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The study of electric

charges at rest, the
forces between them
and the electric fields
associated with them.

UNIT 3:Electrostatics

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3.1 Electric Charges and Conservation of

charges
{

The electric charge has the following important properties :

There are two kinds of charges in nature positive and negative
charge.
{
Charges of opposite sign attract one another attractive
force.
{
Charges of the same sign repel one another repulsive
force.
The total charge in an isolated system is constant
z
(conserved) Principle of conservation of charges
z
Charge is quantized.
{
Electric charge exists as discrete packets and written as
z

q = ne
where

q : electric charge

n : integer number = 1,2,...

e : fundamental amount of charge, 1.6 x 10 -19 C

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Electrical conductors
Definition is defined as the materials in which some of the
electrons (negative charges) are free electrons that are
not bound to atoms and can move relatively freely
through the material.
z
For example : copper, aluminum, silver and etc
Electrical insulators
z
Definition is defined as the materials in which all electrons are
bound to atoms and cannot move freely through the
material.
z
For example : glass, rubber, wood and etc...
Explanation of conductors and insulators
z
Consider two metal spheres, one highly charged and the other
electrically neutral (number
number of positive and negative charge are
equal)
equal as shown in figure (a).
z

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Figure (b) shows the two spheres connected by a metal nail, which
conducts charge (electron) from one sphere to the other.
Figure (c) shows the two spheres connected by a wood, almost no
3
charge is conducted.

3.2 Coulombs Law

{

States the magnitude of the electrostatic (Coulomb/electric)

force between two point charges is proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

r
F
Mathematically,

q1
+

q2

r
F

q1q2
r2
kq q
F = 12 2
r
F

where

F : magnitude of electrostatic (Coulomb) force

q1 , q2 : magnitude of charge
r : distance between two point charges
k : electrostatic (Coulomb) constant = 9.0 x 10 9 N m 2 C - 2
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Since

k=

1
4 0

where

, hence the Coulombs law can be written as

1 q1q2
2
F =
4

0 : permittivity of free space (vacuum or air)

( 0 = 8.85 x10 12 C 2 N 1 m 2 )

If q1 and q2 are charges of opposite sign, the force (F) acting on each
charge is attractive as shown in figure below.

q1
+

r
F

r
F

q2
-

This mean that F is directed towards the neighbouring charge and

will result in both charges moving towards each other.

If q1 and q2 are both positive or both negative charges, the force (F)
acting on each charge is repulsive.
z

This mean that F is directed away from the neighbouring charge

and will result in a separation of the two charges if they are free to
move.

Simulation
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Graphs below show the variation of electrostatic force with the

distance between two charges.

Gradient,
M = kq1q2

0
{
{
{

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1
r2

The S.I. unit of charge is coulomb (C).

1 Coulomb is defined as the total charge transferred by a current
of one ampere in one second.
Note :
z
The sign of the charge can be ignored when substituting into the
Coulombs law equation.
z
The sign of the charges is important in distinguishing the direction
of the electric force .
6

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Example 1 :
Two point charges, q1=-20 nC and q2=90 nC, are separated by a
distance of 4.0 cm as shown in figure below.

q1 -

+ q2

4.0 cm
Find the magnitude and direction of
a. the electric force that q1 exerts on q2.
b. the electric force that q2 exerts on q1.
(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)
Solution: q1=2.0

-8
-8
-2
x 10
r C, q2=9.0 xr 10 C, r=4.0 x 10 m

F12

q1 - F21

+ q2

4.0 cm
wherer

Fr12 : force by charge 1 on charge 2

F21 : force by charge 2 on charge 1

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a. By applying the Coulombs law equation :

r
kq q
F12 = 12 2
r
r
(9.0 x10 9 )(2.0 x10 8 )(9.0 x10 8 )
F12 =
(4 x10 2 ) 2
r
F12 = 1.0 x10 2 N Direction : to the left (q1)

b. By using the Coulombs law equation :

r
kq q
F21 = 22 1
r
r
F21 = 1.0 x10 2 N

Direction : to the right (q2)

Conclusion :
z
The magnitude of both forces is the same but opposite in direction
obey the Newtons third
r law. r

F12 = F21

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The characteristic of electric force exert on both charges is

attractive force.

