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Contents
HYDROGEN AND WATER
Q - 1)
Q - 2)
Q - 3)
Q - 4)
Q - 5)
Q - 6)
Q - 7)
Q - 8)
Q - 9)
Q - 10)
Q - 11)
Q - 12)
Q - 13)
Q - 14)
Q - 15)
Q - 16)
Q - 17)
Define Hydrogen and write down uses, physical and chemical properties of Hydrogen: ............................... 3
What is nascent hydrogen? Describe its reactivity: .............................................................................................................. 5
Define isotope and discus various types of hydrogen isotopes: .................................................................................... 5
How is hydrogen prepared commercially: ............................................................................................................................... 6
Give reaction H2 with: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Define Water and describe some main physical and chemical properties of Water: ........................................ 8
What do you understand by the anomalous behaviour of water? And what is the significant of this
unusual behaviour of water? ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
What is water of crystallization? What happens when hydrates are heated? Define heat of hydration also
write formulas of some of hydrates. ........................................................................................................................................10
What is Potable water? Write four main characteristics of it. .....................................................................................10
What do you mean by soft water, hard water and heavy water? .................................................................................10
What do you mean by hard water and describes the types of hardness? Also write causes of hardness...11
How is the hardness of water removed? Describe various methods to remove hardness of water? ............12
Describe disadvantages of hard water and uses of water? .............................................................................................13
Describe the classification of water Pollutants: or name water borne diseases that are caused by
microorganism presents in water, name various types of water pollutants and their different categories.
14
Describe hygroscopic substances: ............................................................................................................................................14
Name only some common treatment to make municipal water fit for drinking purposes. ..............................15
What happens when? .....................................................................................................................................................................15
16
Q - 1)
Q - 2)
Describe Carbon and its uses. Also write its physical and chemical properties: ....................................................16
Define allotropy and allotropes. Discuss chief allotropic forms of carbon, also write their uses & structure.
18
Q - 3) Discus amorphous forms of Carbon. Or Short note ..........................................................................................................20
Q - 4) Define catenation: ...........................................................................................................................................................................20
Q - 5) What is silicon? How does silicon occur in nature? ...........................................................................................................21
Q - 6) What are silicates? And Describe some common silicates and their chemical formulas and uses. ...............21
Q - 7) Give some physical properties of silicon. ...............................................................................................................................22
Q - 8) Describe chemical preparation of Silicon. ..............................................................................................................................22
Q - 9) Give some uses of silicon: ............................................................................................................................................................23
Q - 10) Describe preparation of Silica and its properties and uses:............................................................................................23
Q - 11) Describe preparation of Sodium Silicate or water glass and its properties and uses: .........................................24
Q - 12) What is Silica Gel? Also write some uses of it. .....................................................................................................................24
25
Describe Nitrogen, its occurrence and uses. Also write physical and chemical properties: ..............................25
Describe Oxygen and its occurrence & uses. Also write its physical and chemical properties: .......................26
Describe chemical preparation of Nitrogen. How can you get nitrogen from the atmospheric air? Give
tow uses of nitrogen.......................................................................................................................................................................27
Describe laboratory preparation of Oxygen. How oxygen is industrially produced from liquid air? .............28
What are oxides how are they classified describe normal oxides in detail? ............................................................28
Give the preparation and properties of hydrogen peroxide and its uses: ................................................................30
Define oxidation and reduction and write chemical equation in support of each. ...............................................32
Q - 8)
Q - 9)
40
Describe Sulphur and its occurrence, uses, its physical and chemical properties: ................................................40
Describe and explain how Sulphur is extracted from underground deposits by Frasch process: ...................41
Describe Sulphuric Acid and its occurrence, uses, its physical and chemical properties: ...................................42
Describe and explain how Sulphuric Acid is prepared by Contact process, what catalyst used in the
process? ...............................................................................................................................................................................................44
What is allotropy? Describe different allotropic forms of Sulphur? ............................................................................46
What is plastic Sulphur? Why is it elastic? .............................................................................................................................47
Explain why SO2 is purified before it is passed into the contact tower for its oxidation to SO3? ....................47
Describe what happens when: ....................................................................................................................................................47
HALOGENS
48
Q - 1) What are Halogens? Why are they placed in VII A group in the periodic table? Describe the
state of each member of the family and also their colours? ..............................................................................48
Q - 2) What are the sources of halogens? Describe the importance of Cl2, Br2, and I2, F2 in our daily life.
49
Q - 3) (a) How is chlorine prepared in the laboratory? (b) Describe the commercial preparation of
chlorine by the electrolysis of aqueous NaCl solution in Nelsons Cell (c) what happens when
chlorine reacts with (i) Sn (ii) H2S (iii) CO (iv) P (v) FeCl2 (vi) H2O Give reaction and equation (d)
Discuss the uses of chlorine...................................................................................................................................................50
Q - 4) Give the preparation of hydrogen chloride (HCl) in the laboratory by the action of conc. H2SO4
over common salt. (b) Describe the commercial preparation of Hydrogen chloride by the direct
combination of H2 and Cl2 gases (c) what happens when Hydrogen chlorine reacts with (i)
NaOH (ii) NaOHCO3 (iii) Pb(NO3)2 (iv) MnO2 (v) KMnO4 Give reaction and equation. (d) Discuss
the uses of HCl...............................................................................................................................................................................55
Q - 5) What is bleaching powder? Give the preparation of bleaching powder by Hasenclever process
(b) Describe physical and chemical properties (c) what happens when bleaching powder reacts
with (i) water (ii) excess of water (iii) H2CO3 (weak acid) (iv) Ammonia (NH3) (v) HCl (d) Discuss
the uses of Bleaching powder. .............................................................................................................................................57
Q - 6) Describe Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) test for the presence of Cl- ion in a salt of chlorine. Give the
reaction. .............................................................................................................................................................................................59
Q - 7) Identify the following:................................................................................................................................................................59
60
What do you mean by metal and non-metal? Also describe the physical and chemical properties of
metals and non-metals. .................................................................................................................................................................60
CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER
HYDROGEN AND WATER
IX
ELEVENTH
Q - 1) Define Hydrogen and write down uses, physical and chemical
properties of Hydrogen:
Hydrogen: A colourless, highly flammable gaseous element, the lightest of all gases
and the most abundant element in the universe, used in the production of synthetic
ammonia and methanol, in petroleum refining, in the hydrogenation of organic materials, as a reducing atmosphere, in ox hydrogen torches, and in rocket fuels.
Atomic number 1; atomic weight 1.00794; melting point -259.14C; boiling point
-252.8 C; density at 0 C 0.08987 gram per litter; valence 1.
2. As a reducing Agent
Hydrogen shows greater affinity for oxygen and reduces many metal oxides into free metals.
CuO(s) + H2(g)
Cu(s) +3H2O(g)
WO3(s) + 3H2(g)
W(s) + 3H2O(g)
3
3. Hydrogenation Reaction:
The addition of hydrogen into other molecular compounds called hydrogenation reaction. When
molecular compounds and Hydrogen are heated in the presence of Pt or Pd or Ni and other crystals
they give addition products.
ZnO/Cr2O3
1.
CO(g) + 2H2(g)
CH3 OH(l)
o
CH3 CH3
Ethene
400 C
Ethane
Ni
3.
Saturated
2Na+H (s)
2Na(s) + H2(g)
Sodium Hydride
200 oC
2.
Ca+2 H2(s)
Ca(s) + H2(g)
Calcium hydride
1.
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3 (g)
Fe2O3/K2O
Sunlight
2.
H2(g) +Cl2(g)
2HCl(g)
450 oC
3.
H2(g) +S(s)
H2S(g)
4
Nascent Hydrogen: Hydrogen at a time of its birth is chemically more reactive than
molecular hydrogen because it is available in atomic form and known as Nascent
Hydrogen or Newly born hydrogen.
Reactivity:
When a piece of Zn metal adds in the acidic Ferric chloride (FeCl3) solution, nascent hydrogen is
generated which reduces FeCl3 into ferrous chloride (FeCl2) which is greenish in colour.
