Understanding Neutron Radiography Reading III-Level1-NRT

Understanding
Neutron Radiography
Reading III-Level1Exercise
My ASNT Level III,
Pre-Exam Preparatory
Self Study Notes
3 July 2015
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
http://homework55.com/apphysicsb/ap5-28-08/
Nuclear Source-Reactors
Neutron Source-Cyclotron
The Magical Book of Neutron Radiography
ASNT Certification Guide

NDT Level III / PdM Level III
NR - Neutron Radiographic Testing
Length: 4 hours Questions: 135
1. Principles/Theory
Nature of penetrating radiation
Interaction between penetrating radiation and matter
Neutron radiography imaging
Radiometry
2. Equipment/Materials
Sources of neutrons
Radiation detectors
Non-imaging devices
3. Techniques/Calibrations
Electron emission radiography
Blocking and filtering
Micro-radiography
Multifilm technique
Laminography (tomography)
Enlargement and projection
Control of diffraction effects
Stereoradiography
Panoramic exposures
Triangulation methods
Gaging
Autoradiography
Real time imaging
Flash Radiography
Image analysis techniques
In-motion radiography
Fluoroscopy
4. Interpretation/Evaluation
Image-object relationships
Material considerations
Codes, standards, and specifications
5. Procedures
Imaging considerations
Film processing
Viewing of radiographs
Judging radiographic quality
6. Safety and Health
Exposure hazards
Methods of controlling radiation exposure
Operation and emergency procedures
Reference Catalog Number
NDT Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 4,
Radiographic Testing 144
ASM Handbook Vol. 17, NDE and QC 105
Fion Zhang at Shanghai

3th July 2015
http://meilishouxihu.blog.163.com/
Greek
Alphabet
http://greekhouseoffonts.com/
Why Neutron Radiography?

"finding lead in a paraffin block (or a needle in a haystack) would work for x
rays while looking for paraffin in a lead block or a straw in a needle-stack
would work for neutrons."


http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/
Neutron Cross Section of the elements
http://periodictable.com/Properties/A/NeutronCrossSection.html
Screen Types-1
1. Transfer screen-indium or dysprosium, In, Dy.
2. Thermal neutron filter using Cadmium for epithermal neutron radiography,
Cd.
3. Converter screen uses gadolinium which emit beta particles, Gd.
4. the beta particles are caught by a fluorescing zinc sulfide material
5. Scintillator screen: Zinc sulfide, Lithium carbonate, plastid scintillator
6. Neutron Accelerator Target material: Beryllium, Be.
7. Boron used for neutron shields.
Screen Types-2
1.
2.
Transfer screen-indium or dysprosium, In, Dy.

Thermal neutron filter using Cadmium for epithermal neutron
radiography, Cd.
3. Converter screen uses gadolinium which emit beta particles, Gd.
4. the beta particles are caught by a fluorescing zinc sulfide material
5. Scintillator screen: Zinc sulfide, Lithium carbonate, plastid scintillator
(cellulose nitrate film)
6. Neutron Accelerator Target material: Beryllium, Be.
7. Beam filter, Beryllium thermalized thermal neutron further and pass only
cold neutron.
8. Cadmium remove thermal & cold neutrons and pass epithermal neutrons.
9. Fast neutron direct radiography used Tantalum or transfer radiography
with Holmium.
10. Gadolinium Gd, conversion screens emit- (1) gamma rays and (2)
conversion electronn
11. Dysprosium (16166Dy) conversion screens emit: (1) high-energy betas ,
(2) low-energy gammas , and (3) internal-conversion electrons e.
IVONA TTS Capable.
http://www.naturalreaders.com/
Reading III
Content
Reading One: ASNTHBVol4Chapter16
Reading Two: ASNTNRTMQ123
Reading Three:
Reading Four:
Reading-1
ASNTHBVol4Chapter16
PART 1. Applications of Neutron Radiography

Neutron radiation is similar to X-radiation. The radiation can originate from an
effective point source or can be collimated to shine through an object in a
coherent beam. The pattern of penetrating radiation can then be studied to
reveal clues about the internals of the object. The information conveyed can
be very different from that obtainable with X-rays. Whereas X-rays are
attenuated by dense metals more than by hydrocarbons, neutrons are
attenuated more by hydrocarbons than by most metals. The difference can
mean much more than the reversal of a positive image to a negative image.
Neutrons, for example, can reveal details within high density surroundings
that cannot be revealed by other means. A typical application for neutron
radiography is shown in the images of a pyrotechnic device (Fig. 1), where
the small explosive charge is encased in metal. Other applications include
inspection of explosive cords used in pilot ejector mechanisms; inspection of
gaskets, seals and O-rings inside metallic valves; confirmation that coolant
channels in jet engine turbine blades are free of blockage; studies of coking in
jet engine fuel nozzles; and screening of aircraft panels to detect low level
moisture or early stage corrosion in aluminum honeycomb (Fig. 2).
FIGURE 1. Electric bridge wire squid: (a) drawing and (b) neutron radiograph
of part as aid to interpretation; (c) helium-3 gaseous penetrant applied to
serviceable unit; (d) penetrant applied to dysfunctional unit.
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 2. Comparison of neutron radiographs of moisture globules in

aluminum honeycomb panel, later dried: (a) before processing; (b) after
processing.
(a)
FIGURE 2. Comparison of neutron radiographs of moisture globules in

aluminum honeycomb panel, later dried: (a) before processing; (b) after
processing.
(b)
Users Guide
Unlike many other forms of nondestructive testing, neutron radiography is not
a do-it-yourself technique. There have been neutron radiography service
centers in the United States since 1968. To try out neutron radiography on an
object of interest, it is simply necessary to locate the services currently
available and, if agreed, mail your item to them. Typically, the neutron
radiograph and your item will be mailed back within a day or two. The cost
could be less than 1 or 2 h of an engineers time. If assistance is required to
interpret the findings, this too may be requested on a service basis, as may
referrals to more specialized neutron radiographic techniques. The providers
of neutron radiography services use equipment and expertise that is highly
specialized. Even though one or more neutron radiography service centers
have been operating successfully for over 30 years, there has been no inhouse neutron radiography available at any general service, commercial
nondestructive testing center.
The interested user is therefore advised to seek a supplier of neutron

radiographic services using leads such as society directories or the published
literature. Because neutrons are fundamentally different from X-rays, any
object that is a candidate for inspection by X- adiography could also be a
candidate for neutron radiography. If X-rays cannot give sufficient information,
then trials with neutron techniques may be prudent. The most frequently
successful complement to X-radiography is static radiography with thermal
neutrons. This approach is reviewed next.
Then more specialized neutron radiology techniques are reviewed, such as
neutron (1) computed tomography, (2) dynamic neutron imaging, (3) high
frame rate neutron imaging, (4) neutron induced autoradiography and (5)
neutron gaging.
For each of the neutron radiology techniques different neutron energies may
be selected. The user should be aware that many of the specialized services
are only available at one or two centers worldwide. It is therefore important to
shop in the global market and to take advantage of the excellent
communications existing between neutron radiography centers in various
countries.
PART 2. Static Radiography with Thermal Neutrons

2.1 Neutron Energy
Thermal energy neutrons are those that have collided repeatedly with a
moderator material, typically graphite or water, such that they reach an
equilibrium energy with the thermal energy of the moderator nuclei. The
attenuation coefficients for thermal neutrons differ from material to material in
a way that is different from X-rays as shown in Table 1. As a consequence, a
high degree of contrast between the elements in an object is possible. In
addition, thermal neutrons are relatively easy to obtain and easy to detect.
Keywords:
Thermal Neutron: they reach an equilibrium energy with the thermal energy of
the moderator nuclei.
TABLE 1. Comparison of X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation.
a. Other materials relatively transparent to thermal neutrons include gold,

silver, platinum, titanium, silicon, tin and zinc.
b. Other materials relatively opaque to thermal neutrons include hydrogenous
oils, plastics, rubbers, explosives and light elements boron and lithium.
2.2 Neutron Collimation

Because the source of thermal neutrons is a dispersed moderator volume,
rather than a point source, it is necessary to use a collimator between the
source and the object.
In preference to a single tube parallel sided collimator or a multiple slit
collimator, the most frequently used design uses divergent beam geometry.
The collimator may be used to extract a beam in any one of a variety of
different geometries including horizontal or vertical, radial or tangential to the
source.
A collimator that is tangential to the source can provide a thermal neutron
beam relatively free of fast neutron and gamma ray contamination.
An incidental consequence of the divergent collimator principal is that even
very large objects can be radiographed using an array of side-by-side films
(Fig. 3).
FIGURE 3. Radiographs of full size motorcycle: (a) neutron radiograph; (b) xradiograph.
The source of thermal neutrons is a dispersed moderator volume, rather

than a point source
ASMV17 Neutron Radiography
Parallel & Divergent Collimator Fig. 2 Thermalization and collimation of beam in neutron radiography. Neutron collimators can be of the
parallel-wall (a) or divergent (b) type. The transformation of fast neutrons to slow neutrons is achieved by
moderator materials such as paraffin, water, graphite, heavy water, or beryllium. Boron is a typically used
neutron-absorbing layer. The L/D ratio, where L is the total length from the inlet aperture to the detector
(conversion screen) and D is the effective dimension of the inlet of the collimator, is a significant geometric
factor that determines the angular divergence of the beam and the neutron intensity at the inspection plane
Ug =D t/L
I = /16(L/D)2
I = Ioe nt
n = N
N = nuclei/cm2
N = N/A
N = Avogadro's number
n = N = [N/A]
For photons:
I = Ioe x t
Eq.1
For Neutron
I = Ioe Nt = Ioe n t
Eq.2
Where:
I is the transmitted beam;
Io is the incident beam;
x is the linear attenuation coefficient for photons;
t is the thickness of specimen in the beam path;
N is the number of atoms per cubic centimeter;
is the neutron cross section of the particular material or isotope
(a probability or effective area); and,
n is the linear attenuation coefficient for neutrons (n = N).
5.1 Neutron cross sections

