VJGQT[=? 5KPEG  +PFKCP
NQIKE CVVTCEVGF VJG CVVGPVKQP QH OCP[ 9GUVGTP UEJQNCTU CPF JCU JCF CP KPWGPEG QP KORQTVCPV VJEGPVWT[ NQIKEKCPU UWEJ
CU %JCTNGU $CDDCIG #WIWUVWU &G /QTICP CPF )GQTIG $QQNG=? +P VJG VJ EGPVWT[ 9GUVGTP RJKNQUQRJGTU NKMG 5VCPKUNCY
5EJC[GT CPF -NCWU )NCUJQ JCXG GZRNQTGF +PFKCP NQIKE OQTG GZVGPUKXGN[
6JG U[NNQIKUVKE NQIKE FGXGNQRGF D[ #TKUVQVNG RTGFQOKPCVGF KP VJG 9GUV WPVKN VJG OKFVJ EGPVWT[ YJGP KPVGTGUV KP VJG
HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU UVKOWNCVGF VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH U[ODQNKE NQIKE
PQY ECNNGF OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE +P 
)GQTIG $QQNG RWDNKUJGF "O *OWFTUJHBUJPO PG UIF -BXT PG 5IPVHIU PO 8IJDI BSF 'PVOEFE UIF .BUIFNBUJDBM 5IFPSJFT PG
-PHJD BOE 1SPCBCJMJUJFT KPVTQFWEKPI U[ODQNKE NQIKE CPF VJG RTKPEKRNGU QH YJCV KU PQY MPQYP CU $QQNGCP NQIKE +P 
)QVVNQD (TGIG RWDNKUJGF #FHSJTTDISJGU YJKEJ KPCWIWTCVGF OQFGTP NQIKE YKVJ VJG KPXGPVKQP QH SWCPVKGT PQVCVKQP (TQO
 VQ  #NHTGF 0QTVJ 9JKVGJGCF CPF $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN RWDNKUJGF 1SJODJQJB .BUIFNBUJDB=? QP VJG HQWPFCVKQPU QH
OCVJGOCVKEU CVVGORVKPI VQ FGTKXG OCVJGOCVKECN VTWVJU HTQO CZKQOU CPF KPHGTGPEG TWNGU KP U[ODQNKE NQIKE +P  )FGN
TCKUGF UGTKQWU RTQDNGOU YKVJ VJG HQWPFCVKQPCNKUV RTQITCO CPF NQIKE EGCUGF VQ HQEWU QP UWEJ KUUWGU
6JG FGXGNQROGPV QH NQIKE UKPEG (TGIG 4WUUGNN CPF 9KVVIGPUVGKP JCF C RTQHQWPF KPWGPEG QP VJG RTCEVKEG QH RJKNQUQRJ[
CPF VJG RGTEGKXGF PCVWTG QH RJKNQUQRJKECN RTQDNGOU
UGG #PCN[VKE RJKNQUQRJ[ CPF 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH OCVJGOCVKEU .QIKE
GURGEKCNN[ UGPVGPVKCN NQIKE KU KORNGOGPVGF KP EQORWVGT NQIKE EKTEWKVU CPF KU HWPFCOGPVCN VQ EQORWVGT UEKGPEG .QIKE KU
EQOOQPN[ VCWIJV D[ WPKXGTUKV[ RJKNQUQRJ[ FGRCTVOGPVU QHVGP CU C EQORWNUQT[ FKUEKRNKPG

1.3 Types of logic

1.3.1

Syllogistic logic

/CKP CTVKENG #TKUVQVGNKCP NQIKE

6JG 0SHBOPO YCU #TKUVQVNG U DQF[ QH YQTM QP NQIKE YKVJ VJG 1SJPS "OBMZUJDT EQPUVKVWVKPI VJG TUV GZRNKEKV YQTM KP HQTOCN
NQIKE KPVTQFWEKPI VJG U[NNQIKUVKE=? 6JG RCTVU QH U[NNQIKUVKE NQIKE CNUQ MPQYP D[ VJG PCOG VGTO NQIKE CTG VJG CPCN[UKU QH
VJG LWFIGOGPVU KPVQ RTQRQUKVKQPU EQPUKUVKPI QH VYQ VGTOU VJCV CTG TGNCVGF D[ QPG QH C ZGF PWODGT QH TGNCVKQPU CPF VJG
GZRTGUUKQP QH KPHGTGPEGU D[ OGCPU QH U[NNQIKUOU VJCV EQPUKUV QH VYQ RTQRQUKVKQPU UJCTKPI C EQOOQP VGTO CU RTGOKUG CPF
C EQPENWUKQP VJCV KU C RTQRQUKVKQP KPXQNXKPI VJG VYQ WPTGNCVGF VGTOU HTQO VJG RTGOKUGU
#TKUVQVNGU YQTM YCU TGICTFGF KP ENCUUKECN VKOGU CPF HTQO OGFKGXCN VKOGU KP 'WTQRG CPF VJG /KFFNG 'CUV CU VJG XGT[ RKEVWTG
QH C HWNN[ YQTMGF QWV U[UVGO *QYGXGT KV YCU PQV CNQPG VJG 5VQKEU RTQRQUGF C U[UVGO QH RTQRQUKVKQPCN NQIKE VJCV YCU
UVWFKGF D[ OGFKGXCN NQIKEKCPU #NUQ VJG RTQDNGO QH OWNVKRNG IGPGTCNKV[ YCU TGEQIPK\GF KP OGFKGXCN VKOGU 0QPGVJGNGUU
RTQDNGOU YKVJ U[NNQIKUVKE NQIKE YGTG PQV UGGP CU DGKPI KP PGGF QH TGXQNWVKQPCT[ UQNWVKQPU

 5:1&4 0' -0(*$

"SJTUPUMF  #$&

$)"15&3  -0(*$

6QFC[ UQOG CECFGOKEU ENCKO VJCV #TKUVQVNGU U[UVGO KU IGPGTCNN[ UGGP CU JCXKPI NKVVNG OQTG VJCP JKUVQTKECN XCNWG
VJQWIJ
VJGTG KU UQOG EWTTGPV KPVGTGUV KP GZVGPFKPI VGTO NQIKEU TGICTFGF CU OCFG QDUQNGVG D[ VJG CFXGPV QH RTQRQUKVKQPCN NQIKE CPF
VJG RTGFKECVG ECNEWNWU 1VJGTU WUG #TKUVQVNG KP CTIWOGPVCVKQP VJGQT[ VQ JGNR FGXGNQR CPF ETKVKECNN[ SWGUVKQP CTIWOGPVCVKQP
UEJGOGU VJCV CTG WUGF KP CTVKEKCN KPVGNNKIGPEG CPF NGICN CTIWOGPVU

1.3.2

Propositional logic (sentential logic)

/CKP CTVKENG 2TQRQUKVKQPCN ECNEWNWU

# RTQRQUKVKQPCN ECNEWNWU QT NQIKE
CNUQ C UGPVGPVKCN ECNEWNWU KU C HQTOCN U[UVGO KP YJKEJ HQTOWNCG TGRTGUGPVKPI RTQRQUKVKQPU
ECP DG HQTOGF D[ EQODKPKPI CVQOKE RTQRQUKVKQPU WUKPI NQIKECN EQPPGEVKXGU CPF KP YJKEJ C U[UVGO QH HQTOCN RTQQH TWNGU
GUVCDNKUJGU EGTVCKP HQTOWNCG CU VJGQTGOU

1.3.3

Predicate logic

/CKP CTVKENG 2TGFKECVG NQIKE

2TGFKECVG NQIKE KU VJG IGPGTKE VGTO HQT U[ODQNKE HQTOCN U[UVGOU UWEJ CU TUVQTFGT NQIKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE OCP[UQTVGF
NQIKE CPF KPPKVCT[ NQIKE
2TGFKECVG NQIKE RTQXKFGU CP CEEQWPV QH SWCPVKGTU IGPGTCN GPQWIJ VQ GZRTGUU C YKFG UGV QH CTIWOGPVU QEEWTTKPI KP PCVWTCN
NCPIWCIG #TKUVQVGNKCP U[NNQIKUVKE NQIKE URGEKGU C UOCNN PWODGT QH HQTOU VJCV VJG TGNGXCPV RCTV QH VJG KPXQNXGF LWFIGOGPVU
OC[ VCMG 2TGFKECVG NQIKE CNNQYU UGPVGPEGU VQ DG CPCN[UGF KPVQ UWDLGEV CPF CTIWOGPV KP UGXGTCN CFFKVKQPCN YC[UCNNQYKPI
RTGFKECVG NQIKE VQ UQNXG VJG RTQDNGO QH OWNVKRNG IGPGTCNKV[ VJCV JCF RGTRNGZGF OGFKGXCN NQIKEKCPU
6JG FGXGNQROGPV QH RTGFKECVG NQIKE KU WUWCNN[ CVVTKDWVGF VQ )QVVNQD (TGIG YJQ KU CNUQ ETGFKVGF CU QPG QH VJG HQWPFGTU QH
CPCN[VKECN RJKNQUQRJ[ DWV VJG HQTOWNCVKQP QH RTGFKECVG NQIKE OQUV QHVGP WUGF VQFC[ KU VJG TUVQTFGT NQIKE RTGUGPVGF KP
2TKPEKRNGU QH /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE D[ &CXKF *KNDGTV CPF 9KNJGNO #EMGTOCPP KP  6JG CPCN[VKECN IGPGTCNKV[ QH RTGF
KECVG NQIKE CNNQYGF VJG HQTOCNK\CVKQP QH OCVJGOCVKEU FTQXG VJG KPXGUVKICVKQP QH UGV VJGQT[ CPF CNNQYGF VJG FGXGNQROGPV
QH #NHTGF 6CTUMK U CRRTQCEJ VQ OQFGN VJGQT[ +V RTQXKFGU VJG HQWPFCVKQP QH OQFGTP OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE
(TGIGU QTKIKPCN U[UVGO QH RTGFKECVG NQIKE YCU UGEQPFQTFGT TCVJGT VJCP TUVQTFGT 5GEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KU OQUV RTQOKPGPVN[
FGHGPFGF
CICKPUV VJG ETKVKEKUO QH 9KNNCTF 8CP 1TOCP 3WKPG CPF QVJGTU D[ )GQTIG $QQNQU CPF 5VGYCTV 5JCRKTQ

1.3.4

Modal logic

/CKP CTVKENG /QFCN NQIKE

+P NCPIWCIGU OQFCNKV[ FGCNU YKVJ VJG RJGPQOGPQP VJCV UWDRCTVU QH C UGPVGPEG OC[ JCXG VJGKT UGOCPVKEU OQFKGF D[
URGEKCN XGTDU QT OQFCN RCTVKENGU (QT GZCORNG 8F HP UP UIF HBNFT ECP DG OQFKGF VQ IKXG 8F TIPVME HP UP UIF HBNFT
CPF 8F DBO HP UP UIF HBNFT CPF RGTJCRU 8F XJMM HP UP UIF HBNFT /QTG CDUVTCEVN[ YG OKIJV UC[ VJCV OQFCNKV[ CGEVU
VJG EKTEWOUVCPEGU KP YJKEJ YG VCMG CP CUUGTVKQP VQ DG UCVKUGF
#TKUVQVNG U NQIKE KU KP NCTIG RCTVU EQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG VJGQT[ QH PQPOQFCNK\GF NQIKE #NVJQWIJ VJGTG CTG RCUUCIGU KP JKU
YQTM UWEJ CU VJG HCOQWU UGCDCVVNG CTIWOGPV KP %F *OUFSQSFUBUJPOF h  VJCV CTG PQY UGGP CU CPVKEKRCVKQPU QH OQFCN NQIKE
CPF KVU EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ RQVGPVKCNKV[ CPF VKOG VJG GCTNKGUV HQTOCN U[UVGO QH OQFCN NQIKE YCU FGXGNQRGF D[ #XKEGPPC YJQO
WNVKOCVGN[ FGXGNQRGF C VJGQT[ QH VGORQTCNN[ OQFCNK\GF U[NNQIKUVKE=?
9JKNG VJG UVWF[ QH PGEGUUKV[ CPF RQUUKDKNKV[ TGOCKPGF KORQTVCPV VQ RJKNQUQRJGTU NKVVNG NQIKECN KPPQXCVKQP JCRRGPGF WPVKN
VJG NCPFOCTM KPXGUVKICVKQPU QH %NCTGPEG +TXKPI .GYKU KP  YJQ HQTOWNCVGF C HCOKN[ QH TKXCN CZKQOCVK\CVKQPU QH VJG
CNGVJKE OQFCNKVKGU *KU YQTM WPNGCUJGF C VQTTGPV QH PGY YQTM QP VJG VQRKE GZRCPFKPI VJG MKPFU QH OQFCNKV[ VTGCVGF VQ
KPENWFG FGQPVKE NQIKE CPF GRKUVGOKE NQIKE 6JG UGOKPCN YQTM QH #TVJWT 2TKQT CRRNKGF VJG UCOG HQTOCN NCPIWCIG VQ VTGCV
VGORQTCN NQIKE CPF RCXGF VJG YC[ HQT VJG OCTTKCIG QH VJG VYQ UWDLGEVU 5CWN -TKRMG FKUEQXGTGF
EQPVGORQTCPGQWUN[

 5:1&4 0' -0(*$

YKVJ TKXCNU JKU VJGQT[ QH HTCOG UGOCPVKEU YJKEJ TGXQNWVKQPK\GF VJG HQTOCN VGEJPQNQI[ CXCKNCDNG VQ OQFCN NQIKEKCPU CPF
ICXG C PGY ITCRJVJGQTGVKE YC[ QH NQQMKPI CV OQFCNKV[ VJCV JCU FTKXGP OCP[ CRRNKECVKQPU KP EQORWVCVKQPCN NKPIWKUVKEU CPF
EQORWVGT UEKGPEG UWEJ CU F[PCOKE NQIKE

1.3.5

Informal reasoning

/CKP CTVKENG +PHQTOCN NQIKE

6JG OQVKXCVKQP HQT VJG UVWF[ QH NQIKE KP CPEKGPV VKOGU YCU ENGCT KV KU UQ VJCV QPG OC[ NGCTP VQ FKUVKPIWKUJ IQQF HTQO DCF
CTIWOGPVU CPF UQ DGEQOG OQTG GGEVKXG KP CTIWOGPV CPF QTCVQT[ CPF RGTJCRU CNUQ VQ DGEQOG C DGVVGT RGTUQP *CNH QH
VJG YQTMU QH #TKUVQVNGU 1TICPQP VTGCV KPHGTGPEG CU KV QEEWTU KP CP KPHQTOCN UGVVKPI UKFG D[ UKFG YKVJ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH
VJG U[NNQIKUVKE CPF KP VJG #TKUVQVGNKCP UEJQQN VJGUG KPHQTOCN YQTMU QP NQIKE YGTG UGGP CU EQORNGOGPVCT[ VQ #TKUVQVNGU
VTGCVOGPV QH TJGVQTKE
6JKU CPEKGPV OQVKXCVKQP KU UVKNN CNKXG CNVJQWIJ KV PQ NQPIGT VCMGU EGPVTG UVCIG KP VJG RKEVWTG QH NQIKE V[RKECNN[ FKCNGEVKECN
NQIKE HQTOU VJG JGCTV QH C EQWTUG KP ETKVKECN VJKPMKPI C EQORWNUQT[ EQWTUG CV OCP[ WPKXGTUKVKGU
#TIWOGPVCVKQP VJGQT[ KU VJG UVWF[ CPF TGUGCTEJ QH KPHQTOCN NQIKE HCNNCEKGU CPF ETKVKECN SWGUVKQPU CU VJG[ TGNCVG VQ GXGT[
FC[ CPF RTCEVKECN UKVWCVKQPU 5RGEKE V[RGU QH FKCNQIWG ECP DG CPCN[\GF CPF SWGUVKQPGF VQ TGXGCN RTGOKUGU EQPENWUKQPU
CPF HCNNCEKGU #TIWOGPVCVKQP VJGQT[ KU PQY CRRNKGF KP CTVKEKCN KPVGNNKIGPEG CPF NCY

1.3.6

Mathematical logic

/CKP CTVKENG /CVJGOCVKECN NQIKE

/CVJGOCVKECN NQIKE TGCNN[ TGHGTU VQ VYQ FKUVKPEV CTGCU QH TGUGCTEJ VJG TUV KU VJG CRRNKECVKQP QH VJG VGEJPKSWGU QH HQTOCN
NQIKE VQ OCVJGOCVKEU CPF OCVJGOCVKECN TGCUQPKPI CPF VJG UGEQPF KP VJG QVJGT FKTGEVKQP VJG CRRNKECVKQP QH OCVJGOCVKECN
VGEJPKSWGU VQ VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKQP CPF CPCN[UKU QH HQTOCN NQIKE=?
6JG GCTNKGUV WUG QH OCVJGOCVKEU CPF IGQOGVT[ KP TGNCVKQP VQ NQIKE CPF RJKNQUQRJ[ IQGU DCEM VQ VJG CPEKGPV )TGGMU UWEJ CU
'WENKF 2NCVQ CPF #TKUVQVNG=? /CP[ QVJGT CPEKGPV CPF OGFKGXCN RJKNQUQRJGTU CRRNKGF OCVJGOCVKECN KFGCU CPF OGVJQFU
VQ VJGKT RJKNQUQRJKECN ENCKOU=?
1PG QH VJG DQNFGUV CVVGORVU VQ CRRN[ NQIKE VQ OCVJGOCVKEU YCU WPFQWDVGFN[ VJG NQIKEKUO RKQPGGTGF D[ RJKNQUQRJGT
NQIKEKCPU UWEJ CU )QVVNQD (TGIG CPF $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN VJG KFGC YCU VJCV OCVJGOCVKECN VJGQTKGU YGTG NQIKECN VCWVQNQIKGU
CPF VJG RTQITCOOG YCU VQ UJQY VJKU D[ OGCPU VQ C TGFWEVKQP QH OCVJGOCVKEU VQ NQIKE=? 6JG XCTKQWU CVVGORVU VQ ECTT[
VJKU QWV OGV YKVJ C UGTKGU QH HCKNWTGU HTQO VJG ETKRRNKPI QH (TGIGU RTQLGEV KP JKU (SVOEHFTFU[F D[ 4WUUGNNU RCTCFQZ VQ VJG
FGHGCV QH *KNDGTVU RTQITCO D[ )FGNU KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU
$QVJ VJG UVCVGOGPV QH *KNDGTVU RTQITCO CPF KVU TGHWVCVKQP D[ )FGN FGRGPFGF WRQP VJGKT YQTM GUVCDNKUJKPI VJG UGEQPF
CTGC QH OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE VJG CRRNKECVKQP QH OCVJGOCVKEU VQ NQIKE KP VJG HQTO QH RTQQH VJGQT[=? &GURKVG VJG PGICVKXG
PCVWTG QH VJG KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU )FGNU EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO C TGUWNV KP OQFGN VJGQT[ CPF CPQVJGT CRRNKECVKQP
QH OCVJGOCVKEU VQ NQIKE ECP DG WPFGTUVQQF CU UJQYKPI JQY ENQUG NQIKEKUO ECOG VQ DGKPI VTWG GXGT[ TKIQTQWUN[ FGPGF
OCVJGOCVKECN VJGQT[ ECP DG GZCEVN[ ECRVWTGF D[ C TUVQTFGT NQIKECN VJGQT[ (TGIGU RTQQH ECNEWNWU KU GPQWIJ VQ EFTDSJCF
VJG YJQNG QH OCVJGOCVKEU VJQWIJ PQV FRVJWBMFOU VQ KV
+H RTQQH VJGQT[ CPF OQFGN VJGQT[ JCXG DGGP VJG HQWPFCVKQP QH OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE VJG[ JCXG DGGP DWV VYQ QH VJG HQWT
RKNNCTU QH VJG UWDLGEV 5GV VJGQT[ QTKIKPCVGF KP VJG UVWF[ QH VJG KPPKVG D[ )GQTI %CPVQT CPF KV JCU DGGP VJG UQWTEG QH
OCP[ QH VJG OQUV EJCNNGPIKPI CPF KORQTVCPV KUUWGU KP OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE HTQO %CPVQTU VJGQTGO VJTQWIJ VJG UVCVWU QH
VJG #ZKQO QH %JQKEG CPF VJG SWGUVKQP QH VJG KPFGRGPFGPEG QH VJG EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU VQ VJG OQFGTP FGDCVG QP NCTIG
ECTFKPCN CZKQOU
4GEWTUKQP VJGQT[ ECRVWTGU VJG KFGC QH EQORWVCVKQP KP NQIKECN CPF CTKVJOGVKE VGTOU KVU OQUV ENCUUKECN CEJKGXGOGPVU CTG VJG
WPFGEKFCDKNKV[ QH VJG 'PVUEJGKFWPIURTQDNGO D[ #NCP 6WTKPI CPF JKU RTGUGPVCVKQP QH VJG %JWTEJ6WTKPI VJGUKU=? 6QFC[
TGEWTUKQP VJGQT[ KU OQUVN[ EQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG OQTG TGPGF RTQDNGO QH EQORNGZKV[ ENCUUGUYJGP KU C RTQDNGO GEKGPVN[
UQNXCDNG!CPF VJG ENCUUKECVKQP QH FGITGGU QH WPUQNXCDKNKV[=?