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Example 2 :
Three point charges lie along the x-axis as shown in figure below.

q2 = 4 C

q1 = 2 C

q3 = 6 C
-

3.0 cm

5.0 cm

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the total electric force

exerted on q2.
(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)
Solution: r12=3.0

x 10-2 m, r23=5.0 x 10-2 m

q2 = 4 C F12r

q1 = 2 C

F32

3.0 cm

q3 = 6 C
-

5.0 cm

By applying the Coulombs law equation :

r
kq q
F12 = 12 2
r12
r
F12 = 8.0 x10 13 N

Direction : to the right (q3)

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and

r
kq q
F32 = 22 3
r23
r
F32 = 8.6 x10 13 N

Direction : to the right (q3)

Therefore, the total force exerted on q2 is given by

r
r
r
F2 = F12 + F32
r
r
r
F2 = F12 + F32
r
F2 = 8.0 x10 13 + 8.6 x10 13
r
F2 = 16.6 x10 13 N Direction : to the right (q3)

Example 3 :
Figure below shows the three point charges are placed in the shape of
triangular.

q3

r13

q1

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r12

q2

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Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric force

exerted on q1. Given q1=-1.2 C, q2=+3.7 C, q3=-2.3 C, r12=15 cm,
r13=10 cm, =32 and k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2.
Solution: q1=1.2x10-6

r12

=15x10-2
q3

C, q2=3.7x10-6 C, q3=2.3x10-6 C,
m, r13=10x10-2 m

r13

q1

r
F21

58 o r12

r
F31

q2

By applying the Coulombs law equation :

r
kq q
F21 = 12 2
r12
r
(9.0 x10 9 )(1.2 x10 6 )(3.7 x10 6 )
F21 =
(15 x10 2 ) 2
r
F21 = 1.78 N

Magnitude of F21:

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11

Magnitude of F31:

r
kq q
F31 = 12 3
r13
r
F31 = 2.48 N

Construct a table to represents x and y-component for all

forces exerted on q1.

Force x-component(N) y-component(N)

r
r
F21
0
F21

r
F31

r
F31 cos 58 o

Vector sum the x-comp.

and
r
r y-comp. :

F
F

1x

1y

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r
F31 sin 58 o

= F21 + F31 cos 58 o = 3.09 N

r
= 0 F31 sin 58 o = 2.10 N

The magnitude of resultant electric force exerted on q1 :

r
2
2
F1 = ( F1 x ) + ( F1 y )
r
F1 = 3.78 N

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The direction of resultant electric force exerted on q1 :

tan =

F
F

1y
1x

= 34.2 o
{

or 325.8
325.8 from the +x+x-axis
(anticlockwise).

Example 4 :
Two identical point charges A and B, each of mass 20 g, suspended
from a fixed point O on two insulating threads as shown in figure
below.
The charges are in equilibrium and each
carries the same amount of charge, q. If

=20, calculate

a. the magnitude of both point charges.

b. the magnitude of the electric force acting
on each charge.

(Given 0=8.85

x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)

15.0 cm
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13

Solution: mA=mB=m=20x10-3

g, r=15.0x10-2 m, =20

a. The free body diagram of point charge A :

{

T cos
r
Fe

r
T

T sin
r
mg

Since the charges are in equilibrium, thus

the point charge A also in equilibrium then

=0

and

Fe = T sin
mg = T cos
{

=0
(1)
(2)

By dividing eq. (1) with eq. (2),

Fe
= tan
mg
because

Fe =

q A qB
4 0 r 2

(3)

and

q A = qB = q

then eq. (3) becomes

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q2
= tan
4 0 r 2 mg
q = 4.2 x10 7 C

14

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b. By applying Coulombs law equation :

q A qB
4 0 r 2
q2
Fe =
4 0 r 2
Fe = 0.071 N
Fe =

Example 5 : (exercise)
Two point charges are placed on the x-axis as follows :
Charge q1 = +4.00 nC is located at x = 0.200 m, charge q2 = +5.00 nC
is at x = -0.300 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the total
electric force exerted by these two charges on a negative point charge
q3 = -6.00 nC that is placed at the origin. (Young & freedman,pg.829,no.21.20)
(Given 0=8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)
Ans. : 2.4 N to the right

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15

Example 6 : (exercise)
Four identical point charges (q = +10.0 C) are located on the corners
of a rectangle as shown in figure below.

+ q

q +

w
q+

+q

The dimension of the rectangle are l = 60.0 cm and w = 15.0 cm.

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric force
exerted on the charge at the lower left corner by the other three
charges. (Serway & Jewett, pg. 735, no. 57)
(Given 0=8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)
Ans. : 40.9 N at 263

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16

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3.2.1 Relation of electric force, Fe and centripetal force, Fc

{
Consider an electron(-ve) orbiting the nucleus (+ve) of an atom in
circular orbit of radius, r at tangetial (linear) speed, v as shown in
figure below.
{
The electric force between electron and nucleus
contribute the net force (centripetal force).
r
r
r
electron
F =F
e

kqe q p

nucleus

r2
{

m v2
= e
r

Since qe=qp=e thus

ke 2
= me v 2
r
where

me : electron mass = 9.11x10 - 31 kg

e : electron charge = 1.60 x10 -19 C
k : Coulomb(electrostatic) constant

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17

3.2.2 Comparison between Newtons Law of Gravitation and

Coulombs Law.
Newton
Newtons law of Gravitation
Only attractive force

Attractive or repulsive force

Force due to mass interaction

Force due to charge interaction

The force is a long-range

forces.