Neutron cross sections are defined in Part 1 of this Section. Values for
thermal neutrons for many materials (elements) are given in Table 9 (see
Bibliography item 8 for a more extensive compilation). Generally, neutron
cross sections decrease with increasing neutron energy; exceptions include
resonances, as mentioned earlier. Cross section values can be used to
calculate the attenuation coefficients and the neutron transmission as shown
in eqs. 1 and 2. For compound inspection materials, the method for
calculating the linear attenuation coeffici ent is shown following Table 9.
If the material under inspection contains only one element, then the linear
attenuation coefficient is:
= N/ A
Eq.7 (where N/A is the number of nuclei/cm2)
Where:
-is the linear attenuation coefficient of specific neutron (cm-1 ) ;
is the material density (g/cm3);
N is Avogadro's number (6.023 X 1023 atoms/gram-molecular weight) ;
is the total cross section in barns (cm2 ) ; and
A is the gram atomic weight of material.
2.3 Neutron Imaging

Collimation Ratio
The collimation ratio is the ratio LD-1 of the collimator length L to aperture
diameter D. This ratio helps to predict image sharpness.
Imaging Processes
For static thermal neutron radiography of nonradioactive objects, two
important imaging processes are (1) the gadolinium converter with single
emulsion X-ray film and (2) the neutron sensitive storage phosphor (neutron
imaging plate).
For static neutron radiography of radioactive objects, additional imaging
processes are (1) dysprosium foil activation transfer to film, (2) indium foil
activation transfer to film and (3) track etch imaging using a boron converter
and cellulose nitrate film.
The established direct imaging technique uses thin gadolinium layer vapor
deposited on a solid converter screen, which is held flat against a single
emulsion film inside a vacuum cassette of thin aluminum construction. An
exposure of 109 neutrons per square centimeter (109 n/cm2) can give a high
resolution, high contrast radiograph if careful dust free film darkroom
procedures are used.
Neutron sensitive imaging plates consist of a thin phosphor layer containing a
mixture of storage phosphor, neutron converter and organic binder. Following
the neutron exposure stage is the information readout phase, in which the
plate is scanned by a thin laser beam stimulating the emission of a pattern of
light.
Merits of this neutron imaging technique include five decades of linearity (?) ,
wide dynamic range, direct availability of digital data for processing converter
efficiencies of 30 to 40 percent, and spatial resolution acceptable for some
applications.
For neutron radiography of highly radioactive objects, dysprosium and indium

foil activation transfer to film and track etch imaging each offer complete
discrimination against gamma ray fogging. Examples of nuclear fuel neutron
radiography are shown in Fig. 4. Dysprosium transfer can be combined with a
cadmium indium foil sandwich for dual energy radiography. Alternative track
etch techniques have been developed to yield more precise dimensional
measurements.
FIGURE 4. Neutron radiographs of nuclear fuel: (a) longitudinal cracks in

pellets; (b) missing chips in compacted fuels; (c) inclusions of plutonium in
pellets; (d) accumulation of plutonium in central void; (e) deformed cladding; (f)
hydrides in cladding.
(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)

(e)
(f)
Image Quality Indicators

For any nondestructive system, the best measure of quality is to compare the
image of the test object with an image of a similar object that contains a
known artificial discontinuity, a defect standard, or reference standard.
However, neutron radiography has the same problems as other
nondestructive testing methods: the quantity of reference standards required
is too large to obtain and maintain. In lieu of a reference standard, neutron
radiographers have chosen to fabricate a resolution indicator that emulates
the worst case scenario with gaps placed between and holes placed beneath
different plastic thicknesses.
For defining the neutron beam characteristics a beam purity indicator has
been devised to accompany the sensitivity indicator. The image quality
indicator system of ASTM International has become the primary or alternate
system for most manufacturing specifications on an international basis. The
no umbra device, a device to measure resolution, is described in ASTM E
803-91 and can be used to determine the collimation ratio LD1 of the
neutron radiography facility.
ASTM E803 - 91(2013)

Standard Test Method for Determining the L/DRatio of Neutron Radiography
Beams
2.4 Nuclear Reactor Systems

A nuclear reactor system operated for over 30 years solely to provide a
commercial neutron radiographic service is illustrated in Fig. 5. The reactor
core, positioned underground in a tank of water, is only about 0.38 m (15 in.)
in diameter and operates at 250 kW power. The tangential beam tube is
orientated vertically with air displaced by helium. Parts for neutron
radiography can therefore be supported on horizontal trays. Usually the
neutron imaging uses a gadolinium converter with fine grain radiographic film
and the exposure time at a selected collimation is typically about 2 min.
FIGURE 5. Representative neutron radiographic service center for

nonnuclear applications.
Tangential Beam Tube
http://www-llb.cea.fr/spectros/spectro/2t1.html
Another reactor that has provided neutron radiography services since 1968 is
illustrated in Fig. 6. It is above ground and the fuel of the 100 kW core is
arranged in an annulus with a moderator region in the center.
Two horizontal beams are extracted from the central moderator, one for direct
film neutron radiography of nonradioactive objects, the other for dysprosium
activation transfer neutron radiography of radioactive nuclear fuel.
Another service for static neutron radiography of radioactive nuclear fuel has
been provided by a 250 kW nuclear reactor installed in a hot cell complex (Fig.
7). Also several university reactors in the United States have been equipped
for neutron radiography. Worldwide, over fifty nuclear reactors have
contributed to development of this field.
FIGURE 6. Representative neutron radiographic service center for nuclear

and nonnuclear applications.
FIGURE 7. Hot cell fuel inspection system.
Hot cell
Shielded nuclear radiation containment chambers are commonly referred to
as hot cells. The word "hot" refers to radioactivity. Hot cells are used in both
the nuclear-energy and the nuclear-medicines industries. They are required
to protect individuals from radioactive isotopes by providing a safe
containment box in which they can control and manipulate the equipment
required.
Hot cell
Shielded nuclear radiation containment chambers are commonly referred to
as hot cells. The word "hot" refers to radioactivity. Hot cells are used in both
the nuclear-energy and the nuclear-medicines industries. They are required
to protect individuals from radioactive isotopes by providing a safe
containment box in which they can control and manipulate the equipment
required.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_cell
Hot cells at the Argonne National Laboratory. Each cell is equipped with a
viewing window and two remote manipulators.
Applications:
Hot cells are used to inspect spent nuclear fuel rods and to work with other items which are high-energy
gamma ray emitters. For instance, the processing of medical isotopes, having been irradiated in a nuclear
reactor or particle accelerator, would be carried out in a hot cell. Hot cells are of nuclear proliferation concern,
as they can be used to carry out the chemical steps used to extract plutonium from reactor fuel. The cutting of
the used fuel, the dissolving of the fuel and the first extraction cycle of a nuclear reprocessing PUREX process
(highly active cycle) would need to be done in a hot cell. The second cycle of the PUREX process (medium
active cycle) could be done in gloveboxes.
Hot cells are commonly used in the nuclear medicines industry: - for the production of radiopharmaceuticals,
according to GMP guidelines (industry) - for the manipulation and dispense of radiopharmaceuticals (hospitals)
The user must never be subject to shine paths that are emitted from the radioactive isotopes and therefore
there generally is heavy shielding around the containment boxes, which can be made out of stainless steel 316
or other materials such as PVC or Corian. This shielding can be ensured by the use of lead (common) or
materials such as concrete (very large walls are therefore required) or even tungsten. The amount of
radioactivity present in the hot cell, the energy of the gamma photons emitted by the radioisotopes, and the
number of neutrons that are formed by the material will prescribe how thick the shielding must be. For instance
a 1 kilocurie (37 TBq) source of cobalt-60 will require thicker shielding than a 1 kilocurie (37 TBq) source of
iridium-192 to give the same dose rate at the outer surface of the hot cell.
Also if some actinide materials such as californium or spent nuclear fuel are used within the hot cell then a layer
of water or polyethylene may be needed to lower the neutron dose rate.
Viewing windows:
In order to view what is in the hot cell, cameras can be used (but these require replacing on a regular basis) or
most commonly, lead glass is used. There are several densities for lead glass, but the most common is 5.2
g/cm3. A rough calculation for lead equivalence would be to multiply the Pb thickness by 2.5 (e.g. 10 mm Pb
would require a 25 mm thick lead glass window). Older hot cells used ZnBr2 solution in a glass tank to shield
against high-energy gamma rays. This shielded the radiation without darkening the glass (as happens to
leaded glass with exposure). This solution also "self-repairs" any damage caused by radiation interaction, but
leads to optical distortion due to the difference in optical indices of the solution and glass.
Manipulators:
Telemanipulators or tongs are used for the remote handling of equipment inside hot cells. These are incredibly
valuable as they do not require the user to place his/her arms inside the containment box and be subject to
heavy finger/hand doses. These need to be used in conjunction with a shielded sphere which can be made by
most lead engineering companies.
Gloves:
Lead loaded gloves are often used in conjunction with tongs as they offer better dexterity and can be used in
low radiation environments (such as hot cells used in hospital nuclear medicine labs). Some companies have
developed tungsten loaded gloves which offer greater dexterity than lead loaded gloves, with better shielding
than their counterparts. Gloves must be regularly replaced as the chemicals used for the cleaning/ sterilisation
process of the containments cause considerable wear and tear.
Clean rooms:
Hot cells are generally placed in clean rooms with an air classification ranging from D to B (C is the most
common). It is extremely rare to find a hot cell which is placed in a class A or unclassified clean room.
Hot Cell
http://wwojnar.com/2012/10/research-nuclear-reactor-maria/
Hot Cell
Hot Cell
Hot Cell
Hot Cell
Hot Cell
Hot Cell
Hot Cell
2.5 Accelerator Based Systems