$)"15&3  -0(*$

1.3.7

Philosophical logic

/CKP CTVKENG 2JKNQUQRJKECN NQIKE

2JKNQUQRJKECN NQIKE FGCNU YKVJ HQTOCN FGUETKRVKQPU QH QTFKPCT[ PQPURGEKCNKUV
PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG /QUV RJKNQUQRJGTU
CUUWOG VJCV VJG DWNM QH GXGT[FC[ TGCUQPKPI ECP DG ECRVWTGF KP NQIKE KH C OGVJQF QT OGVJQFU VQ VTCPUNCVG QTFKPCT[ NCPIWCIG
KPVQ VJCV NQIKE ECP DG HQWPF 2JKNQUQRJKECN NQIKE KU GUUGPVKCNN[ C EQPVKPWCVKQP QH VJG VTCFKVKQPCN FKUEKRNKPG ECNNGF NQIKE
DGHQTG VJG KPXGPVKQP QH OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE 2JKNQUQRJKECN NQIKE JCU C OWEJ ITGCVGT EQPEGTP YKVJ VJG EQPPGEVKQP DGVYGGP
PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG CPF NQIKE #U C TGUWNV RJKNQUQRJKECN NQIKEKCPU JCXG EQPVTKDWVGF C ITGCV FGCN VQ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH PQP
UVCPFCTF NQIKEU
GI HTGG NQIKEU VGPUG NQIKEU CU YGNN CU XCTKQWU GZVGPUKQPU QH ENCUUKECN NQIKE
GI OQFCN NQIKEU CPF
PQPUVCPFCTF UGOCPVKEU HQT UWEJ NQIKEU
GI -TKRMG U UWRGTXCNWCVKQPKUO KP VJG UGOCPVKEU QH NQIKE
.QIKE CPF VJG RJKNQUQRJ[ QH NCPIWCIG CTG ENQUGN[ TGNCVGF 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH NCPIWCIG JCU VQ FQ YKVJ VJG UVWF[ QH JQY QWT
NCPIWCIG GPICIGU CPF KPVGTCEVU YKVJ QWT VJKPMKPI .QIKE JCU CP KOOGFKCVG KORCEV QP QVJGT CTGCU QH UVWF[ 5VWF[KPI NQIKE
CPF VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP NQIKE CPF QTFKPCT[ URGGEJ ECP JGNR C RGTUQP DGVVGT UVTWEVWTG JKU QYP CTIWOGPVU CPF ETKVKSWG
VJG CTIWOGPVU QH QVJGTU /CP[ RQRWNCT CTIWOGPVU CTG NNGF YKVJ GTTQTU DGECWUG UQ OCP[ RGQRNG CTG WPVTCKPGF KP NQIKE
CPF WPCYCTG QH JQY VQ HQTOWNCVG CP CTIWOGPV EQTTGEVN[=?=?

1.3.8

Computational logic

/CKP CTVKENG .QIKE KP EQORWVGT UEKGPEG

.QIKE EWV VQ VJG JGCTV QH EQORWVGT UEKGPEG CU KV GOGTIGF CU C FKUEKRNKPG #NCP 6WTKPI U YQTM QP VJG &OUTDIFJEVOHTQSPCMFN
HQNNQYGF HTQO -WTV )FGN U YQTM QP VJG KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU 6JG PQVKQP QH VJG IGPGTCN RWTRQUG EQORWVGT VJCV ECOG
HTQO VJKU YQTM YCU QH HWPFCOGPVCN KORQTVCPEG VQ VJG FGUKIPGTU QH VJG EQORWVGT OCEJKPGT[ KP VJG U
+P VJG U CPF U TGUGCTEJGTU RTGFKEVGF VJCV YJGP JWOCP MPQYNGFIG EQWNF DG GZRTGUUGF WUKPI NQIKE YKVJ OCVJGOCVKECN
PQVCVKQP KV YQWNF DG RQUUKDNG VQ ETGCVG C OCEJKPG VJCV TGCUQPU QT CTVKEKCN KPVGNNKIGPEG 6JKU YCU OQTG FKEWNV VJCP GZ
RGEVGF DGECWUG QH VJG EQORNGZKV[ QH JWOCP TGCUQPKPI +P NQIKE RTQITCOOKPI C RTQITCO EQPUKUVU QH C UGV QH CZKQOU CPF
TWNGU .QIKE RTQITCOOKPI U[UVGOU UWEJ CU 2TQNQI EQORWVG VJG EQPUGSWGPEGU QH VJG CZKQOU CPF TWNGU KP QTFGT VQ CPUYGT
C SWGT[
6QFC[ NQIKE KU GZVGPUKXGN[ CRRNKGF KP VJG GNFU QH #TVKEKCN +PVGNNKIGPEG CPF %QORWVGT 5EKGPEG CPF VJGUG GNFU RTQXKFG
C TKEJ UQWTEG QH RTQDNGOU KP HQTOCN CPF KPHQTOCN NQIKE #TIWOGPVCVKQP VJGQT[ KU QPG IQQF GZCORNG QH JQY NQIKE KU DGKPI
CRRNKGF VQ CTVKEKCN KPVGNNKIGPEG 6JG #%/ %QORWVKPI %NCUUKECVKQP 5[UVGO KP RCTVKEWNCT TGICTFU
5GEVKQP ( QP .QIKEU CPF OGCPKPIU QH RTQITCOU CPF ( QP /CVJGOCVKECN NQIKE CPF HQTOCN NCPIWCIGU CU RCTV QH
VJG VJGQT[ QH EQORWVGT UEKGPEG VJKU YQTM EQXGTU HQTOCN UGOCPVKEU QH RTQITCOOKPI NCPIWCIGU CU YGNN CU YQTM QH
HQTOCN OGVJQFU UWEJ CU *QCTG NQIKE
$QQNGCP NQIKE CU HWPFCOGPVCN VQ EQORWVGT JCTFYCTG RCTVKEWNCTN[ VJG U[UVGOU UGEVKQP $ QP #TKVJOGVKE CPF NQIKE
UVTWEVWTGU TGNCVKPI VQ QRGTCVKXGU #0& 016 CPF 14
/CP[ HWPFCOGPVCN NQIKECN HQTOCNKUOU CTG GUUGPVKCN VQ UGEVKQP + QP CTVKEKCN KPVGNNKIGPEG HQT GZCORNG OQFCN NQIKE
CPF FGHCWNV NQIKE KP -PQYNGFIG TGRTGUGPVCVKQP HQTOCNKUOU CPF OGVJQFU *QTP ENCWUGU KP NQIKE RTQITCOOKPI CPF
FGUETKRVKQP NQIKE
(WTVJGTOQTG EQORWVGTU ECP DG WUGF CU VQQNU HQT NQIKEKCPU (QT GZCORNG KP U[ODQNKE NQIKE CPF OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKE RTQQHU
D[ JWOCPU ECP DG EQORWVGTCUUKUVGF 7UKPI CWVQOCVGF VJGQTGO RTQXKPI VJG OCEJKPGU ECP PF CPF EJGEM RTQQHU CU YGNN
CU YQTM YKVJ RTQQHU VQQ NGPIVJ[ VQ YTKVG QWV D[ JCPF

1.3.9

Bivalence and the law of the excluded middle; non-classical logics

/CKP CTVKENG 2TKPEKRNG QH DKXCNGPEG

 5:1&4 0' -0(*$

6JG NQIKEU FKUEWUUGF CDQXG CTG CNN DKXCNGPV QT VYQXCNWGF VJCV KU VJG[ CTG OQUV PCVWTCNN[ WPFGTUVQQF CU FKXKFKPI
RTQRQUKVKQPU KPVQ VTWG CPF HCNUG RTQRQUKVKQPU 0QPENCUUKECN NQIKEU CTG VJQUG U[UVGOU VJCV TGLGEV DKXCNGPEG
*GIGN FGXGNQRGF JKU QYP FKCNGEVKE NQIKE VJCV GZVGPFGF -CPV U VTCPUEGPFGPVCN NQIKE DWV CNUQ DTQWIJV KV DCEM VQ ITQWPF
D[ CUUWTKPI WU VJCV PGKVJGT KP JGCXGP PQT KP GCTVJ PGKVJGT KP VJG YQTNF QH OKPF PQT QH PCVWTG KU VJGTG CP[YJGTG UWEJ
CP CDUVTCEV GKVJGTQT CU VJG WPFGTUVCPFKPI OCKPVCKPU 9JCVGXGT GZKUVU KU EQPETGVG YKVJ FKGTGPEG CPF QRRQUKVKQP KP
KVUGNH=?
+P  0KEQNCK # 8CUKNKGX GZVGPFGF VJG NCY QH GZENWFGF OKFFNG CPF VJG NCY QH EQPVTCFKEVKQP CPF RTQRQUGF VJG NCY QH
GZENWFGF HQWTVJ CPF NQIKE VQNGTCPV VQ EQPVTCFKEVKQP=? +P VJG GCTN[ VJ EGPVWT[ ,CP WMCUKGYKE\ KPXGUVKICVGF VJG GZVGPUKQP
QH VJG VTCFKVKQPCN VTWGHCNUG XCNWGU VQ KPENWFG C VJKTF XCNWG RQUUKDNG UQ KPXGPVKPI VGTPCT[ NQIKE VJG TUV OWNVKXCNWGF
NQIKE=?
.QIKEU UWEJ CU HW\\[ NQIKE JCXG UKPEG DGGP FGXKUGF YKVJ CP KPPKVG PWODGT QH FGITGGU QH VTWVJ TGRTGUGPVGF D[ C TGCN
PWODGT DGVYGGP  CPF =?
+PVWKVKQPKUVKE NQIKE YCU RTQRQUGF D[ .', $TQWYGT CU VJG EQTTGEV NQIKE HQT TGCUQPKPI CDQWV OCVJGOCVKEU DCUGF WRQP JKU
TGLGEVKQP QH VJG NCY QH VJG GZENWFGF OKFFNG CU RCTV QH JKU KPVWKVKQPKUO $TQWYGT TGLGEVGF HQTOCNK\CVKQP KP OCVJGOCVKEU
DWV JKU UVWFGPV #TGPF *G[VKPI UVWFKGF KPVWKVKQPKUVKE NQIKE HQTOCNN[ CU FKF )GTJCTF )GPV\GP +PVWKVKQPKUVKE NQIKE KU QH ITGCV
KPVGTGUV VQ EQORWVGT UEKGPVKUVU CU KV KU C EQPUVTWEVKXG NQIKE CPF ECP DG CRRNKGF HQT GZVTCEVKPI XGTKGF RTQITCOU HTQO RTQQHU
/QFCN NQIKE KU PQV VTWVJ EQPFKVKQPCN CPF UQ KV JCU QHVGP DGGP RTQRQUGF CU C PQPENCUUKECN NQIKE *QYGXGT OQFCN NQIKE KU
PQTOCNN[ HQTOCNK\GF YKVJ VJG RTKPEKRNG QH VJG GZENWFGF OKFFNG CPF KVU TGNCVKQPCN UGOCPVKEU KU DKXCNGPV UQ VJKU KPENWUKQP KU
FKURWVCDNG

1.3.10

Is logic empirical?"

/CKP CTVKENG +U NQIKE GORKTKECN!

9JCV KU VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN UVCVWU QH VJG NCYU QH NQIKE! 9JCV UQTV QH CTIWOGPV KU CRRTQRTKCVG HQT ETKVKEK\KPI RWTRQTVGF
RTKPEKRNGU QH NQIKE! +P CP KPWGPVKCN RCRGT GPVKVNGF +U NQIKE GORKTKECN!=? *KNCT[ 2WVPCO DWKNFKPI QP C UWIIGUVKQP QH
9 8 3WKPG CTIWGF VJCV KP IGPGTCN VJG HCEVU QH RTQRQUKVKQPCN NQIKE JCXG C UKOKNCT GRKUVGOQNQIKECN UVCVWU CU HCEVU CDQWV
VJG RJ[UKECN WPKXGTUG HQT GZCORNG CU VJG NCYU QH OGEJCPKEU QT QH IGPGTCN TGNCVKXKV[ CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT VJCV YJCV RJ[UKEKUVU
JCXG NGCTPGF CDQWV SWCPVWO OGEJCPKEU RTQXKFGU C EQORGNNKPI ECUG HQT CDCPFQPKPI EGTVCKP HCOKNKCT RTKPEKRNGU QH ENCUUKECN
NQIKE KH YG YCPV VQ DG TGCNKUVU CDQWV VJG RJ[UKECN RJGPQOGPC FGUETKDGF D[ SWCPVWO VJGQT[ VJGP YG UJQWNF CDCPFQP VJG
RTKPEKRNG QH FKUVTKDWVKXKV[ UWDUVKVWVKPI HQT ENCUUKECN NQIKE VJG SWCPVWO NQIKE RTQRQUGF D[ )CTTGVV $KTMJQ CPF ,QJP XQP
0GWOCPP=?
#PQVJGT RCRGT QH VJG UCOG PCOG D[ 5KT /KEJCGN &WOOGVV CTIWGU VJCV 2WVPCOU FGUKTG HQT TGCNKUO OCPFCVGU VJG NCY QH
FKUVTKDWVKXKV[=? &KUVTKDWVKXKV[ QH NQIKE KU GUUGPVKCN HQT VJG TGCNKUVU WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH JQY RTQRQUKVKQPU CTG VTWG QH VJG YQTNF
KP LWUV VJG UCOG YC[ CU JG JCU CTIWGF VJG RTKPEKRNG QH DKXCNGPEG KU +P VJKU YC[ VJG SWGUVKQP +U NQIKE GORKTKECN! ECP DG
UGGP VQ NGCF PCVWTCNN[ KPVQ VJG HWPFCOGPVCN EQPVTQXGTU[ KP OGVCRJ[UKEU QP TGCNKUO XGTUWU CPVKTGCNKUO

1.3.11

Implication: strict or material?

/CKP CTVKENG 2CTCFQZ QH GPVCKNOGPV

6JG PQVKQP QH KORNKECVKQP HQTOCNK\GF KP ENCUUKECN NQIKE FQGU PQV EQOHQTVCDN[ VTCPUNCVG KPVQ PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG D[ OGCPU QH
KH  VJGP  FWG VQ C PWODGT QH RTQDNGOU ECNNGF VJG RCTCFQZGU QH OCVGTKCN KORNKECVKQP
6JG TUV ENCUU QH RCTCFQZGU KPXQNXGU EQWPVGTHCEVWCNU UWEJ CU *G UIF NPPO JT NBEF PG HSFFO DIFFTF UIFO  YJKEJ CTG
RW\\NKPI DGECWUG PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG FQGU PQV UWRRQTV VJG RTKPEKRNG QH GZRNQUKQP 'NKOKPCVKPI VJKU ENCUU QH RCTCFQZGU YCU
VJG TGCUQP HQT % + .GYKU U HQTOWNCVKQP QH UVTKEV KORNKECVKQP YJKEJ GXGPVWCNN[ NGF VQ OQTG TCFKECNN[ TGXKUKQPKUV NQIKEU UWEJ
CU TGNGXCPEG NQIKE
6JG UGEQPF ENCUU QH RCTCFQZGU KPXQNXGU TGFWPFCPV RTGOKUGU HCNUGN[ UWIIGUVKPI VJCV YG MPQY VJG UWEEGFGPV DGECWUG QH



$)"15&3  -0(*$

VJG CPVGEGFGPV VJWU KH VJCV OCP IGVU GNGEVGF ITCPP[ YKNN FKG KU OCVGTKCNN[ VTWG UKPEG ITCPP[ KU OQTVCN TGICTFNGUU QH
VJG OCPU GNGEVKQP RTQURGEVU 5WEJ UGPVGPEGU XKQNCVG VJG )TKEGCP OCZKO QH TGNGXCPEG CPF ECP DG OQFGNNGF D[ NQIKEU VJCV
TGLGEV VJG RTKPEKRNG QH OQPQVQPKEKV[ QH GPVCKNOGPV UWEJ CU TGNGXCPEG NQIKE

1.3.12

Tolerating the impossible

/CKP CTVKENG 2CTCEQPUKUVGPV NQIKE

*GIGN YCU FGGRN[ ETKVKECN QH CP[ UKORNKGF PQVKQP QH VJG .CY QH 0QP%QPVTCFKEVKQP +V YCU DCUGF QP .GKDPK\ U KFGC VJCV
VJKU NCY QH NQIKE CNUQ TGSWKTGU C UWEKGPV ITQWPF VQ URGEKH[ HTQO YJCV RQKPV QH XKGY
QT VKOG QPG UC[U VJCV UQOGVJKPI
ECPPQV EQPVTCFKEV KVUGNH # DWKNFKPI HQT GZCORNG DQVJ OQXGU CPF FQGU PQV OQXG VJG ITQWPF HQT VJG TUV KU QWT UQNCT
U[UVGO CPF HQT VJG UGEQPF VJG GCTVJ +P *GIGNKCP FKCNGEVKE VJG NCY QH PQPEQPVTCFKEVKQP QH KFGPVKV[ KVUGNH TGNKGU WRQP
FKGTGPEG CPF UQ KU PQV KPFGRGPFGPVN[ CUUGTVCDNG
%NQUGN[ TGNCVGF VQ SWGUVKQPU CTKUKPI HTQO VJG RCTCFQZGU QH KORNKECVKQP EQOGU VJG UWIIGUVKQP VJCV NQIKE QWIJV VQ VQNGTCVG
KPEQPUKUVGPE[ 4GNGXCPEG NQIKE CPF RCTCEQPUKUVGPV NQIKE CTG VJG OQUV KORQTVCPV CRRTQCEJGU JGTG VJQWIJ VJG EQPEGTPU CTG
FKGTGPV C MG[ EQPUGSWGPEG QH ENCUUKECN NQIKE CPF UQOG QH KVU TKXCNU UWEJ CU KPVWKVKQPKUVKE NQIKE KU VJCV VJG[ TGURGEV VJG
RTKPEKRNG QH GZRNQUKQP YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV VJG NQIKE EQNNCRUGU KH KV KU ECRCDNG QH FGTKXKPI C EQPVTCFKEVKQP )TCJCO 2TKGUV VJG
OCKP RTQRQPGPV QH FKCNGVJGKUO JCU CTIWGF HQT RCTCEQPUKUVGPE[ QP VJG ITQWPFU VJCV VJGTG CTG KP HCEV VTWG EQPVTCFKEVKQPU=?

1.3.13

Rejection of logical truth

6JG RJKNQUQRJKECN XGKP QH XCTKQWU MKPFU QH UMGRVKEKUO EQPVCKPU OCP[ MKPFU QH FQWDV CPF TGLGEVKQP QH VJG XCTKQWU DCUGU QP
YJKEJ NQIKE TGUVU UWEJ CU VJG KFGC QH NQIKECN HQTO EQTTGEV KPHGTGPEG QT OGCPKPI V[RKECNN[ NGCFKPI VQ VJG EQPENWUKQP VJCV
VJGTG CTG PQ NQIKECN VTWVJU 1DUGTXG VJCV VJKU KU QRRQUKVG VQ VJG WUWCN XKGYU KP RJKNQUQRJKECN UMGRVKEKUO YJGTG NQIKE FKTGEVU
UMGRVKECN GPSWKT[ VQ FQWDV TGEGKXGF YKUFQOU CU KP VJG YQTM QH 5GZVWU 'ORKTKEWU
(TKGFTKEJ 0KGV\UEJG RTQXKFGU C UVTQPI GZCORNG QH VJG TGLGEVKQP QH VJG WUWCN DCUKU QH NQIKE JKU TCFKECN TGLGEVKQP QH KFG
CNK\CVKQP NGF JKO VQ TGLGEV VTWVJ CU C  OQDKNG CTO[ QH OGVCRJQTU OGVQP[OU CPF CPVJTQRQOQTRJKUOUKP UJQTV 
OGVCRJQTU YJKEJ CTG YQTP QWV CPF YKVJQWV UGPUWQWU RQYGT EQKPU YJKEJ JCXG NQUV VJGKT RKEVWTGU CPF PQY OCVVGT QPN[
CU OGVCN PQ NQPIGT CU EQKPU=? *KU TGLGEVKQP QH VTWVJ FKF PQV NGCF JKO VQ TGLGEV VJG KFGC QH GKVJGT KPHGTGPEG QT NQIKE
EQORNGVGN[ DWV TCVJGT UWIIGUVGF VJCV NQIKE =ECOG? KPVQ GZKUVGPEG KP OCPU JGCF =QWV? QH KNNQIKE YJQUG TGCNO QTKIKPCNN[
OWUV JCXG DGGP KOOGPUG +PPWOGTCDNG DGKPIU YJQ OCFG KPHGTGPEGU KP C YC[ FKGTGPV HTQO QWTU RGTKUJGF=? 6JWU
VJGTG KU VJG KFGC VJCV NQIKECN KPHGTGPEG JCU C WUG CU C VQQN HQT JWOCP UWTXKXCN DWV VJCV KVU GZKUVGPEG FQGU PQV UWRRQTV VJG
GZKUVGPEG QH VTWVJ PQT FQGU KV JCXG C TGCNKV[ DG[QPF VJG KPUVTWOGPVCN .QIKE VQQ CNUQ TGUVU QP CUUWORVKQPU VJCV FQ PQV
EQTTGURQPF VQ CP[VJKPI KP VJG TGCN YQTNF=?
6JKU RQUKVKQP JGNF D[ 0KGV\UEJG JQYGXGT JCU EQOG WPFGT GZVTGOG UETWVKP[ HQT UGXGTCN TGCUQPU *G HCKNU VQ FGOQPUVTCVG
VJG XCNKFKV[ QH JKU ENCKOU CPF OGTGN[ CUUGTVU VJGO TJGVQTKECNN[ #NVJQWIJ UKPEG JG KU ETKVKEKUKPI VJG GUVCDNKUJGF ETKVGTKC QH
XCNKFKV[ VJKU FQGU PQV WPFGTOKPG JKU RQUKVKQP HQT QPG EQWNF CTIWG VJCV VJG FGOQPUVTCVKQP QH XCNKFKV[ RTQXKFGF KP VJG PCOG
QH NQIKE YCU LWUV CU TJGVQTKECNN[ DCUGF 5QOG RJKNQUQRJGTU UWEJ CU ,TIGP *CDGTOCU ENCKO JKU RQUKVKQP KU UGNHTGHWVKPI
CPF CEEWUG 0KGV\UEJG QH PQV GXGP JCXKPI C EQJGTGPV RGTURGEVKXG NGV CNQPG C VJGQT[ QH MPQYNGFIG=? #ICKP KV KU WPENGCT
KH VJKU KU C FGEKUKXG ETKVKSWG HQT VJG ETKVGTKC QH EQJGTGPE[ CPF EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ CTG GZCEVN[ YJCV KU WPFGT SWGUVKQP )GQTI
.WMEU KP JKU DQQM 5IF %FTUSVDUJPO PG 3FBTPO CUUGTVU VJCV 9GTG YG VQ UVWF[ 0KGV\UEJGU UVCVGOGPVU KP VJKU CTGC HTQO C
NQIKEQRJKNQUQRJKECN CPING YG YQWNF DG EQPHTQPVGF D[ C FK\\[ EJCQU QH VJG OQUV NWTKF CUUGTVKQPU CTDKVTCT[ CPF XKQNGPVN[
KPEQORCVKDNG=? 5VKNN KP VJKU TGURGEV JKU VJGQT[ YQWNF DG C OWEJ DGVVGT FGRKEKVKQP QH C EQPHWUGF CPF EJCQVKE TGCNKV[
VJCP CP[ EQPUKUVGPV CPF EQORCVKDNG VJGQT[ $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN FGUETKDGF 0KGV\UEJGU KTTCVKQPCN ENCKOU YKVJ *G KU HQPF QH
GZRTGUUKPI JKOUGNH RCTCFQZKECNN[ CPF YKVJ C XKGY VQ UJQEMKPI EQPXGPVKQPCN TGCFGTU KP JKU DQQM " )JTUPSZ PG 8FTUFSO
1IJMPTPQIZ=?