The force is a short-range

force.

The equation of the

gravitational force :

The equation of the electric

force :

Fg =

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Coulomb
Coulombs law

Gm1m2
r2

Fe =

kq1q2
r2

18

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3.3 Electric Field

{

{
{
{

Definition is defined as a region of space around isolated charge

where an electric force is experienced if a positive
test charge placed in the region.
Electric field around charges can be represented by drawing a series
of lines. These lines are called electric field lines (lines of force).
The direction of electric field is tangent to the electric field line at each
point.
Figures below show the electric field patterns around the charge.
a. Single positive charge
b. Single negative charge

Field direction

-q

+q

(the lines point radially inward

toward the charge)

(the lines point radially outward

from the charge)
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19

c. Two equal point charges of opposite sign, +q and -q

Field direction

+q

(the lines are curved

and they are directed
from the positive
charge to the negative
charge.

-q

d. Two equal positive charges, +q and + q

(point X is neutral point )
Field direction

+q

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+q

is defined as a point
(region) where the total
electric force is zero.

It lies along the vertical

dash line.
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e. Two opposite unequal charges, +2q and -q

Field direction

-q

+2q

(note that twice as many

lines leave +2q as there
are lines entering q,
number of lines is
proportional to
magnitude of charge.)
charge.)

f. Two opposite charged parallel metal plates

{ The electric field lines are perpendicular to the
surface of the metal plates.

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The lines go directly from positive plate to the

negative plate.

The field lines are parallel and equally spaced in the

central region far from the edges but fringe outward
near the edges. Thus, in the central region, the
electric field has the same magnitude at all points.

The fringing of the field near the edges can be

ignored because the separation of the plates is small
21
compared to their size.
Simulation

g. Two equal negative charges, -q and -q (exercise).

-q

-q

h. Two unequal negative charges, -2q and -q (exercise).

-2q
{

-q

The properties of electric field lines:

The field lines indicate the direction of the electric field (the
the field
points in the direction tangent to the field line at any point).
point
z
The lines are drawn so that the magnitude of electric field is
proportional to the number of lines crossing unit area
perpendicular to the lines. The closer the lines, the stronger the
field.
field
z
Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on
negative charges,
charges and the number starting or ending is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
z
The field lines never cross because the electric field dont have
two value at the same point.
z

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22

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r
3.4 Electric Field Strength
r (intensity), E
{

The electric field strength at a point, E

Definition is defined as the electric (electrostatic) force per unit
positive charge that acts at that point in the same
direction as the force.
Mathematically,
where

E=
{
{

E : magnitude of the electric field strength

F : magnitude of the electric force
q0 : magnitude of test charge

It is a vector quantity.
The units of electric field strength is N C-1 or V m-1.

kqq
F = 2 0 , then the equation above can be written as
r
kqq0
2
q
kq
E = r
E = 2 or E =
q0
4 0 r 2
r

where
q : magnitude of isolated point charge
r : distance between the point and isolated point charge 23
{

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F
q0

Since

Note :
z

The direction of the electric field strength, E depends on the sign

of isolated point charge.
The direction of the electric force, F depends on the sign of
isolated point charge and test charge. For example
{
A positive isolated point charge.
a. positive test charge

r
F
r

q0 (+ ve)

q
b. negative test charge

r
F

q
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r
E

q0 (ve)

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A negative isolated point charge.

a. positive test charge

r
F

q
b. negative test charge

r
E

q0 (+ ve)

r
E

r
F
q0 (ve)

q
r
z

In the calculation of magnitude E, substitute the magnitude of

the charge only.

Simulation
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25

Example 7 :
Two point charges, q1=1 C and q2=-4 C, are placed 2 cm and 3 cm
from the point A respectively as shown in figure below.

q1 +

- q2

2 cm
3 cm
Find
a. the magnitude and direction of the electric field intensity at point A.
b. the total electric force exerted on q0=-4 C if it is placed at point A.
(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)
Solution:

q1=1 C, q2=4 C, q0=4 C, r1=2x10-2 m, r2=3x10-2 m

r
E A2
r
q1 +
q
E A1 - 2
A
2 cm
3 cm

a. By applying the equation of electric field strength, the magnitude of

E at point A.

kq1 (9.0 x10 9 )(1)

=
r12
(2 x10 2 ) 2
= 2.25 x10 13 N C 1 Direction : to the right (q2)