FeCl3(aq) + H2(g)
No reaction
Zn/HCl
FeCl3(aq) + [H]
FeCl2(aq) + HCl(aq)
Nascent Hydrogen
Ferrous
Chloride
Acidic KMnO4 (pink) solution can be reduced by nascent hydrogen to colourless solution.
Nascent
Hydrogen
Zn/H2SO4
Isotope: Isotope is the same atom with same number of protons but different number of neutrons in its respective nuclei.
Isotopes of Hydrogen:
There are three isotopes of hydrogen namely Protium, Deuterium and Tritium.
1. Protium or Ordinary Hydrogen Atom :
This isotope contains one proton and one electron in the first orbit.
Its atomic number is 1 and mass number is also 1.
About 99.98% of free hydrogen contains Protium.
It is stable isotope of hydrogen.
2. Deuterium (D or ):
This isotope contains one proton, one neutron and one electron in the first orbit.
Its atomic number is 1 and mass number is 2.
About 0.0156% of free hydrogen contains Deuterium.
It is also stable and heavy isotope of hydrogen i.e. misnomer.
3. Tritium (T or
):
This isotope contains one proton, two neutrons and one electron in the first orbit.
Its atomic number is 1 and mass number is 3.
About 4 x 1015 % of free hydrogen contains Tritium.
It is radioactive isotope with half-life of about 12.5 years.
It is used as tracer in the nuclear reactions.
1000 oC
CO
(g) + H2(g)
C(s) + H2 O(g)
Water gas is a very good fuel and used in preparation of methanol (Methyl Alcohol). Hydrogen (H2)
is separated by two methods from water gas: (i) By liquefaction (ii) By Oxidation
1. Separation of H2 by Liquefaction:
When water is cooled up to 200 oC, carbon monoxide liquefies and leaving
behind H2 Gas. If the traces of CO gas left in the mixture, than the remaining
mixture treats with caustic soda (NaOH) to form sodium formate and leaving
behind pure H2 gas.
CO(g) + NaOH(aq)
Carbon
monoxide
HCOONa(aq)
Caustic Soda
Solution
Water
CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
500 oC
Solouble in water
900 oC
CO
(g) + 3H2(g)
Above 700 oC
CH4 (g)
C(s) + 2H2(g)
Absence of air
Carbon Black
Electricity
H2 O(l)
2H2(g) + O2(g)
Acid or Base
Hydrogen gas
CH3 CH3
Ca(s) + H2(g)
Ca+2 H2(s)
H2(g) +S(s)
H2S(g)
H2(g) +Cl2(g)
2HCl(g)
properties of Water:
Alkali metals like Na, K etc. and alkaline earth metals like Ca, Ba react with cold water
to form their hydroxides with the liberation of H2 gas.
Cold
1.
2Na(s) + H2O(l)
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Cold
2.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l)
Calcium Hydroxide
3.
Sodium Hydroxide
2K(s) + H2O(l)
Potassium Hydroxide
2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Less electropositive metals like Mg, Zn or Fe etc. reacts with hot water to liberate H2 gas
with formation of their oxides. Iron reacts with excess of steam at red heat.
Hot
1.
Mg(s) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + H2(g)
Hot
2.
3.
Zn(s) + H2O(l)
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)
Red Heat
ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Noble metals like copper, gold, silver and mercury do not react with water
in any form.
8
a)
With Chlorine
Chlorine reacts with water to produce HCl and hypochlorous acid
(HClO). Hypochlorous acid is unstable and readily liberates atomic oxygen, which
can bleach dyes and kill bacteria by oxidation. Chlorine, therefore in water is both
bleaching as well as oxidizing agents.
Cl2(s) + H2O(l)
HClO(aq)
O +O
2HCl(aq) + [ O ]
O2(g)
b)
With Carbon
When steam is passed over heated coke at 1000 oC, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, known as water gas is produced.
1000 oC
CO
(g) + H2(g)
C(s) + H2 O(g)
c)
With Silicon
Silicon reacts with steam at very high temperature to form an oxide of
silicon i.e. silicon dioxide with liberation of H2 gas.
High temp.
Si (s) + 2H2O(g)
SiO2 (g) + 2H2(g)
Calcium oxide partially dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide
i.e. slaked lime.
CaO(s) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(s)
Quick lime
Slaked lime
Anomalous behaviour of Water: water does not obey the law of expansion and contraction between 0 oC to 4 oC and shows anomalous or unusual behaviour because water
is polar molecule and due to greater polarity all water molecules are associated by
means of hydrogen bonding. It expands when cooled form 4 to 0 oC and contracts
from 0 to 4 oC. Due to this ice (Solid Water) floats over water and aquatic animals in
winter seasons in the region where temperature reaches below 0 oC.
evaporation
Heat of Hydration: The minimum amount of heat liberated in the formation of hydrate is called heat of hydration.
Formulas of Hydrates:
Copper Sulphate (CuSO . 5H O)
2. Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO . 7H O)
3. Sodium Carbonate (Na CO . 10H O) 4. Aluminium chloride (AlCl . 6H O)
5. Barium Chloride (BaCl . 2H O)
6. Potash Alum [K SO . Al (SO ) . 24H O]
Q - 9) What is Potable water? Write four main characteristics of it.
1.
4 3
Potable water:
The water that is fit for drinking purpose is called potable water.
Characteristics of Portable water:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Q - 10) What do you mean by soft water, hard water and heavy water?
Soft water: The water that containing dissolved impurities but in small
quantities and easily produces lather with soap is known as soft water.
Hard water: The water that containing dissolved impurities of hydrogen carbonates, chlorides and Sulphate of calcium and magnesium is called hard
water. It does not give lather with soap.
Heavy water: The water that containing compound of oxygen with heavy
hydrogen i.e. deuterium is known as soft water. Its formula is D2O.
10
Hard water: The water that containing dissolved impurities of hydrogen carbonates, chlorides and Sulphate of calcium and magnesium is called hard
water. It does not give lather with soap.
Types of Hardness:
2.
Permanent hardness
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
Permanent Hardness:
Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3(aq)
Ma2+(aq) + 2HCO3(aq)
CaCl2(aq)
Mg(SO4)(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
Ma2+(aq) + SO423(aq)
Causes of Hardness:
1. Presence of bicarbonates of chlorides or Sulphates of calcium or magnesium
in water is the main causes of hardness of water.
2. Water hardness is caused by the presence of calcium Sulphate (Ca2+) and
magnesium hydroxide (Mg2+) ions, when they occur in very high concentrations.
11
By heating
By Clarks method
a)
b)
c)
d)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
H2O(l)
3
Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
Once Ca ions or Mg ions are out of water, any soap when added to water becomes
soft, the water and lather formation occurs.
2+
2+
b) By Clarks method:
Temporary hardness can also be by using Clarks method. In this method temporary
hard water containing hydrogen carbonates of Ca and Mg is treated with slaked lime
in the tanks to convert them into their insoluble carbonates.
These insoluble carbonates settle down at the bottom of tanks while soft water is
drained off for the use.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
+
2CaCO3 (insoluble) + 2H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2aq
Mg(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2aq
MaCO3(s) (insoluble) +
2NaCl (aq)
12
2+
MgSO4 (aq)
+ 2NaOH (aq)
Ma(OH)2(s) (insoluble)
Na2SO4(aq)
The permutit as loosely packed in a big tank over a layer of coarse sand.
Hard water is introduced into the tank from the top. Water reaches the bottom of the tank and then slowly rises through the permutit layer in the tank
and hardness is removed. The cat ions present in hard water are exchanged
for sodium ions. Therefore this method is also called ion exchange method.
Where Z = Al2Si2O8.nH2O
CaSO4 (aq) + Na2Z(zeoCaZ(s) (insoluble)
+ Na2SO4(aq)
lite)
Sodium zeolite can be regenerated by passing a strong NaCl solution through Ca Zeolite.
CaZ (zeolite) + 2NaCl(aq)
Na2Z(s) (Sod zeolite) + CaCl2(aq)
Q - 13) Describe disadvantages of hard water and uses of water?
Uses of water
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Water is vital for life. Humans, plants and animals cannot survive without water.
It is required for irrigating crops, as seeds cannot germinate without water.
Water is used in cooking and washing. Running water is used to generate electricity.
Water serves as a medium for transportation, as ships and boats move on water.