1.4 See also

&KIKVCN GNGEVTQPKEU
CNUQ MPQYP CU EJHJUBM MPHJD QT NQIKE ICVGU

 /05&4 "/% 3&'&3&/$&4



(CNNCEKGU
.KUV QH NQIKEKCPU
.KUV QH NQIKE LQWTPCNU
.QIKE RW\\NG
.QIKE U[ODQNU
/CVJGOCVKEU
.KUV QH OCVJGOCVKEU CTVKENGU
1WVNKPG QH OCVJGOCVKEU
/GVCNQIKE
1WVNKPG QH NQIKE
2JKNQUQRJ[
.KUV QH RJKNQUQRJ[ VQRKEU
1WVNKPG QH RJKNQUQRJ[
4GCUQP
4USBJHIU BOE $SPPLFE 5IJOLJOH
DQQM
6CDNG QH NQIKE U[ODQNU
6TWVJ
8GEVQT NQIKE

1.5 Notes and references

=? RQUUGUUGF QH TGCUQP KPVGNNGEVWCN FKCNGEVKECN CTIWOGPVCVKXG CNUQ TGNCVGF VQ
MPHPT YQTF VJQWIJV KFGC CTIWOGPV
CEEQWPV TGCUQP QT RTKPEKRNG
.KFFGNN  5EQVV  1PNKPG 'V[OQNQI[ &KEVKQPCT[ 
=? 4KEJCTF *GPT[ 2QRMKP #XTWO 5VTQNN
 ,WN[  1IJMPTPQIZ .BEF 4JNQMF 4CPFQO *QWUG &KIKVCN +PE R  +5$0
 4GVTKGXGF  /CTEJ 
=? ,CESWGVVG &
 " $PNQBOJPO UP 1IJMPTPQIJDBM -PHJD 9KNG[ 1PNKPG .KDTCT[ R 
=? (QT GZCORNG 0[C[C
U[NNQIKUVKE TGEWTUKQP FCVGU DCEM  [GCTU
=? /QJKUVU CPF VJG UEJQQN QH 0COGU FCVG DCEM CV  [GCTU
=? 2NCVQ
 $WEJCPCP 5EQVV GF 5IF 1PSUBCMF 1MBUP 2GPIWKP +5$0 
=? #TKUVQVNG
 2QUVGTKQT #PCN[VKEU +P /EMGQP 4KEJCTF 5IF #BTJD 8PSLT /QFGTP .KDTCT[ +5$0 
=? 9JKVGJGCF #NHTGF 0QTVJ 4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF
 1SJODJQJB .BUIFNBUJDB UP  %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0 

=? (QT C OQTG OQFGTP VTGCVOGPV UGG *COKNVQP # )
 -PHJD GPS .BUIFNBUJDJBOT %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0

=? WMCUKGYKE\ ,CP
 "SJTUPUMFT TZMMPHJTUJD GSPN UIF TUBOEQPJOU PG NPEFSO GPSNBM MPHJD
PF GF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
R  +5$0 


=?

$)"15&3  -0(*$
/CIPCPK . #DFWEVKQP 4GCUQP CPF 5EKGPEG 2TQEGUUGU QH &KUEQXGT[ CPF 'ZRNCPCVKQP ,MVXFS "DBEFNJD 1MFOVN
1VCMJTIFST /FX :PSL  ZXKK  RCIGU *CTF EQXGT +5$0 
4 ,QUGRJUQP ,  ) ,QUGRJUQP 5 #DFWEVKXG +PHGTGPEG %QORWVCVKQP 2JKNQUQRJ[ 6GEJPQNQI[ $BNCSJEHF 6OJWFSTJUZ
1SFTT /FX :PSL  $BNCSJEHF 6,
 XKKK  RCIGU *CTF EQXGT
 +5$0  2CRGTDCEM

+5$0 
$WPV *  $NCEM 9 #DFWEVKQP $GNKGH CPF %QPVGZV KP &KCNQIWG 5VWFKGU KP %QORWVCVKQPCN 2TCIOCVKEU /BUVSBM
-BOHVBHF 1SPDFTTJOH 
+PIO #FOKBNJOT "NTUFSEBN  1IJMBEFMQIJB  XK  RCIGU *CTF EQXGT +5$0 

'WTQRG

75

=? 2GKTEG % 5
1P VJG .QIKE QH FTCYKPI *KUVQT[ HTQO #PEKGPV &QEWOGPVU GURGEKCNN[ HTQO 6GUVKOQPKGU
 $PMMFDUFE 1BQFST X 
RCTCITCRJ 
2#2 =2TQNGIQOGPC VQ CP #RQNQI[ HQT 2TCIOCVKUO? /5  E  /FX &MFNFOUT PG .BUIFNBUJDT X  RR 
# .GVVGT VQ ( # 9QQFU
 $PMMFDUFE 1BQFST X  RCTCITCRJU 

5GG WPFGT #DFWEVKQP CPF 4GVTQFWEVKQP CV $PNNFOT %JDUJPOBSZ PG 1FJSDFT 5FSNT

=? 2GKTEG % 5
 *CTXCTF NGEVWTGU QP RTCIOCVKUO $PMMFDUFE 1BQFST X  RCTCITCRJU 
=? $GTIOCPP /GTTKG /QQT ,COGU 0GNUQP ,CEM
 5IF -PHJD #PPL
(KHVJ GF 0GY ;QTM 0; /E)TCY*KNN +5$0

=? /GPFGNUQP 'NNKQVV
 3WCPVKECVKQP 6JGQT[ %QORNGVGPGUU 6JGQTGOU *OUSPEVDUJPO UP .BUIFNBUJDBM -PHJD 8CP 0QU
VTCPF +5$0 
=? *QHYGDGT 6
 .QIKE CPF 1PVQNQI[ +P <CNVC 'FYCTF 0 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ
=? 'I -NKPG
 R YTQVG # OCLQT CEJKGXGOGPV QH #TKUVQVNG YCU VJG HQWPFKPI QH VJG UEKGPEG QH NQIKE
=? #TKUVQVNG /67 &GRCTVOGPV QH %JGOKUVT[
=? ,QPCVJCP .GCT
 "SJTUPUMF BOE -PHJDBM 5IFPSZ %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU R +5$0 
=? 5KOQ -PWWVVKNC
 3FGPSHJOH UIF HSFBU DIBJO PG CFJOH TUVEJFT PG UIF IJTUPSZ PG NPEBM UIFPSJFT 5RTKPIGT 5EKGPEG 
$WUKPGUU R +5$0 
=? /KEJCGN (KUJGT &QX / )CDDC[ .NWU 8KNC
 )BOECPPL PG UFNQPSBM SFBTPOJOH JO BSUJDJBM JOUFMMJHFODF 'NUGXKGT R
+5$0 
=? *CTQNF ,QUGRJ $GTOCP
 -BX BOE SFWPMVUJPO UIF GPSNBUJPO PG UIF 8FTUFSO MFHBM USBEJUJPO *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
R +5$0 
=? 6JG HQWT %CVWMQK NQIKECN FKXKUKQPU CTG HQTOCNN[ XGT[ ENQUG VQ VJG HQWT QRRQUGF RTQRQUKVKQPU QH VJG )TGGM VGVTCNGOOC YJKEJ
KP VWTP CTG CPCNQIQWU VQ VJG HQWT VTWVJ XCNWGU QH OQFGTP TGNGXCPEG NQIKE %H $GNPCR
 ,C[CVKNNGMG - 0
 6JG NQIKE
QH HQWT CNVGTPCVKXGU KP 1IJMPTPQIZ &BTU BOE 8FTU 7PKXGTUKV[ QH *CYCKK 2TGUU
=? -KUQT -WOCT %JCMTCDCTVK
,WPG  5QOG %QORCTKUQPU $GVYGGP (TGIGU .QIKE CPF 0CX[C0[C[C .QIKE 1IJMPTPQIZ
BOE 1IFOPNFOPMPHJDBM 3FTFBSDI
+PVGTPCVKQPCN 2JGPQOGPQNQIKECN 5QEKGV[ 36
  FQK ,5614
 6JKU RCRGT EQPUKUVU QH VJTGG RCTVU 6JG TUV RCTV FGCNU YKVJ (TGIGU FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG QH RTQRGT
PCOGU CPF C UKOKNCT FKUVKPEVKQP KP 0CX[C0[C[C NQIKE +P VJG UGEQPF RCTV YG JCXG EQORCTGF (TGIGU FGPKVKQP QH PWODGT VQ VJG
0CX[C0[C[C FGPKVKQP QH PWODGT +P VJG VJKTF RCTV YG JCXG UJQYP JQY VJG UVWF[ QH VJG UQECNNGF TGUVTKEVKXG EQPFKVKQPU HQT
WPKXGTUCNU KP 0CX[C0[C[C NQIKE CPVKEKRCVGF UQOG QH VJG FGXGNQROGPVU QH OQFGTP UGV VJGQT[
=? ,QPCTFQP )CPGTK
 *OEJBO MPHJD B SFBEFS 4QWVNGFIG RR XKK   +5$0 
=? #TKUVQVNG &ODZDMPQEJB #SJUBOOJDB
=? *KUVQT[ QH NQIKE #TCDKE NQIKE 'PE[ENQRFKC $TKVCPPKEC
=? 5VQN[CT #DTCO #
 *OUSPEVDUJPO UP &MFNFOUBSZ .BUIFNBUJDBM -PHJD &QXGT 2WDNKECVKQPU R  +5$0 

 #*#-*0(3"1):



=? $CTPGU ,QPCVJCP

 5IF $BNCSJEHF $PNQBOJPO UP "SJTUPUMF %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU R  +5$0 
=? #TKUVQVNG
 1SJPS "OBMZUJDT *CEMGVV 2WDNKUJKPI %Q R  +5$0 
=? /GPFGNUQP 'NNKQVV
 (QTOCN 0WODGT 6JGQT[ )FGNU +PEQORNGVGPGUU 6JGQTGO *OUSPEVDUJPO UP .BUIFNBUJDBM -PHJD
/QPVGTG[ %CNKH 9CFUYQTVJ  $TQQMU%QNG #FXCPEGF $QQMU  5QHVYCTG 1%.% 
=? $TQQMUJGCT , )NGPP
 %QORWVCDKNKV[ (QWPFCVKQPU QH 4GEWTUKXG (WPEVKQP 6JGQT[ 5IFPSZ PG DPNQVUBUJPO GPSNBM
MBOHVBHFT BVUPNBUB BOE DPNQMFYJUZ 4GFYQQF %KV[ %CNKH $GPLCOKP%WOOKPIU 2WD %Q +5$0 
=? $TQQMUJGCT , )NGPP
 %QORNGZKV[ 5IFPSZ PG DPNQVUBUJPO GPSNBM MBOHVBHFT BVUPNBUB BOE DPNQMFYJUZ 4GFYQQF
%KV[ %CNKH $GPLCOKP%WOOKPIU 2WD %Q +5$0 
=? )QNFOCP #NXKP +
 &QJTUFNPMPHZ BOE $PHOJUJPO *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU R  +5$0  WPVTCKPGF
UWDLGEVU CTG RTQPG VQ EQOOKV XCTKQWU UQTVU QH HCNNCEKGU CPF OKUVCMGU
=? &GOGVTKQW # 'HMNKFGU # GFU
 *OUFMMJHFODF .JOE BOE 3FBTPOJOH 4USVDUVSF BOE %FWFMPQNFOU #FXCPEGU KP 2U[EJQN
QI[ 106 'NUGXKGT R  +5$0 
=? *GIGN ) 9 (
 =? 1IJMPTPQIZ PG .JOE 'PE[ENQRGFKC QH VJG 2JKNQUQRJKECN 5EKGPEGU VTCPU 9KNNKCO 9CNNCEG
1ZHQTF %NCTGPFQP 2TGUU R  +5$0 
=? ,QUGRJ ' $TGPPGT
 #WIWUV  -PHJD JO 3FBMJUZ 5RTKPIGT RR  +5$0  4GVTKGXGF  #RTKN 
=? <GICTGNNK /CTM
 -PHJD 'PS %VNNJFT ,QJP 9KNG[  5QPU R  +5$0 
=? *LGM 2GVT
 (W\\[ .QIKE +P <CNVC 'FYCTF 0 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ
=? 2WVPCO *
 +U .QIKE 'ORKTKECN! #PTUPO 4UVEJFT JO UIF 1IJMPTPQIZ PG 4DJFODF 5
=? $KTMJQ ) XQP 0GWOCPP ,
 6JG .QIKE QH 3WCPVWO /GEJCPKEU "OOBMT PG .BUIFNBUJDT
#PPCNU QH /CVJGOCVKEU
37
  FQK ,5614 
=? &WOOGVV /
 +U .QIKE 'ORKTKECN! 5SVUI BOE 0UIFS &OJHNBT +5$0 
=? 2TKGUV )TCJCO
 &KCNGVJGKUO +P <CNVC 'FYCTF 0 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ
=? 0KGV\UEJG  1P 6TWVJ CPF .KGU KP C 0QPOQTCN 5GPUG
=? 0KGV\UEJG  5IF (BZ 4DJFODF
=? 0KGV\UEJG  )VNBO "MM 5PP )VNBO
=? $CDGVVG $CDKEJ *CDGTOCU 0KGV\UEJG CPF %TKVKECN 6JGQT[
=? )GQTI .WMEU 6JG &GUVTWEVKQP QH 4GCUQP D[ )GQTI .WMEU  /CTZKUVUQTI 4GVTKGXGF 
=? 4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF
 " )JTUPSZ PG 8FTUFSO 1IJMPTPQIZ "OE *UT $POOFDUJPO XJUI 1PMJUJDBM BOE 4PDJBM $JSDVNTUBODFT GSPN UIF
&BSMJFTU 5JNFT UP UIF 1SFTFOU %BZ
2&( 5KOQP CPF 5EJWUVGT R 

1.6 Bibliography
0WGN $GNPCR
 # WUGHWN HQWTXCNWGF NQIKE +P &WPP  'RRUVGKP .PEFSO VTFT PG NVMUJQMFWBMVFE MPHJD
4GKFGN $QUVQP
,\GH /CTKC $QEJGUMK
 " QSDJT PG NBUIFNBUJDBM MPHJD 6TCPUNCVGF HTQO VJG (TGPEJ CPF )GTOCP GFKVKQPU
D[ 1VVQ $KTF & 4GKFGN &QTFTGEJV 5QWVJ *QNNCPF
,\GH /CTKC $QEJGUMK
 " IJTUPSZ PG GPSNBM MPHJD PF 'FKVKQP 6TCPUNCVGF CPF GFKVGF HTQO VJG )GTOCP
GFKVKQP D[ +XQ 6JQOCU %JGNUGC 2WDNKUJKPI 0GY ;QTM
$TQQMUJGCT , )NGPP
 5IFPSZ PG DPNQVUBUJPO GPSNBM MBOHVBHFT BVUPNBUB BOE DPNQMFYJUZ 4GFYQQF %KV[
%CNKH $GPLCOKP%WOOKPIU 2WD %Q +5$0 



$)"15&3  -0(*$
%QJGP 45 CPF 9CTVQHUM[ /9
 -PHJDBM BOE &QJTUFNPMPHJDBM 4UVEJFT JO $POUFNQPSBSZ 1IZTJDT $QUVQP
5VWFKGU KP VJG 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH 5EKGPEG & 4GKFGN 2WDNKUJKPI %QORCP[ &QTFTGEJV 0GVJGTNCPFU +5$0 

(KPMGNUVGKP &
 /CVVGT 5RCEG CPF .QIKE KP 45 %QJGP CPF /9 9CTVQHUM[
GFU 
)CDDC[ &/ CPF )WGPVJPGT (
GFU  )BOECPPL PG 1IJMPTPQIJDBM -PHJD  XQNU PF GFKVKQP
-NWYGT 2WDNKUJGTU &QTFTGEJV
*KNDGTV & CPF #EMGTOCPP 9
 (SVOE[HF EFS UIFPSFUJTDIFO -PHJL
1SJODJQMFT PG .BUIFNBUJDBM -PHJD
5RTKPIGT8GTNCI 1%.% 
5WUCP *CCEM
 %FWJBOU -PHJD 'V[[Z -PHJD #FZPOE UIF 'PSNBMJTN 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ 2TGUU
*QFIGU 9
 -PHJD "O JOUSPEVDUJPO UP &MFNFOUBSZ -PHJD 2GPIWKP $QQMU
*QHYGDGT 6
 .QIKE CPF 1PVQNQI[ 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ 'FYCTF 0 <CNVC
GF
*WIJGU 4+)
 GF " 1IJMPTPQIJDBM $PNQBOJPO UP 'JSTU0SEFS -PHJD *CEMGVV 2WDNKUJKPI
-NKPG /QTTKU
 .BUIFNBUJDBM 5IPVHIU 'SPN "ODJFOU UP .PEFSO 5JNFT 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU +5$0

-PGCNG 9KNNKCO CPF -PGCNG /CTVJC
 5IF %FWFMPQNFOU PG -PHJD 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU .QPFQP 7-
.KFFGNN *GPT[ )GQTIG 5EQVV 4QDGTV .QIKMQU " (SFFL&OHMJTI -FYJDPO 2GTUGWU 2TQLGEV 4GVTKGXGF  /C[

/GPFGNUQP 'NNKQVV
 *OUSPEVDUJPO UP .BUIFNBUJDBM -PHJD 9CFUYQTVJ  $TQQMU%QNG #FXCPEGF $QQMU 
5QHVYCTG /QPVGTG[ %CNKH 1%.% 
*CTRGT 4QDGTV
 .QIKE 0OMJOF &UZNPMPHZ %JDUJPOBSZ 4GVTKGXGF  /C[ 
5OKVJ $
 .QIKE CPF VJG 5CEJXGTJCNV 5IF .POJTU 

9JKVGJGCF #NHTGF 0QTVJ CPF $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN
 1SJODJQJB .BUIFNBUJDB %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
%CODTKFIG 'PINCPF 1%.% 

1.7 External links

.QIKE CV 2JKN2CRGTU
.QIKE CV VJG +PFKCPC 2JKNQUQRJ[ 1PVQNQI[ 2TQLGEV
.QIKE GPVT[ KP VJG *OUFSOFU &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ
*C\GYKPMGN /KEJKGN GF
 .QIKECN ECNEWNWU &ODZDMPQFEJB PG .BUIFNBUJDT 5RTKPIGT +5$0 

#P 1WVNKPG HQT 8GTDCN .QIKE
+PVTQFWEVKQPU CPF VWVQTKCNU
#P +PVTQFWEVKQP VQ 2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE D[ 2CWN 0GYCNN CKOGF CV DGIKPPGTU

HQTCNN Z CP KPVTQFWEVKQP VQ HQTOCN NQIKE D[ 2& /CIPWU EQXGTU UGPVGPVKCN CPF SWCPVKGF NQIKE
.QIKE 5GNH6CWIJV # 9QTMDQQM
QTKIKPCNN[ RTGRCTGF HQT QPNKPG NQIKE KPUVTWEVKQP
0KEJQNCU 4GUEJGT
 *OUSPEVDUJPO UP -PHJD 5V /CTVKPU 2TGUU

'UUC[U

 &95&3/"- -*/,4



5[ODQNKE .QIKE CPF 6JG )COG QH .QIKE .GYKU %CTTQNN 

/CVJ  .QIKE 6JG JKUVQT[ QH HQTOCN OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKECN NKPIWKUVKE CPF OGVJQFQNQIKECN KFGCU +P 5IF
%JDUJPOBSZ PG UIF )JTUPSZ PG *EFBT
1PNKPG 6QQNU
+PVGTCEVKXG 5[NNQIKUVKE /CEJKPG # YGD DCUGF U[NNQIKUVKE OCEJKPG HQT GZRNQTKPI HCNNCEKGU IWTGU VGTOU CPF
OQFGU QH U[NNQIKUOU
4GHGTGPEG OCVGTKCN
6TCPUNCVKQP 6KRU D[ 2GVGT 5WDGT HQT VTCPUNCVKPI HTQO 'PINKUJ KPVQ NQIKECN PQVCVKQP
1PVQNQI[ CPF *KUVQT[ QH .QIKE #P +PVTQFWEVKQP YKVJ CP CPPQVCVGF DKDNKQITCRJ[
4GCFKPI NKUVU
6JG .QPFQP 2JKNQUQRJ[ 5VWF[ )WKFG QGTU OCP[ UWIIGUVKQPU QP YJCV VQ TGCF FGRGPFKPI QP VJG UVWFGPVU
HCOKNKCTKV[ YKVJ VJG UWDLGEV
.QIKE  /GVCRJ[UKEU
5GV 6JGQT[ CPF (WTVJGT .QIKE
/CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE

Chapter 2

Sense and reference

5KPP TGFKTGEVU JGTG (QT QVJGT WUGU UGG 5KPP
FKUCODKIWCVKQP
4JOO CPF #FEFVUVOH CTG WUWCNN[ VTCPUNCVGF TGURGEVKXGN[ CU TFOTF CPF SFGFSFODF 6YQ FKGTGPV CURGEVU QH UQOG VGTOU
OGCPKPIU C VGTOU reference KU VJG PCKFDU VQ YJKEJ VJG VGTO TGHGTU YJKNG VJG VGTOU sense KU VJG XBZ VJCV VJG VGTO TGHGTU
VQ VJCV QDLGEV
4JOO CPF #FEFVUVOH YGTG KPVTQFWEGF D[ )GTOCP RJKNQUQRJGT CPF OCVJGOCVKEKCP )QVVNQD (TGIG KP JKU  RCRGT DGT
5KPP WPF $GFGWVWPI
1P UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG (TGIG CRRNKGF #FEFVUVOH OCKPN[ VQ RTQRGT PCOGU CPF KP NGUUGT GZVGPV
VQ UGPVGPEGU
6JQWIJ VJG FKUVKPEVKQP TGUKFGU KP RJKNQUQRJ[ QH NCPIWCIG KV GPVGTU RJKNQUQRJ[U QVJGT CTGCU KPENWFKPI RJKNQUQRJ[ QH OKPF
OGVCRJ[UKEU CPF OGVCGVJKEU

2.1 Motivation for and development of the distinction

(TGIGU FKUVKPEVKQP TGLGEVU C XKGY RWV HQTYCTF D[ ,QJP 5VWCTV /KNN CEEQTFKPI VQ YJKEJ C RTQRGT PCOG JCU PQ OGCPKPI CDQXG
CPF DG[QPF VJG QDLGEV VQ YJKEJ KV TGHGTU
KVU SFGFSFOU QT SFGFSFODF 6JCV KU VJG YQTF #TKUVQVNG LWUV OGCPU #TKUVQVNG VJCV
RGTUQP CPF PQ OQTG +V FQGU PQV OGCP 6JG YTKVGT QH %F "OJNB *GPEG VJG UGPVGPEG "SJTUPUMF XBT (SFFL UC[U QPN[ VJCV
UIBU QFSTPO YCU )TGGM +V FQGU PQV UC[ VJCV UIF XSJUFS PG %F "OJNB XBT (SFFL 6JCV KU KV RGTOKVU VJCV #TKUVQVNG OKIJV
PQV JCXG YTKVVGP %F "OJNB /QTG IGPGTCNN[ HQT CP[ IKXGP RTQRQUKVKQP CDQWV #TKUVQVNG QPG ECP WUG VJG PCOG YKVJQWV
DGNKGXKPI VJCV RTQRQUKVKQP VQ DG VTWG QH #TKUVQVNG
(TGIGU EGPVTCN QDLGEVKQP VQ VJG XKGY VJCV C PCOGU OGCPKPI KU PQ OQTG VJCP KVU TGHGTGPV KU VJCV KH B CPF C CTG PCOGU QH VJG
UCOG QDLGEV VJGP VJG KFGPVKV[ UVCVGOGPV B  C OWUV OGCP VJG UCOG CU B  B ;GV ENGCTN[ VJG TUV ECP EQPXG[ KPHQTOCVKQP KP
C YC[ VJCV VJG UGEQPF ECPPQV VJCV 4BNVFM $MFNFOT JT 4BNVFM $MFNFOT KU LWUV VTKXKCN DWV VJCV 4BNVFM $MFNFOT JT .BSL 5XBJO
KU KPVGTGUVKPI 9J[! 1T YJ[ KU $JDFSP JT 5VMMZ OQTG UKIPKECPV VJCP $JDFSP JT $JDFSP! #PF D[ VJG UCOG VQMGP 4BNVFM
$MFNFOT XSPUF OPWFMT CPF .BSL 5XBJO XSPUF OPWFMT YQWNF JCXG VQ OGCP VJG UCOG VJKPI DWV CICKP VJG VYQ UGPVGPEGU UGGO
VQ EQPXG[ FKGTGPV KPHQTOCVKQP
(TGIGU FKUVKPEVKQP KU OGCPV VQ OCMG UGPUG QH VJGUG RJGPQOGPC *G RQUVWNCVGU VJCV KP CFFKVKQP VQ C TGHGTGPEG
#FEFVUVOH
C RTQRGT PCOG RQUUGUUGU YJCV JG ECNNU C TFOTF
4JOO UQOG CURGEV QH VJG YC[ KVU TGHGTGPEG KU VJQWIJV QH VJCV DBO FKGT GXGP
DGVYGGP VYQ PCOGU VJCV TGHGT VQ VJG UCOG QDLGEV 6JG KORQTVCPV FKGTGPEG DGVYGGP .BSL 5XBJO CPF 4BNVFM $MFNFOT
HQT GZCORNG KU C FKGTGPEG KP VJG OQFG QH RTGUGPVCVKQP QH VJCV YJKEJ KU FGUKIPCVGF 6JG UGPUG QH CP GZRTGUUKQP KU VJCV
YJGTGKP VJG OQFG QH RTGUGPVCVKQP KU EQPVCKPGF 6JWU QPG ECP MPQY DQVJ VJG PCOGU .BSL 5XBJO CPF 4BNVFM $MFNFOT
YKVJQWV TGCNK\KPI VJCV VJG[ CTG CDQWV VJG UCOG QDLGEV DGECWUG VJG[ RTGUGPV VJCV QDLGEV KP FKGTGPV YC[U VJCV KU VJG[ JCXG
FKGTGPV UGPUGU #PQVJGT FGOQPUVTCVKXG GZCORNG HQT VJKU KU VJG HQNNQYKPI 5IF -FBEFS PG UIF -BCPVS 1BSUZ JO 0DUPCFS
 CPF UIF 1SJNF .JOJTUFS PG UIF 6OJUFE ,JOHEPN JO 0DUPCFS  6JGUG VYQ NKPIWKUVKE GZRTGUUKQPU FKGT KP UGPUG
DWV VJG[ FQ JCXG VJG UCOG TGHGTGPV 6QP[ $NCKT
5WOOCTK\KPI


 5&3.*/0-0(:



6JG SFGFSFODF KU VJG QDLGEV VJCV VJG GZRTGUUKQP TGHGTU VQ (QT KPUVCPEG VJG PCOG .BSL 5XBJO TGHGTU VQ /CTM 6YCKP
KG 5COWGN %NGOGPU VJG OCP YJQ NKXGF KP VJG 75 CPF YTQVG UCVKTGU 6JG PCOG 4BNVFM $MFNFOT CNUQ TGHGTU VQ
VJCV OCP *GPEG VJG VYQ JCXG VJG UCOG TGHGTGPEG
6JG TFOTF KU VJG EQIPKVKXG UKIPKECPEG QT OQFG QH RTGUGPVCVKQP QH VJG TGHGTGPV
.KPIWKUVKE 'ZRTGUUKQPU YKVJ VJG UCOG TGHGTGPEG OC[ JCXG FKGTGPV UGPUGU
(TGIG WUGU VJG HQNNQYKPI GZCORNG VQ KNNWUVTCVG VJKU XKGY .GV C D CPF E DG VJTGG NKPGU GCEJ QH YJKEJ LQKPU QPG XGTVGZ QH
C VTKCPING VQ VJG OKFRQKPV QH VJG QRRQUKVG UKFG
GCEJ QH C D CPF E KU VJWU C OGFKCP 6JGP KV KU C VJGQTGO VJCV
=V?JG RQKPV QH KPVGTUGEVKQP QH C CPF D KU VJGP VJG UCOG CU VJG RQKPV QH KPVGTUGEVKQP QH D CPF E 5Q YG
JCXG FKGTGPV FGUKIPCVKQPU HQT VJG UCOG RQKPV CPF VJGUG PCOGU
RQKPV QH KPVGTUGEVKQP QH C CPF D  RQKPV QH
KPVGTUGEVKQP QH D CPF E  NKMGYKUG KPFKECVG VJG OQFG QH RTGUGPVCVKQP CPF JGPEG VJG UVCVGOGPV EQPVCKPU CEVWCN
MPQYNGFIG )QVVNQD (TGIG CFS 4JOO VOE #FEFVUVOH
#V QPG VKOG KV YCU EQOOQP VQ KFGPVKH[ VJG UGPUG QH C PCOG YKVJ CP KFGPVKH[KPI FGUETKRVKQP YJKEJ YQWNF RWV (TGIGU XKGY
ENQUG VQ VJG NCVGT 4WUUGNN U FGUETKRVKQP VJGQT[ QH PCOGU (QT GZCORNG VJG PCOG /CTM 6YCKP OKIJV LWUV OGCP 6JG OCP
YJQ YTQVG 5PN 4BXZFS CPF 4BNVFM $MFNFOT OKIJV OGCP 6JG GNFGUV UQP QH ,QJP CPF ,CPG %NGOGPU 6JWU VJG TGHGTGPEG
YQWNF DG FGVGTOKPGF CU YJCVGXGT V VJG FGUETKRVKQP 6JKU KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KU PQY CNOQUV WPCPKOQWUN[ TGLGEVGF D[ UEJQNCTU
7PHQTVWPCVGN[ JQYGXGT C FGVCKNGF TGRNCEGOGPV JCU PQV DGGP HQTVJEQOKPI $WV YJCV KU ENGCT KU VJCV (TGIG EGTVCKPN[ FKF
OPU OGCP VJCV VJG UGPUG QH C PCOG KU OGTGN[ C EQNNGEVKQP QH KFGCU C RCTVKEWNCT WUGT QH C PCOG JCRRGPU VQ CUUQEKCVG YKVJ KV

2.2 Terminology
2.2.1

Sense and reference (Sinn und Bedeutung)

$TQCFN[ URGCMKPI VJG reference

QT referent QH C RTQRGT PCOG KU VJG QDLGEV KV FGPQVGU QT KPFKECVGU 6JG sense QH C RTQRGT
PCOG KU YJCVGXGT OGCPKPI KV JCU YJGP VJGTG KU PQ QDLGEV VQ DG KPFKECVGF
9JCV VJKU CTVKENG JCU ECNNGF TFOTF CPF SFGFSFODF CTG YJCV (TGIG ECNNU 4JOO CPF #FEFVUVOH TGURGEVKXGN[ KP VJG QTKIKPCN
)GTOCP 5QOGVKOGU VJG RCKT QH VGTOU KU VTCPUNCVGF CU TFOTF CPF NFBOJOH QT CU TFOTF CPF OPNJOBUVN 6JG RTGEKUG OGCPKPI
QH VJGUG VGTOU ECP XCT[ SWKVG UKIPKECPVN[ HTQO YTKVGT VQ YTKVGT UQ UQOG ECWVKQP KU FWG
(QT 4JOO YTKVGTU JCXG WUGF VJG VGTOU TFOTF NFBOJOH JOUFOTJPO DPOOPUBUJPO DBTF CPF DPOUFOU
(QT #FEFVUVOH YTKVGTU JCXG WUGF VJG VGTOU SFGFSFODF SFGFSFOU NFBOJOH FYUFOTJPO EFOPUBUJPO OPNJOBUVN CPF EFTJHOB
UVN
0QVG VJCV
EQPHWUKPIN[ FBDI GZRTGUUKQP JCU DGGP VTCPUNCVGF CU NFBOJOH D[ UQOGQPG

2.2.2

An expressions relation to sense or reference

6GTOKPQNQI[ JCU CNUQ DGGP CRRNKGF VQ ECRVWTG VJG TGNCVKQP DGVYGGP

 CP GZRTGUUKQP CPF KVU UGPUG
 CP GZRTGUUKQP CPF KVU TGHGTGPEG
(TGIG KU V[RKECNN[ VTCPUNCVGF CU UC[KPI VJCV CP GZRTGUUKQP FYQSFTTFT KVU UGPUG CPF TUBOET GPS QT EFTJHOBUFT KVU TGHGTGPEG
;GV GCTNKGT KP VJG GUUC[ JG QGTU CPQVJGT XGTD SFGFST YTKVKPI QH VJCV VQ YJKEJ VJG UKIP SFGFST YJKEJ OC[ DG ECNNGF VJG
TGHGTGPEG QH VJG UKIP 5KPEG VJGP YTKVGTU JCXG XCTKQWUN[ UCKF VJCV CP GZRTGUUKQP TUBOET GPS EFTJHOBUFT SFGFST UP QT EFOPUFT
KVU TGHGTGPEG 9G ECP CNUQ UC[ VJCV CP GZRTGUUKQP QJDLT PVU KVU TGHGTGPEG QT
CNVGTPCVKXGN[ VJCV VJG UGPUG QH CP GZRTGUUKQP
KU YJCV RKEMU QWV KVU TGHGTGPEG



$)"15&3  4&/4& "/% 3&'&3&/$&

2.3 Sense without reference

1PG CRRNKECVKQP (TGIG UCY HQT VJG FKUVKPEVKQP EQPEGTPU YJCV CTG ECNNGF OPOSFGFSSJOH OPOEFOPUJOH QT FNQUZ GZRTGUUKQPU
6JGUG GZRTGUUKQPU FQ PQV JCXG C TGHGTGPEG HQT GZCORNG VJG ITGCVGUV KPVGIGT=? 5KPEG VJGTG KU PQV C ITGCVGUV KPVGIGT VJG
GZRTGUUKQP FQGUP V TGHGT VQ CP[VJKPI $WV KV UGGOU RGTHGEVN[ OGCPKPIHWN UKPEG YG UGGO VQ WPFGTUVCPF ENCKOU NKMG 6JG
ITGCVGUV KPVGIGT KU NCTIGT VJCP QPG OKNNKQP 'ORNQ[KPI VJG UGPUGTGHGTGPEG FKUVKPEVKQP YG ECP UC[ VJCV VJG GZRTGUUKQP JCU
C UGPUG DWV NCEMU C TGHGTGPEG
#NVJQWIJ VJG VGTO VJG ITGCVGUV KPVGIGT JCU PQ TGHGTGPEG KP VJG EQPXGPVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE KP VJG WNVTCKPVWKVKQPKUVKE CTKVJ
OGVKE UWIIGUVGF D[ #NGZCPFGT 'UGPKP8QNRKP
 KV JCU C TGHGTGPEG DGECWUG QPG QH VJG CZKQOU QH VJKU CTKVJOGVKE KU
VJCV VJGTG KU VJG ITGCVGUV KPVGIGT 5Q KP QPG WPKXGTUG CP GZRTGUUKQP ECP JCXG UGPUG YKVJQWV TGHGTGPEG YJKNG KP CPQVJGT
WPKXGTUG VJG UCOG GZRTGUUKQP ECP JCXG DQVJ UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG
#PQVJGT GZCORNG KU 1F[UUGWU 5KPEG JG KU C EVKQPCN EJCTCEVGT VJG PCOG 0EZTTFVT FQGU PQV CRRGCT VQ NFBO CP[QPG CV CNN
[GV UGPVGPEGU NKMG 1F[UUGWU YCU UGV FQYP QP VJG DGCEJ CV +VJCEC CTG OGCPKPIHWN KP VJCV VJG[ ECP DG VTWG QT HCNUG +H C
UGPVGPEGU OGCPKPI KU C HWPEVKQP QH VJG OGCPKPIU QH KVU RCTVU=? VJGP RCTVU QH VJG UGPVGPEG UWEJ CU 0EZTTFVT UGGOKPIN[
FQ JCXG OGCPKPI
9JGVJGT VJKU UQNWVKQP YQTMU CPF YJGVJGT KV YCU GXGP UGTKQWUN[ KPVGPFGF D[ (TGIG KU FKURWVGF +P QTFGT HQT KV VQ YQTM
KV OWUV DG RQUUKDNG HQT C VGTO VQ JCXG C UGPUG YKVJQWV C TGHGTGPEG CPF VJKU TGSWKTGU VJCV TFOTF ECPPQV DG FGPGF UKORN[
CU VJG OQFG QH RTGUGPVCVKQP QH VJG TGHGTGPEG UKPEG UQOGVKOGU VJGTG KU PQ TGHGTGPEG DGKPI RTGUGPVGF 6JWU VJG XKGY VJCV
VJG UGPUGTGHGTGPEG FKUVKPEVKQP UQNXGU VJG RTQDNGO QH GORV[ PCOGU GPEQWTCIGU VJG XKGY VJCV C UGPUG KU CP KPFKXKFWCVKPI
FGUETKRVKQP
YJKEJ EQWNF DG WPFGTUVQQF YKVJ QT YKVJQWV C TGHGTGPEG UCVKUH[KPI KV 6JKU OCMGU C UGPUG GSWKXCNGPV VQ C
4WUUGNNKCP FGUETKRVKQP
UGG DGNQY CPF OCMGU (TGIGU RQUKVKQP FGUETKRVKXKUV NGCXKPI KV RTG[ VQ C PWODGT QH FKEWNVKGU
TCKUGF CICKPUV VJCV XKGY 1VJGT RJKNQUQRJGTU JCXG CTIWGF VJCV (TGIG KU PQV C FGUETKRVKXKUV CPF JGPEG VJCV VJG UGPUGTGHGTGPEG
FKUVKPEVKQP FQGU PQV UQNXG VJG RTQDNGO QH EVKQPCN PCOGU 2TQRQPGPVU QH VJKU XKGY QHVGP ENCKO VJCV UGPVGPEGU WUKPI GORV[
PCOGU FQ PQV KP HCEV GZRTGUU RTQRQUKVKQPU JGPEG CTG PQV NKVGTCNN[ OGCPKPIHWN FGURKVG CRRGCTCPEGU 6JG[ HCEG VJG FKEWNV[
QH GZRNCKPKPI VJG CRRCTGPV OGCPKPIHWNPGUU QH UGPVGPEGU WUKPI VJG YQTF 0EZTTFVT 1P QPG XKGY EVKQPCN PCOGU OGTGN[
QSFUFOE VQ GZRTGUU RTQRQUKVKQPU 1WT WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH UGPVGPEGU CDQWV 1F[UUGWU EQPUKUVU VJGP KP QWT RNC[KPI CNQPI
UGG
)CTGVJ 'XCPU 5CWN -TKRMG

2.4 Frege and Russell

2.4.1

Propositions and senses

$GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN HCOQWUN[ TGLGEVGF (TGIGU UGPUGTGHGTGPEG FKUVKPEVKQP VJQWIJ VJGTG KU UQOG RQUUKDKNKV[ VJCV VJG VYQ YGTG
OKUKPVGTRTGVKPI CPF CTIWKPI RCUV QPG CPQVJGT (TGIG VCNMU CDQWV
HQT GZCORNG UGPVGPEGU YJKEJ JCXG DQVJ C UGPUG
C
RTQRQUKVKQP CPF C TGHGTGPEG
C VTWVJ XCNWG 4WUUGNN QP VJG QVJGT JCPF FGCNU FKTGEVN[ YKVJ RTQRQUKVKQPU DWV EQPUVTWGU VJGUG
PQV CU CDUVTCEV RCTCNKPIWKUVKE KVGOU DWV CU VWRNGU QT UGVU QH QDLGEVU CPF EQPEGRVU
(QT 4WUUGNN UGPUG KU YJQNN[ UGOCPVKE 4GHGTGPEG D[ EQPVTCUV KU KPVKOCVGN[ EQPPGEVGF YKVJ VJG PCOGF QDLGEV /QPV $NCPE
KU VJG TGHGTGPV QH VJG PCOG /QPV $NCPE (TGIG CTIWGU VJCV VJG VJQWIJV /QPV $NCPE YKVJ KVU UPQYGNFU ECPPQV DG C
DPNQPOFOU QH VJG VJQWIJV VJCV /QPV $NCPE KU OQTG VJCP  OGVGTU JKIJ=? +H VJG UCOG GZRTGUUKQP /QPV $NCPE KU
KP DQVJ UGPVGPEGU VJGP VJGTG KU UQOGVJKPI EQOOQP VQ GCEJ VJQWIJV CPF VJGTGHQTG TPNFUIJOH EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJG PCOG
/QPV $NCPE 6JKU EQOOQP GNGOGPV YJKEJ ECPPQV DG VJG TGHGTGPV OWUV DG VJG OGCPKPI QT UGPUG

2.4.2

Senses and descriptions

4WUUGNN JGNF VJG XKGY VJCV OQUV QH VJG CRRCTGPV RTQRGT PCOGU KP 'PINKUJ CTG KP HCEV FKUIWKUGF FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU 5Q
#TKUVQVNG KU WPFGTUVQQF CU 6JG RWRKN QH 2NCVQ CPF VGCEJGT QH #NGZCPFGT QT D[ UQOG QVJGT WPKSWG FGUETKRVKQP #NVJQWIJ
4WUUGNN GZRNKEKVN[ TGLGEVGF (TGIGU PQVKQP QH UGPUG JG TGLGEVGF KV LWUV HQT RTQRGT PCOGU $WV 4WUUGNN CNUQ JGNF VJG XKGY
PQV
GXKFGPV KP VJG /QPV $NCPE GZCORNG VJCV OQUV QH VJG RTQRGT PCOGU KP 'PINKUJ CTG PQV PCOGU CV CNN DWV FGUETKRVKQPU KP
FKUIWKUG 2QUUKDN[ VJG POMZ TGCN RTQRGT PCOGU YGTG FGOQPUVTCVKXG RTQPQWPU NKMG UIJT CPF UIBU
FKTGEVGF CV CP QDLGEV VJCV
ECP DG KOOGFKCVGN[ RGTEGKXGF 5Q KP HCEV KH (TGIGU XKGY YCU FGUETKRVKXKUV VJGP JG GGEVKXGN[ CITGGU YKVJ 4WUUGNN QP