Due to q1 :
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E A1

E A1 =

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Due to q2 :

kq2 (9.0 x10 9 )(4 )

=
r22
(3 x10 2 ) 2
= 4 x10 13 N C 1 Direction : to the right (q2)

E A2 =
E A2

therefore the electric field strength at point A due to the charges is

given by r
r
r

E A = E A1 + E A 2
r
E A = 2.25 x10 13 + 4 x10 13
r
E A = 6.25 x10 13 N C 1 Direction : to the right (q2)

b. From the definition of the electric field strength,

EA =

FA
q0

FA = q0 E A

thus the total electric force exerted on q0 is given by

FA = (4 )(6.25 x10 13 )
FA = 2.5 x10 14 N

Direction : to the left (q1)

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27

Example 8 : (exercise)
Find the magnitude of the electric field at point P due to the four point
charges as shown in the figure below if q=1 nC and d=1 cm.
(Given 0=8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)
(HRW. pg. 540.11)

Ans. : zero.

Example 9 : (exercise)
Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the centre of
the square in figure below if q=1.0x10-8 C and a= 5cm.
(Given 0=8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)
(HRW. pg. 540.13)

Ans. : 1.02x105 N C-1, upwards.

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28

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3.5 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform

Electric Field
{

Consider a stationary particle of charge q0 and mass m is placed in a

uniform electric field E, the electric force Fe exerted on the charge is

given by

Fe = q0 E

Since only electric force exerted on the particle, thus this force
contributes the net force, F and causes the particle to accelerate.
According to Newtons second law, then the magnitude of the
acceleration of the particle is

F = Fe = ma
q0 E = ma
qE
a= 0
m

{
{

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Because the electric field is uniform (constant in magnitude and

direction) then the acceleration of the particle is constant.
If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction
of the electric field (figure 3.5a). If the particle has a negative charge
(electron) , its acceleration is in the direction opposite the electric field
(figure 3.5b).
29

r
E
{

r
a

r
Fe

r
E

r
a

r
Fe

Fig.3.5a
Fig.3.5b
Consider an electron (e) with mass, me enters a uniform electric field,

E perpendicularly with velocity v0, the downward electric force will

cause the electron to move along a parabolic path towards lower plate
(figure 3.5c).
x

v0
q0

r
E

v
Simulation
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Fig.3.5c

30

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Therefore the acceleration of the electron is given by

r
eE
a=
j
me

The negative sign indicates the direction of the acceleration is in

y axis (downward).
From the figure 3.5c, the path is similar to the motion of a ball
projected horizontally above the ground.
{

The component of its velocity at time t are given by.

x-component : v x = v0 = constant
y-component : v y = v0 y + a y t and v0 y = 0

vy =
{

eE
t
me

The position of the electron at time t is

x = v0 t

1
y = v0 y t a y t
2
1 eE
y = t 2
2 me
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31

3.6 Electric Flux, E

{

Electric flux of a uniform electric field,

field
Definition is defined as the scalar product between the electric
field strength, E with the vector of the surface area,
area, A.
r r
Mathematically,
E = E A or E = EA cos
where

{
{
{

E : magnitude of the electric field strength

A : magnitude of the
r of surface area
r vector
: angle between E and A

It is a scalar quantity.
The unit of electric flux is N m2 C-1.
Consider a uniform electric field E passing through a surface area A
as shown in figures 3.6a and 3.6b.
area, A
From the fig. 3.6a, =0, thus

r
A

E = EA cos 0 o
E = EA

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Fig. 3.6a

r
E

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r
A

area, A

r
E

Let us consider the more general case, when the electric field E is not
uniform and the surface is not flat as shown in figure 3.6c.
{ We divide up the chosen surface into
n small elements of surface whose
areas are UA1, UA2, UAn.

Fig. 3.6c

Note that the direction of vector

A is always perpendicular
(normal) to the surface area, A.

Fig. 3.6b
The electric flux is proportional to the number of field lines
passing through the area.

r
E

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between E and A is , thus

E = EA cos
{

From the fig. 3.6b, the angle

We choose the division so that each

of UAi is small enough that

r
r Ai
E

it can considered flat.

the electric field can be

considered uniform over this tiny
33
area.

Then the electric flux through the entire surface is approximately

n r
r
E = Ei Ai
i =1

If Ai 0 , the sum becomes an integral over entire surface and

and the relation becomes mathematically exact :

r r
E = E dA

In many cases, we deal with the flux through a closed surface and the
net flux through the surface is given by

r r
E = E dA

or

E = EdA cos

where the integral sign is written

to indicate that the integral is over
the value of E on an enclosing surface.
{

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Note :The direction of vector dA is always point outward from the

enclosed surface as shown in figure 3.6d.