An initial user of neutron radiography need not, in general, be concerned with
accelerator source options unless there is an established need either for an
in-house system or for a transportable system. Almost all neutron radiography
service providers use a nuclear reactor source. One exception has been the
powerful spallation type accelerator in Switzerland; the accelerator is a
multipurpose facility comparable in complexity and cost to a research reactor.
An in-house system that was operated successfully for over 15 years at the
United States Department of Energys Pantex Plant used a van de graaff
accelerator. The operation of this machine, which accelerates over 200 A of
deuterons at 3 MeV into a beryllium target, is illustrated in Fig. 8.
FIGURE 8. Cross section showing van de graaff principle.
The system provided a peak thermal neutron flux of about 109 neutrons per
square centimeter second (109 ncm-1s-1), two orders of magnitude less than
the reactor systems described above but sufficient for low throughput work
using 2 h exposure times and a relatively low beam collimation ratio.
Cyclotrons and radio frequency quadrupole accelerators are other candidates
for a potential custom designed in-house neutron radiographic system.
Neutron radiographic performance data have been reported for designs with a
variety of sizes, neutron yields and costs. For transportable systems much of
the development work has used sealed tube acceleration of deuterium tritium
mixtures. This can consist of a source head that is maneuverable with long
high tension cable linking it to the high voltage power supply and control unit
as illustrated (Fig. 9). The particular type shown yields a peak thermal neutron
flux of about 108 neutrons per square centimeter second with a tube operation
half life of about 200 h.
FIGURE 9. Components of mobile deuterium tritium neutron radiographic

system: (a) deuterium tritium source head, typically on 6 m (20 ft) cables; (b)
cooling unit (left) and power supply; (c) control unit.
2.6 High Intensity Californium-252 Systems

Of the many radioactive neutron sources, such as polonium-210, beryllium
and americium-244 beryllium, one has dominated interest for neutron
radiography: californium-252. This transplutonic isotope is produced as a
byproduct of basic research programs. In the United States, some
government centers have been able to obtain the source on a low cost loan
basis from the Department of Energy. The isotope yields neutrons by
spontaneous fission at a rate of 2 109 neutrons per second per milligram
and has a half life of 2.5 years. A high yield source of up to 50 mg can be
smaller than a tube of lipstick (Fig. 10). An in-house stationary system has
operated at the United States Department of Energys installation at Pantex
with a total source strength of 150 mg californium-252. It provided sets of nine
films, each 350 425 mm (14 17 in.), approaching reactor quality by
using gadolinium with a very fine grain X-ray film; a collimator ratio of 65; and
exposure time of under 24 h.
FIGURE 10. Californium-252 sources compared in size to postage stamp.
A maneuverable source system has operated at McClellan Air Force Base

with a total source strength of 50 mg californium- 52. It provided single
neutron radiographs using a fast scintillator screen; high speed, light sensitive
film; a collimator ratio of 30; and an exposure time of 12 min. This system was
designed for the specific application of scanning intact aircraft to detect
hidden problems at an early stage, such as moisture or corrosion in aluminum
honeycomb.26 Another example of a high yield californium-252 system
design uses a subcritical multiplier to amplify the central neutron flux. This
design (Fig. 11) produces a peak central flux of 7 108 neutrons per square
centimeter second when loaded with 40 mg californium-252.
FIGURE 11. Elevation of subcritical multiplier system.
Low Cost In-House System

There is evidence that an extremely low intensity californium-252 neutron
source could provide a convenient, low cost in-house system. A source size
of only 100 g can provide useful quality neutron radiographs by using highly
efficient imaging systems that need only 105 neutrons per square centimeter
exposure. This is 10 000 times less than the exposure used typically with
gadolinium and single emulsion film. The small source size would mean an
inexpensive source and also inexpensive shielding, handling and interlock
requirements. Therefore, a nondestructive testing center with a variety of Xray, ultrasonic and other inspection capabilities could easily incorporate a
small californium-252 based neutron radiographic capability using an
underground storage geometry in an existing radiographic bay. Because
neutron radiography yields unique information, such an inexpensive in-house
capability could be an important complement to an otherwise full service
nondestructive testing center.
Californium-252 Neutron Source
http://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/Sources/cf-252.htm
Californium-252 Neutron
Source
Neutron Fluence
Particle fluence is defined as the number of particles
traversing a unit area in a certain point in space in a
unit period of time. Most frequently, it is measured in
ncm-2.
In particular, neutron fluence in high-energy physics
applications is of interest in the context of the
radiation environment around the interaction regions
of colliders; it serves as a measure for potential
radiation damage for the detector systems to be used
there. It is common practice to express charged and
neutral particle contributions to radiation in terms of
dose ( Radiation Measures and Units) and 1 MeV
neutron equivalent fluence ( also NIEL Scaling),
respectively.
The 1 MeV equivalent MeV equivalent neutron
fluence is the fluence of 1 MeV neutrons producing
the same damage in a detector material as induced
by an arbitrary particle fluence with a specific energy
distribution. The choice of this particular normalization
is partly due to historical reasons, as the standard
energy to scale to was considered first in damage
studies in the MeV range, in neutron physics;
however, there is also a physical background: the
neutron spectra expected in detectors at future
hadron colliders typically have a probability density
peaking in this energy region.
See also ASTM E261 - 10
http://ikpe1101.ikp.kfa-juelich.de/briefbook_part_detectors/node123.html
PART 3. Special Techniques of Neutron

Radiography
3.1 Dynamic Neutron Radioscopy
Services that provide different types of dynamic neutron radioscopy have
been developed at numerous nuclear reactor centers worldwide. They cover
frame rates that range from 30 frames per second (real time motion display
similar to television) to 1000 frames per second range (a high frame rate) or
to 10 000 frames per second (a very high frame rate). An example of a real
time dynamic neutron radioscopic application is illustrated in Figure 12. A
beam from a 28 MW reactor was used to study the flow characteristics of
lubricant inside an operating jet engine. Other applications have included
studies of absorption and compression refrigerator designs, studies of
automotive parts in motion and a large range of two-phase flow studies. For
high throughput dynamic neutron imaging one reactor center has been
equipped with three separate beams, each with its neutron imaging system
and digital image interpretation system.
FIGURE 12. Frames from real time studies of operating aircraft engine: (a)
first view; (b) second view.
Other reactor centers have developed techniques for simultaneous neutron

and gamma ray dynamic imaging using a pair of scintillator screens in
conjunction with a low light level television camera and video processing. The
development of dynamic neutron radioscopic services with a high frame rate
of 1000 frames per second has capitalized on the availability of very high
intensity steady state neutron beams (with a flux of 108 neutrons per square
centimeter second) and very high frame rate video cameras used with rapid
response neutron sensitive scintillator screens. A very high frame rate
capability, up to 10 000 frames per second, uses the ability of certain reactors
to be pulsed, giving a high neutron yield for a time duration of a few
milliseconds. The event to be studied, such as the burn cycle of a pyrotechnic
event , is synchronized to the neutron pulse time.
3.2 Subthermal Neutron Radiology (Cold)

The neutron attenuation coefficient of a particular material can change
significantly as the neutron energy is changed. The pattern of this variation
also changes abruptly from one element to another. Therefore, selection of
different energy neutrons provides possibilities for quite different neutron
radiology penetration and contrast. Neutron radiology service reactors have
developed neutron beams of selected subthermal or cold neutrons using
three techniques: (1) beam filtration by polycrystal beryllium, which passes
only long wavelength, low energy neutrons below 0.005 eV, (2) a refrigerated
moderator volume and (3) selection of longer wavelength, low energy
neutrons by multiple internal reflection in a gently curved guide tube.
Keypoints:
Beam filter, Beryllium pass only cold neutron.
Cadmium remove thermal & cold neutrons and pass epithermal neutrons.
The effect of this energy selection is typically to increase the transparency of

certain materials while simultaneously increasing the contrast or detectability
of hydrogenous materials (see Table 2 and Fig. 13). Just as thermal neutron
radiography gives different information to X-radiography, so subthermal or
cold neutron radiography gives information different from that of regular
thermal neutron techniques. An example is given in Fig. 14. It is possible,
using a guide tube, to select only very cold neutrons (that is, energies below
0.001 eV) and this can provide high sensitivity for very thin hydrogenous
specimens.
TABLE 2. Relative neutron attenuation coefficients.
FIGURE 13. Attenuation of materials for thermal and cold neutrons.
FIGURE 14. Neutron radiographs of explosive bridge wire igniter: (a) thermal
neutron image; (b) cold neutron image.
Explosive charge
3.3 Epithermal and Fast Neutron Radiology

A reactor beam, although consisting primarily of thermal neutrons, will contain
a proportion of both subthermal and epithermal (high energy) neutrons. With
a filter such as cadmium, the thermal and subthermal neutrons can be
removed and only the epithermal part of the neutron energy spectrum will be
transmitted. For the inspection of enriched nuclear fuel the higher penetration
of epithermal neutrons provides a valuable difference from thermal or
subthermal neutron radiography. Indium has a high resonance capture cross
section at about 1.4 eV epithermal energy. Cadmium wrapped indium foil
activation transfer imaging techniques have been used for this application.
Another epithermal neutron technique uses an indium foil filter in the incident
beam to remove neutrons close to the specific resonance energy. This beam
is passed through the object and an indium detector is used on the far side.
Keypoints:
The technique can provide high sensitivity to small quantities of hydrogen in

the object because hydrogen can change the energy of an incident neutron
more than heavier elements. The term fast neutron radiography refers
normally to those neutron energies yielded by an unmoderated accelerator
source or radioactive source. Fast neutron radiography provides high
penetration but little contrast between elements. The accelerator can provide
a point source. Tantalum is one of several detector materials for direct
exposure and scintillator screens can be used. Alternatively, foil activation
transfer with holmium has been demonstrated.
Keypoints:
Fast neutron direct radiography: Tantalum
Fast neutron transfer radiography; Holmium
3.4 Neutron Computed Tomography

Computed axial tomography has been developed for neutron radiography and
can provide detailed cross sectional slices of the object to be analyzed.
Although the principle is similar to that of X-ray computed tomography, the
information conveyed by neutrons can be unique. In a typical facility the
object is rotated in the neutron beam and data are stored for upward of 200
angles. Detectors used have included a scintillator screen 6LiF-ZnS (Ag),
viewed by a cooled charge coupled device camera and alternatively a storage
phosphor image plate loaded with Gd2O3 combined with an automatic laser
beam scanner. Using a high intensity neutron radiography beam of over 108
neutrons per square centimeter second, computed tomography of two-phase
flow volumes has been processed as a time averaged three-dimensional
analysis.
3.5 Neutron Gaging and Neutron Probe Techniques