 3&-"5*0/ 50 $0//05"5*0/ "/% %&/05"5*0/



OQUV QH VJG CRRCTGPV RTQRGT PCOGU QH QTFKPCT[ NCPIWCIG (TGIG VJKPMU VJCV #TKUVQVNG KU C PCOG YKVJ C UGPUG YJKEJ
KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ UQOG FGUETKRVKQP 4WUUGNN VJKPMU VJCV #TKUVQVNG KU OPU TGCNN[ C PCOG DWV JT
KP FKUIWKUGF HQTO LWUV UWEJ C
FGUETKRVKQP
6JWU HQT OQUV QH VJG VYGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[ VJG (TGIG4WUUGNN FGUETKRVKXKUV XKGY YCU VCMGP CU UQOGVJKPI QH CP QTVJQFQZ[ +P
5CWN -TKRMG U HCOQWU 0COKPI CPF 0GEGUUKV[ NGEVWTGU YJKEJ NCTIGN[ VWTPGF VJG VKFG CICKPUV FGUETKRVKXKUO JG VTGCVU DQVJ
4WUUGNN CPF (TGIG CU QRRQUGF VQ /KNNU XKGY KP VJG UCOG YC[ 6JWU -TKRMGU CTIWOGPV VJCV PCOGU CTG PQV GSWKXCNGPV
VQ FGUETKRVKQPU YCU YKFGN[ EQPUVTWGF CU VJG XKGY VJCV PCOGU FQ PQV JCXG UGPUGU QT CU C TGLGEVKQP QH VJG UGPUGTGHGTGPEG
FKUVKPEVKQP
6GNNKPIN[ CNN QH VJG VJTGG RTQDNGOU VJG FKUVKPEVKQP CKOGF VQ UQNXG JCXG UWDUGSWGPVN[ TGGOGTIGF CU KORQTVCPV
RTQDNGOU KP VJG RJKNQUQRJ[ QH NCPIWCIG
6JKU TGCFKPI QH (TGIG JCU DGGP TGLGEVGF D[ OCP[ UEJQNCTU OQUV UVTQPIN[ D[ )CTGVJ 'XCPU KP 5IF 7BSJFUJFT PG 3FGFSFODF=?
CPF D[ ,QJP /E&QYGNN KP 6JG 5GPUG CPF 4GHGTGPEG QH C 2TQRGT 0COG=? HQNNQYKPI NKPGU FGXGNQRGF D[ /KEJCGN &WO
OGVV &WOOGVV CTIWGU VJCV (TGIGU PQVKQP QH UGPUG UJQWNF PQV DG GSWCVGF YKVJ C FGUETKRVKQP 'XCPU HWTVJGT FGXGNQRGF VJKU
NKPG CTIWKPI VJCV C UGPUG YKVJQWV C TGHGTGPV YCU PQV RQUUKDNG *G CPF /E&QYGNN DQVJ VCMG VJG NKPG VJCV (TGIGU FKUEWUUKQP
QH GORV[ PCOGU CPF QH VJG KFGC QH UGPUG YKVJQWV TGHGTGPEG CTG KPEQPUKUVGPV CPF VJCV JKU CRRCTGPV GPFQTUGOGPV QH FG
UETKRVKXKUO TGUVU QPN[ QP C UOCNN PWODGT QH KORTGEKUG CPF RGTJCRU QJCPF TGOCTMU #PF DQVJ RQKPV VQ VJG RQYGT VJCV VJG
UGPUGTGHGTGPEG FKUVKPEVKQP FQGU JCXG
KG VQ UQNXG CV NGCUV VJG TUV VYQ RTQDNGOU GXGP KH KV KU PQV IKXGP C FGUETKRVKXKUV
TGCFKPI

2.5 Relation to connotation and denotation

6JG UGPUGTGHGTGPEG FKUVKPEVKQP KU EQOOQPN[ EQPHWUGF YKVJ VJCV DGVYGGP EQPPQVCVKQP CPF FGPQVCVKQP YJKEJ RTGFCVGU
(TGIG CPF KU HCOQWUN[ KPVGTRTGVGF D[ /KNN 6JKU FKUVKPEVKQP KU CRRNKGF OCKPN[ VQ YQTFU
RCTVKEWNCTN[ RTGFKECVGU GZRTGUUKPI
RTQRGTVKGU
GI SFE EPH CBDIFMPS TCVJGT VJCP PCOKPI KPFKXKFWCNU UQ VJG FKGTGPEG DGVYGGP VJG VYQ FKUVKPEVKQPU ECP DG
JCTF VQ UGG 6JG EQPPQVCVKQP QH C RTGFKECVG KU VJG EQPEGRV KV GZRTGUUGU QT OQTG QHVGP VJG UGV QH RTQRGTVKGU VJCV FGVGTOKPG
YJGVJGT CP KPFKXKFWCN HCNNU WPFGT KV 6JG FGPQVCVKQP QH C EQPEGRV KU VJG CEVWCN EQNNGEVKQP QH GPVKVKGU VJCV EP HCNN WPFGT KV
6JWU VJG EQPPQVCVKQP QH CBDIFMPS KU RGTJCRU WPOCTTKGF CFWNV OCNG JWOCP CPF KVU FGPQVCVKQP KU CNN VJG DCEJGNQTU KP VJG
YQTNF
7PFGT C FGUETKRVKXKUV TGCFKPI QH (TGIG UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG CTG RTQDCDN[ VJG UCOG CU EQPPQVCVKQP CPF FGPQVCVKQP
7PFGT C PQPFGUETKRVKXKUV TGCFKPI VJG[ CTG RTQDCDN[ PQV +V KU CNYC[U RQUUKDNG VQ JCXG C EQPPQVCVKQP YKVJQWV C FGPQVCVKQP
YJKEJ OC[ PQV DG VJG ECUG YKVJ UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG # IKXGP UGPUG CNYC[U FGVGTOKPGU VJG UCOG TGHGTGPEG YJKEJ OKIJV PQV
DG VJG ECUG YKVJ EQPPQVCVKQP CPF FGPQVCVKQP /QUV ENGCTN[ C UKPING EQPEGRVYJKEJ D[ FGPKVKQP JCU QPN[ QPG EQPPQVCVKQP
CPF FGPQVCVKQP
CV C VKOG OKIJV DG GZRTGUUGF D[ VGTOU JCXKPI FKGTGPV UGPUGU (QT GZCORNG DBU CPF GFMJOF JCXG RTGEKUGN[
VJG UCOG EQPPQVCVKQP
OGODGT QH VJG (GNKFCG HCOKN[ QH ECTPKXQTQWU OCOOCNU CPF QDXKQWUN[ VJG UCOG FGPQVCVKQP
CNN
VJG ECVU VJCV KU CNN VJG HGNKPGU DWV KV KU RGTHGEVN[ KPVGNNKIKDNG VJCV UQOGQPG UJQWNF HCKN VQ TGCNK\G VJCV DBU CPF GFMJOF OGCP
VJG UCOGRGTJCRU VJG[ JCXG QPN[ JGCTF QPG YQTF CRRNKGF VQ JQWUGECVU VJG QVJGT VQ VKIGTU CPF NKQPU +P VJCV ECUG VJG
YQTFU JCXG FKGTGPV UGPUGU

2.6 See also

#NKCUKPI
EQORWVKPI CP GZCORNG QH UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG KP EQORWVGT RTQITCOOKPI YJGTG VYQ QT OQTG RQKPVGTU
QT TGHGTGPEGU RQKPV VQ VJG UCOG OGOQT[ NQECVKQP QT QDLGEV
&KJ[FTQIGP OQPQZKFG JQCZ VJCV GZRNQKVU VJG KIPQTCPEG QH OCP[ RGQRNG VJCV VJG VYQ UGPUGU FKJ[FTQIGP OQPQZKFG
CPF YCVGT TGHGT VQ VJG UCOG EJGOKECN UWDUVCPEG *2 1 UKOKNCTN[ VQ (TGIGU GZCORNG QH *GURGTWU KU 2JQURJQTWU
)QVVNQD (TGIG
/GFKCVGF TGHGTGPEG VJGQT[
1P &GPQVKPI YJKEJ QWVNKPGF $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNNU 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .CPIWCIG



$)"15&3  4&/4& "/% 3&'&3&/$&

3WKFFKV[ CPF *CGEEGKV[ UKOKNCT EQPEGRVU HTQO /GFKGXCN RJKNQUQRJ[
4WUUGNNU 2CTCFQZ C RW\\NGEQPKEV DGVYGGP 4WUUGNN CPF (TGIG
5KIP
UGOKQVKEU
6JGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU

2.7 Footnotes
=? (TGIGU GZCORNG KU VJG NGCUV TCRKFN[ EQPXGTIGPV UGTKGU CPF VJGTG KU CNYC[U VJG RTGUGPV -KPI QH (TCPEG
=? 5GG 5GOCPVKE EQORQUKVKQP
=? 6JKU GZCORNG KU HTQO C NGVVGT VQ 4WUUGNN
=? 'XCPU )CTGVJ
 ,QJP /E&QYGNN GF 5IF 7BSJFUJFT PG 3FGFSFODF 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
=? /E&QYGNN ,QJP
#RTKN  1P VJG 5GPUG CPF 4GHGTGPEG QH C 2TQRGT 0COG .JOE 0GY 5GTKGU 86


2.8 External links

)QVVNQD (TGIG DGT 5KPP WPF $GFGWVWPI
)QVVNQD (TGIG 1P 5GPUG CPF 4GHGTGPEG
'PINKUJ VTCPUNCVKQP D[ /CZ $NCEM
+PVGTPGV 'PE[ENQRGFKC QH 2JKNQUQRJ[ (TGIG CPF .CPIWCIG
(TGIGU %QPVTKDWVKQP VQ VJG 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .CPIWCIG D[ 4KEJCTF ) *GEM CPF 4QDGTV /C[ RWDNKUJGF KP VJG 1ZHQTF
*CPFDQQM VQ VJG 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .CPIWCIG

 &95&3/"- -*/,4



Chapter 3

On Denoting
On Denoting KU CP GUUC[ D[ $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN HTQO  1PG QH VJG OQUV UKIPKECPV CPF KPWGPVKCN RJKNQUQRJKECN
GUUC[U QH VJG VJ EGPVWT[ KV YCU RWDNKUJGF KP VJG RJKNQUQRJ[ LQWTPCN .JOE KP  +P KV 4WUUGNN KPVTQFWEGU FGPKVG
CPF KPFGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU HQTOWNCVGU FGUETKRVKXKUO YKVJ TGICTF VQ RTQRGT PCOGU CPF EJCTCEVGTKUGU RTQRGT PCOGU CU
FKUIWKUGF QT CDDTGXKCVGF FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU
+P VJG U (TCPM 2 4COUG[ TGHGTTGF VQ VJG GUUC[ CU VJCV RCTCFKIO QH RJKNQUQRJ[=?=? +P VJG 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB
PG 1IJMPTPQIZ GPVT[ %FTDSJQUJPOT 2GVGT .WFNQY UKPINGF VJG GUUC[ QWV CU UIF RCTCFKIO QH RJKNQUQRJ[ CPF ECNNGF KV C
YQTM QH VTGOGPFQWU KPUKIJV RTQXQMKPI FKUEWUUKQP CPF FGDCVG COQPI RJKNQUQRJGTU QH NCPIWCIG CPF NKPIWKUVU HQT QXGT C
EGPVWT[=?

3.1 The denoting phrase

3.1.1

Russells concept of a denoting phrase

(QT 4WUUGNN C FGPQVKPI RJTCUG KU C UKPIWNCT PQWP RJTCUG RTGEGFGF D[ C SWCPVKGT YJQUG RTGFKECVG VGTO KU UCVKUGF D[
UQOG RCTVKEWNCT 5WEJ RJTCUGU FQ PQV EQPVTKDWVG QDLGEVU CU VJG EQPUVKVWGPVU QH VJG UKPIWNCT RTQRQUKVKQPU KP YJKEJ VJG[
QEEWT &GPQVCVKQP KP QVJGT YQTFU KU C UGOCPVKECNN[ KPGTV RTQRGTV[ KP VJKU XKGY 9JGTGCU (TGIG JGNF VJCV VJGTG YGTG VYQ
FKUVKPEV RCTVU
QT CURGEVU QH VJG OGCPKPI QH GXGT[ VGTO RJTCUG QT UGPVGPEG
KVU 4JOO CPF #FEFVUVOH 4WUUGNN GZRNKEKVN[
TGLGEVU VJG PQVKQP QH UGPUG
4JOO CPF TGRNCEGU KV YKVJ VJG KFGC QH C RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQP
KG C HWPEVKQP HTQO QDLGEVU VQ
CDUVTCEV RTQRQUKVKQPU VJCV CTG VJG EQPVGPVU QH UGPVGPEGU 6JKU KU UQ DGECWUG HQT 4WUUGNN RTQRQUKVKQPU OWUV JCXG EQPETGVG
TGCNN[ GZKUVKPI GPVKVKGU CU VJGKT EQPUVKVWGPVU 4WUUGNN RTQXKFGU UGXGTCN ENGCT GZCORNGU QH VJG UQTV QH VJKPI VJCV JG JCF KP
OKPF C OCP CP[ OCP GXGT[ OCP VJG RTGUGPV -KPI QH (TCPEG VJG EGPVTG QH OCUU QH VJG 5QNCT 5[UVGO  5Q HQT
4WUUGNN C FGPQVKPI RJTCUG ECP DG GKVJGT C FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP
KG C UKPIWNCT PQWP RJTCUG YKVJ VJG FGVGTOKPCVKXG CTVKENG
VJG CV VJG DGIKPPKPI YJKEJ FQGU PQV FGPQVG CP[VJKPI
OGCPKPI FGUKIPCVG CP[ URGEKE QDLGEV QT C FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP
VJCV FQGU FGPQVG C URGEKE QDLGEV QT PCNN[ CP KPFGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP VJCV FGPQVGU CODKIWQWUN[ 4WUUGNN CU YKNN DG
UJQYP NCVGT DGNKGXGU VJCV FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU CTG PQV TGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQPU DWV TCVJGT VQ DQTTQY C VGTO NCVGT EQKPGF D[
-GKVJ &QPPGNNCP VJG[ JCXG CVVTKDWVKXG WUGU QPN[ 6JG[ CTG VQ DG KPVGTRTGVGF CU UVTKEVN[ NQIKECN SWCPVKECVKQPCN HQTOWNCU
VJCV CTG IGPGTCN KP PCVWTG #V NGCUV VJKU JCU DGGP VJG IGPGTCN KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 4WUUGNN COQPI RJKNQUQRJKECN NQIKEKCPU HQT
PGCTN[ C EGPVWT[

3.1.2

Reference to something that does not exist

*QYGXGT CV VJG XGT[ DGIKPPKPI QH VJG CTVKENG 4WUUGNN FKUVKPIWKUJGU DGVYGGP ECUGU YJGTG C RJTCUG OC[ DG FGPQVKPI CPF
[GV PQV FGPQVG CP[VJKPI
GI VJG RTGUGPV -KPI QH (TCPEG  CPF ECUGU YJGTG VJG[ OC[ FGPQVG QPG FGPKVG QDLGEV
UWEJ CU
VJG RTGUGPV -KPI QH 'PINCPF  +H VJKU RCUUCIG KU KPVGTRTGVGF CU UC[KPI VJCV FGUETKRVKQPU OC[ TGHGT VQ QPG FGPKVG QDLGEV
VJGP KV EQWNF DG VJCV 4WUUGNN CEVWCNN[ TGEQIPKUGF VJG VYQ FKUVKPEV WUGU QH FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU
CVVTKDWVKXG CPF TGHGTGPVKCN


 5)& 5)&03: 0' %&4$3*15*0/4



VJCV &QPPGNNCP NCVGT RTQRQUGF

3.1.3

Epistemology

+P CP[ ECUG CHVGT ENCTKH[KPI VJG UGPUG QH VJG VGTO FGPQVKPI RJTCUG CPF RTQXKFKPI UGXGTCN GZCORNGU VQ KNNWUVTCVG VJG KFGC
4WUUGNN GZRNCKPU VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN OQVKXCVKQPU HQT JKU VJGQT[ 4WUUGNN DGNKGXGU CV VJKU RQKPV VJCV VJGTG CTG GUUGPVKCNN[
VYQ OQFGU QH MPQYKPI MPQYNGFIG D[ FGUETKRVKQP CPF MPQYNGFIG D[
FKTGEV CESWCKPVCPEG -PQYNGFIG D[ CESWCKPVCPEG
KU NKOKVGF VQ VJG UGPUG FCVC QH VJG RJGPQOGPCN YQTNF CPF VQ QPGU QYP RTKXCVG KPPGT GZRGTKGPEGU YJKNG MPQYNGFIG QH
GXGT[VJKPI GNUG
QVJGT OKPFU RJ[UKECN QDLGEVU CPF UQ QP ECP QPN[ DG MPQYP D[ YC[ QH IGPGTCN FGUETKRVKQPU

3.2 The theory of descriptions

3.2.1

Mathematical description

4WUUGNN UVCTVU QWV D[ FGPKPI VJG HWPFCOGPVCN PQVKQP QH C QSPQPTJUJPOBM GVODUJPO 6JKU KU DCUKECNN[ C OQFKGF XGTUKQP QH
(TGIGU KFGC QH VOTBUVSBUFE DPODFQUT *GPEG  %
Z UVCPFU HQT C RTQRQUKVKQP KP YJKEJ Z KU C EQPUVKVWGPV CPF YJGTG Z VJG
XCTKCDNG KU GUUGPVKCNN[ CPF YJQNN[ WPFGVGTOKPGF 6JG PQVKQPU QH FWFSZUIJOH OPUIJOH CPF TPNFUIJOH
VJG OQUV RTKOKVKXG
QH FGPQVKPI RJTCUGU ECP VJGP DG FGPGF CU HQNNQYU

C(E) xC(x)
C(N ) xC(x)
C(S) xC(x)
YJGTG & UVCPFU HQT GXGT[VJKPI / UVCPFU HQT PQVJKPI CPF 4 UVCPFU HQT UQOGVJKPI "MM KU VCMGP CU RTKOKVKXG CPF KPFGPCDNG
CPF VJG QVJGTU CTG FGPGF KP VGTOU QH KV 4WUUGNN GORJCUKUGU VJCV VJGUG PQVKQPU ECP JCXG PQ OGCPKPI CRCTV HTQO VJCV YJKEJ
KU CUUKIPGF VQ VJGO YKVJKP VJG RTQRQUKVKQPU KP YJKEJ VJG[ QEEWT CNN QH YJKEJ CTG OGCPKPIHWN 6JKU KU VJG HQWPFCVKQP QH
4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU CU JG RTQEGGFU VQ KNNWUVTCVG

3.2.2

Illustration

6JG RJTCUG VJG HCVJGT QH %JCTNGU ++

( YCU GZGEWVGF
' KU KPVGTRTGVGF CU VJG HQNNQYKPI SWCPVKECVKQPCN CUUGTVKQP

x ((F (x) y (F (y) x = y)) E (x))

+P QVJGT YQTFU VJGTG KU QPG CPF QPN[ QPG VJKPI Z UWEJ VJCV Z KU VJG HCVJGT QH %JCTNGU ++ CPF Z YCU GZGEWVGF
5Q KH % TGRTGUGPVU CP[ UVCVGOGPV CV CNN CDQWV VJG HCVJGT QH %JCTNGU ++ VJG UVCVGOGPV %
VJG HCVJGT QH %JCTNGU ++ CNYC[U
KORNKGU

x (F (x) y (F (y) x = y))

+V HQNNQYU VJCV KH VJGTG KU PQV QPG CPF QPN[ QPG GPVKV[ VJCV UCVKUGU VJG CDQXG VJGP GXGT[ RTQRQUKVKQP VJCV EQPVCKPU VJG
FGUETKRVKQPU KU HCNUG
+H VJG OQVJGT QH %JCTNGU ++ YCU WPHCKVJHWN VJG UVCVGOGPV OC[ DG HCNUG +P VJKU YC[ 4WUUGNN RQKPVU
QWV KV YKNN VWTP QWV VJCV CNN UVCVGOGPVU EQPVCKPKPI PQPTGHGTTKPI FGUETKRVKQPU
GI 6JG RTGUGPV MKPI QH 5COQVJTCEG KU C
ITGCV YTKVGT CTG HCNUG 4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ TGFWEGU CNN RTQRQUKVKQPU VJCV EQPVCKP FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU KPVQ HQTOU VJCV FQ PQV



$)"15&3  0/ %&/05*/(

3.3 Meinong
*G VJGP ETKVKEKUGU /GKPQPI U VJGQT[ QH QDLGEVU YJKEJ CEEQTFKPI VQ 4WUUGNN KU QPVQNQIKECNN[ RTQOKUEWQWU CPF UGNHEQPVTCFKEVQT[
$QVJ QH VJGUG ETKVKEKUOU UVGO HTQO /GKPQPIU VJGQT[ VJCV VJGTG KU CP QDLGEV YJGVJGT KV GZKUVU QT UWDUKUVU HQT GXGT[ UGV
QH RTQRGTVKGU 6JGTGHQTG VJGTG KU CP QDLGEV VJCV KU DQVJ TQWPF CPF PQV TQWPF QT TQWPF CPF USWCTG 4WUUGNN CTIWGU VJCV
/GKPQPIU VJGQT[ GPVCKNU EQPENWUKQPU UWEJ CU VJG RTGUGPV -KPI QH (TCPEG DQVJ GZKUVU CPF FQGU PQV GZKUV *QYGXGT
/GKPQPI FQGU PQV CVVTKDWVG GZKUVGPEG
QT CP[ QVJGT UQTV QH DGKPI VQ OPOFYJTUFOU PCKFDUT 4WUUGNN CNUQ CEEWUGU /GKPQPI QH
XKQNCVKPI VJG NCY QH PQPEQPVTCFKEVKQP D[ CUUGTVKPI VJCV VJG TQWPF USWCTG KU DQVJ TQWPF CPF PQV TQWPF /GKPQPI QP VJG
QVJGT JCPF OCKPVCKPU VJCV VJG NCYU QH NQIKE FQ PQV CRRN[ VQ UWEJ RJGPQOGPC CU KORQUUKDNG QDLGEVU VJCV JCXG PQ DGKPI=?