Fig. 3.6d

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3.7 Gausss Law

{

States The total electric flux through an enclosed surface is

proportional to the algebraic sum of the electric
charges within the surface.
Mathematically,
r r

E = E dA =

where

qenc
0

E : magnitude of the electric field strength

dA : magnitude of the vector of surface area
qenc : algebraic sum of the electric charges in enclosed surface
0 : permittivity of free space
3.7.1 Equivalent of Gausss law and Coulombs law
{

Figure 3.7a shows a positive point charge q, around which we have

drawn a concentric spherical Gaussian surface of radius r.
Gaussian
{ From the Gausss law :
surface
r r q

q
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r
dA r
E

E = E dA =

Fig. 3.7a

E = EdA =
{

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and

q
0

and

qenc = q

dA = 4r

q
E = E (4 r 2 ) =
0
1
q
and k =
E=
2
4 0
4 0 r
kq
E= 2
r
Because F = q0 E then

F=
{

qenc

35

Since the electric field strength, E is considered uniform hence

E = E dA =

enc

0
q
E = EdA cos = enc
0
o
and = 0

kq0 q
r2

(surface area of the

Gaussian surface)

Coulomb
Coulombs Law

Exercise: Derived Gauss

Gausss law by using Coulomb
Coulombs law.

36

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3.7.2 Electric field of a Uniformly Charged Insulating Sphere

{

Consider an insulating solid sphere of radius R has a uniform volume

charge density and carries a total positive charge q as shown in

figure 3.7b and 3.7c.

+ +++ ++
+ +r +
+ + + ++
+ +R

Gaussian surface

+r+ + +
+ ++ +R+
+ + + ++
++
Gaussian surface
Fig. 3.7c

Fig. 3.7b
{

To find the magnitude of electric field inside the sphere, a spherical

gaussian surface smaller than the sphere is drawn (figure 3.7b).
z
z

This gaussian surface having the radius r

< R.
Denote the volume of this small sphere is V and the charge
inside is qin (qin < q)

The volume charge density of a insulating solid sphere is given

q
q
by
= =
constant

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4 3
R
3

37

Therefore the charge inside the smaller gaussian surface qin is

q 4
qr 3
r 3 = 3
qin = V' =
4 R 3 3
R

The magnitude of the electric field is constant and normal to

the surface at each point everywhere on the gaussian surface
both conditions.
conditions
By applying Gausss law ,

qin
2
and dA = 4r
3
0
qr
E dA = E( 4 r 2 ) =
0 R 3

E = EdA =

then the magnitude of the electric field inside the sphere:

q
r
E =
3
4

R
0

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Inside (r<R)

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To find the magnitude of electric field outside the sphere, a spherical

gaussian surface bigger than the sphere is drawn (figure 3.7c).
z
z
z

This gaussian surface having the radius r

> R.
Denote the charge outside is qout and qout = q
By applying Gausss law ,

qout
0
q
E dA = E( 4 r 2 ) =
0
E = EdA =

then the magnitude of the electric field outside the sphere:

q 1
2
E =
4 0 r
{

Outside (r>R)

Hence the graph of E against r for a uniformly charged insulating

sphere can be shown in figure 3.7d.

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39

+
+ +++
+ + R+ +
+ + + ++
++ +

q 1
2
E =
4 0 R

Er

1
r2

Fig. 3.7d
3.7.3 Electric field of a Charged Conducting Sphere
{
Consider a solid conducting sphere of radius R carries a net (total)
positive charge q as shown in figure 3.7e.
{ From the figure 3.7e, the positive
charge resides on its surface only
r +

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+ ++
++
+ r R+
+ E = 0 ++
++ ++
++

Fig. 3.7e

It is because the conducting sphere

in electrostatic equilibrium (no net
motion of charge within a
conductor).
conductor)
40
Gaussian surface
{

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Then the magnitude of the electric field inside the conducting sphere
is given by
Inside (r<R)
E =0

To find the magnitude of electric field outside the sphere, a spherical

gaussian surface bigger than the sphere is drawn (figure 3.7e).
z
For this choice, both conditions are satisfied, as they were for the
insulating sphere in subtopic 3.7.2.
z

This gaussian surface having the radius r

outside is qout = q.
From the Gausss law,

> R and the charge

qout
0
q
2
E dA = E( 4 r ) =
0
E = EdA =

then the magnitude of the electric field outside the sphere:

q 1
2
E =
4 0 r

Outside (r>R)

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41

Hence the graph of E against r for a charged conducting sphere can

be shown in figure 3.7f.

++ +
++ R ++
+ r
+ E = 0 ++
++ ++
++

q 1
2
E =
4 0 R

E
E =0

1
r2

Fig. 3.7f

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42

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3.7.4 Electric field of a Line Charge.