Neutron gaging is the measurement of attenuation of a collimated small
diameter beam of radiation as it is transmitted by a specimen. A neutron
radiology service center equipped with a nuclear reactor has demonstrated
that the imaging techniques can be complemented by the more quantitative
techniques of gaging. The gaging technique can inspect items of greater
thickness than can be inspected with neutron radiography. It has been used
for static gaging of discrete assemblies and for continuous scanning of long
objects for acceptable uniformity. There are also a variety of neutron probe
techniques in which radiation, typically gamma, is observed as a result of
neutron radiation incident on the object. For example the associated particle
sealed tube neutron generator enables the flight time of the incident neutron
to be used in conjunction with gamma ray spectroscopy to indicate the
chemical composition within an object. This technique has been developed
for identification of hidden explosives, drugs or nuclear materials. Another
example of a neutron probe is neutron interferometry to detect phase shifts of
the neutron wave properties. This neutron phase topography has been
proposed for very high sensitivity material testing.
Neutron Induced Autoradiography

By exposing a painting to thermal or cold neutrons and later imaging the
radioactivity induced in the various paint components, a technique has been
developed sensitive to many elements including manganese, potassium,
copper, sodium, arsenic, phosphorus, gold, iron, mercury, antimony and
cobalt. The neutron exposures were originally performed in a moderator block
(thermal column), close to a reactor core. However, beams similar to those
used for transmission neutron radiography have been used for this neutron
induced autoradiography of paintings. Typically, a series of autoradiographs
is taken using a range of neutron exposure times and different decay times
before imaging. This, combined with a range of scintillator screen and film
sensitivities, can provide extensive information about successive layers of
each painting.
3.6 Closing
Industry standards have been published on neutron radiographic testing.
End Of Reading 1
Reading-2
ASNTNRTMQA123
Level-I
Level 1 Questions
Neutron Radiographic Testing Method
Level 1 Answers
Level 1 Answers
Q1. Neutron penetration is greatest in which of the following materials?

a. hydrogenous material
b. water
c. lead
d. boron carbide
Q2. In general, by increasing the neutron energy from a neutron radiographic
source:
a. greater neutron penetration is achieved
b. greater neutron radiographic contrast can be obtained
c. radiographic exposure time can be reduced
d. resolution can be increased
Q3. The time required for one-half of the atoms in a particular sample of
radioactive material to disintegrate is called:
a. the inverse square law
b. a curie
c. a half-life
d. the exposure time
Q4. Generally, the attenuation of neutrons by a given material is:

a. reported to the Atomic Energy Commission
b. greater for fast neutrons than thermal neutrons
c. an indication of the quality of the X-radiographic technique
d. appreciably greater for thermal and epithermal neutrons than for fast
neutrons
Q5. The mass absorption coefficients for thermal neutrons when plotted
against regularly increasing atomic numbers of periodic elements presents a:
a. blurred picture
b. regularly increasing picture
c. random picture
d. dark picture
Q6. Many of the absorption differences between neutrons and X-rays indicate
clearly that the two techniques:
a. cause radiation problems
b. complement each other
c. increase exposure speed
d. fog radiographic film
Q7. The neutron cross section is the term normally used to denote:
a. the danger in handling radioactive material
b. the absorbing power of a material for neutrons
c. the atomic number of neutron reactor material
d. radiation detection equipment
Q8. The sharpness of the outline in the image of the radiograph is a measure
of:
a. subject contrast
b. radiographic definition
c. radiographic contrast
d. film contrast
Q9. The highest quality direct neutron radiographs obtainable today use:
a. imaging screens using lithium-zinc sulfide as the imaging materials
b. high-speed radiographic films
c. dysprosium as an imaging screen
d. gadolinium as an imaging screen (?)
Q10. When doing neutron radiography on radioactive materials, the materials
are best handled:
a. directly by personnel equipped with special protective clothing
b. by remote handling equipment
c. directly by personnel with special protective clothing except when
radiographs are being made
d. by the same methods used for nonradioactive materials
Q11. Gadolinium conversion screens are usually mounted in rigid holders

called: (direct radiography?)
a. film racks
b. cassettes
c. emulsifiers
d. diaphragms
Q12. The best high-intensity source of thermal neutrons is:
a. a Cf-252 source
b. an accelerator
c. a nuclear reactor
d. a Cf-252 source plus a multiplier
Q13. Scattered radiation caused by any material, such as a wall or floor, on
the film side of the specimen is referred to as:
a. primary scattering
b. undercut
c. reflected scattering
d. back-scattered radiation
Q14. What has the highest thermal neutron absorption cross section?
a. gold
b. Indium
c. gadolinium
d. dysprosium
Q15. Conversion screens are used in neutron radiography:
a. to convert neutron energy into ionizing radiation
b. to increase the exposure time
c. both a and b are reasons for using conversion screens
d. neither a nor b is a reason for using conversion screens
Q16. A curie is the equivalent of:
a. 0.001 mCi
b. 1000 mCi
c. 1000 MCi
d. 100 MCi
The neutrons transmitted through a radioactive specimen will strike a metal detection
foil such as indium, dysprosium or gold, rather than a converter screen with film.
Q17. Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation produced during the

disintegration of nuclei of radioactive substances is called:
a. X-radiation
b. gamma radiation
c. scatter radiation
d. back-scattered radiation
Q18. A photographic record produced by the passage of neutrons through a
specimen onto a film is called:
a. a fluoroscopic image
b. a radiograph
c. an isotopic reproduction
d. none of the above
Q19. Possible reactions that can occur when a fast neutron strikes a nucleus
are:
a. scattering and radiative capture
b. microshrinkage and static charges caused by friction
c. sudden temperature change and film contrast
d. uniform thickness and filtered radiation
Q20. For inspection of radioactive objects or those that emit gamma radiation
when bombarded with neutrons, a preferable detection method is the:
a. direct exposure method
b. transfer method
c. isotopic reproduction method
d. electrostatic-belt generator method
Q21. Materials that are exposed to thermal neutron beams:

a. must not be handled for at least 3 minutes after exposure has ceased
b. must be stored in a lead-lined room
c. may be radioactive after exposure to neutrons has ceased
d. should be monitored by means of a neutron counter
Q22. Hydrogenous material has a:
a. high macroscopic scattering cross section (?)
b. high absorption cross section
c. high microscopic absorption cross section
d. low microscopic scattering cross section
Q23. The penetrating ability of a thermal neutron beam is governed by:
a. attenuation characteristics of the material being penetrated
b. time
c. source-to-film distance
I=Ioe-nt
d. all of the above
Q24. A graph showing the relationship between film optical density and
exposure is called:
a. a bar chart
b. a characteristic curve
c. an exposure chart
d. a logarithmic chart
Q25. The three main steps in processing a radiograph are:
a. developing, frilling, and fixation
b. developing, fixation, and washing
c. exposure, developing, and fixation
d. developing, reticulation, and fixation
Q26. Radiographic contrast in a neutron radiograph is least affected by:
a. developer temperature
b. radiographic exposure time
c. radiographic beam collimation
d. radiographic film fog
Ug?
Q27. Higher resolution can be achieved in direct neutron radiography by:

a. placing lead intensifying screen between a gadolinium screen and film
b. increasing the L/D ratio of the collimation system
c. increasing the exposure time
d. increasing the distance between the object and the film cassette
Q28. The main reason for using neutron radiography in place of Xradiography is:
a. lower cost
b. higher resolution in all cases
c. the ability to image objects and materials not possible with X -rays
d. simpler radiographic procedure required than X -radiography
Q29. The best material for mounting specimens for neutron radiographic
inspection is:
a. cardboard
b. plastic
c. steel
d. aluminum
Q30. Which of the following materials is best for making identification labels
when using the neutron radiographic process?
a. aluminum
b. brass
c. cadmium or gadolinium
d. lead
Q31. As a check on the adequacy of the neutron radiographic technique, it is

customary to place a standard test piece on the source side of the cassette.
This standard test piece is called:
l
a. a reference plate
w il
b. a lead screen
c. a penetrameter
d. an image quality detector
Q32. A densitometer is:
a. a meter used to measure neutron intensity
b. an instrument used to measure film density
c. a meter used to measure the density of a material
d. a meter used to measure gamma content
Q33. The ability to detect a small discontinuity or flaw is called:
a. radiographic contrast
b. radiographic sensitivity.
c. radiographic density
d. radiographic resolution
Q34. Movement, geometry, and screen contact are three factors that affect
radiographic:
a. contrast
b. unsharpness
c. reticulation
d. density
Q35. The difference between the densities of two areas of a radiographic film
is called:
a. radiographic contrast
b. subject contrast
c. film contrast
d. definition
Q36. The selection of the proper type of film to be used for neutron
adiographic examination of a particular part depends on the:
a. thickness of the part
b. material of the specimen
c. neutron energy
d. none of the above (all the above?)
Q37. When radiographing a part that contains a large crack, the crack will
appear on the radiograph as:
a. a dark, intermittent, or continuous line
b. a light irregular line
c. either a dark or light line
d. a fogged area on the radiograph
Q38. Radiographic sensitivity, in the context of defining the minimum
detectable flaw, depends on:
a. the graininess of the film
b. the unsharpness of the flaw image in the film
c. the contrast of the flaw image on the film
d. all of the above
Q39. An Image Quality Indicator is used to measure the:

a. size of discontinuities in a part
b. density of the film
c. amount of film contrast
d. quality of the radiographic technique
Q40. Unwanted inclusions in a part will appear on a radiograph as:
a. a dark spot
b. a light spot
c. a generalized gray area of varying contrast
d. either a dark or a light spot or area depending on the relative
absorption ratio of the part material and the inclusion material
Q41. A sheet of cadmium with an opening cut in the shape of the part to be
radiographed may be used to decrease the effect of scattered neutrons,
which undercuts the specimens. Such a device is called a:
a. mask
b. filter
c. back-scatter absorber
d. lead-foil screen
Q42. The accidental movement of the specimen or film during exposure or