Many industries such as petroleum, fertilizer, dye and drugs industries require
large quantities of water for various processes.
Fish, other animals and many plants live in water. Fishing and other water-related
activities are a source of livelihood for many people.
13
In Liquid state they absorb water from the atmosphere usually diluting itself up to about three
times of its original volume. Such as Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4).
Uses:
14
The names of some common treatment to make municipal water fit for
drinking are as follows:
(a) Aeration (b) Settling (c) Coagulation (d) Filtration (f) Chlorination
Q - 17) What happens when?
(i) Mg metal is reacted with hot water.
Ans: When Mg metal is reacted with hot water it produces MgO and liberates H2 gas.
Hot
Mg(s) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + H2(g)
0
Above 700 oC
CH4 (g)
C(s) + 2H2(g)
Carbon Black
Absence of air
(iii) Water gas is heated under pressure in the presence of ZnO Cr2O3 catalyst.
Ans: When water gas (H2) is heated under pressure in the presence of
ZnO Cr2O3 catalyst it produces methyl alcohol.
ZnO/Cr2O3
CO(g) + 2H2(g)
CH3 OH(l)
Water gas
400oC /high presusure
Methyl Alcohol
(iv) A piece of Zn metal is added to the acidic solution of FeCl3.
FeCl3(aq) + [H]
Nascent
Hydrogen
FeCl2(aq) + HCl(aq)
Ferrous
Chloride
15
CHAPTER
TWELVE
Q - 1) Describe Carbon and its uses. Also write its physical and
chemical properties:
Carbon: Carbon is a pure non metal and the sixteenth most abundant
element in the earth crust. Carbon belongs to IV A group its atomic
number is 6 and atomic weight is 12. Carbon exists in three crystalline i.e.
graphite, diamond and Bucky balls.
In the Free State carbon occurs in following forms:
1. Crystalline forms:
a. Diamond
b. Graphite
c. Bucky balls
2. Amorphous forms:
a. Lamp black
b. Wood charcoal
d. Animal charcoal
c. Coal
e. Gas Carbon
Uses of Carbon:
As Diamond:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Coal and Coke are important fuels and source of energy for homes and industries.
It is also used in electric power generator.
Coke is used in the extraction of metals from their ores in manufacture of iron and steel.
1.
2.
3.
As Charcoal:
1. It is used in manufacturing of rubber tyers as filler to increase the strength and hardness of
rubber.
2. It is also used in black shoes polishes, printers ink, type writing papers etc.
As Carbon fibre:
1. It is used in manufacturing of incorporated plastics to produce a very light but stiff and strong
material.
Chemical Properties of Carbon:
1. Combustion of Carbon (C)
All forms of carbon burn in excess of air (O2) to produce carbon dioxide gas (CO2). Its bond dissociation energy is 394 K.J/mol.
CO2(g) H = 394 KJ/mol.
C(s) + O2(g)
In the limited supply of air, incomplete combustion may take place to produce carbon monoxide
(CO) instead of CO2 gas.
C(s) + O2(g)
2. Combination reactions:
2CO(g)
Carbon combines directly with other elements such as hydrogen, Sulphur, calcium, Aluminium at
very high temperature to form addition product.
C (s) + 2H2(g)
C(s) + 2S2(s)
2C(s) + Ca(s)
3C(s) +4Al(s)
3. As a reducing Agent
Carbon also shows greater affinity for oxygen and reduces many metal oxides into free metals.
1.
2CuO(s) + C (s)
2Cu(s) +CO2(g)
3.
2ZnO(s) + C(s)
2.
Fe2O3(s) + 3C (s)
2Zn(s) +CO2(g)
2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
4.
2PbO(s)+ C(s)
2Pb(s) +CO2(g)
17
Carbon reacts with strong oxidizing agents like hot concentrated nitric acid and cons. Sulphuric
acid to liberate CO2 gas.
1.
2.
Diamond
2.
STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND:
In diamond each carbon atoms is covalently bonded with four other carbon atoms
to give basic tetrahedral unit and forming a giant three dimensional molecule. The
C C bond length is 1.54A0 and bond energy is 347 kj/mol.
Physical Properties of Diamond:
1. It is transparent and bright in pure state also known as hardest natural substance.
2. Its refractive index is 2.45 which is very high.
3. It is bad conductor of electricity.
4. It has very high melting point about 3500 0C.
5. Its density is about 3.51 g/cm3.
Uses of Diamond:
1. It is used as gems and precious stones because of its sparkling brilliance.
2. Black diamond is used in drillings, in making of instruments for cutting
glasses and metals.
3. Its tiny fragments are used as abrasive for polishing tools.
18
In graphite the carbon atoms form flat layers. Each carbon atom in
graphite is linked covalently to three other carbon atoms in the same
layer to give basic hexagonal ring. Each layer of carbon atoms viewed
as two-dimensional sheet polymer or layer lattice at a distance of 1.42
A0. The distance between the parallel layers is 3.35 0A.
Uses of Graphite:
19
Amorphous For Carbon: The amorphous forms of carbon are not considered as allotropes of carbon because x-rays analysis have revealed that they have structures
like graphite with the exception of coal which is mined directly from natural deposits. The other amorphous forms can be prepared in various ways.
(ii) Coke
(iii) Charcoal
Coal: It is originates from the vegetation of the carboniferous era. It is said that
the decomposition of plants and trees occurred gradually under the earth in the
absence of air and under pressure CO2 water and methane were liberated leaving
behind a material containing high percentage of carbon.
During this process under the earth the vegetable material was converted in stages
into peat, lignite (Brown Coal), bituminous coal (Soft) and finally to anthracite (Hard
Coal).
Coal can be mined at various depths from the earth surface and mainly used as fuel.
Charcoal: It can be produced by heating wood, nut shells, bones, sugar etc.
Wood charcoal is most common and prepared by burning wood in the limited
supply of air. It may contain impurities such as Sulphur. It is mainly used as domestic
fuel.
Animal charcoal is produced when animal bones and refuse are heated in the limited supply of air it contains high percentage of calcium phosphate Ca 3 (PO4)2 as
impurity. It is used sugar industries to remove the brown colour from cane sugar
and also in decolorizing petroleum Gel.
Q - 4) Define catenation:
Catenation: It is the ability of the atoms of carbon to bond itself forming long chains
and rings and also to from compounds chain and ring together. This is the unique
properties of carbon.
|
c
|
|
c
|
|
c
|
20
Silicon:
Chemical Formulas
K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2
or KAlSi3O8
Or KAl3Si2O10
(Soapstone)
5. Asbestos
Crockery
Hydrated
Hydrated
4. Talc
Al2O3.SiO2.2H2O
K2O3Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O
3. Mica
Uses
3MgO.4SiO2.H2O
Hydrated
CaO.3MgO.4SiO2
Or CaMgSi4O12
Ceramics
Heat insulation, Fire
proofing
There are more than 1000 silicates present in the earths crust. Kaolin and
china clay consist of hydrated Aluminium silicates.
21
Silicon is also prepared by heating a mixture of pure dry sand (SiO2) & magnesium metal in a fire
clay crucible in the absence of air.
SiO2(s) + 2Mg(s)
Si(s) + 2MgO(s)
Dilute hydrochloric acid is then added in the reaction mixture to dissolve unreacted Mg metal and
MgO formed. The residue left behind contains amorphous silicon.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
If unreacted SiO2 is left, it can also be removed by dissolving it in hydro-fluoric acid (HF).
SiO2(s) + 4HF
SiF4(aq) + 2H2O
(Silicon tetra fluoride)
When the vapours of SiCl4 are passed over heated sodium or potassium metal in an inert atmosphere, silicon is produced by the reduction process.
SiCl4(g) + 4Na(s)
Si(s) + 2NaCl(s)
2.
SiCl4(g) + 4K(s)
Si(s) + 4KCl(s)
1.
Silicon is also prepared by heating SiO2 with coke in an electric furnace. This is an industrial
method.
SiCl4(g) + 2C(s)
Si(s) + 2CO(g)
Eclectic furnace
Crystals
22
Uses of Silicon:
Silicon is used in bronze and steel alloys to increase their tensile strength.