{
Consider an infinitely long charged thin wire where the electric charge
is distributed uniformly on the wire. The wire has a line of positive
charge of infinite length and constant charge per unit length as
shown in figure 3.7g.
Gaussian surface

r
E r

r
E

dA

wire

r
r
dA

E =0
{

r
E

Fig. 3.7h
Fig. 3.7g
The symmetry of the charge distribution requires that E be
perpendicular to the line charge and directed outward as shown in
figure 3.7h.
To find the magnitude of the electric field at distance r from the wire, a
cylindrical gaussian surface is drawn (figure 3.7g).

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43

The gaussian surface having the length l and radius r.

For this choice, both conditions are satisfied, as they were for the
insulating sphere in subtopic 3.7.2.
The charge inside the cylindrical gaussian surface is given by

By using the Gausss law,

z
z

qin = l

E = EdA =

qin

and

0
l
E dA = E( 2rl) =
0

dA = 2rl

then the magnitude of the electric field at distance r from the wire:

E=
{

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1

2 0 r

or

E = 2k
r

where

k=

1
4 0

The electric flux at the end of the cylindrical gaussian surface is zero
because the angle between E and dA is 90 (figure 3.7g).Therefore
the electric flux is given by

r r
E = E dA = EdA cos = EdA cos 90o =0

44

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3.7.5 Electric field of an infinite Plane Sheet of Charge.

{
Consider an infinite sheet with thin and flat surface on which there is a
uniform positive charge per unit area,
area as shown in figure 3.7i.
{

From the figure 3.7i, the direction of

E is perpendicular to the plane and

r
E

have the same magnitude at all

Area, A points equidistant from the plane.

r
dA

r
dA r

Gaussian surface
z

To find the magnitude of the electric

field due to infinite plane, a small
cylinder gaussian surface is drawn
(figure 3.7i).
{

Both ends of gaussian surface

have an area A and are
equidistant from the plane.

Fig. 3.7i
For the curved surface, the angle between E and dA is 90 thus
the electric flux through the curved surface is zero.
For the flat ends of the cylinder, both conditions are satisfied thus
the electric fluxrthrough
r each end is

E = E dA = E dA and
E = EA

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dA = A

45

therefore the total electric flux through the entire gaussian surface
is
E = EA + EA = 2 EA
The charge inside the gaussian surface is given by

By applying the Gausss law,

qin = A

q
E = EdA = in
0
A
2 EA =

then the magnitude of the electric field due to an infinite plane :

E=
{

2 0

NonNon-conductor
plane sheet

Note:
For the conductor plane sheet,
sheet the charge resides on its surface
and all the electric field lines leave on one side of the surface .
Thus the total electric flux is E = EA
z
By using the Gausss law, we get the magnitude of the electric
field is
z

E=

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46

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3.8 Electric Potential, V

{

Consider a positive point charge (+q) held stationary at O exerts a

repulsive force Fe on a positive test charge (+q0) at P (figure 3.8a).

A and B are two points on the line that passes through O and P.

+
+q

r2

Ar
F

dr + q0

r
Fe

r1
Fig. 3.8a

The test charge at P is moved by an external force, F through a small

distance dr towards A. dr is so small that the force F can be
considered to be constant. Thus the work done dW by the external
force is given by
dW = Fdr cos 0 o and F = Fe

dW = Fe dr
kqq0
kqq0
Since Fe =
dr
then dW =
2
r
r2

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47

The total work done W in bringing the test charge (+q0) from B to A
is given by

1
dr
r1 r 2
r2
1
W = kqq0
r r1

dW = kqq0

r2

1 1
W = kqq0
r2 r1
kqq0
where U A =
r2
{

and

W = U A U B
UB =

kqq0
r1

If r1= and r2=r then the work done in bringing the test charge
from infinity to point A (W ) is

1 qq0
kqq0
or W = U A =
4 r
r
0

where U : electric potential energy

r : distance between th e point with point charge
48
k : electrostatic constant
W = U A =

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or

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Electric potential, V of a point in the electric field

Definition is defined as the work done in bringing positive test
charge from infinity to that point in the electric field.
field.
where
or

V=
Since

where

W
q0

W : work done
q0 : test charge

kqq0
then the equation above can be written as
r
kqq0

V=
q0
kq or V = 1 q
V=
4 r
r
0

W =

r : distance between th e point with the point charge

q : point charge
0 : permittivity of free space
( 0 = 8.85 x10 12 C 2 N 1 m 2 )

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49

{
{
{
{

W = U = q0V

Electric potential is a scalar quantity.