3.4 Resolving the problem of negative existentials

1PG QH VJG HWPFCOGPVCN RW\\NGU VJCV 4WUUGNN JQRGU VQ TGUQNXG YKVJ VJG VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU KU VJG RTQDNGO QH PQP
TGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQPU QT CU VJG[ CTG PQY ECNNGF PGICVKXG GZKUVGPVKCNU *G PCNN[ GZRNCKPU JQY JKU VJGQT[ TGUQNXGU VJKU
RTQDNGO CHVGT KPXQMKPI C FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP YJCV JG ECNNU QSJNBSZ CPF TFDPOEBSZ QEEWTTGPEGU QH FGPQVKPI RJTCUGU

3.4.1

Statements about concepts where the object doesnt exist

5KPEG FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU CTG LWUV SWCPVKECVKQPCN FGXKEGU QP 4WUUGNNU XKGY VJG[ ECP GPVGT KPVQ UEQRG TGNCVKQPU YKVJ QVJGT
NQIKECN QRGTCVQTU +P VJG ECUG QH PGICVKXG GZKUVGPVKCNU VJGTG KU CP CODKIWKV[ DGVYGGP VYQ FKGTGPV
RTKOCT[ CPF UGEQPFCT[
TGCFKPIU QH VJG SWCPVKECVKQPCN CUUGTVKQP (QT GZCORNG 4WUUGNN WUGU VJG ECUG QH VJG RTGUGPV -KPI QH (TCPEG KU PQV DCNF
*GTG VJG VYQ RQUUKDNG TGCFKPIU CTG

x(K(x) y(K(y) y = x)) B(x))

x(K(x) y(K(y) y = x)) B(x))

+P VJG TUV ECUG VJG UVCVGOGPV KU HCNUG DGECWUG KV SWCPVKGU QXGT PQPGZKUVGPV GPVKVKGU +P VJG UGEQPF ECUG VJG UVCVGOGPV
KU VTWG DGECWUG KV KU PQV VJG ECUG VJCV VJGTG KU C RTGUGPV -KPI QH (TCPEG 6JWU CNN RTQRQUKVKQPU KP YJKEJ VJG -KPI QH
(TCPEG JCU C RTKOCT[ QEEWTTGPEG CTG HCNUG VJG FGPKCNU QH UWEJ RTQRQUKVKQPU CTG VTWG DWV KP VJGO VJG -KPI QH (TCPEG JCU
C UGEQPFCT[ QEEWTTGPEG %QPVGORQTCTKN[ KV KU EWUVQOCT[ VQ FKUEWUU 4WUUGNNU RTKOCT[UGEQPFCT[ FKUVKPEVKQP KP VJG OQTG
NQIKECNN[ GZCEV VGTOU QH YKFG CPF PCTTQY UEQRG 6JG UEQRG FKUVKPEVKQP TGICTFU VJG QRGTCVQT VJCV QP QPG TGCFKPI OQFKGU
POMZ VJG UWDLGEV CPF QP VJG QVJGT OQFKGU VJG GPVKTG UGPVGPEG

3.4.2

Ambiguity

4WUUGNN TGUQNXGU VJG RTQDNGO QH CODKIWKV[ KP RTQRQUKVKQPCN CVVKVWFG TGRQTVU KP C UKOKNCT OCPPGT *G TGHGTU VQ CP GZCORNG
UKOKNCT VQ (TGIGU RW\\NG CDQWV KFGPVKV[ )GQTIG +8 YQPFGTGF YJGVJGT 5EQVV KU VJG CWVJQT QH 8BWFSMFZ +P VJKU ECUG
KV KU QDXKQWU VJCV -KPI )GQTIG KU PQV YQPFGTKPI YJGVJGT 5EQVV KU KFGPVKECN VQ 5EQVV 4WUUGNN TGLGEVU (TGIGU UQNWVKQP QH
FKUVKPIWKUJKPI DGVYGGP UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG 3WCPVKECVKQPCN FGUETKRVKQPU CTG UWEKGPV HQT JKO VQ JCPFNG VJG EF EJDUP  EF
SF CODKIWKVKGU 5Q HQT GZCORNG KP VJG IGPGTCN ECUG VJG UGPVGPEG )GQTIG +8 YQPFGTGF YJGVJGT 5EQVV KU 5KT 9CNVGT ECP
DG KPVGTRTGVGF CU
(FPSHF *7 XPOEFSFE XIFUIFS UIF Y UIBU JT JEFOUJDBM UP UIF Z UIBU
YJGTG  UVCPFU HQT UQOG FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP UWEJ CU VJG ENGXGT HGNNQY YJQ YTQVG +XCPJQG CPF UVCPFU HQT UQOGVJKPI
NKMG VJG GNGICPV IGPVNGOCP UGCVGF PGZV VQ VJG 2TKPEGUU +P VJG EF SF ECUG VJG CDQXG UGPVGPEG ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF CU HQNNQYU
KPUVGCF
UIF Y UIBU JT TVDI UIBU ,JOH (FPSHF XPOEFSFE XIFUIFS Y JT JEFOUJDBM UP UIF Z UIBU

 $3*5*$*4.4

3.4.3



Fictional names

(KPCNN[ 4WUUGNN UWIIGUVU VJCV EVKQPCN PCOGU UWEJ CU #RQNNQ ECP DG VTGCVGF CU CDDTGXKCVGF FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU VJCV
TGHGT VQ PQVJKPI #NN RTQRQUKVKQPU VJCV EQPVCKP PCOGU QH UWEJ EVKQPCN GPVKVKGU CTG VQ DG VTGCVGF KP VJG UCOG OCPPGT CU VJG
PGICVKXG GZKUVGPVKCNU FGUETKDGF CDQXG

3.5 Criticisms
+P JKU GUUC[ 1P 4GHGTTKPI 2 ( 5VTCYUQP ETKVKEKUGF 4WUUGNNU EJCTCEVGTKUCVKQP QH UVCVGOGPVU YJGTG VJG QDLGEV FQGUP V
GZKUV UWEJ CU VJG RTGUGPV -KPI QH (TCPEG CU DGKPI HCNUG 5WEJ UVCVGOGPVU 5VTCYUQP JGNF CTG PGKVJGT VTWG PQT HCNUG
DWV TCVJGT CDUWTF 5VTCYUQP DGNKGXGF VJCV EQPVTCT[ VQ 4WUUGNN WUG FQGU FGVGTOKPG VJG OGCPKPI QH C UGPVGPEG 6Q IKXG
VJG OGCPKPI QH CP GZRTGUUKQP KU VQ IKXG IGPGTCN FKTGEVKQPU HQT KVU WUG=? $GECWUG QH VJKU 5VTCYUQP CTIWGF VJCV YGTG
UQOGQPG VQ UC[ VJG -KPI QH (TCPEG YCU YKUG YG YQWNF PQV UC[ JGT UVCVGOGPV KU VTWG QT HCNUG DWV TCVJGT FGEKFG UJG OWUV
DG WPFGT C OKUCRRTGJGPUKQP UKPEG PQTOCNN[ VJG SWGUVKQP YQWNF PQV CTKUG CU VJGTG KU PQ -KPI QH (TCPEG=?
5VTCYUQP CNUQ CTIWGF VJCV YG QHVGP PGGF VQ MPQY VJG WUG QH C YQTF VQ WPFGTUVCPF KVU OGCPKPI UWEJ CU KP UVCVGOGPVU QH
VJG HQTO 6JG VCDNG KU EQXGTGF YKVJ DQQMU +P PQTOCN WUG VJG GZRTGUUKQP YQWNF DG TGHGTTKPI VQ QPG RCTVKEWNCT VCDNG +V
KU HCNUG 5VTCYUQP DGNKGXGF VQ VJKPM CU 4WUUGNN VJCV VJG RJTCUG YKNN QPN[ JCXG OGCPKPI KPUQHCT CU VJGTG KU QPN[ QPG VCDNG
CPF PQ OQTG 6JG RJTCUG JCU CRRNKECVKQP KP XKTVWG QH VJG HCEV VJCV QPG VCDNG CPF PQ OQTG KU YJCV KU DGKPI TGHGTTGF VQ CPF
KV KU WPFGTUVQQF VJCV VJG VCDNG KU YJCV KU DGKPI TGHGTGPEGF=?

3.6 References
=? (TCPM 2NWORVQP 4COUG[ 4KEJCTF $GXCP $TCKVJYCKVG
 4KEJCTF $GXCP $TCKVJYCKVG GF 5IF GPVOEBUJPOT PG NBUIFNBUJDT
BOE PUIFS MPHJDBM FTTBZT 4QWVNGFIG R  +5$0  TGVTKGXGF  #WIWUV 
=? # 9 5RCTMGU
 5BMLJOH QIJMPTPQIZ B XPSECPPL 6C[NQT  (TCPEKU R  +5$0  TGVTKGXGF 
#WIWUV 
=? .WFNQY 2GVGT &GUETKRVKQPU 5IF 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ
5WOOGT  'FKVKQP 'FYCTF 0 <CNVC
GF
74.JVVRRNCVQUVCPHQTFGFWCTEJKXGUUWOGPVTKGUFGUETKRVKQPU
=? )TQUUOCPP 4GKPJCTFV #NGZKWU /GKPQPI 5IF 0YGPSE $PNQBOJPO UP 1IJMPTPQIZ
GF 6GF *QPFGTKEJ 
=? 5VTCYUQP 2 (
,WN[  1P 4GHGTTKPI .JOE
1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU QP DGJCNH QH VJG /KPF #UUQEKCVKQP 59

  +550  ,5614 

=? 5VTCYUQP 2 (
,WN[  1P 4GHGTTKPI .JOE
1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU QP DGJCNH QH VJG /KPF #UUQEKCVKQP 59

  +550  ,5614 

=? 5VTCYUQP 2 (
,WN[  1P 4GHGTTKPI .JOE
1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU QP DGJCNH QH VJG /KPF #UUQEKCVKQP 59

  +550  ,5614 

3.7 Sources
4WUUGNN $ 1P &GPQVKPI .JOE 0GY 5GTKGU 8QN  0Q 
1EV  RR  QPNKPG VGZV
FQKOKPF:+8 ,5614 VGZV

3.8 External links

1P &GPQVKPI GUUC[ RWDNKUJGF CV 7PKXGTUKV[ QH /KEJKICP

Chapter 4

Theory of descriptions
6JG theory of descriptions KU VJG RJKNQUQRJGT $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN U OQUV UKIPKECPV EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ VJG RJKNQUQRJ[ QH NCP
IWCIG +V KU CNUQ MPQYP CU Russells Theory of Descriptions
EQOOQPN[ CDDTGXKCVGF CU 35% +P UJQTV 4WUUGNN CTIWGF
VJCV VJG U[PVCEVKE HQTO QH FGUETKRVKQPU
RJTCUGU VJCV VQQM VJG HQTO QH 6JG CCTFXCTM CPF #P CCTFXCTM KU OKUNGCFKPI
CU KV FQGU PQV EQTTGNCVG VJGKT NQIKECN CPFQT UGOCPVKE CTEJKVGEVWTG 9JKNG FGUETKRVKQPU OC[ UGGO HCKTN[ WPEQPVTQXGTUKCN
RJTCUGU 4WUUGNN CTIWGF VJCV RTQXKFKPI C UCVKUHCEVQT[ CPCN[UKU QH VJG NKPIWKUVKE CPF NQIKECN RTQRGTVKGU QH C FGUETKRVKQP KU
XKVCN VQ ENCTKV[ KP KORQTVCPV RJKNQUQRJKECN FGDCVGU RCTVKEWNCTN[ KP UGOCPVKE CTIWOGPVU GRKUVGOQNQI[ CPF OGVCRJ[UKEU +V
JCU DGGP CTIWGF HQT GZCORNG VJCV 46& NCTIGN[ WPFGTRKPPGF 4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ QH UGPUGFCVC
5KPEG VJG TUV FGXGNQROGPV QH VJG VJGQT[ KP 4WUUGNNU  RCRGT 1P &GPQVKPI 46& JCU DGGP JWIGN[ KPWGPVKCN CPF YGNN
TGEGKXGF YKVJKP VJG RJKNQUQRJ[ QH NCPIWCIG *QYGXGT KV JCU PQV DGGP YKVJQWV KVU ETKVKEU +P RCTVKEWNCT VJG RJKNQUQRJGTU
2 ( 5VTCYUQP CPF -GKVJ &QPPGNNCP JCXG IKXGP PQVCDNG YGNN MPQYP ETKVKEKUOU QH VJG VJGQT[ /QUV TGEGPVN[ 46& JCU
DGGP FGHGPFGF D[ XCTKQWU RJKNQUQRJGTU CPF GXGP FGXGNQRGF KP RTQOKUKPI YC[U VQ DTKPI KV KPVQ JCTOQP[ YKVJ IGPGTCVKXG
ITCOOCT KP 0QCO %JQOUM[ U UGPUG RCTVKEWNCTN[ D[ 5VGRJGP 0GCNG 5WEJ FGXGNQROGPVU JCXG VJGOUGNXGU DGGP ETKVKEKUGF
CPF FGDCVG EQPVKPWGU

4.1 Introduction
$GTVTCPF 4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU YCU KPKVKCNN[ RWV HQTVJ KP JKU  GUUC[ 1P &GPQVKPI RWDNKUJGF KP VJG LQWTPCN
QH RJKNQUQRJ[ .JOE 4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ KU HQEWUGF QP VJG NQIKECN HQTO QH GZRTGUUKQPU KPXQNXKPI FGPQVKPI RJTCUGU YJKEJ JG
FKXKFGU KPVQ VJTGG ITQWRU
 &GPQVKPI RJTCUGU YJKEJ FQ PQV FGPQVG CP[VJKPI HQT GZCORNG VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[
 2JTCUGU YJKEJ FGPQVG QPG FGPKVG QDLGEV HQT GZCORNG VJG RTGUGPV 2TGUKFGPV QH VJG 75# 9G PGGF PQV MPQY
YJKEJ QDLGEV VJG RJTCUG TGHGTU VQ HQT KV VQ DG WPCODKIWQWU HQT GZCORNG VJG EWVGUV MKVVGP KU C WPKSWG KPFKXKFWCN
DWV JKU QT JGT CEVWCN KFGPVKV[ KU WPMPQYP
 2JTCUGU YJKEJ FGPQVG CODKIWQWUN[ HQT GZCORNG CP #CTFXCTM
*OEFOJUF EFTDSJQUJPOT EQPUVKVWVG 4WUUGNNU VJKTF ITQWR &GUETKRVKQPU OQUV HTGSWGPVN[ CRRGCT KP VJG UVCPFCTF UWDLGEV
RTGFKECVG HQTO
4WUUGNN RWV HQTYCTF JKU VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU VQ UQNXG C PWODGT QH RTQDNGOU KP VJG RJKNQUQRJ[ QH NCPIWCIG 6JG VYQ
OCLQT RTQDNGOU CTG
 EQTGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQPU CPF
 PQPTGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQPU
6JG RTQDNGO QH EQTGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQPU QTKIKPCVGF RTKOCTKN[ YKVJ )QVVNQD (TGIG CU VJG RTQDNGO QH KPHQTOCVKXG KFGPVKVKGU
(QT GZCORNG KH VJG OQTPKPI UVCT CPF VJG GXGPKPI UVCT CTG VJG UCOG RNCPGV KP VJG UM[ UGGP CV FKGTGPV VKOGU QH FC[
KPFGGF
VJG[ CTG DQVJ VJG RNCPGV 8GPWU VJG OQTPKPI UVCT KU VJG RNCPGV 8GPWU UGGP KP VJG OQTPKPI UM[ CPF VJG GXGPKPI UVCT KU VJG
RNCPGV 8GPWU UGGP KP VJG GXGPKPI UM[ JQY KU KV VJCV UQOGQPG ECP VJKPM VJCV VJG OQTPKPI UVCT TKUGU KP VJG OQTPKPI DWV


 %&'*/*5& %&4$3*15*0/4



VJG GXGPKPI UVCT FQGU PQV! 6JKU KU CRRCTGPVN[ RTQDNGOCVKE DGECWUG CNVJQWIJ VJG VYQ GZRTGUUKQPU UGGO VQ FGPQVG VJG UCOG
VJKPI QPG ECPPQV UWDUVKVWVG QPG HQT VJG QVJGT YJKEJ QPG QWIJV VQ DG CDNG VQ FQ YKVJ KFGPVKECN QT U[PQP[OQWU GZRTGUUKQPU
6JG RTQDNGO QH PQPTGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQPU KU VJCV EGTVCKP GZRTGUUKQPU VJCV CTG OGCPKPIHWN FQ PQV VTWN[ TGHGT VQ CP[VJKPI
(QT GZCORNG D[ CP[ FQI KU CPPQ[KPI KV KU PQV OGCPV VJCV VJGTG KU C RCTVKEWNCT KPFKXKFWCN FQI PCOGN[ BOZ EPH VJCV JCU
VJG RTQRGTV[ QH DGKPI CPPQ[KPI
UKOKNCT EQPUKFGTCVKQPU IQ HQT UQOG FQI GXGT[ FQI C FQI CPF UQ QP .KMGYKUG D[
VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[ KV KU PQV OGCPV VJCV VJGTG KU UQOG KPFKXKFWCN PCOGN[ UIF DVSSFOU &NQFSPS PG
,FOUVDLZ  YJQ JCU VJG RTQRGTV[ QH DGKPI ITG[ -GPVWEM[ YCU PGXGT C OQPCTEJ[ UQ VJGTG KU EWTTGPVN[ PQ 'ORGTQT 6JWU
YJCV 4WUUGNN YCPVU VQ CXQKF KU CFOKVVKPI O[UVGTKQWU PQPGZKUVGPV GPVKVKGU KPVQ JKU QPVQNQI[ (WTVJGTOQTG VJG NCY QH VJG
GZENWFGF OKFFNG TGSWKTGU VJCV QPG QH VJG HQNNQYKPI RTQRQUKVKQPU HQT GZCORNG OWUV DG VTWG GKVJGT VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT
QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[ QT KV KU PQV VJG ECUG VJCV VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[ 0QTOCNN[ RTQRQUKVKQPU QH
VJG UWDLGEVRTGFKECVG HQTO CTG UCKF VQ DG VTWG KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG UWDLGEV KU KP VJG GZVGPUKQP QH VJG RTGFKECVG $WV VJGTG KU
EWTTGPVN[ PQ 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ 5Q UKPEG VJG UWDLGEV FQGU PQV GZKUV KV KU PQV KP VJG GZVGPUKQP QH GKVJGT RTGFKECVG
KV KU
PQV QP VJG NKUV QH ITG[ RGQRNG QT PQPITC[ RGQRNG 6JWU KV CRRGCTU VJCV VJKU KU C ECUG KP YJKEJ VJG NCY QH GZENWFGF OKFFNG
KU XKQNCVGF YJKEJ KU CNUQ CP KPFKECVKQP VJCV UQOGVJKPI JCU IQPG YTQPI