2. Very pure silicon is used in making semi conductors which are of great
importance in computers, transistors etc.
3. It is also used for making silicones which are rubber like liquids.
4. It is also used as lubricant, water repellent, electric insulators.
5. It is also used in paints, varnishes and polishes.
6. Silicone is also used in the preparation of refractory material such as crucible, fire bricks etc.
Q - 10) Describe preparation of Silica and its properties and uses:
1.
Silica: Silica occurs naturally in three main crystalline forms namely quartz, tridymite
and crysto balite. The commonest of three is quartz.
Physical properties of Silica:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Preparation of Silica:
By heating silicon in Air/Oxygen
Silica is prepared by heating silicon in air or oxygen.
Si (s) + O2(g)
SiO2(s)
It can also be prepared in hydrated form as a gelatinous precipitate by warming sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) with conc. HCl solution.
Na2SiO3(aq) + 2HCl (conc)
SiO2.H2O
2NaCl(aq)
Hydrated Silica
Uses of Silica:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
It is widely used in making mortar, cement, concrete, glass and refractory silica
bricks.
Fused silica (quartz glass) is used in making optical lenses and prisms, heat
resisting articles etc.
Large quartz crystals are used for lenses of optical instruments.
Powered quartz is used in the making of silicon carbide (SiC), Silicon tetra fluoride (SiF4), sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) and silica bricks for lining furnaces.
Kieselguhr (SiO2) absorbs liquids readily and is used as absorbent of nitro-glycerine (explosive) in the making of dynamite.
It is also used in medicines for making dry antiseptic dressings.
23
Sodium silicate is the common name for a compound sodium Meta silicate, Na2SiO3, also known as water glass.
Or
Sodium silicate dissolves in hot water under pressure to form a viscous liquid which
is known as water glass because it looks like ordinary glass.
Physical properties of Sodium Silica:
1.
3.
2.
4.
Na2SiO3(s) + CO2 (g)
Na2CO3(s) + SiO2(s)
Or
24
CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER
NITROGEN AND OXYGEN
IX
THIRTEEN
Q - 1) Describe Nitrogen, its occurrence and uses. Also write physical
and chemical properties:
NITROGEN: Nitrogen is the most common gas present in the atmosphere and the tenth most
abundant element in the earth crust. Nitrogen belongs to V A group its atomic number is 7
and atomic weight is 14. Nitrogen was discovered by Scottish Botanist, Daniel Rutherford in
1772. It does not sustain combustion.
OCCURRENCE OF NITROGEN:
1. Nitrogen occurs in the Free State as N2 gas in air up to 78% by volume and 75% by mass.
2. In combine state nitrogen occurs abundantly in the earths crust as nitrates of sodium, calcium
and potassium.
3. In combine state nitrogen is found in organic matter such as proteins, urea and vitamin B compounds. In Free State nitrogen in air is important because it dilutes oxygen.
Uses of Nitrogen:
1. In the form of nitrous oxide it is used as an anaesthetic.
2. Cryopreservation also uses Nitrogen to conserve egg, blood, sperm and other biological
specimens.
3. The CPUs in computers use Nitrogen gas to keep them from heating up.
4. It also serves as an oxidation reaction catalyst.
5. Apart from being an oxidizing agent, it can also be used as a flour bleaching agent and rocket
fuel.
At very high temperatures & pressures, nitrogen combines directly with H forms ammonia (NH3)
450 0C /200250 atm
N2(s) + 3H2(g)
NH3(g)
At 2000 0C temperatures, nitrogen combines directly with oxygen and forms nitric oxide NO(g).
N2(s) + O2(g)
2NO(g)
3. As a reducing Agent
At very high temperatures, nitrogen combines directly with magnesium and forms magnesium nitride Mg3N2 (g).
N2(s) + 3Mg2(s)
Mg3N2(g)
25
Q - 2) Describe Oxygen and its occurrence & uses. Also write its physi-
heat
2Ca2(s) + O2(g)
2CaO(s)
heat
4Li(s) + O2(g)
2Li2O(s)
Oxygen combines directly with Ferric sulphide forms Ferric oxides (Fe2O3) & Sulphur dioxide.
4FeS2(s) + 7O2(g)
heat
2Fe2O3(s) + 4SO2(g)
26
SO2(g)
iginitio
C2(s) + O2(g)
CO2(g)
Oxygen combines directly with Hydrogen sulphide forms Sulphur dioxides and water.
combussion
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g)
2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Q - 3) Describe chemical preparation of Nitrogen. How can you get nitrogen from the atmospheric air? Give tow uses of nitrogen.
1. From Air
The only important method of producing nitrogen gas is the fractional distillation of liquid air. In
this process air is firs liquefied to form liquid air which is ten fractionally distilled. Air liquefied by
successive compression and expansion.
Fractional distillation of liquid air
1. Clean air is compressed and then cooled by refrigeration, upon expanding the air further cools
and liquefies.
2. The liquid air is filtered to remove carbon dioxide solid and then distilled.
o
3. Nitrogen is the most volatile component, with boiling point -196 C, distil over.
2. In laboratory
Pure nitrogen in the laboratory is prepared by heating ammonium nitrate
which thermally decompose to give nitrogen gas. Ammonium nitrite is first obtained by reacting ammonium chloride with sodium nitrite.
a. Formation of Ammonium Nitrite
NH4Cl(s) + NaNO2(s)
b. Preparation of N2
heat
NH4NO2(s) + NaCl(s)
heat
NH4NO2(s)
N2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Uses of Nitrogen:
1. In the form of nitrous oxide it is used as an anaesthetic.
2. Cryopreservation also uses Nitrogen to conserve egg, blood, sperm and
other biological specimens.
27
a. Liquefaction of air
1.
Air in the gaseous form is first passed through caustic soda to remove CO2 present in air.
2.
It is then compressed under very high pressure about 200 atm in the compressor.
3.
It is then cooled and allowed to expand rapidly through a nozzle.
4.
The process of compression and expansion are repeated over and over again due to which
temperature falls up to 200 0C at which air liquefies.
b. Fractional distillation of liquid air
1. The liquid air is then led to a fractionating column through a filter in order to remove
Oxygen in the laboratory is prepared by heating potassium chlorate mixed with little manganese
dioxide, which acts as a catalyst, the decomposition reaction takes place at lower temperature and
at much faster rate.
MnO2 |heat
2KClO3(s)
2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
Q - 5) What are oxides how are they classified describe normal oxides
in detail?
OXIDES:
The binary compounds of oxygen with metals and non-metals are called as
Classification of oxides
On the basis of valence number or oxidation of oxygen, oxides are classified into
several groups.
(a) Normal Oxides (b) Peroxides, (c) Super oxides (d) Sub oxides
a. Normal oxides
Normal oxides are those oxides in which oxygen shows normal oxidation state
or valence number -2. It is further divided into four types.
(i) Basic oxides (ii) Acidic oxides (iii) Amphoteric oxides (iv) Neutral oxides
28
1.
2Pb(s) + O2(g)
2PbO(s)
2.
4Na(s) + O2(g)
2Na2O(s)
3.
Most of these are soluble in water and produce their hydroxides. They also
turns red litmus to blue.
CaO(s) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(aq)
1.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l)
2NaOH(aq)
2.
They also react with acids to form salts and water.
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
3.
CaO(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
4.
2.
C(s) + O2(g)
CO2(g)
3.
N2(s) + 2O2(g)
2NO2(g)
These oxides react with water to form acids which turns blue litmus to red.
SO2(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO3(aq) (Sulphurous acid)
5.
Na2O5(s) + H2O(l)
2HNO3(aq) (Nitric acid)
6.
CO2(s) + H2O(l)
H2CO3(aq) (Carbonic acid)
7.
9.
The oxides that possess dual characteristics i.e acidic as well as basics are known
as amphoteric oxides.
4Al(s) + 3O2(g)
2Al2SO3(s)
1.
2Zn(s) + O2(g)
2ZnO (s)
2.
They react with alkalis (acids/bases) to form salts and water.
2Al2Cl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
With acids Al2O3(s) +6HCl(aq)
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq)
ZnSO4(s) + H2O(l)
The oxides that are neither acidic nor basic are known as neutral oxides. They
are neutral to litmus in aqueous solutions.