The S.I. unit for electric potential is the Volt (V) or J C-1.
The total electric potential at a point in space is equal to the algebraic
sum of the constituent potentials at that point.
Note :
z
The theoretical zero of electric potential of a charge is at
infinity.
infinity
z
The electric potential energy of a positively charged particle
increases when it moves to a point of higher potential.
z
The electric potential energy of a negatively charged particle
increases when it moves to a point of lower potential.
z
Since charge q can be positive or negative, the electric potential
can also be positive or negative.
z
If the value of work done is negative work done by the
electric force (system).
z
If the value of work done is positive work done by the
external force or on the system.
system
z

In the calculation of V, the sign of the charge must be

substituted in the equation of V.

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50

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Example 10 :
Figure below shows a point A at distance 10 m from the positive point
charge, q=5C.

+
10 m

Calculate the electric potential at point A and describe the meaning of

the answer.
(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)
Solution: q=5

C, r=10 m

By applying the equation of the electric potential at a point,

kq (9.0 x10 9 )(5)

=
r
(10 )
9
VA = 4.5 x10 V @ J C 1

VA =

Meaning : 4.5 x 109 joule of work is done in bringing 1 C positive

charge from infinity to the point A.

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51

Example 11 :
Two point charges, q1=+0.3 C and q2=-0.4 C are separated by a
distance of 6 m as shown in figure below.

q1 +

- q2

6m
Calculate
a. the electric field strength and
b. the electric potential
at point A ( 3 m from the charge q1).
(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)
Solution: q1=+0.3

C, q2=-0.4 C

q1 +

r1 = 3 m

r
E A2

r
q
E A1 - 2

r2 = 3 m

a. By applying the equation of electric field strength, the magnitude of

E at point A.
Due to q1 :

E A1
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kq1 (9.0 x10 9 )(0.3)

=
r12
(3) 2
= 3 x10 8 N C 1 Direction : to the right (q2)

E A1 =

52

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Due to q2 :

kq2 (9.0 x10 9 )(0.4)

E A2 = 2 =
r2
(3) 2
8
1
Direction : to the right (q2)
E A2 = 4 x10 N C

therefore the electric field strength at point A due to the charges is

given by r
r
r

E A = E A1 + E A 2
r
E A = 3 x10 8 + 4 x10 8
r
E A = 7 x10 8 N C 1 Direction : to the right (q2)

b. By applying the equation of electric potential, the value of V at point

A is

V A = V A1 + V A 2
q q
kq kq
VA = 1 + 2 = k 1 + 2
r1
r2
r1 r2
0.3 0.4
VA = 9.0 x10 9

+
3 3
VA = 3 x10 8 V

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53

Example 12 :
Two point charges, q1=+12 nC and q2=-12 nC are separated by a
distance of 8 cm as shown in figure below. P

6 cm

q1 +

q2

8 cm
Determine the electric potential at point P( 6 cm from the charge q2).
(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)
Solution: q1=+12x10-9

C, q2=-12x10-9 C

r1 = 10 x10 2 m

q1
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r2 = 6 x10 2 m

+
2

8 x10 m

q2
54

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By applying the equation of electric potential, the value of V at point P

is

V P = VP 1 + VP 2
q q
kq kq
VP = 1 + 2 = k 1 + 2
r1
r2
r1 r2
VP = 720 V

Example 13 : (exercise)
Four point charges are located at the corners of a square that is 8.0 cm
on a side. The charges, going in rotation around the square, are q, 2q,
-3q and 2q, where q = 4.8 C as shown in figure below.

8 cm

2q

Find the electric potential at the

centre of the square.
(Given 0=8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)
Ans. : 1.53 x 106 V.

3q

2q
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3.8.1 Potential Difference

{
Potential difference between two points in an electric field,
Definition is defined as the work done in bringing a positive test
charge from a point to another point in the electric
field.
{
From the figure 3.8a, the potential difference between point A and B,
VAB is given by

VAB =

WBA
q0

and

VAB = V A VB

or

VA VB =

WBA
q0

where WBA

: work done in bringing positive test charge

from point B to point A.
VA : electric potential at point A
VB : electric potential at point B
q0 : test charge

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56

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Note :
If the positive test charge moving from point A to point B, thus the
potential difference between this points is given by

VBA = VB VA =

WAB
q0

where

W AB : work done in bringing positive test charge

from point A to point B.
VBA : potential difference between point B and point A

therefore

V AB = VBA

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57

q1

Example 14 :
Two point charges q1=+2.40 nC and q2=-6.50 nC are 0.100 m apart.
Point A is midway between them, point B is 0.080 m from q1 and
0.060 m from q2 as shown in figure below.
B
Find
a. the electric potential at point A,
0 .060 m b. the electric potential at point B,
0.080 m
c. the work done by the electric field
A
on a charge of 2.5 nC that travels
from point B to point A.
q

0.050 m

0.050 m

(Young & freedman,pg.900,no.23.21)