the use of a source-film distance that is too small will:
a. produce a radiograph with poor contrast .
b. make it impossible to detect large discontinuities
c. result in unsharpness of the radiograph
d. result in a fogged radiograph
Q43. Dysprosium (16166Dy) conversion screens emit:
a. low-energy betas and gammas
b. high-energy betas , low-energy gammas , and internal-conversion
electrons e (more reading!)
c. beta particles only
d. low-energy gamma rays only
Q44. Materials in common usage for moderation of fast neutron sources
include:
a. aluminum, magnesium, and tin
b. water, plastic, paraffin, and graphite
c. neon, argon, and xenon
d. tungsten, cesium, antimony, and columbium
TABLE 6. Properties of Some Thermal Neutron Radiography Conversion Materials
TABLE 7.4. The characteristics of some possible neutron radiography

converter materials
Practical.NR Table 7.4
Internal-conversion Electrons
Q45. In the converter screen technique, the neutron image is produced by

alpha, beta, or gamma radiation and it is thereby:
a. used to measure neutron beam divergence
b. externally cooled during the process
c. photographically more detectable than the unconverted neutron image
d. an important factor for determining Young's modulus of the material
Q46. Converter screen material characterized by lithium, boron, and gadolinium
has little tendency to become radioactive but does:
a. protect the radiographic film from excessive pressure
b. recharge the focal point size of the neutron source
c. filter and collimate the excess neutrons
d. emit radiation immediately upon the absorption of a neutron
Q47. Gadolinium is frequently employed as a neutron absorber because of its:
a. extremely low cost
b. high neutron absorption for a given thickness
c. ability to absorb gamma rays
d. ability to diffract alpha particles

converter materials
Q48. An excellent radiograph is obtained under given exposure conditions

with a thermal neutron flux of 2 x 106 n/cm2s for 10 minutes. If other
conditions are not changed, what exposure time would be required if the
neutron flux was lowered to 1 x 106 n/cm2s?
a. 5 minutes
b. 10 minutes
c. 20 minutes
d. 30 minutes
Q49. Neutron converter screens should be inspected for
flaws or dirt:
a. daily
b. each time they are used
c. occasionally
d. when flaws are detected on the radiograph
Q50. The primary advantage of using a Cf-252 source for neutron

radiography is its:
a. portability
b. low cost per unit neutron flux compared to other neutron radiographic
sources
c. high resolution
d. long useful life without source quality degradation
http://wwwndc.jaea.go.jp/CN10/index.html
More Reading- before going further!
Reading- 2+
Booster
7. IMAGE RECORDERS
The neutron radiographic image recording on film is based upon two different
principles:
1) Silver Halide Based- A chemical process, caused by photons or
electrons ?e? in a photographic or Xray film: the image generation
occurs through a photon or electron triggered conversion of dispersed
minute grains of 0.1 to 3 m silverhalide crystals to metallic silver in a
gelatine coating on triacetate or polyester film base. During the film
development and fixation process, only the metallic silver is retained (black)
and fixed on the film, providing a high contrast image.
2) Trek etch Based- A physical process, caused by alpha particles (in
thermal NR) or recoil protons (in fast NR) in a nitrocellulose film: the
image generation is based on traces (defects) in the nitrocellulose film
produced by the alphas or protons . The alphaparticles originate from a
neutron/alpha reaction in a converter layer of boron or/and lithium in
contact with the film. The traces in the film are visualized and fixed by
etching in an alkaline solution.
Practical.NR Chapter 7
The alpha particles originate from a neutron/alpha reaction in a converter

layer of boron or/and lithium in contact with the film. The traces in the film are
visualized and fixed by etching in an alkaline solution.
7.1. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

7.1.1. Converters.
The range of image recorders which have been used in radiography with
neutron beams is now extensive and varied, but all have one thing in
common: a neutron converter or intensifying screen, the purpose of which is
to absorb incoming neutrons and in consequence emit more directly
detectable radiation such as charged particles or light. A large number of
materials meet the basic requirements of an intensifying screen: high thermal
neutron absorption coupled with efficient emission of effective secondary
radiation.
However, for thermal neutron work a limited number are generally in use:
boron, dysprosium, gadolinium, indium and lithium (Table 7.1 and chapter 8).
A wide range of methods for displaying and recording the distribution of the
secondary radiation produced by a screen are employed. These include:
photosensitive film (Xray film), by far the most popular; sheets of etchable
plastic (nitrocellulose film described in 7.2); electronic image intensifiers, and
arrays of photomultiplier tubes.
Since most of the accepted screen materials can be used in one form or
another with each readout technique, the whole provides a wide range from
which to choose for the radiographic problem in hand. Even when expense
excludes the most sophisticated ones. A rational choice of image recorder
can only be made with a knowledge of the basic performance characteristics
of each screen readout system; signal buildup with exposure, neutron
registration efficiency, spatial resolution, and where relevant, half-life of the
secondary radiation. Data on the detectors and converters are given in
chapter 8.
TABLE 7.1. Nuclear properties of neutron converters and intensifying

screens
7.1.2. Optical film density.

Film density is defined by the equation D = log (Io/I), where D is the density, Io
is the light intensity incident on a particular area of a processed film, and I is
the light intensity transmitted. Note, that the quantity (Io/I) in the formula above
is the reciprocal of (I/Io, the fraction of the incident light transmitted by the
processed film, or the transmittance of the film. The tabulation below
illustrates some relations between transmittance (I/Io), per cent transmittance
(I/Io) x 100 and film density, D.
This table shows that an increase in density of 0.3 reduces the light
transmitted to one half of its former value; a change of 1.0 in density indicates
a change in light transmission by a factor of 10. In general, since density is a
logarithm function, a certain increase in density will always correspond to the
same per centage decrease in transmittance. The form of the mathematical
definition on film density means, in effect, that there are no units of density. In
this respect density is similar to a number of other physical quantities, for
example pH, specific gravity and atomic weight.
TABLE 7.2. Transmittance and film density
7.1.3. Characteristic curve of a film.

The most common, as well as the most convenient and most instructive
method of representing the response of a film to light or converter radiation is
by means of the characteristic curve (Fig. 7.1). This curve sometimes is
referred to as the sensitometric curve or the H and D curve, after Hurter and
Driffield, who were the first to use it in 1890. It expresses the relationship
between the logarithm of the exposure and the resulting film density.
Characteristic curves are obtained by giving a film a series of known
exposures, and then plotting density against logarithm of exposure or neutron
fluence. It should be emphasized here that the shape of the curve does not
depend on the radiographed subject or its scattering properties.
However, the shape of the curves for films exposed to light, as in radiography
with fluorescent screens of photography, do not depend upon the type of film,
the color of the exposing light and the processing conditions used. All that
these films know is that they are being exposed to various intensities of light,
and their characteristic curves show graphically how they respond to these
intensities. The characteristic curve of a film exposed to X-rays or gammarays depends only on the film type and the processing conditions, not upon
the quality of the radiation nor the scattering characteristics of the subject.
Figure 7.1. Characteristic curve of a typical X-ray film
Log relative exposure

7.1.4. Film contrast.

In discussing the relationship between the characteristic curve and contrast,
a few definitions must be established. Radiographic contrast between two
areas of the radiograph is the difference between the densities of those two
areas. Fundamentally, the images of two regions of slightly differing X-ray
absorption can be differentiated in the finished radiograph only because of
the radiographic contrast between them.
Radiographic contrast depends upon both (1) subject contrast and (2) film
contrast.
Subject contrast is the ratio of neutron absorption by two selected portions of
a subject. Subject contrast depends upon the nature of the subject, the
neutron energy and type of converter screen used. But it is independent of
the other exposure variables such as time, the characteristics of processing of
the film used.
Film contrast refers to the slope (steepness) of the characteristic curve of the
film. It depends upon the:
(1) type of film,
(2) the processing it receives, and
(3) the film density.
It is this latter quantity, film contrast, with which this section is concerned.
Since the shape of the characteristic curve is independent of the major
radiographic variables, film contrast can be considered quite independently of
subject contrast, although, as pointed out above, both contribute equally to
the radiographic contrast that enables one area to be distinguished from
another when the finished radiograph is viewed on the illuminator. As can be
seen in Fig. 7.1, the slope, or steepness of the characteristic curve at first
increases with increasing film density (the toe); then, in the middle range of
densities becomes fairly straight; and finally, at higher densities the slope
decreases as density increases (the shoulder).
Figure 7.1. Characteristic curve of a typical X-ray film
Log relative exposure

The shoulders of the curves for industrial X-ray films, and of the directexposure type of medical X-ray films, come at densities far above those that
can be viewed on available illuminators. Changes in the slope of the
characteristic curve have a definite relationship to the visibility of details in the
radiograph. For example, two slightly different thicknesses in the subject will
transmit slightly different exposure to the film. The exposures will have a
certain ration, i.e., will have a certain log exposure difference between them.
The difference in densities corresponding to the two exposures will depend
upon just where on the characteristic curve they fall; the steeper the curve,
the greater will be the density difference. This means that a certain log
exposure interval in the middle of the curve of Fig. 7.1 will correspond to a
greater density difference than the same interval at either end.
The slope of a curve at a particular point is expressed as the slope of a

straight line drawn tangentially to the curve at that point. When applied to the
characteristic curve of a photographic or radiographic material, the slope of
such a straight line is called the gradient of the film material at the particular
density.
In Fig. 7.2, the tangents to the curve have been drawn at two points, and the
corresponding gradients (ratio a.a'/b.b') have been evaluated. Note, that the
gradient is less than 1.0 in the toe and much greater than 1.0 in the central
portion of the characteristic curve. Now consider two slightly different
thicknesses in a subject, and assume that the thinner section transmits 20%
more radiation than the thicker. The difference in logarithm of relative
exposure (log E) is 0.08 and is independent of the exposure time. If this
subject is radiographed with an exposure that puts the developed densities
on the toe of the chacteristic curve where the gradient is 0.5, the Xray
intensity difference of 20% is represented by a density difference of 0.04 (see
Fig. 7.3), corresponding to a difference in light transmission of 10%.
Figure 7.2. Characteristic curve of a screen-type X-ray film. Gradients have

been evaluated at two points on the curve
Figure 7.3. Characteristic curve of a screen-type medical X-ray film. Tlie

density difference for a 20% difference in exposure have been evaluated for
the two values of gradient illustrated in Figure 7.2.
If the exposure is such that the densities fall on that part of the curve where
the gradient is 3.4, the 20% intensity difference results in a density difference
of 0.31 (or a difference in light transmission of 104%). In general then, if the
gradient of the characteristic curve is greater than 1.0, the intensity ratios, or
subject contrasts, of the radiation emerging from the subject are exaggerated
in the brightness ratios of the radiograph, and the higher the gradient, the
greater is the degree of exaggertion. Thus, at densities for which the gradient
is greater than 1.0, the film acts as a contrast amplifier. Similarly, if the
gradient is less than 1.0, the subject contrasts are less apparent in the
radiographic reproduction.
7.1.5. Film sensitivity (film speed).