Example:
1. Nitric oxide (NO)
3. Water (H2O)
2. Carbon monoxide (CO)
4. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
29
b. Peroxides
Peroxides are oxides containing higher proportion of oxygen as compared to
normal oxides.
In these oxides
Oxygen has oxidation state or valence number 1.
They contain peroxide ion (O O)
They produce hydrogen peroxide with acids.
Example:
1.
Sodium peroxide (Na2O2)
2. Barium Peroxide (BaO2)
Na2O2(s) + 2HCl(aq)
NaCl(aq) + H2O2(aq) (Hydrogen peroxide)
c. Super oxides
Super oxides are oxides containing higher proportion of oxygen as compared
to peroxides.
In these oxides
1
Oxygen has oxidation state or valence number 0.5 or .
2
They show tendency to release oxygen (O2) on heating and powerful oxidizing agent.
They do not produce hydrogen peroxide with acids.
1. Potassium superoxide (KO2)
Example:
2. Caesium superoxide (CsO2)
3. Rubidium superoxide (RbO2)
d. Sub oxides
Sub oxides are oxides containing less quantity of oxygen than normal oxides.
In these oxides
They are unstable.
Very few sub oxides are known.
Carbon sub oxide (C3O2)
Example:
Q - 6) Give the preparation and properties of hydrogen peroxide and its
uses:
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): The Nard was the first to prepare hydrogen peroxide by the
action of dilute Sulphuric acid on barium peroxide (BaO2). He discovered that hydrogen
peroxide contain one more oxygen atom in its molecule than water thus called it as
Heat
oxygenated water. H2 SO4(aq) + BaO2(s)
BaSO4(s) + H2 O2(aq)
The hydrogen peroxide is usually prepared in laboratory by the action of dilute Sulphuric acid on
peroxides of certain metals, especially barium peroxide (BaO2). Barium peroxide is insoluble and
can be easily removed by filtration and pure H2O2 is obtain.
H2 SO4(aq) + BaO2(s)
(ii) In
Heat
BaSO4(s) + H2 O2(aq) ( )
Industrial Method/Preparation:
The hydrogen peroxide is usually prepared in laboratory by the action of dilute Sulphuric acid on
peroxides of certain metals, especially barium peroxide (BaO2). Barium peroxide is insoluble and
can be easily removed by filtration and pure H2O2 is obtain.
O
||
H2 O2(l) + CH3 CH3(l)
C
Hydrogen peroxide
Acetone
When hydrogen peroxide is exposed to air, it decomposes to form water and oxygen. The decomposition is exothermic.
2H2O2(l)
2. As Oxidizing agent
exposure
2H2O(l) + O2(g) + H
Hydrogen peroxide is common oxidizing agent, usually in the form of aqueous solution with 3%
H2O2. It is strong oxidizing agent because it can readily donate oxygen or accept electrons.
H2O2(l)
H2O2(l) + 2H++ 2e
3. As reducing agent
H2O(l)
(Acceptor of Electron)
Hydrogen peroxide in the form of aqueous solution with 3% H2O2 can also behave as a reducing
agent.
It reduces acidic potassium permanganate solution recoloring of KMnO4.
2KMnO4(aq) 3H2SO4(aq)+ 5H2O2(l)
2HCl + O2(l)
31
support of each.
Oxidation: The process or reaction in which oxygen combines with other elements or
compounds to produce oxides. It is also known as addition of oxygen.
Reduction: The process or reaction in which removal of oxygen occurs from a substance.
It is also known as removal of oxygen.
Oxidation involves
When oxygen reacts with iron, magnesium or carbon produces their oxides.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g)
Mg(s) + O2(g)
C(s) + O2(g)
b. As removal of hydrogen
S(s) + 2HCl
Sn2+ + 2e
Reduction involves
b. As removal of Oxygen
S(s) + 2HCl
Cu(s) + H2O(l)
Al(s)
32
Uses of Ozone:
1. It is used in treatment of domestic water in place of chlorine.
2. It is used as bleaching because all oxidizing agents are also good bleaching agent.
3. It is largely used in the preparation of pharmaceuticals, synthetic lubricants and other
Important of Ozone:
It protects the earth from the harmful effects of high energy rays.
But In lower atmosphere ozone is measured as air pollutant it damages
living system. odour
Ozone oxidizes lead sulphide (PbS) in acidic medium liberating oxygen (O2) gas.
PbS2(s) + 4O3(g)
PbSO4(s) + 4O2(g)
2. Reaction with Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
Ozone oxidizes Hydrogen sulphide (H2SO4) in acidic medium liberating oxygen (O2) gas.
H2SO4(s) + 2O3(g)
H2SO4(aq) + O2(g)
3. Reaction with Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Ozone oxidizes Sulphur dioxide (SO2) in acidic medium liberating oxygen (O2) gas.
SO2(s) + O3(g)
SO3(g) + O2(g)
4. Reaction with Potassium Iodide (KI)
Ozone oxidizes Potassium Iodide (KI) in acidic medium liberating oxygen (O2) gas.
In nature ozone is formed form atmospheric oxygen by lightning flashes however ozone is very
unstable dissociates readily forming reactive.
O3
O2 + O(g)
(ii) By Electric discharge method:
H = 107 KJ/Mol.
Ozone can be prepared from oxygen by passing electric discharge through oxygen gas. It is necessary to use silent discharge because sparking would generate heat energy which decomposes ozone
proceed. The apparatus used for converting oxygen into ozone is known as Ozonizer.
3O2(g)
Q - 10) What is
Electric discharge
OxyAqua gen
Regia?
2O3(g)
Ozon
Nitrosyl chloride
Nascent chlorine
Nitrosyl chloride
34
Q - 11) Give the preparation and properties of Ammonia (NH 3) and its
uses:
Preparation of Ammonia:
Ammonia is prepared by two Methods.
(i) Laboratory Method (ii) Industrial Method
(i) Laboratory Method:
In the laboratory ammonia is prepared by heating ammonium salts usually ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl) with slaked lime i.e. calcium hydroxide.
2NH4 Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s)
(ii) In
Heat
Uses of Ammonia:
1.
2.
3.
4.
35
4NH3 + 3O2
2N2(g) + 6H2 O(g)
3. Reaction with Acids:
Ammonia reacts with acids to form ammonium salts.
a. 2NH3 + H2 SO4(aq)
b. NH3 + HCl(aq)
c. NH3 + HNO3(aq)
(NH4 )2 SO4(aq)
NH4 Cl()
NH4 NO3()
N2(g) + 6HCl(g)
b. 6NH3(g) + 6HCl(g)
6NH4 Cl()
Ammonia reacts with CO2 at high temperature about 150oC under pressure to produce Urea
(NH3)2CO, which is an important fertilizer.
150 C
Urea
Ammonia is not a strong reducing agent. However it reduces heated copper oxide to free copper
metal with evolution of N2 gas and water.
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g)
heat
Q - 12) Give the preparation, properties of Nitric Acid and its uses:
In the laboratory Nitric Acid is prepared by heating solid Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) with conc.
Potassium HydroSulphuric acid (H2SO4).
gen Sulphate
KNO3 + H2 SO4(aq)(conc)
(ii) In
Heat
In this method ammonia is allowed to react with excess of air in the presence
of platinum, catalyst at 600oC it produce Nitric Oxide.
4NH3 + 5O2
pt600C
Nitric acid is then mixed with excess of air in oxidation chamber to produce
nitrogen dioxide i.e. Nitrogen peroxide (NO2).
2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2NO2(g)
Nitrogen peroxide produced is directly dissolve in water to produce nitric
acid, liberating nitric oxide gas in the absorption chamber. It recycled to get
more nitric acid.
3NO2(g) + H2 O(l)
2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
Uses of Nitric Acid:
1. It is used as laboratory reagent.
2. It is used in the manufacture of cellulose lacquers and smokeless gun powder.
3. It is used in the manufacture of dyes and explosives such as nitro glycerol and
trinitrotoluene (T.N.T) which is powerful explosive.
4. It is used in manufacturing of fertilizers, like NH4NO3, NaNO3, and KNO3 etc.
37
Nitric Acid is a strong monobasic acid reacts with water to form hydronium ion.