(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)

Solution: q1=+2.40x10-9

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C, q2=-6.50x10-9 C,
r1A=r2A=0.050 m, r1B=0.080 m , r2B=0.060 m
a. By applying the equation of electric potential, the value of V at point
A is
VA = V1 A + V2 A
kq kq
VA = 1 + 2
r1 A r2 A
58
VA = 738 V

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b. By applying the equation of electric potential, the value of V at point

B is
V = V +V
B

1B

2B

kq kq
VB = 1 + 2
r1B r2 B
VB = 705 V
c. Given q0=2.50x10-9 C
The work done in bringing charge, q0 from point B to point A is
given by
W =qV
BA

AB

WBA = q0 (VA VB )
WBA = 8.25 x10 8 J

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Example 15 :
A test charge q0=+2.3x10-4 C is 5 cm from a point charge q. A work
done of +4 J is required to overcome the electrostatic force to bring
the test charge q0 to a distance 8 cm from charge q.
Calculate :
a. the potential difference between point 8 cm and 5 cm from the point
charge, q.
b. the value of charge q.
59

c. the magnitude of the electric field strength for charge q0 at point 5 cm

from the charge q.
(Given Coulombs constant, k = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2)
-4
Solution: q0=+2.30x10
r

Fe

5 x10

a. Given WAB=

r
F

m
8 x10 2 m

+4J,

From the figure above, rA=

5x10-2 m, rB= 8x10-2 m

By applying the equation of potential difference, the value of VBA is

WAB
q0
= 1.74 x10 4 V

VBA =
VBA

b. The electric potential at point A due to point charge, q :

kq (9 x10 9 ) q
=
rA (5 x10 2 )
VA = 1.8 x10 11 q

VA =

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60

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The electric potential at point B due to point charge, q :

VB =

kq (9 x10 9 ) q
=
= 1.125 x10 11 q
rB (8 x10 2 )

The potential difference between point A and B is

VAB = VA VB

and

VAB = VBA = 1.74 x10 4 V

1.74 x10 4 = 1.8 x10 11 q 1.125 x10 11 q

q = 2.58 x10 7 C
c. By using the equation of electric field strength, thus

EA =

kq
rA2

E A = 9.29 x10 5 N C 1

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61

3.8.2 Relation Between V and E

{
Consider a positive test charge, q0 placed near a positive point
charge, q. To move q0 towards q by a small displacement (r), work
done (W) must be expended as shown in figure 3.8b.

r
F

q +

+ q0

r
Fe

Fig. 3.8b
The work done by the external force F is given by

Since

W = Fr cos 0 o and F = Fe
W = Fe r
F
W = q0 V then V = e r
q0

V = Er
where

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or

Fe
=E
q0
V
E=
r

and

V : potential difference
r : change in displacement(distance)
E : electric field strength

62

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In the limit when r approaches zero,

V
E = limit

r 0
r
dV
E=
dr

The negative sign indicates that the value of electric potential

decreases in the direction of electric field.

dV
is known as the electric potential gradient. It can be obtained
dr
from the gradient of a V against r graph.

An alternative unit for electric field strength, E is volts per meter where

The electric field produced by a pair of flat metal plates, one of which
is earthed and the other is at a potential of V is uniform. This can be
shown by equally spaced lines of force in figure 3.8c.

1 N C 1 = 1 V m 1

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63

+V
V =0

Fig.3.8c
z

The V against r graph for pair of flat metal plates can be shown in
figure 3.8d.
From the figure 3.8d,
{
The graph is a straight line with negative constant gradient,
thus

E=

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Fig. 3.8d

E=

V
d

V
(0 V )
=
r
(d 0)
or

V = Ed

Uniform E

64

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3.9 Equipotential Surface

{
{

Definition is defined as the locus of points that have the same

electric potential.
Figures 3.9a and 3.9b are example of the equipotential surface.

r
E

C
B

Fig. 3.9a : a uniform electric

field produced by an infinite
sheet of charge
z
z

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r
E

B
C
Fig. 3.9b:a point charge

The dashed lines represent the equipotential surface (line).

The equipotential surfaces (lines) always perpendicular to the
electric field lines passing through them.
65

From the figures, V = V V

A
B
C
then the work done to bring a test charge from B to A is given by

WBA = q0VAB = q0 (VA VB )

No work is done in moving a charge
WBA = 0

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along an equipotential surface.

Example 16 : (exercise)
At a certain distance from a point charge, the magnitude of the electric
field is 500 V m-1 and the electric potential is -3.00 kV. Calculate
a. the distance to the charge.
b. the value of the charge. (Serway & Jewett,pg.788,no.17)
(Given 0=8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2)
Ans. : 6.00 m, -2.00 C

66