It has been shown that the contrast properties of a film are indicated by the
shape of the characteristic curve. Another value, which can be obtained from
the characteristic curve, is the speed or the sensitivity of the film to radiation.
It is indicated by the location of the curve along the exposure axis. Speeds of
radiographic films are usually given as inversely proportional to the exposure
required to reach a certain density. However, in practical applications of X-ray
films, it is usually more convenient to deal with relative speed. In this method,
speeds are expressed in terms of the speed of one particular film, whose
relative speed is arbitrarily assigned a value of 1.00.
For example, if one film requires half the exposure to reach a certain density
as does a second film, and if the slower film is chosen as the standard, the
faster one will have a relative speed of 2.00. The choice of the film to which a
relative speed of 1.00 be assigned, is purely arbitrary, and may be made on
the basis of convenience alone. (See Table 7.3).
In a group of characteristic curves, those for the faster films will lie towards
the left of the diagram, in the region of smaller values of logarithm of relative
exposure, or, phrased differently, in the region where a smaller exposure is
needed to produce a certain film density. Conversely, the curves for the
slower films will lie towards the right side of the diagram in the region where
the relative exposure, or its logarithm, is larger. From such a diagram, relative
exposusres to produce a fixed density can be read, and the relative speeds
will be inversely proportional to these exposures (see Fig. 7.8). The speeds of
industrial X-ray films are usually determined at a density between 1.5 and 2.5
dependent on the manufacturer.
TABLE 7.3. Approximate comparison of industrial X-ray films for neutron

radiography
* Single coated film
7.1.6. Use of the characteristic curve. The characteristic curve can be used in
the solution of quantitative problems arising in radiography, in the preparation
of technique charts and in radiographic research. Ideally characteristic curves
made under the actual radiographic conditions should be used in solving
practical problems. A range of screen-film signal exposure curves are shown
in Figs. 7.4 and 7.5. It must be observed immediately that in neutron
radiography exposure prediction to better than -25% should not be expected
from such curves, even when great care is taken to variations in beam energy
spectra between neutron radiographic facilities, used converter foil thickness,
type of film developer, manual or machine processing.
Figure 7.4. Typical signal-exposure characteristic curves for selected films

used in conjunction with light-emitting (NE21 and NE905 - 1.3 mm) and
charged particle (electron) emitting (Gadolinium - 25 m) neutron intensifying
screens used singly behind the films
Figure 7.5. Typical signal-exposure characteristics for selected films used in conjunction with
charged particle (electron) emitting neutron intensifying screens of Gadolinium (25 m) and
Dysprosium (100 m)
Note: The exposure scale for Dysprosium is estimated for the transfer technique with a foil
exposure <1 half-life and a film exposure >3 half-lives
Close inspection of the gadolinium foil curves in Fig. 7.4 would show that it is
in fact close to exponential in shape. It is close to linear, therefore, when a
linear exposure scale is used (Fig. 7.5), as is the response of all films when
exposed directly to charged particles. Thus, sensitivity improves as exposure
is increased. Linear signal-exposure characteristics are, in fact, quite common
in neutron radiography, since they also apply to the track-etch technique and
to most electronic readout methods. So the less conventional style of
presentation used in Fig. 7.5 has advantages over that of Fig. 7.4.
Unfortunately, these simple and helpful relations must now be qualified, since
only with a constant background signal is the full contrast of the recorder
realised. Generally, neutron radiography has to be carried out in the presence
of a background of both scattered neutrons and gamma radiation which
increases with exposure. Background due to gamma radiation can be readily
avoided by using Bi filters, track-etch technique, or an intensifying screen in
which the neutron produced reaction has a convenient half-life (Table 7.4). In
the latter case the screen alone is exposed to the neutron beam and the
stored image transferred to a film by autoradiography elsewhere; this is
known as the transfer technique. However, scattered neutron background
cannot be easily eliminated and generally increases with object thickness.

converter materials
To make an informed choice of imaging system for a radiographic task we

must, ideally, have a detailed knowledge to the basic characteristics of a wide
range of recorders. These characteristics may be indentified as the
characteristic curve, neutron registration efficiency, and resolving power. The
screen/film recorders used for most neutron radiography are of two basic
types:
1) Those employing light-emitting intensifying screens, which have a
logarithmic response to neutron exposure and suffer from reciprocity-law
failure when exposure times are long.
2) Those employing charged particle-emitting screens, which have a linear
response and do not suffer reciprocity failure.
A simple analysis, particularly relevant in low-background conditions,
suggests that only when a linear-response recorder is used the sensitivity is
improved by increasing exposure. However, consideration of the effect of
natural statistics shows, that it is advantageous to increase exposures
whenever possible. 7.1.7.
Practical application. As the choice of an image recorder will depend upon the
need to obtain either good radiographic quality or high speed, it is only
possible to give general guidance as to their selection. When high quality is
required a fine grain film or track-etch material should be used; When speed
is the important parameter then fast X-radiographic type films should be used.
The image recorders given in Tables 7.5 to 7.7 and 7.9 are recommended,
based upon the practical experiences of radiographers. Detailed data on
some of the converter materials listed in Table 7.4 are given in chapter 10 in
Tables 10.5 to 10.9.
TADLE 7.5. Some characlcrislics of thermal neutron intensifying screens
TABLE 7.7. Effective thermal neutron absorption of lithium fluoride and boron
carbide screens
TADLE 7.8. Average exposure data for selected converter/film combinations
7.1.8. Sensitometric standards. For X-ray films exposed to X- and gammarays ISO has issued a standard for the determination of speed and average
gradientt. No such international standard exists for X-ray films used in neutron
radiography. However, AFNOR has published a French standard for industrial
radiographic films used for neutron radiography with gadolinium converters.
In this standard the mode of irradiation and the method of determining the
sensitivity and average contrast of films used in industrial neutronography is
described. The spectrum of energy of the electrons emitted by the converter
during irradiation with neutrons is replaced by the spectrum emitted by carbon
14. A planar, non filtered carbon 14 source is used for the irradiation of films.
It is placed in close contact with the emulsion side of the film. The irradiation
ought to be such as to produce a characteristic curve including net density
between 1.5 and 3.5. The sensitivity S is determined from the formula:
where E is the electronic fluence corresponding to net density of Dn = 2.

The average gradient G ought to be determined from the characteristic curve
(shown in Fig. 7.6) according to the formula:
where E, and E2 are the exposures for net densities of 1.5. and 3.5.
7.2. NITROCELLULOSE FILM

7.2.1. Film characteristics. Nitrocellulose film is extensively used in thermal
NR, especially in NR of radioactive objects. In fast NR it is applied for imaging
of hydrogen containing matter, especially for biology, medicine and industry
(thick plastic components).
Except for the low contrast image, application of nitrocellulose film is in

general characterized by the following advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Direct imaging capability without activation process, thereby providing an

important reduction in processing time and operator exposure.
Simple handling and processing in day-light.
Film is flexible and can be placed directly on objects.
Linear response to exposure time, no saturation of the converter.
Insensitive to gamma-radiation (e.g. from radioactive objects).
Insensitive to light.
In relation to thermal NR, the following additional characteristics apply:

1.
2.
3.
Provision of several images with different contrast from one film when
developed (etched) in steps and intermediately transferred to copying film.
Sharp image of objects containing low contrast materials.
Shorter or comparable imaging times to indirect method with X- ay
film/Dysprosium foil.
In fast NR the following additional advantages in using nitrocellulose film have

been identified:
1.
2.
Higher sensitivity in comparison to activation detectors.

Insensitive to gamma radiation background when compared to multiwire
chambers and scintillators.
At present two types of nitrocellulose film and converters are routinely used
by NRWG members:
1. A combined film, in form of sheets, where the nitrocellulose film is coated
on both film faces with in water soluble converters, e.g. Kodak CN 85 B,
and
2. as separate film and foils, in form of sheets and on rolls, e.g. Kodak CN 85
nitrocellulose film, and Kodak BN 1 converter foil with natural boron or
Kodak BE 10 converter foil with enriched boron. The roll-film is especially
suited for automatic NR-film cameras, e.g. For stepwise imaging of long
objects. The converter foils are re-usable.
The thickness of commercially available nitrocellulose film is approx. 100 m
and of the converters approx. 50 m. The films and foils are produced in
standard film sizes.
7.2.2. Film handling and safety precautions. Nitrocellulose film handling and
storage requires in addition to cleanliness also special attention and
provisions due to:
1. The inflammablity.
2. The low auto-ignition temperature of approx. 180C (e.g. Kodak CN85).
3. The self-decomposition, causing release of nitrous gases, damaging the
film (leading to incidental spots, sticky surface or change of film color).
Film mountings and handling should avoid damage and processing artefacts
caused by:
1. Dust, attracted by static electricity, introduced by relative movements of
the plastic foils.
2. Moisture, destroying the converter layer of the combined film. Therefore,
nitrocellulose films and converter foils should be passed through a
decharging and cleaning device prior to mounting.
These devices are commercially available. In reactor-based NR-facilities