HNO3 + H2 O H3 O+ + NO
3
2. Reaction with Metal Oxides/Alkalis/Metal Carbonates:
Nitric Acid reacts with metal oxides, alkalis and metal carbonates to form nitrate salts and
water.
1.
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq)
NaNO3(aq) + H2 O(l)
2.
HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq)
KNO3(aq) + H2 O(l)
3.
CaO(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
4.
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
5.
CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
6.
NaHCO3(s) + HNO3(aq)
Nitric Acid reacts with some metals like Mg and Mn to form nitrate salts and liberate H2 gas.
a. Mg (s) + 2HNO3(aq)
b. Mn(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
Hot conc Nitric Acid reacts with many non-metals and oxidizes them into their oxides or oxyacids and itself is reduced to NO2 gas.
hot
a. C(s) + 4HNO3(aq)
hot
b. Si(s) + 4HNO3(aq)
c. S(s) + 4HNO3(aq)
d. S(s) + 6HNO3(aq)
hot
hot
e. P(s) + 5HNO3(aq)
f. I2(s) + 10HNO3(aq)
hot
hot
Conc as well as dil. Nitric Acid oxidizes many metals. Conc HNO3 liberates NO2 gas, while the
reaction of dil. HNO3 depends upon the nature or the reducing agent.
With Copper:
1.
2.
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(conc)
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(dil.)
hot
hot
38
With Lead:
1. Pb(s)
+ 4HNO3(conc)
2. 3Pb(s)
+ 8HNO3(dil.)
hot
hot
With Zinc:
1. Zn(s)
+ 4HNO3(conc)
2. 4Zn(s)
hot
+ 10HNO3(dil.)
hot
Nitric acid which is a strong oxidizing agent also undergoes redox reactions with some common
reducing agent like H2S, FeSO4 and SO2 etc.
With H2S:
H2 S(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
With FeSO4:
6FeSO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) + 3H2 SO4(aq)
With SO2:
SO2(s) + 2HNO3(conc)
hot
H2 SO4 + 2NO2(g)
6. As oxidizing agent):
Nitric acid acts as a powerful oxidizing agent because it is an electron
acceptor and has nitrogen at its highest oxidation state (+5) and can undergo reduction in many ways.
The oxidizing property of nitric acid depends upon the following factors.
Hot | 450C
C6 H5 NO2(l) + H2 O(l)
39
CHEMISTRY
IX
CHAPTER
FOURTEEN
Q - 1) Describe Sulphur and its occurrence, uses, its physical and chemical properties:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It is used in the manufacture of Sulphuric acid, Sulphur dioxide and carbon sulphide.
It is used for the manufacture of calcium and magnesium hydrogen Sulphates.
It is used for bleaching wood pulp.
It is used in volcanizing rubber and for disinfecting houses and for dirty vines.
It also helps to kill the fungi and insects.
heat
b) Fe(s) + S(s)
heat
c) Zn(s) + S(s)
heat
d) Pb(s) + S(s)
heat
e) 2Na(s) + S(s)
heat
Cu2 S(s)
(copperas sulphide)
FeS(s)
(Ferrous sulphide)
ZnS(s)
(Zinc sulphide)
PbS(s)
(Lead sulphide)
40
With Oxygen: Sulphur burns in oxygen of the air with a bright blue flame
to form Sulphur dioxide.
Ignition
S(s) + O2(g)
SO2(g)
600 to 660 C
H2 S(s)
Electric furnace
CS2(l)
With Chlorine: Sulphur combine with Chlorine on heating to high temperature to form disulphur dichloride (S2Cl2).
Cl2(g) + 2S(s)
High Temperature
S2 C2
Heat
SF6(l)
Procedure.
Q - 3) Describe Sulphuric Acid and its occurrence, uses, its physical and
chemical properties:
SULPHURIC ACID: Sulphuric acid is one of the most important chemical compounds known. It is strong dibasic acid. Dilute H2SO4 dissolve some metals liberating H2 gas.
Physical Properties of Sulphuric Acid:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pure Sulphuric acid is a colourless, odourless, viscous oily liquid often known
as oil of vitriol.
Its melting point is 10.5 0C while its boiling point is 338 0C.
Conc. H2SO4 (98.3%) has specific gravity about 1.84 while dilute H2SO4 is
about 1.55.
It is corrosive and is hygroscopic as it absorbs water vapours form surrounding
and becomes dilute.
2 4() + 2 ()
b)
1
2 4()
+ 2 ()
3 ()
+4()
Hydronium ion
+
3 ()
2
+4()
Sulphuric acid reacts with alkalis (bases) and basic oxide like MgO to give slats and
water.
1.
NaOH(aq) + H2 SO4((aq)
2.
NaHSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)
3.
MgO(s) + H2 SO4((aq)
NaHSO4(aq) + H2 O(l)
Na2 SO4(aq) + H2 O(l)
MgSO4(aq) + H2 O(l)
42
2. As an Oxidizing Agent:
Sulphuric acid acts as oxidizing agent. The oxidizing properties of H2SO4 depends upon (i) concentration of the acid (ii) Nature of the metal or reducing agent (iii) Temperature
(i)
Oxidizing of Metal:
Less electropositive metals like Zn, Fe, Al react with dilute Sulphuric to
liberate H2 gas and forming their Sulphates.
a. Zn(s) + H2 SO4(aq)
dilute
ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
dilute
b. Fe(s) + H2 SO4(aq)
FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
dilute
Hot Conc.
Hot Conc.
Reactive metals with Conc. H2SO4 form different products. Zinc reacts
with 90% conc. H2SO4 to liberate H2S gas.
Hot Conc. 90%
Oxidation of Non-metal:
Hot conc. Sulphuric acid oxidizes some non-metals like C, S and P into
their oxides or oxyacid.
Hot Conc.
Hot Conc.
Hot Conc.
Conc.
Conc.
43
Conc. Sulphuric acid has great affinity for water, so it is able to remove hydrogen
and oxygen in the form water from the compounds like sugar, ethanol, formic acid,
oxalic acid etc. thus Conc. H2SO4 acts as powerful drying or dehydrating agent. This
process is called dehydration.
Hot Conc. H2 SO4
a. C
12 H22 O11(s)
b. CH
3 CH2 OH(l)
12C
(s)
170 C Conc. H2 SO4
CH
2 = CH2(g) + H2 O(l)
c.
HCOOH(l)
+ 11H2 O(l)
Conc. H2 SO4
CO(g) + H2 O(l)
COOH
d. |
COOH()
e. CuSO
4 . 5H2 O(s)
Blue (hydrate)
Conc. H2 SO4
CuSO
4(s)
+ 5H2 O(g)
()
Contact Process: Sulphuric is prepared on large scale by contact process. This method
was developed in Germany. In this process, SO2 is produced mainly by burning Sulphur
in dry air or iron pyrite in pyrite burners.
Preparation of H2SO4
The given steps involves in preparation of H2SO4.
1. Preparation of SO2
2. Purification of SO2
3. Oxidation of SO2.
4. Absorption of SO3
5. Dilution of Oleum.
(i) Preparation Of SO2:
SO2 is produced mainly by burning Sulphur in dry air or iron pyrite in pyrite burners.
S(s) + O2
SO2(g)
4FeS
2Fe2 O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
2(s) + 11O2(g)
Iron pyrite
SO2 contains a number of impurities such as dust particles, Arsenous oxide, vapours, Sulphur
etc. These impurities must be removed otherwise catalyst loses its efficiency (catalyst poisoning).
DUST CHAMBER:
SO2 is first passed through the dust chamber where steam is spread over the gas to
remove dust particles, which settle down. Fe(OH)3 also sprayed over to remove oxides of Arsenic.
44
WASHING TOWER:
Arsenic oxide is a poison for the catalyst. It is removed when the gas is passed over ferric
hydroxide.
As2 O3 + 2Fe(OH)3
2FeAsO3 + 3H2 O.
In order to remove traces of As2O3, it is passed through a test box, where a strong
beam of light is thrown against the gas. If there is no scattering of light in the box, it
indicates that gas is free from As2O3.
(iii)
different pipes. SO2 here reacts with air (O2) to produce SO3. Under above conditions
98% SO2 is converted into SO3.