4.2 Denite descriptions

5GG CNUQ &GPKVG FGUETKRVKQP
4WUUGNN CPCN[UGU FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU UKOKNCTN[ VQ KPFGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU GZEGRV VJCV VJG KPFKXKFWCN KU PQY WPKSWGN[ URGE
KGF 6CMG CU CP GZCORNG QH C FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP VJG UGPVGPEG VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[ 4WUUGNN
CPCN[UGU VJKU RJTCUG KPVQ VJG HQNNQYKPI EQORQPGPV RCTVU
YKVJ Z CPF [ TGRTGUGPVKPI XCTKCDNGU
 VJGTG KU CP Z UWEJ VJCV Z KU CP GORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[
 HQT GXGT[ Z CPF GXGT[ [ KH DQVJ Z CPF [ CTG GORGTQTU QH -GPVWEM[ VJGP [ KU Z
KG VJGTG KU CV OQUV QPG GORGTQT QH
-GPVWEM[
 CP[VJKPI VJCV KU CP GORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[
6JWU C FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP
QH VJG IGPGTCN HQTO VJG ( KU )  DGEQOGU VJG HQNNQYKPI GZKUVGPVKCNN[ SWCPVKGF RJTCUG KP
ENCUUKE U[ODQNKE NQIKE
YJGTG Z CPF [ CTG XCTKCDNGU CPF ( CPF ) CTG RTGFKECVGU KP VJG GZCORNG CDQXG ( YQWNF DG
KU CP GORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ CPF ) YQWNF DG KU ITC[
Z=
(Z  [
([ Z[  )Z?
+PHQTOCNN[ VJKU TGCFU CU HQNNQYU UQOGVJKPI GZKUVU YKVJ VJG RTQRGTV[ ( VJGTG KU QPN[ QPG UWEJ VJKPI CPF VJKU WPKSWG VJKPI
CNUQ JCU VJG RTQRGTV[ )
6JKU CPCN[UKU CEEQTFKPI VQ 4WUUGNN UQNXGU VJG VYQ RTQDNGOU PQVGF CDQXG CU TGNCVGF VQ FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU
 6JG OQTPKPI UVCT TKUGU KP VJG OQTPKPI PQ NQPIGT PGGFU VQ DG VJQWIJV QH CU JCXKPI VJG UWDLGEVRTGFKECVG HQTO +V
KU KPUVGCF CPCN[UGF CU VJGTG KU QPG WPKSWG VJKPI UWEJ VJCV KV KU VJG OQTPKPI UVCT CPF KV TKUGU KP VJG OQTPKPI 6JWU
UVTKEVN[ URGCMKPI VJG VYQ GZRTGUUKQPU VJG OQTPKPI UVCT CPF VJG GXGPKPI UVCT CTG PQV U[PQP[OQWU UQ KV OCMGU
UGPUG VJCV VJG[ ECPPQV DG UWDUVKVWVGF
VJG CPCN[UGF FGUETKRVKQP QH VJG GXGPKPI UVCT KU VJGTG KU QPG WPKSWG VJKPI UWEJ
VJCV KV KU VJG GXGPKPI UVCT CPF KV TKUGU KP VJG GXGPKPI 6JKU UQNXGU )QVVNQD (TGIG U RTQDNGO QH KPHQTOCVKXG KFGPVKVKGU
 5KPEG VJG RJTCUG VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[ KU PQV C TGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQP CEEQTFKPI VQ 4WUUGNNU
VJGQT[ KV PGGF PQV TGHGT VQ C O[UVGTKQWU PQPGZKUVGPV GPVKV[ 4WUUGNN UC[U VJCV KH VJGTG CTG PQ GPVKVKGU : YKVJ RTQRGTV[
( VJG RTQRQUKVKQP : JCU RTQRGTV[ ) KU HCNUG HQT BMM XCNWGU QH :
4WUUGNN UC[U VJCV CNN RTQRQUKVKQPU KP YJKEJ VJG 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ JCU C RTKOCT[ QEEWTTGPEG CTG HCNUG 6JG FGPKCNU QH
UWEJ RTQRQUKVKQPU CTG VTWG DWV KP VJGUG ECUGU VJG 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ JCU C UGEQPFCT[ QEEWTTGPEG
VJG VTWVJ XCNWG QH VJG
RTQRQUKVKQP KU PQV C HWPEVKQP QH VJG VTWVJ QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH VJG 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[



$)"15&3  5)&03: 0' %&4$3*15*0/4

4.3 Indenite descriptions

6CMG CU CP GZCORNG QH CP KPFGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP VJG UGPVGPEG UQOG FQI KU CPPQ[KPI 4WUUGNN CPCN[UGU VJKU RJTCUG KPVQ
VJG HQNNQYKPI EQORQPGPV RCTVU
YKVJ Z CPF [ TGRTGUGPVKPI XCTKCDNGU
 VJGTG KU CP Z UWEJ VJCV Z KU C FQI
 Z KU DGKPI CPPQ[KPI
6JWU CP KPFGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP
QH VJG IGPGTCN HQTO C & KU #  DGEQOGU VJG HQNNQYKPI GZKUVGPVKCNN[ SWCPVKGF RJTCUG KP
ENCUUKE U[ODQNKE NQIKE
YJGTG Z CPF [ CTG XCTKCDNGU CPF & CPF # CTG RTGFKECVGU
Z=&Z  #Z?
+PHQTOCNN[ VJKU TGCFU CU HQNNQYU VJGTG KU UQOGVJKPI UWEJ VJCV KV KU & CPF #
6JKU CPCN[UKU CEEQTFKPI VQ 4WUUGNN UQNXGU VJG UGEQPF RTQDNGO PQVGF CDQXG CU TGNCVGF VQ KPFGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU 5KPEG VJG
RJTCUG UQOG FQI KU CPPQ[KPI KU PQV C TGHGTTKPI GZRTGUUKQP CEEQTFKPI VQ 4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ KV PGGF PQV TGHGT VQ C O[UVGTKQWU
PQPGZKUVGPV GPVKV[ (WTVJGTOQTG VJG NCY QH GZENWFGF OKFFNG PGGF PQV DG XKQNCVGF
KG KV TGOCKPU C NCY DGECWUG UQOG
FQI KU CPPQ[KPI EQOGU QWV VTWG VJGTG KU C VJKPI VJCV KU DQVJ C FQI CPF CPPQ[KPI 6JWU 4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ UGGOU VQ DG C
DGVVGT CPCN[UKU KPUQHCT CU KV UQNXGU UGXGTCN RTQDNGOU

4.4 Criticism of Russells analysis

4.4.1

P. F. Strawson

2 ( 5VTCYUQP CTIWGF VJCV 4WUUGNN JCF HCKNGF VQ EQTTGEVN[ TGRTGUGPV YJCV QPG OGCPU YJGP QPG UC[U C UGPVGPEG KP VJG HQTO
QH VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[ #EEQTFKPI VQ 5VTCYUQP VJKU UGPVGPEG KU PQV EQPVTCFKEVGF D[ 0Q QPG KU
VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ HQT VJG HQTOGT UGPVGPEG EQPVCKPU PQV CP GZKUVGPVKCN CUUGTVKQP DWV CVVGORVU VQ VTF VJG
EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ CU C TGHGTTKPI
QT FGPQVKPI RJTCUG 5KPEG VJGTG KU PQ EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ VJG
RJTCUG HCKNU VQ TGHGT VQ CP[VJKPI CPF UQ VJG UGPVGPEG KU PGKVJGT VTWG PQT HCNUG
#PQVJGT MKPF QH EQWPVGTGZCORNG VJCV 5VTCYUQP CPF RJKNQUQRJGTU UKPEG JCXG TCKUGF EQPEGTPU VJCV QH KPEQORNGVG FGPKVG
FGUETKRVKQPU VJCV KU UGPVGPEGU YJKEJ JCXG VJG HQTO QH C FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP DWV YJKEJ FQ PQV WPKSWGN[ FGPQVG CP QDLGEV
5VTCYUQP IKXGU VJG GZCORNG VJG VCDNG KU EQXGTGF YKVJ DQQMU 7PFGT 4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ HQT UWEJ C UGPVGPEG VQ DG VTWG VJGTG
YQWNF JCXG VQ DG QPN[ QPG VCDNG KP CNN QH GZKUVGPEG $WV D[ WVVGTKPI C RJTCUG UWEJ CU VJG VCDNG KU EQXGTGF YKVJ DQQMU
VJG URGCMGT KU TGHGTTKPI VQ C RCTVKEWNCT VCDNG HQT KPUVCPEG QPG VJCV KU KP VJG XKEKPKV[ QH VJG URGCMGT 6YQ DTQCF TGURQPUGU
JCXG DGGP EQPUVTWEVGF VQ VJKU HCKNWTG C UGOCPVKE CPF C RTCIOCVKE CRRTQCEJ 6JG UGOCPVKE CRRTQCEJ QH RJKNQUQRJGTU
NKMG 5VGRJGP 0GCNG=? UWIIGUVU VJCV VJG UGPVGPEG FQGU KP HCEV JCXG VJG CRRTQRTKCVG OGCPKPI CU VQ OCMG KV VTWG 5WEJ
OGCPKPI KU CFFGF VQ VJG UGPVGPEG D[ VJG RCTVKEWNCT EQPVGZV QH VJG URGCMGTVJCV UC[ VJG EQPVGZV QH UVCPFKPI PGZV VQ C
VCDNG EQORNGVGU VJG UGPVGPEG 'TPKG .GRQTG UWIIGUVU VJCV VJKU CRRTQCEJ VTGCVU FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU CU JCTDQTKPI JKFFGP
KPFGZKECN GZRTGUUKQPU UQ VJCV YJCVGXGT FGUETKRVKXG OGCPKPI CNQPG NGCXGU WPPKUJGF KVU EQPVGZV QH WUG ECP EQORNGVG=?
2TCIOCVKUV TGURQPUGU FGP[ VJKU KPVWKVKQP CPF UC[ KPUVGCF VJCV VJG UGPVGPEG KVUGNH HQNNQYKPI 4WUUGNNU CPCN[UKU KU PQV VTWG
DWV VJCV VJG CEV QH WVVGTKPI VJG HCNUG UGPVGPEG EQOOWPKECVGF VTWG KPHQTOCVKQP VQ VJG NKUVGPGT

4.4.2

Keith Donnellan

#EEQTFKPI VQ -GKVJ &QPPGNNCP VJGTG CTG VYQ FKUVKPEV YC[U YG OC[ WUG C FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP UWEJ CU VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT
QH -GPVWEM[ KU ITC[ CPF VJWU OCMGU JKU FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP VJG TGHGTGPVKCN CPF VJG CVVTKDWVKXG WUG QH C FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP
*G CTIWGU VJCV DQVJ 4WUUGNN CPF 5VTCYUQP OCMG VJG OKUVCMG QH CVVGORVKPI VQ CPCN[UG UGPVGPEGU TGOQXGF HTQO VJGKT EQPVGZV
9G ECP OGCP FKGTGPV CPF FKUVKPEV VJKPIU YJKNG WUKPI VJG UCOG UGPVGPEG KP FKGTGPV UKVWCVKQPU

 4&& "-40



(QT GZCORNG UWRRQUG 5OKVJ JCU DGGP DTWVCNN[ OWTFGTGF 9JGP VJG RGTUQP YJQ FKUEQXGTU 5OKVJU DQF[ UC[U 5OKVJU
OWTFGTGT KU KPUCPG YG OC[ WPFGTUVCPF VJKU CU VJG CVVTKDWVKXG WUG QH VJG FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQP 5OKVJU OWTFGTGT CPF
CPCN[UG VJG UGPVGPEG CEEQTFKPI VQ 4WUUGNN 6JKU KU DGECWUG VJG FKUEQXGTGT OKIJV GSWKXCNGPVN[ JCXG YQTFGF VJG CUUGTVKQP
9JQGXGT MKNNGF 5OKVJ KU KPUCPG 0QY EQPUKFGT CPQVJGT URGCMGT UWRRQUG ,QPGU VJQWIJ KPPQEGPV JCU DGGP CTTGUVGF
HQT VJG OWTFGT QH 5OKVJ CPF KU PQY QP VTKCN 9JGP C TGRQTVGT UGGU ,QPGU VCNMKPI VQ JKOUGNH QWVUKFG VJG EQWTVTQQO CPF
FGUETKDGU YJCV UJG UGGU D[ UC[KPI 5OKVJU OWTFGTGT KU KPUCPG YG OC[ WPFGTUVCPF VJKU CU VJG TGHGTTKPI WUG QH VJG FGPKVG
FGUETKRVKQP HQT YG OC[ GSWKXCNGPVN[ TGYQTF VJG TGRQTVGTU CUUGTVKQP VJWU 6JCV RGTUQP YJQ + UGG VCNMKPI VQ JKOUGNH CPF
YJQ + DGNKGXG OWTFGTGF 5OKVJ KU KPUCPG +P VJKU ECUG YG UJQWNF PQV CEEGRV 4WUUGNNU CPCN[UKU CU EQTTGEVN[ TGRTGUGPVKPI
VJG TGRQTVGTU CUUGTVKQP 1P 4WUUGNNU CPCN[UKU VJG UGPVGPEG KU VQ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH
 VJGTG KU CP Z UWEJ VJCV Z OWTFGTGF 5OKVJ
 VJGTG KU PQ [ [ PQV GSWCN Z UWEJ VJCV [ OWTFGTGF 5OKVJ CPF
 Z KU KPUCPG
+H VJKU CPCN[UKU QH VJG TGRQTVGTU CUUGTVKQP YGTG EQTTGEV VJGP UKPEG ,QPGU KU KPPQEGPV YG UJQWNF VCMG JGT VQ OGCP YJCV VJG
FKUEQXGTGT QH 5OKVJU DQF[ OGCPV VJCV YJQGXGT OWTFGTGF 5OKVJ KU KPUCPG 9G UJQWNF VJGP VCMG JGT QDUGTXCVKQP QH ,QPGU
VCNMKPI VQ JKOUGNH VQ DG KTTGNGXCPV VQ VJG VTWVJ QH JGT CUUGTVKQP 6JKU ENGCTN[ OKUUGU JGT RQKPV
6JWU VJG UCOG UGPVGPEG 5OKVJU OWTFGTGT KU KPUCPG ECP DG WUGF VQ OGCP SWKVG FKGTGPV VJKPIU KP FKGTGPV EQPVGZVU
6JGTG CTG CEEQTFKPIN[ EQPVGZVU KP YJKEJ VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ KU PQV ITC[ KU HCNUG DGECWUG PQ QPG KU VJG
EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ CPF EQPVGZVU KP YJKEJ KV KU C UGPVGPEG TGHGTTKPI VQ C RGTUQP YJQO VJG URGCMGT VCMGU VQ DG
VJG EWTTGPV 'ORGTQT QH -GPVWEM[ VTWG QT HCNUG CEEQTFKPI VQ VJG JCKT QH VJG RTGVGPFGT

4.4.3

Saul Kripke

+P 3FGFSFODF BOE &YJTUFODF=? 5CWN -TKRMG CTIWGU VJCV YJKNG &QPPGNNCP KU EQTTGEV VQ RQKPV QWV VYQ WUGU QH VJG RJTCUG
KV FQGU PQV HQNNQY VJCV VJG RJTCUG KU CODKIWQWU DGVYGGP VYQ OGCPKPIU (QT GZCORNG YJGP VJG TGRQTVGT OET PVU VJCV
,QPGU VJG RGTUQP UJG JCU DGGP ECNNKPI 4NJUIT NVSEFSFS FKF PQV OWTFGT 5OKVJ UJG YKNN CFOKV VJCV JGT WUG QH VJG PCOG
YCU KPEQTTGEV -TKRMG FGHGPFU 4WUUGNNU CPCN[UKU QH FGPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU CPF CTIWGU VJCV &QPPGNNCP FQGU PQV CFGSWCVGN[
FKUVKPIWKUJ OGCPKPI HTQO WUG QT URGCMGTU OGCPKPI HTQO UGPVGPEG OGCPKPI

4.5 See also

&GPKVG FGUETKRVKQP
5GPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG
2JKNQUQRJ[ QH NCPIWCIG

4.6 Notes
=? 0GCNG 5VGRJGP
 %FTDSJQUJPOT %CODTKFIG /CUU /+6 2TGUU +5$0 
=? .GRQTG 'TPKG
 #DWUG QH %QPVGZV KP 5GOCPVKEU +P 4GKOGT /CTIC $G\WKFGPJQWV #PPG %FTDSJQUJPOT BOE #FZPOE
1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU R  +5$0 :
=? -TKRMGU WPRWDNKUJGF ,QJP .QEMG NGEVWTGU CV 1ZHQTF KP 



$)"15&3  5)&03: 0' %&4$3*15*0/4

4.7 References and further reading

$GTVQNGV 4QF
 6JGQT[ QH &GUETKRVKQPU 5IF $BNCSJEHF %JDUJPOBSZ PG 1IJMPTPQIZ UGEQPF GFKVKQP 0GY
;QTM %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
&QPPGNNCP -GKVJ
 4GHGTGPEG CPF &GPKVG &GUETKRVKQPU 1IJMPTPQIJDBM 3FWJFX  RR 
-TKRMG 5CWN
 5RGCMGTU 4GHGTGPEG CPF 5GOCPVKE 4GHGTGPEG .JEXFTU 4UVEJFT JO 1IJMPTPQIZ  RR 

.WFNQY 2GVGT
 &GUETKRVKQPU 5IF 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ ' <CNVC
GF 1PNKPG VGZV
0GCNG 5VGRJGP
 %FTDSJQUJPOT $TCFHQTF /+6 2TGUU
0GCNG 5VGRJGP
 # %GPVWT[ .CVGT .JOE  RR 
1UVGTVCI )CT[
GF
 %FOJUF %FTDSJQUJPOT " 3FBEFS $TCFHQTF /+6 2TGUU
+PENWFGU &QPPGNNCP

-TKRMG
 %JCRVGT  QH 0GCNG
 4WUUGNN
 %JCRVGT  QH 4WUUGNN
 CPF 5VTCYUQP

4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF
 1P &GPQVKPI .JOE  RR  1PNKPG CV 9KMKUQWTEG CPF #WIUDWTI 7PKXGTUKV[
QH #RRNKGF 5EKGPEGU
4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF
 *OUSPEVDUJPO UP .BUIFNBUJDBM 1IJMPTPQIZ .QPFQP )GQTIG #NNGP CPF 7PYKP
5VTCYUQP 2 (
 1P 4GHGTTKPI .JOE  RR 

4.8 External links

4WUUGNNU 6JGQT[ QH &GUETKRVKQPU UGEVKQP  QH .WFNQYU CTVKENG QP VJG 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ
4WUUGNNU 6JGQT[ QH &GUETKRVKQPU D[ 6JQOCU % 4[EMOCP
4WUUGNNU VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU CV 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[U +PVTQFWEVKQP VQ .QIKE
4WUUGNNU 6JGQT[ QH &GUETKRVKQPU URGEKCN KUUWG QH .JOE EGNGDTCVKPI VJG VJ CPPKXGTUCT[ QH 4WUUGNNU 1P &GPQVKPI
KP YJKEJ VJG VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU YCU TUV RTGUGPVGF