using automatic NR-film cameras, ionization of the ambient air by the gamma
radiation neutralizes the static electricity produced during stepwise film
displacement.
Felt pads are here sufficient for dust removal. In order to limit the effects
arising from self-decomposition, the nitrocellulose film should only be kept for
short periods in closed confinements. Appropriate ventilation for removal of
the nitrous gases should be applied in all other cases. It is strongly
recommende that unused film is stored in a cool and dry environment at
approx. 4C and at a max. Relative humidity of 50%, away from any heat or
source of ignition. Because the decomposition process is continuous, it is
further proposed to take photographic copies of the exposed and processed
nitrocellulose film which can then be destroyed. National and international
regulations for transportation, storage, inspection and destruction of
inflammable solid matter apply to nitrocellulose film also.
Following recommendations and regulations should be considered by the

users of nitrocellulose film:
1. Due to classification in the category of dangerous materials, the
transportation by air or at the ground should be only performed by
companies specialized in this field. Shipment as standard mail is
prohibited.
2. Storage in small quantities is recommended. Storage should never be
performed in metallic containers, but always in containers made of
paper, cardboard or wood.
3. The storage boxes or containers should never be sealed in order to
allow ventilation of the film. Foldings for closing of boxes or containers
should be used instead of adhesive tape.
4. Rooms which are used for storage of more than 2 kg of nitrocellulose
film should be fireproof, ventilated by forced ventilation system and be
marked as a room containing inflammable material. Check on selfdecomposition once per year if the above mentioned and recommended
storage conditions and temperature are maintained, otherwise once per
3 months.
Following recommendations and regulations should be considered by the

users of nitrocellulose film:
5. If the nitrocellulose film is stored at refrigerator temperature (e.g. 4 to
5C) its quality and stability will not be affected throughout at least the
first two years after packing (e.g. See packing date on the boxes).
Storage in a deep-freezer (e.g. -18 to -20C) extends this period at
least to five years.
6. Decomposed or remainders of processed nitrocellulose films should be
stored in waterfilled containers until destruction.
7. Destruction of film by burning has to conform to the legal regulations
related to highly inflammable materials. It is recommended to
subcontract destruction of the film and related waste materials to
specialized companies in the field.
7.2.3. Exposure techniques and mounting. The exposure technique and film
processing form two closely-linked parameters and control the image
generation and its quality. As nitrocellulose film is an integrating image
recorder the exposure time is the main controlling factor in image generation
when considering a given NR-facility and image recording system. Typical
neutron fluences for a standard image on nitrocellulose film are summarized
in Table 7.10. It is common practice to optimize the exposure data for an
anticipated application by proof testing. Generally, under-exposure followed
by longer etching will provide a higher contrast image; whereas high- xposure
followed by short etching will deliver a low contrast, but sharper image. The
best radiographic image is obtained when the film is in contact with the object
or very closely positioned behind it.
Depending on the application and nitrocellulose film type, the following

mountings are employed:
1. For the combined film (e.g. Kodak CN 85 B): a) direct positioning onto the
object, b) film wrapped in aluminium foil, to prevent contamination in dry
installations, c) positioning in watertight aluminium vacuum cassettes in
underwater reactor- ased NRfacilities.
2. For the separate film and foils {Kodak CN 85 and Kodak BN 1 or BE 10): a)
vacuum or pressure cassettes to ensure proper contact between film and
foils, b) dedicated NR-film cameras for stepwise image taking on roll-film;
these cameras are equipped with mechanical systems providing film
transport and contact pressure.
TABLE 7.9. Neutron fluences for nitrocellulose film imaging
It is common practice in thermal NR to place behind the film/converter

arrangement a cadmium screen to trap the back-scattered neutrons. In fast
NR the following mountings are in use:
1) For the nitrocellulose film only (Kodak CN 85): same mountings as
mentioned above for the combined film.
2) For the nitrocellulose film with polyethylene foil or for a nitrocellulose film
stack (multifoil technique): vacuum or pressure cassette to ensure proper
contact between all layers.
The multifoil technique in fast NR provides an enhancement of contrast. As

shown earlier, nitrocellulose film should be handled with care. Mountings
should be free of moisture, static electricity and dust. Void-free contact
between film and converter is essential. The contact pressure should be
approx. 0.1 MPa (1 bar) as experienced in X-ray radiography technique. High
temperature should be avoided due to its low auto-ignition temperature. Prior
to processing any non-nitrocellulose film material (e.g. tape, ball point or felt
tip pen tracks, finger prints) should be removed in order to avoid
contamination of the processing baths. Further details about the properties
and use of the nitrocellulose films as applied with the tracketch technique can
be found in m.
7.3. COMPARISON BETWEEN SILVER-HALIDE AND NITROCELLULOSE

FILM WITH REGARD TO IMAGE RECORDING AND QUALITY
The image generation in nitrocellulose film is based upon the n/alpha reaction
or on heavy particles (protons). Each particle creates in the film a defect
(track) in function of its energy. The accumulated tracks form the image. The
image density and sharpness depend primarily on the neutron fluence. The
image quality depends thereafter on the processing (etching), which is
sensitive to the temperature and concentration of the etching bath and
etching duration. The etching process will increase the size of each track, it
will form a conical hole with increased depth. With progressive etching, the
tracks will interconnect and lead to erosion of the film surface. Finally the film
will become foggy and lose contrast.
The image generation in silver-halide film in NR is based on ionisation by

electrons (beta particles) or gamma-rays which interact along their passage
through the emulsion with several silver-halide crystals and triggers their
conversion to metallic silver. This results in a less pointlike image generation
than with nitrocellulose film. The sharpness of the image is therefore
determined by the grain size of the film. Its density depends also on the
neutron fluence. The efficiency of the nitrocellulose film depends on the type
of converter. Nitrocellulose film with integral converter (Kodak CN 85 B) is
approx. twice as fast in terms of exposure time as the system using
Dysprosium foil and a fine grain silver-halide film (Kodak SR).
End Of Booster Reading 2+
Q51. Neutron beams used in nondestructive testing normally contain:

a. alpha particles
b. positrons
c. gamma rays and neutrons
d. X-rays
Q52. In neutron radiography, LID refers to the:
a. limiting neutron energy divided by the neutron density
b. largest neutron flux in the system divided by the beam diameter
c. distance from the neutron source to the object divided by the source
diameter
d. distance from the neutron source to the picture divided by the beam
diameter
Q53. A type of neutron beam collimator is a:
a. mean free path diaphragm
b. divergent beam collimator
c. polycellular field generator
d. neutron beam catcher
Q54. Commonly used converter screens are:

a. gadolinium, dysprosium, and indium
b. neodymium, plutonium, and technetium
c. gadolinium, lead, and indium
d. gold. silver, and cadmium
Q55. In order to decrease geometric unsharpness:
a. neutrons should proceed from as small a source as other considerations
will allow (D)
b. neutrons should proceed from as large a source as other considerations
will allow (D)
c. the film should be as far as possible from the object being
radiographed (t!)
d. the distance from the source to the material examined should be as small
as practical (L)
Ug = Dt/(L-t)
Q56. High-resolution gadolinium conversion screens are produced by:

a. flame spray techniques
b. being grown in large flat crystals
c. vacuum vapor deposition
d. large brazing systems
Q57. In order to increase the neutron beam intensity:

a. the LID could be lowered
b. the neutron energy must be increased
c. the test specimen should be moved further from the film
d. a smaller source size could be used
Q58. Neutron exposure may be due to:
a. the direct beam from the neutron source
b. scatter radiation arising from objeCts in the direct beam
c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b
Q59. Gadolinium conversion screens emit:
a. gamma rays and conversion electrons
b. beta particles only
c. alpha particles and positrons
d. gamma rays only
Q60. Which elements are commonly used in the indirect transfer method?
a. gadolinium and cadmium
b. rhodium and samarium
c. dysprosium and indium
d. cadmium and dysprosium
Q61. Which element is commonly used for direct neutron radiography?

a. cadmium
b. indium
c. dysprosium
d. gadolinium
Q62. Neutron sensitive scintillators provide:
a. high quality radiographs with long exposures
b. low quality radiographs with long exposures
c. low quality radiographs with short exposures
Q63. Lead is:

a. a good neutron shield
b. easily activated by neutrons
c. a poor neutron absorber
d. an efficient conversion screen
Q64. Neutron energy; exposure time, and film type are three important
neutron radiographic parameters that can be controlled. What other
parameter can be controlled?
a. L/D
b. conversion efficiency
c. type of conversion screen
d. both a and c
Q65. The purpose of vacuum cassettes is to:
a. eliminate scattered radiation
b. block unwanted gamma radiation
c. assure intimate film-to-foil contact
d. protect parts from the radiation emitted by the conversion screen
66. In making a californium isotope exposure in an unshielded area, you find

the dose rate 1.9 m (6ft) from the source is 1200 mR/h. What would be the
dose rate at 7.3 m (24ft)?
a. 75 mR/h
b. 100 mR/h
c. 200 mR/h
d. 300 mR/h
67. In developing film by hand technique without agitation:
a. the radiograph will not show proper contrast
b. it will be impossible to fix the radiograph
c. there will be a greater fogging of the film
d. there will be a tendency for each area of the film to affect the
development of the area immediately below it
68. Film developed by automatic processors:
a. will have improved detail of the image
b. will have a general increase in the film density
c. takes longer to develop than when processing manually
d. will create less fog on the film
69. The emulsion side of a single-coated photographic X-ray-type film used

for neutron radiography can be detected in the darkroom using standard safe
lights as the:
a. printed identifying marks on the emulsion side
b. darker of the two sides
c. duller and lighter color of the two sides
d. printed identifying marks on the non-emulsion side
70. The purpose of film containers is to:
a. protect the film from light
b. protect the film from scratches
c. neither a nor b
d. both a and b
71. The two most common causes for excessively high density radiographs
are:
a. insufficient washing and overdeveloping
b. contaminated fixer and insufficient washing
c. overexposure and contaminated fixer
d. overexposure and overdevelopment
72. Single-emulsion high-resolution X-ray film is very good for neutron

radiography because:
a. it has a very thin emulsion
b. it is sensitive to low-energy radiation and insensitive to high-energy
radiation
c. it is faster than other films
d. both a and b
73. Which of the following materials is suited for construction of vessels or
pails used to mix processing solutions?
a. stainless steel
b. aluminum
c. galvanized iron
d. tin
74. Excessive exposure of film to light prior to development of the film will
most likely result in:
a. a foggy film
b. poor definition
c. streaks
d. a yellow stain
72. Single-emulsion high-resolution X-ray film is very good for neutron