2SO2 + O2
2SO3 + 45Kcal
Conditions necessary for maximum yield of SO3:
Oxidation of SO2 is a reversible and exothermic process in which volume of product is less
than the volumes of reactants. In order to obtain maximum amount of SO3, According to
Le-Chateliers Principle following conditions are necessary.
Concentration, Excess of O2, Temperature
A decrease in temperature favours reaction in forward direction. Optimum temperature for this process is 450oC to 500oC.
Pressure: Since volumes of reactants are greater than the product (3:2).Therefore, Accord-
ing to Le-Chateliers Principle a high pressure is favourable. Optimum pressure is about 1.5
to 1.7 atmosphere.
USE of catalyst: At low temperature, rate of reaction decreases. To increase rate of reaction
a catalyst Vanadium Penta-oxide (V2O5) is used.
(iv) ABSORPTION OF SO3 IN H2SO4
SO3 is not directly passed in water, because a dense fog of minute particles of H 2SO4 is
produced. It is therefore, dissolved in Conc. H2SO4 to form Pyro-Sulphuric acid (Oleum).
SO3 + H2 SO4
H2 S2 O7 (Oleum)
(v) DILUTION OF OLEUM
Oleum is now diluted with water to form H2SO4 of required concentration.
H2 S2 O7 + H2 O
2H2 SO4
45
phur?
Allotropy:
Rhombic Sulphur ( )
Monoclinic Sulphur ( )
Plastic Sulphur ( )
It is the most stable crystal form of Sulphur at ordinary condition and free Sulphur
exits in nature as rhombic Sulphur.
It is obtained as pale-yellow crystals, giving lemon yellow powder.
Its melting point is 113 0C and its density is 2.08g/cm3 at 20 0C.
It is insoluble in water but dissolve in carbon disulphide, benzene, disulphur dichloride.
Preparation:
phide or S2Cl2.
Which is filtered first to remove insoluble impurities present in Sulphur.
The filtrate on evaporation produces octahedral crystals of rhombic Sulphur.
Structure:
Rhombic Sulphur consists eight Sulphur molecules.
These molecules have single covalent bonds.
(ii) Monoclinic Sulphur ( )
Preparation:
It is prepared by slow cooling molten Sulphur until a crust is formed on the surface of it.
Pierce two holes through the crust and pour off the remaining molten Sulphur form inside.
On removing the rust the long needle shaped crystals of Monoclinic Sulphur is formed.
46
Structure:
Monoclinic Sulphur also consists eight Sulphur molecules. The only difference is
the shapes of the crystals.
The monoclinic Sulphur molecules unite together to give long, needle shaped
crystals as shown in figure.
(iii) Plastic Sulphur ( )
up to its boing point about 444.6 0C then the molten Sulphur is poured into very cold water, a soft rubber like
mass is obtained which looks if it made of plastic material.
Structure:
Ans: SO2 is purified before it is passed into the contact tower for this oxidation
to SO3 because at this stage it has impurities that poison the crystals.
Q - 8) Describe what happens when:
CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER
HALOGENS
IX
FIFTEEN
Q - 1) What are Halogens? Why are they placed in VII A group in the
periodic table? Describe the state of each member of the family and
also their colours?
HALOGENS: Halogens are the elements of VII A group in the periodic table
and are reactive non-metals. They are powerful oxidizing agents because
of their tendency to gain electron. They are placed in VII A group in the
periodic table because all these elements contain seven electrons in their
valence shells.
Physical Properties of Halogens
Element
Florien (Fl) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br)
Iodine (I)
Atomic number
17
35
53
Electronic configuration
2, 7
2, 8, 7
2, 8, 18, 7
2, 8, 18,
18, 7
Outer shell
2S2 2P5
3S2 2P5
4S24P5
5S25P5
State at 20 0c
Gas
Gas
Liquid
Liquid
Colour
Pale Yellow
Pale Yellow
Reddish
brown
Black
0.71
0.99
1.14
1.33
1.33
1.81
1.96
2.20
First ionization
energy
1681
KJ/mol
1257 KJ/mol
1140 KJ/mol
1008 KJ/mol
Electron affinity
328
349
325
295
Electron negativity
Melting point
4.0
3.0
2.8
2.5
-220
-101
-7
113
Boiling point
-188
-35
59
183
155
242
193
151
2.87
1.36
1.07
0.56
48
Source of Halogens:
present in their negative ions. Fluoride (F), Chloride (Cl) Bromide (Br) and Iodide (I).
Chlorine, Bromine and iodine are found as halides, in sea water and in salt deposits.
Fluorine occurs in the minerals, the most widely spread compounds of fluorine are fluorspar (CaF2), cryolite (Na3AlF6) and flour apatite 3Ca3 (PaO4)4 CaF2.
Importance of Cl2
It is the most important substance i.e used in manufacture of Vinyl Chloride which is
extensively used in the preparation of PVC Plastic.
It is used in preparation of Hexa Chlorocyclo Hexane, Chloro Carbon, D.D.T (Di
Chloro Di Phenyl, Tri Chloro Ethene) etc.
It is used to disinfect water and is part of the sanitation process for sewage and
industrial waste.
During the production of paper and cloth, chlorine is used as a bleaching agent.
It is also used in cleaning products, including household bleach which is chlorine dissolved in water.
Chlorine is used in the preparation of chlorides, chlorinated solvents, pesticides, polymers, synthetic rubbers, and refrigerants.
Importance of Br2
The largest use for bromine is for brominated flame retardant i.e are used in TVs,
furniture, and even mobile phones.
It is most often used in analgesics, sedatives, and antihistamines.
Bromine is also widely used in both swimming pools and hot tubs as a purifier, disinfectant.
In agriculture, bromine acts as a very powerful and effective pesticide.
Bromine is also used in photography, and was once even used in automobiles.
Importance of I2
Iodine has many commercial uses including pharmaceuticals, photographic chemicals, printing inks and dyes, catalysts and animal feeds.
Iodide in small amounts is added to table salt in order to avoid thyroid disease.
It is used as mild antiseptic for cuts and scratches.
When iodine mixed with detergents, it is used as cleaning dairy equipment.
Importance of Fl2
It is used in many fluoro chemicals, including high temperature plastics, especially Teflon.
Hydrofluoric acid is used for etching the glass of light bulbs and in similar applications,
Fluorine gas is the most reactive of all the elements and quickly attacks all metals steel wool bursts into flames when exposed to it.
Stannous Fluoride (SnF2) is used in toothpastes for preventing tooth decay.
49
Chlorine: Chlorine is the second member of halogen family i.e. of VIIA group
of the periodic table. It is most abundant and was discovered by C.W.
Scheele a Swedish chemist by the action of hydrochloric acid on manganese
dioxide (MnO2). Then name chlorine to gas was suggested by Sir Humphrey
Davy from Greek word chloros means pale green.
It is a greenish yellow gas with sharp pungent disagreeable and irritating chocking smell.
It produces inflammation in the nose and throat and causes congestion in the
lung tissues.
It is fairly soluble in water and its solution in water is called chlorine water.
Its density is 3.21g/dm3 at STP and electronegativity is 3.0.
It boils at -34 0C and melts at -101 0C.
Uses of Chlorine:
It is the most important substance i.e used in manufacture of Vinyl Chloride which is
extensively used in the preparation of PVC Plastic.
It is used in preparation of Hexa Chlorocyclo Hexane, Chloro Carbon, D.D.T (Di
Chloro Di Phenyl, Tri Chloro Ethene) etc.
It is used to disinfect water and is part of the sanitation process for sewage and
industrial waste.
During the production of paper and cloth, chlorine is used as a bleaching agent.
It is also used in cleaning products, including household bleach which is chlorine dissolved in water.
Chlorine is used in the preparation of chlorides, chlorinated solvents, pesticides, polymers, synthetic rubbers, and refrigerants.
a) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)
b) 2Sb(s) + 3Cl2(g)
c) 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g)
d) Zn(s) + Cl2(g)
e) Sn(s) + 2Cl2(g)
2NaCl(s)
heat
heat
heat
heat
(Sodium Chloride)
2SbCl3(s)
(Antimony Chloride)
2FeCl3(s)
(Ferric Chloride)
ZnCl2(s)
(Zinc Chloride)
SnCl2(s)
(Stannic Chloride)
50
Heat
2PCl3(l)
Heat excess
2PCl5(l)
Heat | Sunlight
2HCl(g)
With Sulphur (S): Chlorine combine with hot sulphur, forming sulphur
monochloride (S2Cl2), a yellowish liquid.