 5&95 "/% *."(& 4063$&4 $0/53*#65034 "/% -*$&/4&4



4.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

4.9.1

Text

Logic 4PVSDF JVVRGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK.QIKE!QNFKF $POUSJCVUPST #ZGN$QNFV 8KEMK 4QUGP\YGKI 6JG #PQOG 6QD[ $CTVGNU
4[IWCUW *KT\GN &YJGGNGT 5VGXGTVKIQ 'FYCTF 2CVTKEM %JCU \\\ DTQYP /KEJCGN *CTF[ .GZQT 6CMW[C/WTCVC $CIRWUU .QQZKZ`GPYKMK
#JQGTUVGOGKGT 0QVJGTWUGT $KI(CV$WFFJC  )NGPP /CTEQ -TQJP 4QUUCOK 6KO 4GVQWV 4QVGO &CP 'XGTECV 'F* &GUGTV
5VGXG %CGNKEG`GPYKMK /ZP /KEJCGN 8Q[VKPUM[ 4GPCOGF WUGT  4\CEJ %JCTNGU /CVVJGYU &EQGV\GG 2CWN 5VCPUKHGT &[URTQUKC ,KVUG
0KGUGP :KCQFCK`GPYKMK /CTMJWTF /KMG5 %CTQN (GPKLP 5'9KNEQ 5COUCTC , & 5JK\JCQ 1NCVJG ,WULKJ .FQ $CPPQ %JWWPGP $CMC
4QDDQV +YRI (TGFTKM 4OV #NVGPOCPP /CVJ/CTVKP 4QTTQ 4JQNVQP 5CHQTTGUV $QTKUNCX 4QDGTVQCNGPECT /KEJCGN 5PQY 4CGM[ )W[
2GVGTU ,QQNGT (KNGOQP #PEJGVC 9KU 'ZRNQFKPI $Q[ )KHVNKVG 4GEGPVEJCPIGU +PVGT 9QNHMGGRGT .GG , *C[YQQF %1/2#66 'XGT[M
KPI 4QQMMG[ /CN[EVGPCT #PFTKU $QXND ,CUQP 3WKPP 5WPFCT 5KTQZQ &GWU 'Z 4JGWP .K&CQDKPI 4QCEJIQF 3WCFGNN 5VCTDCPG 2KQVTWU
.WFKOGT`GPYKMK -CTQN .CPIPGT %56#4 4FUOKVJ #2* ,KO9CG 1YGP$NCEMGT -PVI /[UKFKC 2OCPFGTUQP 'FWCTFQRQTEJGT 'NKC\CT
)TWPV )WRR[PUQWR /KMG 4QUQHV (TGCMQHPWTVWTG 7NVTCVQOKQ .QTGP\Q /CTVGNNK &KUEQURKPUVGT -KNNGT%JKJWCJWC 4JQDKVG )WCPCDQV .GKD
PK\ *KRRQLC\\ 8UOKVJ 4CKUVNKPLQPGU 5NKRUVTGCO %JCF/KNNGT 2CWN #WIWUV $GPFGT 'N % %JCNUV /YCPPGT 6XGTDGGM $QDQ %TGVQI
,QJPMCTR 5JGPOG #OGTKPFKCPCTVU 2CUUYTF -PWEOQ 5VQTO 4KFGT 4GF 9KPIGF &WEM #NCPUQJP 5JCFKMMC 4J`GPYKMK %JKTC #$%&
-WTV 5JCRGF $QZ 5NKO8KTIKP $CVOCPCPF ;WOOKHTWKVDCV 5JKPLKOCP 8GNGNNC 5EKWTKP /+6 6TGMMKG #NCK %TCPKCN0GTXGU 8GNJQ /GN 'VKVKU
/KPFOCVTKZ %COY -QMQTKMQ -\QNNOCP 4WWF -QQV 1T\ /10)1 #RQMTKH ,QM 9KMKMNTUE %JCTNGU% /CTEQ6QNQ &4*CPUGP )GT
DTCPV 6UNQEWO )TCJCO #NKGPWU $& 2QTEJGT 4LYKNOUK /C[WOCUJW  )1& $TWEGGG 5CNKZ CNDC %TC\[PCU
.KIWNGO $CT[QPKE $GKPI 6KVQZF (NC$QV -YJKVVKPIJCO .CVMC /CVJDQV 6YKRNG[ 5RQTVU/CUVGT 4GZ0. #PFTKW< 3WWZRNWUQPG %GNGPFKP
+PWGPEG 4 .GG ' ,GIC24+/' /CNJQPGP 5RGPEGTM %JQDQV &8FO 'COQPP2-GCPG 4QDQVQ FG #LXQN 9CXGNGPIVJ &GGRVTKXKC -5OTS
'PFICOG`GPYKMK 2QN[XKQU %CODTKFIG$C[9GCVJGT -5EJWVVG 0CYNKP9KMK 4KEM 0QTYQQF 5'9KNEQ$QV /KRCFK $TKOUVQPG`GPYKMK .CU
\NQ9CNTWU #,*CNNKYGNN 6TQXCVQTG 2QPVKHGZOCZKOWU %JWPM[ 4KEG %NGCTGF CU NGF 0KEM &CTMHTGF 9LYOC )QQIN /GPFKEQVV 5VW4CV
1RGPWPKXGTUG %JTKU)TKUYQNF 0KMMKOCTKC 1'/%756 0CJCL 'ZVTGOG 7PEVKQP #NNGPU 5CTFCPCRJCNWU ,QJPFE 5OCEM$QV .GUVTCFG +P
XGTUG*[RGTEWDG 2UEJGNFGP ,KOUEJ ,CIIGF  9QQMKG+P*GCV ,QUGRJRT[OCM 6KOQVJGWU %CPGPU 5TPGE .QPGUQOG&TKHVGT %QNNKPIUYQTVJ
)KNNKCO 5MK\\KM 4KEJCTF%NCTMG *GNKQUVGNNCT %JTKU VJG URGNNGT ,C[OC[ &C PWMG 7PDTGCMCDNG /, /- #PFTGY 2CTQFK -GXKP *CPUG
/CNCHC[C$QV %NEQPYC[ 5EK[QUJK`GPYKMK )Q HQT KV /KMMGT <UKPL %CP V UNGGR ENQYP YKNN GCV OG /KUIPQOGT )TQXGT ENGXGNCPF (WJIJGV
VCDQWVKV %[DGTEQDTC ,KFFKUEJ`GPYKMK 4KEJCTF /', -CDCKP .CECVQUKCU ,QP #YDTG[ &/CEMU *GPPKPI /CMJQNO )GF 7-
%GQKN $[GNH 5CUJCVQ$QV .CODKCO &DVH\ &GCEQPUG 7DGT%T[ZKE (TQ\GP/CP *GKOUVGTP 5JNQOMG 5JCFQYN[PM ( UCPKVK\KPI GCING
2TKPEG 9KVJUV[NG%/% *XP /GEQ 4KEJCTF( 0QXCPIGNKU 8CICT[ 2CORNOQQUG -,5 *W .GXKPGRU $CPCPC(KGPF - .QVVCOK
CVC %CVJGTKPG[TQPYQFG /TFVJTGG +IQNFUVG 6JGOCPQHPKPGU #FCODKUYCPIGT 5CVCTPKQP 6CYMGTDQV )CNGZ 5M[9CNMGT %4)TGCVJQWUG
%$/ 'FKVQTKWU 4WDDGTEJKZ )TGIDCTF -RQUUKP %[FGDQV 2EG"KLPGV ,CURGTFQQOGP 5COWGNN 3WKPPEWNXGT 2GVGTFLQPGU 6TCXGNDKTF 2XD
&TMUN ,WNKCP /GPFG\ &CPEVGT 6CYMGTDQV 5JKTWNCUJGO &QWIYGNNGT &WOD$16 )CTKM 2TQIKEPGV /CVVKUUG .GVTCPQXC 6JKLUDQV 'RDT
-TGFCN 5OGG /CTGM #IGPV2GRRGTOKPV 1TGP$QEJOCP 'UECTDQV 'NGWVJGT /GPVKUVQ 8CHVJTWFPKT #PVK8CPFCN$QV 2GQRRGPJGKOGT /C
LQTN[ )KQVQ *KFC[CV WNNCJ )GG2TKGUV &QWIJGT 5NW\\GNKP ,#P&DQV 0CTUUCTUUWCS /'4% 6JG 6TCPUJWOCPKUV #XC[C <K\QP (TCPMKG
5CXCPV &T OKPFDGPFGT .KVVNG1NF/G $QPIYCTTKQT 8Q#$QV ++ 5&CU ,09 #TPQ /CVVJKCU #RRTCKUGT )COMKNNGT 5OKJCGN %CGUCTLD
USWKVVK /KFITKF $WDDC JQVGR /QQRKGHQQH )GQTIG(6JQOUQP 8KTVNKPM &CXKF 'RRUVGKP 'RUKNQP &GT*GZGT 9CPKPIG 'ZDW\\ /CTVKP$QV
9[NXG %QOOQPU&GNKPMGT 'F$GXGT %45GNXCMWOCT ,FGNCPQ[ 6TWUKNXGT ,DGUUKG (KEVKQPRWUU %RKTCN 4,/CNMQ /E5N[ .KIJVGUV`GPYKMK
%NCUUKECNUWDLGEVU /TI &CPKGN-Q 6JG 6TCPUJWOCPKUV
#9$ 2QNKETQP /GVU(CP -GPPGVJ / $WTMG 5VGGN +FKQOCDQV 5RGNN
ECUV 9TCKVJ/ 8QNMQX$QV %KTGUJQG 4WEJC /CEGFQPKCP *QVHGDC +PFWDKVCDN[ (WPFCOGPVCN OGVTKE VGPUQT ,KOOCVJU &LJOQQTG #GUQRQU
4GKDQV .NCOCDT 1PVQTCWN 2JKNQIQ .GCH[RNCPV 5CPHTCPOCP #DFWNNCKUW %WNNQYJGGCP 9KMKKUCYGUQOG /CZKO /[UEKGPEG .+$.#*.+
$.#*6+//#* 5[PVJGDQV 4WTKM -QQNQ 0CI[ 5[OCPG 2)9) 9EJTKU 2TQO 0*4*5 4CFCICUV &GOO[ ,QPP[,& 0GY
D[IWGUUGU .KPIWKUV 5KG$QV 5V#PUGNO /CWTCWVJ )GTCMKDQV 4,CIWCT ;KPVCP $LTUNQIKK 5QNGT 6KN 'WNGPURKGIGN (N[GT &CP'FOQPFU
7PFGCF *GTNG -KPI %TQYUVCT 4GFOCTMXKQNKPKUV 5RKPGVJGVKE 6JGNQIKEVJKPMGT &CPEKPI2JKNQUQRJGT 5XKEM 8CNGTKCFGRCKXC #FJCYM 5IKPE
6QIPQRQR %$/ TF#NEQXG 2U[DGT5 (TCPEXU %NCUUKECNGEQP #VJGPGCP #VKHV /CTVCTKWU %NWG$QV #PFTGY 0WVVGT 5PKIDTQQM 6JG 6JKPI
6JCV 5JQWNF 0QV $G 6CTQCNFQ 7MCDKC 6JG1NF,CEQDKVG $QKPI UCKF <GDGFGG 0KEGIW[GFE $NCPEJCTFD &TCIQP$QV ,GUUKGUNCOG 'ZEKTKCN
#NGZDQV ,WUFCHCZ 9CVEJFWEM #'0#10 0WENGCT9CTHCTG #TLC[C[ 5EJTGKDGT$KMG 6JKPII ,&2J& 5ECNJQVTQF $WFGNDGTIGT 5MWPMDQ[
)GTJCTFXCNGPVKP &WPECP 5CGGF8GTCFK /EICWNG[ 0GNNKG$N[ 0QEVKDWU #WPV 'PVTQR[ ,LHWNNGT 5RKF\ #FFDQV 4FCPPGUMLQNF 2TQQH
TGCFGT #VGVJPGMQU 5WNN[ .QIKEKUV 8KVTWXKWU )NCPG 7DGT 9Q/GPUEJ %J\\ (CXQPKCP .KPM(#$QV #ICFC7TDCPKV 0WODQDQV
'JTGPMCVGT 6KFG TQNNU .KIJVDQV /CETQ 5JGNN <QTTQDQV ,'0 #CTUCNCPMJCNKF )QTIG7DWCUJC #TEXKTIQU  ,COOKG (TCPEQU
#\EQNXKP /CUUKOQ#T #PQOKG$16 ,KO +42 #FLWUV5JKHV /GNWPG 0KEM- 0GWTQN[UKU #TVJWT$QV )GOVRO $NWGG[GFDQODUJGNN
,WPJQ :SDQV )KNQ 6JG .CPF 5WTXG[QT 6[TQN # 2GVTQRQZ[
.KVJQFGTO 2TQZ[ 7CTTKP )TQWEJQ$QV *KHEGNKM 1OPK
RCGFKUVC   6CNGU )JCN[$QV #CTQP -CWRRK )NKFGT/CXGP (TGUEQ$QV .KTKFQP & #TVCIPQN 6QDD[ & QJ$QV
/GYWNYG +VKUPQVOG 4JCNCJ %KVCVKQP DQV  %JGPQRQFKCEGQWU #UVC$16J )WU VJG OQWUG 2KPGVJKEMGV 8KEGPCTKCP #7&+ 0KPLCUCXGU
5GT[TGF /CQMCTV )COGYK\CTF (QZ$QV 6QDG$QV $WTTKVQDWTTKVQDWTTKVQ /[UVKEEQQRGTHQZ .QVLG )TGI-C[G 8TGPCVQT &WQFWQFWQ
 /GTNKPUQTEC .KVGTCVGWT ,CTRWR 9JKUM[ FTKPMGT /GCP CU EWUVCTF 4NPGYOC 6L$QV 9CNMKPZ[\ 'OCWU$QV 1TRJCP 9KMK 6JG -[
VCP #RRTGPVKEG 2QNQIKE ,GFUVCOCU 9JCO $CO 4QEM ++ 5QNCTTC <TQ$QV .GOKPJ ,QUXGC 5JWKR\X /CTF 9C[PG 5NCO (TKIQVQPK
4EURTKPVGT (TCPM(NCPCICP . -GPUKPIVQP &CPOW\ 'TCPFGTUQP &QPPGT %JGYKPIU 2WP )-CE\KPUM[ %JWKURCUVQP$QV 06QZ
2QQRPWDDNGV :CPEJGUVGT 4GOGODGTYC[ %NWG$QV 0) 9-CNGGO ,CEM )TGGPOCXGP 5WUKM/MT 3WCPVCOWZ 8CNKFNGUUPGUU $CUVKCPRGTTQV
9FEJM 5PQVDQV /CUUUN[ 9KFT .CYUQPUVW '5. *GNRHWN 2KZKG $QV #PCX $)DQV &CTGMCQP 0QTOC 4QOO 26,QUJWC 0QTVJCOGT
KEC )GGIGGI ,QJP%JT[UQUVQO (T\G %JLQJPUQP #NGZ4COGM %,/CECNKUVGT %KVCVKQP%NGCPGT$QV ,KNNKCPFKXKPG (NQUHC %JTKUEV
$TCF /GYJJQ #EQQNOE[ %QORWNQIIGT %[DGTDQV ++ 4QIGT 5OCNNKPI 6JG +NNWUKXG /CP 0CPKUJC1RCGP[CM 4JNQ\KGT 'CIGT6QF
FNGT &GZDQV /CTKWU UKWTCO  1OCPEJCPF[ 4KFG.KIJVPKPI ,QEJGP $WTIJCTFV 9KGNFVJGURCFG *KRRQECOR
9KEMKF /CVVKEWUOCFPGUU ,/%( 0+:10&+:10 %U&KZ + CO 1PG QH /CP[  6GPVKPCVQT 'XGTITGGP(KT $CDKVCCTQTC 7IQI
0K\FCUV /GNQF[ .CXGPFGT ,WUV$GTT[ 5MCPUKUCPFTQ )KPUWNQHV 4QDHH %CNXKPCVQT 6JG #PPQ[GF .QIKEKCP .K\ )TG[9KPVGT1YN $[
&CUJ ,DQD *GPPKGRGPP[ /CVVJGY &GTKEM $ %TW\ (KNGFGNKPMGTDQV 5JGTNQEM (XFGFRJKNN 0QTYQ -CTPCQWK 2CV 6JG 'ZRGFKC
5DEFCXG /WPGGD /CUQWF ,CEMURNC[ #UFMNH 'UKECO 0VWUGT %VJWNJW KU NQXG EVJWNJW KU NKHG #FCOTQDUQP ,QUOWUV .C[ -E$GUU[



$)"15&3  5)&03: 0' %&4$3*15*0/4

5COK.C[ .CP\FUG[ 5Q5KXT <CPFGT'FOWPFU $GUVWUGTPCOGKIP CPF #PQP[OQWU 
Sense and reference 4PVSDF JVVRGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK5GPUGCPFTGHGTGPEG!QNFKF $POUSJCVUPST 5CTC 2CTMU 4KEMGT
4[IWCUW /KEJCGN *CTF[ $Q0Q/Q,Q
QNF 'F* 4GPCOGF WUGT  7PKXGTUKOOGFKC %JCTNGU /CVVJGYU 0QJCV 6QRDCPCPC &KFGTQV #PEJGVC
9KU 'XGT[MKPI -CTQN .CPIPGT %CVQP`GPYKMK (TCPMU8CNNK %JCNUV 2GCTNG /CTM &KPIGOCPUG /GOGPGP 8GNJQ 9QQJQQMKVV[ ,G
&RX -;2CTM 0CVWU4QOC *CPUCOWTCK %CNKPFKIQ #TEJGNQP 5JGNN -KPPG[ <KGN -'- %TCUUJQRRGT *CMGGOICFK 6QOKUVK $OLW ,WNGU.6
'URTKVF %XCNGP\W 2JKNKR 5VGXGPU 5OCEM$QV 6JTCUJDCTI 1CVOGCN DCVOCP #PF[5KORUQP 0QPHQTOC %[DGTEQDTC .CECVQUKCU 2NKP[ #P
VQPKGNN[ *GYP (TGGNCPEG +PVGNNGEVWCN ,QCPPC5GTCJ 5FQTTCPEG )TGIDCTF %[FGDQV 4IJGEM 1OKETQPRGTUGK 6JG *QPQTCDNG 9KMK(CKT
6JKLUDQV $CTVKEWU 5UTJ[U 9KFGHQZ &CPP[ NQUV $DNUJ -PQVYQTM )QF4QWUKPI&QI2KRGU -QMKP 'CING(CP 9CTEJGH +OOCPWGN 4 P $
1PVQTCWN /[UEKGPEG 5KG$QV .CQEQP ,.$QV %NWG$QV ,CP 5EJTGKDGT %QJGUKQP$QV 5EJTGKDGT$KMG /WNVKRWPFKV #FFDQV 'LU$QV $WH
HCNQ$KNN .KIJVDQV ;QDQV #PQOKG$16 &GCF6QVQTQ (TGUEQ$QV 4JCNCJ #DFWEVKXG /CUVK$QV .KN[-KVV[ )QKPI$CVV[ -WUGTPCOG (TKGVLGU
#FTKCP6JG)QQF 2TQH/,$ /QPMDQV CPF #PQP[OQWU 
On Denoting 4PVSDF JVVRGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK1P&GPQVKPI!QNFKF $POUSJCVUPST 'FYCTF )CDDG #PFTGU $CPPQ (KNG
OQP $CTDCTC 5JCEM /CMG4QEMGV)Q0QY $GPFGT 4TC[ #TVJGPC 4GFHCTOGT 1ORJCNQUEQRG /CFOCTFKICP #NHCMKO $& #P
IWUOENGNNCP -;2CTM ;WTKM$QV 1RGPWPKXGTUG .GUVTCFG +PXGTUG*[RGTEWDG .CECVQUKCU /CTEWU %QQRGT 1JEQPHWEKWU $[GNH 'WEJK
CUOWU ,CUQPITQUUOCP %OFT1DQV )TGIDCTF %[FGDQV ,CURGTFQQOGP 1VVQ 2CEMGTUJ 6JKLUDQV &CPP[ NQUV 4 P $ +V +U /G *GTG
/KEM1 $CPVU )TCJCO*CTF[ #DKICKNIGO 6GEJPQRCV 7PKUQP #TVQCUKU 6JG *QWGUUG 8QLXQFCGP &ECVVGNN 'MKINCUU &TCIQP$QV )QQF 1N
HCEVQT[ ,G/*6 #FFDQV %J\\ 2KZKG HCEGF .KIJVDQV ,CP GKUUHGNFV #PPC (TQFGUKCM 1OPKRCGFKUVC (TGUEQ$QV 5CPDNKJCE 9KMKVCPXKT$QV
2QNKUJGT QH %QDYGDU &CXKF XCP DTWYCGPG /KEJCGN $CTMGT 2CVTKEKCVJQTPVQP *GNRHWN 2KZKG $QV (TCPM-GNNG[ %KVCVKQP%NGCPGT$QV *OCKPUDQV
.KPIWKUVKERJKNQ CPF #PQP[OQWU 
Theory of descriptions 4PVSDF JVVRGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK6JGQT[QHFGUETKRVKQPU!QNFKF $POUSJCVUPST 5VGXGTVKIQ $CPPQ
2GPIQ (KNGOQP ,QGRGCTUQP 5RC[TCTF ,CI #PFTGY 0QTOCP #TEJGNQP 0EUCKPV 6QO /QTTKU $NWGDQV ,C[OC[ 1JEQPHWEKWU )TGIDCTF
'RDT $GVJCP  )CXKC KOOGT /CIKQNCFKVKU +V +U /G *GTG 5 7PKUQP 9JGCUNG[ (KTUVYKPIOCP #FFDQV ([TCGN 5SWCPFGTOCPKC ;QDQV
$GCOKUJ 5QP *CNDGTFQ /CEJKPG 'NH  4JCNCJ ,CEMLQJPMKTYCP &TKN$QV 5M[GTKUG 5RCEG(NKIJV 1PGN 6JKPMWJ /OFS +PXKV
TQXCPKVCU CPF #PQP[OQWU 

4.9.2

Images

File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUCCG#TKUVQVNGA#NVGORUA+PXLRI -JDFOTF

2WDNKE FQOCKP $POUSJCVUPST ,CUVTQY
 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU %QR[ QH .[UKRRWU
File:Commons-logo.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCGPC%QOOQPUNQIQUXI -JDFOTF ! $POUSJCVUPST ! 0SJHJOBM
BSUJTU !
File:Logic_portal.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUE.QIKEARQTVCNUXI -JDFOTF %% $;5#  $POUSJCVUPST
1YP YQTM 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 9CVEJFWEM
CMC 6KNOCP 2KGUM
File:Office-book.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUCC1HHKEGDQQMUXI -JDFOTF 2WDNKE FQOCKP $POUSJCVUPST
6JKU CPF O[UGNH 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU %JTKU &QYP6CPIQ RTQLGEV
File:Question_book-new.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCGP3WGUVKQPADQQMPGYUXI -JDFOTF %ED[UC $PO
USJCVUPST
%TGCVGF HTQO UETCVEJ KP #FQDG +NNWUVTCVQT $CUGF QP +OCIG3WGUVKQP DQQMRPI ETGCVGF D[ 7UGT'SWC\EKQP 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU
6MIF
File:Socrates.png 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUEEF5QETCVGURPI -JDFOTF 2WDNKE FQOCKP $POUSJCVUPST 6TCPU
HGTTGF HTQO GPYKMKRGFKC VQ %QOOQPU 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 6JG QTKIKPCN WRNQCFGT YCU /CIPWU /CPUMG CV 'PINKUJ 9KMKRGFKC .CVGT XGTUKQPU YGTG
WRNQCFGF D[ 1RVKOCIGT CV GPYKMKRGFKC
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUHHC9KMKDQQMUNQIQUXI -JDFOTF %% $;5#  $PO
USJCVUPST 1YP YQTM 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 7UGT$CUVKSWG 7UGT4COCE GV CN
File:Wikinews-logo.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPU9KMKPGYUNQIQUXI -JDFOTF %% $;5#  $POUSJC
VUPST 6JKU KU C ETQRRGF XGTUKQP QH +OCIG9KMKPGYUNQIQGPRPI 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 8GEVQTK\GF D[ 5KOQP   #WIWUV 
76% 7RFCVGF
D[ 6KOG  #RTKN  VQ WUG QEKCN 9KMKPGYU EQNQWTU CPF CRRGCT EQTTGEVN[ QP FCTM DCEMITQWPFU 1TKIKPCNN[ WRNQCFGF D[ 5KOQP
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUHHC9KMKSWQVGNQIQUXI -JDFOTF 2WDNKE FQOCKP $POUSJC
VUPST ! 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU !
File:Wikisource-logo.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUE9KMKUQWTEGNQIQUXI -JDFOTF %% $;5#  $PO
USJCVUPST 4GKCTVWT 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 0KEJQNCU /QTGCW
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUD9KMKXGTUKV[NQIQGPUXI -JDFOTF %% $;
5#  $POUSJCVUPST 1YP YQTM 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 5PQTM[
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUHH9KMVKQPCT[NQIQGPUXI -JDFOTF 2WDNKE FQOCKP
$POUSJCVUPST 8GEVQT XGTUKQP QH +OCIG9KMVKQPCT[NQIQGPRPI 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 8GEVQTK\GF D[ (XCUEQPEGNNQU
VCNM EQPVTKDU DCUGF QP QTKIKPCN
NQIQ VQUUGF VQIGVJGT D[ $TKQP 8KDDGT
File:ber_Sinn_und_Bedeutung.djvu 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUEE%%DGTA5KPPAWPFA$GFGWVWPI
FLXW -JDFOTF 2WDNKE FQOCKP $POUSJCVUPST ;FJUTDISJGU GS 1IJMPTPQIJF VOE QIJMPTPQIJTDIF ,SJUJL /'   5  0SJHJOBM BSUJTU )QVVNQD
(TGIG


4.9.3

Content license

%TGCVKXG %QOOQPU #VVTKDWVKQP5JCTG #NKMG