radiography because:
a. it has a very thin emulsion
b. it is sensitive to low-energy radiation and insensitive to high-energy
radiation
c. it is faster than other films
d. both a and b
75. White crescent-shaped marks on an exposed X-ray film are most likely
caused by:
a. crimping film after exposure
b. crimping film before exposure
c. sudden extreme temperature change while processing
d. a warm or exhausted fixer
76. Reticulation resulting in a puckered or netlike film surface is probably
caused by:
a. crimping film after exposure
b. sudden extreme temperature change while processmg
c. water or developer on unprocessed film
d. excessive object-film distance
77. Frilling , or loosening of the emulsion from the base of the film is
most likely caused by:
a. water or developer on unprocessed film
b. the low temperature of processing solutions
c. developer solution contamination
d. a warm or exhausted fixer solution
78. When the minute silver grains, on which the X-ray film image is formed,
group together in relatively large masses, they produce a visual impression
called:
a. air bells
b. graininess
c. reticulation
d. frilling
79. Static marks, which are black tree-like or circular marks on a radiograph,
are often caused by:
a. the film being bent when inserted in a cassette or holder
b. foreign material or dirt embedded in screens
c. scratches on lead foil screens
d. improper film handling techniques
80. The purpose of agitating an X-ray film during development is to:
a. protect the film from excessive pressure
b. renew the developer at the surface of the film
c. disperse unexposed silver grains on the film surface
d. prevent reticulation
81. When manually processing films, the purpose of tapping the hangers
sharply two or three times after the films have been lowered into the
developer is to:
a. disperse unexposed silver grains on the film surface
b. prevent frilling
c. dislodge any air bubbles clinging to the emulsion
d. all of the above
82. The decrease in activity of the developer solution is compensated by:
a. constant agitation
b. maintaining processing solutions within the recommended temperature
range
c. avoiding contamination from the wash bath
d. adding replenisher
83. The purpose of fixation is to;

a. remove all the undeveloped silver salts of the emulsion
b. leave the developed silver as a permanent image
c. harden the gelatin
d. all of the above
84. For the best results when manually processing film, solutions should be
maintained within the temperature range of:
a. 65 F and 75 F
b. 65 C and 75 C
c. 75 F and 85 F
d. 75 C and 85 C
85. Water spots on films can be minimized by:

a. the rapid drying of wet film
b. immersing wet film for 1 or 2 minutes in a wetting agent solution
c. using a fresh fixer solution
d. cascading water during the rinse cycle
86. The most suitable films for producing neutron radiography are:
a. red sensitive films
b. PolaroidTM films
c. industrial X-ray films
d. medical X-ray films
87. The normal development time for manually processing X-ray film is:
a. 12 to 18 minutes in processing solutions at 75 F
b. 3 to 8 minutes in processing solutions at 75 F
c. 12 to 18 minutes in processing solutions at 68 C
d. 5 to 8 minutes in processing solutions at 68 F
88. A properly exposed radiograph that is developed in a solution at a
temperature of 58 F will be:
a. overdeveloped
b. underdeveloped
c. fogged
d. damaged by frilling
89. An advantage of the fountain-pen type of ionization chamber used to

monitor radiation received by personnel is that:
a. it provides a permanent record of accumulated dosage
b. it provides an imediate indication of dosage
c. it is the most sensitive detector available
d. all ofthe above
90. What radiation dose would be dangerous, if not fatal, if applied to the
entire body in a short period of time?
a. 1.5 to 15 R (rem)
b. 25 to 70 R (rem)
c. 200 to 800 R (rem)
d. all of the above doses would most likely be fatal
Too much to remember?
91. The average thermal neutron flux that gives a dose of 100 mrem in 40
hours is:
a. 700 n/cm2s
b. 70 n/cm2s
c. 7 n/cm2s
d. 0.7 n/cm2s
92. When working with a neutron radiography facility, the radiation expected
is:
a. gamma
b. beta
c. neutron
d. all of the above
93. The intensity of neutron radiation is usually measured m:
a. roentgens
b. ergs
c. neutrons/cm-s
d. neutrons/cm
94. What does the term (R/h) refer to when speaking of intensity?
a. radiation limits for humans
b. roentgens per hour
c. X -rays per hour
d. radiation in hydrogen
95. Small amounts of exposure to neutrons or gamma rays:
a. may have a cumulative effect that must be considered when
monitoring for maximum permissible dose
b. will be beneficial since they build up an immunity to radiation poisoning.
c. will have no effect on human beings
d. will have only a short-term effect on human tissues
96. Overexposure to neutron or gamma rays may cause damage to human:

a. blood and skin
b. skin
c. internal organs
d. all of the above
97. A general rule used-to define an excessive amount of radiation exposure
is:
a. anything above 0.4 R (rem) per week, although small amounts of radiation
(0.4 R [rem] per week or less) are beneficial since they build up immunity to
these rays
b. any dose over 5 R (rem) per week
c. any dose that causes a mid-range reading on a Geiger counter
d. any unnecessary exposure to radiation
98. A primary disadvantage of the fountain-pen type of ionization chamber

used to measure the amount received by personnel is the:
a. delay necessary before the results of a measurement are known
b. inaccuracy of such devices in measuring scatter radiation
c. inability of such a device to provide a pennanent record of exposure
d. cost of recharging such devices
99. The exposure of personnel to X- and gamma radiation can be determined
by means of:
a. film badges
b. dosimeters
c. radiation meters
d. all of the above
100. The intensity of gamma rays is measured in:

a. roentgens
b. ergs
c. roentgens per unit of time
d. H & D units
101. Divergent neutron beams:
a. do not obey the Inverse Square Law of distance
b. obey the Inverse Square Law of distance
c. use lead for shielding
102. A radioactive source used for neutron radiography is:
a. PU-239
b. Co-60
c. Cs-137
d. Cf-252
103. The half-life of Cf-252 is:

a. 9 years
b. 2.6 years
c. 6 months
d. 47.5 years
104. Cf-252 is:
a. a spontaneous fission source
b. a fissile source
c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b
105. A normally desirable feature of a thermal neutron
beam for neutron radiography is:
a. low gamma radiation intensity
b. relatively low, fast neutron intensity
c. low, angular divergence (so resolution capabilities for thicker objects can
be good)
d. all of the above
http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/cf.html
Q106. To achieve uniformity in neutron radiographs, it is recommended that:

a. manual processing be used
b. automatic processing be used
c. it does not matter which process to use
d. the Shockly process be used
Q107. The approximate energy of a thermal neutron is:
a. 1 MeV
b. 0.026 eV (0.01~0.3ev)
c. 12 KeV
d. 114eV
Q108. The material that slows down neutrons is called:
a. a moderator
b. an accumulator
c. a limitor
TABLE 6. Properties of Some Thermal Neutron Radiography Conversion Materials
109. A good moderating material is:

a. water
b. iron
.c. lead
d. all of the above
110. If the temperature decreases, the energy of a thermal
neutron will:
a. increase
b. decrease
c. stay the same
111. A main disadvantage of gadolinium screens is:

a. that they are expensive
b. that they are magnetic
c. that they have poor sensitivity to neutrons
d. both a and b
112. The main advantage of a divergent beam collimator is:
a. that no dividing slats are used which could possibly cause lines on a
radiograph
b. that there is a minimal neutron reflection if the sides of the collimator are
made of a neutron absorbing material
c. that it is relatively simple to manufacture
d. all of the above
Q113. The main disadvantage of a divergent beam collimator is:

a. that less resolution is possible than with a parallel beam collimator of
the same length
b. the large physical size of the collimator to achieve L/D ratios that are
necessary for good resolution
c. that the small end of the collimator near the effective thermal neutron
source is small, therefore minimizing the displacement of the moderator
d. all of the above
Q114. The definition of a neutron is:
a. the uncharged particle having a mass slightly greater than that of the
proton
b. the uncharged particle having a mass slightly less than that of a proton
c. the positive charged particle having a mass slightly less than that of the
proton
115. To an Operational Health Physicist, the abbreviation, RBE means:

a. Rapid Biological Energy
b. Roentgen Background Embrittlement
c. Relative Biological Effectiveness
d. both a and b
116. The cross section is expressed in area units, the most common being
the one that is equal to 10-24 cm2 This is the:
a. femto
b. tero
c. barn
d. watt
Q117. The transfer exposure method is used because:

a. it is not sensitive to gamma radiation
b. it has greater radiographic sensitivity than the direct exposure method
using gadolinium
c. it is faster than the direct exposure method
d. the screens used in this method emit only internal conversion electrons of
about 70 ke V
Q118. Which of the following elements has the largest mass absorption
coefficient for thermal neutrons?
a. boron
b. lead
c. gadolinium
d. copper
The neutrons transmitted through a radioactive specimen will strike a metal detection
foil such as indium, dysprosium or gold, rather than a converter screen with film.
Q119. The term macroscopic cross section () " is synonymous with the:
a. linear attenuation coefficient () for neutrons
b. microscopic cross section () for neutrons
c. mass attenuation coefficient (/) for neutrons
d. cadmium ratio for neutrons
Comments:
= N/A, = microscopic cross section, = = macroscopic cross
section
MACROSCOPIC SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS
The distinction between macroscopic and microscopic cross-section is that
the former is a property of a specific lump of material (with its density), while
the latter is an intrinsic property of a type of nuclei.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_cross_section
Peach
Good Luck
Good Luck
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Transfer screen-indium or dysprosium, In, Dy.

IVONA TTS Capable.

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PART 1. Applications of Neutron Radiography

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FIGURE 2. Comparison of neutron radiographs of moisture globules in

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PART 2. Static Radiography with Thermal Neutrons

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

TABLE 1. Comparison of X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation.

a. Other materials relatively transparent to thermal neutrons include gold,

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

2.2 Neutron Collimation

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

The source of thermal neutrons is a dispersed moderator volume, rather

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

ASMV17 Neutron Radiography

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

ASMV17 Neutron Radiography

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

ASMV17 Neutron Radiography

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

5.1 Neutron cross sections