2S(s) + Cl2(g)
Heat
S2 Cl2(l)
( )
Heat
2HCl(g) + S(s)
Heat
2KCl(s) + Br2(g)
Heat
2KCl(s) + I2(g)
HV
HV
Heat
Heat
N2 + 6HCl(g)
NH4 Cl (white fumes)
51
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g)
NaCl(aq) + NaClO + H2 O(l)
If excess of Cl2 gas is passed through hot solution of NaOH, sodium chlorate
(v) is produced, by the decomposition of sodium hypochlorite.
Hot
6NaOH(aq) + 3Cl2(g)
3 NaClO
NaClO
()
+ 2NaCl(aq)
()
With Cold & dilute lime water in excess of Cl2 it produces calcium chlorate
(l).
(Calcium hypochlorite)
Cold
(ii)
2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2(g)
Ca(OCl)2(l) + CaCl2 + 2H2 O(l)
With Hot lime water in excess of Cl2 it produces calcium chlorate (v)
(Calcium Chlorite V)
Hot
6Ca(OH)2 + 6Cl2(g)
Ca(OCl3 )2(l) + 5CaCl2 + 6H2 O(l)
(iii) With Dry slaked lime water; When Cl2 is passed at over dry slaked lime at
about 40 0C it then produces bleaching powder.
(Bleaching Powder)
2 Ca(OH)
2() + Cl2(g)
40 C
6. As addition reaction:
(i)
CH2 = CH2 + Cl2
Ethene
Cl
Cl
|
|
CH2
CH2
1, 2 dichloro ethane
52
Cl02 + H2 O
H Cl + HOCl hypochlorous acid
It oxidize green coloured ferrous chloride (FeCl2) to yellow coloured ferric chloride
(FeCL3)
2FeCl2(aq) (Green) + Cl2 (water)
2 FeCl3(aq)
Solution of chlorine in water is a strong oxidizing agent and oxidizes sulphurous
acid (H2SO3) into sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
H2 SO3 + Cl2 + H2 O
H2 SO4 + 2HCl
The reaction proceeds as,
(i) Cl2 + H2 O
HCl + HOCl
(ii)
HClO
HCl + [O]
(iii)
H2 SO4 + [O]
H2 SO4
Heat
2KMnO4(s) + 16HCl(conc)
Heat
53
(ii) Industrial/Commercial
Purified brine solution is poured into the cell and electric current in passed through
it, chloride ions (Cl) being negatively charged ions move towards anode where it
loses electrons and liberated as chlorine gas.
Sodium ions (Na+) moved towards cathode where water splits into hydrogen gas
and hydroxide ions (OH).
The sodium ions (Na+) combine with hydroxide ions (OH) to form sodium hydroxide (NaOH) which is collected in the basin.
Reaction:
2Na(aq)
+2Cl(aq)
2NaCl(l)
At Anode:
2Cl(aq)
At Cathode:
Cl2 + 2e
2Na(aq) + 2e
2Na(s) + 2H2 O
2Na(s)
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Working Of Cell:
When electric current is passed through brine (NaCl), Na+ and Cl
ions migrate towards their respective
electrodes.
+
Na ions are discharged at mercury cathode.
The sodium deposited at mercury forms Sodium Amalgam (NaHg).
Chlorine produced at the anode, is removed from the top of the cell.
Reaction:
+
2Na(aq)
2NaCl(l)
At Anode:
2Cl(aq)
Cl2 + 2e
+2Cl(aq)
2Na(aq) + 2e
2Na(s) + 2Hg
2Na(s)
2NaHg (l) ( )
54
tory by the action of conc. H2SO4 over common salt. (b) Describe the
commercial preparation of Hydrogen chloride by the direct combination of H2 and Cl2 gases (c) what happens when Hydrogen chlorine
reacts with (i) NaOH (ii) NaOHCO3 (iii) Pb(NO3)2 (iv) MnO2 (v) KMnO4
Give reaction and equation. (d) Discuss the uses of HCl.
Hydrochloride:
2H3 O(aq)
+ Cl(aq)
HCl(aq) + H2 O(aq)
2.
NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l)
KCl(aq) + H2 O(l)
NH3 + 3HCl(aq)
NH4 Cl(s) ( )
1. Zn(s) + 2HCl()
ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
3. Mg (s) + 2HCl()
2. Al(s) + 2HCl()
AlCl2(aq) + H2(g)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
55
5.
6.
The oldest laboratory method for the preparation HCl is by the action of Conc H2SO4 on common salt (NaCl).
In this method NaCl is taken in round bottom flask, fitted
with cork, containing a delivery tube and thistle funnel. Concentrated H2SO4 is added from the thistle funnel over NaCl.
The reaction started and on gentle heating faster supply of
HCl gas is collected through upward delivery tube in gas jar.
This gas is highly soluble in water and dissolve to form hydrochloric acid while it is usually yellow due to impurities.
Sodium Hydrogen Sulphate
Reaction:
H2 SO4(conc) + NaCl(s)
150 C
(ii) Industrial/Commercial
(1)
Preparation:
Hydrogen chloride is commercially prepared in the pure state by the direct combination of hydrogen and chlorine gas. The reaction is strongly exothermic.
H2(g) + Cl2(g)
exothermic
56
(2)
(3)
exothermic
H3 PO3(aq) + 3HCl(g)
Hydrochloric acid can also be obtained by the action of chlorine over hydrogen
compounds.
H2 S(g) + 2Cl2(l)
H2 O(l) + 2Cl2(l)
S(g) + 2HCl(g)
O2(g) + 4HCl(aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g)
It is decomposes into CaCl2 and Ca(OCl)2 in presence of excess of water and acts
as strong bleaching agent.
2Ca(OCl)Cl(s) + H2 O(l)
2.
excess of H2 O
CaCl2(aq) + Ca(OCl)2(aq)
strong acid
57
3.
4.
slowly
slowly
Reaction:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g)
Ca(OCl)Cl(s) + H2 O(l)
(ii) Industrial/Commercial
Preparation:
On large scale bleaching powder is prepared by Hasenclever process.
Hasenclever Plant:
Procedure:
Chlorine gas is passed in the opposite direction to come in contact with slacked lime.
It is blown down form top of the cylinder by means of compressed air is allowed to fall.
Result:
Chlorine gas is completely absorbed in the upper cylinders where fresh slacked lime
enters. The reaction occurs to form bleaching powder (CaOCl2).
It is stored in well ventilated rooms.
Bleaching Powder
Reaction:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g)
Ca(OCl)Cl(s) + H2 O(l)
58
Q - 6) Describe Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) test for the presence of Cl- ion
AgNO3(g) + NaCl(aq)
AgCl(s) + NaNO3(g)
AgNO3(g) + NaBr(aq)
AgBr(s) + NaNO3(g)
AgNO3(g) + NaI(aq)
AgI(s) + NaNO3(g)
EXPERIMENT
OBSERVATION
INFERENCE
Cl- is present
Br- is present
I- is present
Answers
a) A pale green gas that dissolves in NaOH(aq) solution give a solution used as bleach.
Chlorine (Cl)
Chlorine (Cl)
Bleaching powder
Iodine (I)
Fluorine (F)
59
CHEMISTRY
IX
CHAPTER
SIXTEEN
Q - 1) What do you mean by metal and non-metal? Also describe the
physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals.
2. Al(s) + 2HCl()
ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
3. Mg (s) + 2HCl()
AlCl2(aq) + H2(g)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Non-metals do not react with dilute acids, however, with hot concentrated acids,
more non-metals get oxidized into their oxides or some oxy-acids.
C(s) + 4HNO3(conc)
S(s) + 6HNO3(conc)
S(s) + 2H2 SO4(conc)
2.
hot
hot
3.
hot
NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l)
KCl(aq) + H2 O(l)
NH4 Cl(s) ( )
61