JEALOUSY: AN EMPIRICAL AND

PHENOMENOLOGICAL

STUDY

by

MARIETTE
R.N.,

BESANGER WEST

ST. PAUL'S HOSPITAL,

1972

B.S.N., UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA,

1981

A T H E S I S SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL F U L F I L L M E N T OF
. THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE
(Department

We

of C o u n s e l l i n g

accept t h i s
to

thesis

the r e q u i r e d

STUDIES
Psychology)

as conforming
standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA

DECEMBER

MARIETTE

1983

BESANGER WEST,

1S8 3

In

presenting

requirements

this
for

an

of

British

it

freely available

agree
for

by

understood

that

his

that

or

be

her
or

shall

the

University

and

study.

copying

granted

by

of

p u b l i c a t i o n of

not

be

further
this

this

It

thesis
my

is
thesis

a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

Columbia

make

the head o f

representatives.

of

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h
1956 Main M a l l
Vancouver,
Canada
V6T 1Y3

at

the

shall

permission.

Department

f u l f i l m e n t of

the L i b r a r y

extensive

may

copying

f i n a n c i a l gain

degree

reference

for

purposes

or

partial

agree

for

that permission

scholarly

in

advanced

Columbia,

department
for

thesis

written

i i

ABSTRACT

This

study

combination
In

examines t h e concept

"jealousy" using a

o f e m p i r i c a l and p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

t h e e m p i r i c a l phase o b j e c t i v e d a t a

descriptive
subjective

statistics.
data

descriptors,

from

understandings

In t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

were a n a l y z e d

the other
gained

were s u r v e y e d

from

a review

of l i t e r a t u r e

by d a t a a n d

of three t h e o r i e s of
on j e a l o u s y

a student

u s i n g an a d a p t e d

by A r o n s o n and P i n e s

28 male r e s p o n d e n t s

described
with

responses.

from

disciplines.

inventory
and

phase

p h a s e and by t h e c o n c e p t u a l

T h r e e h u n d r e d a d u l t s from
complex

using

on t h e b a s i s o f m a j o r

i n e a c h p h a s e were s u p p o r t e d

emotion and a c r i t i q u e
several

were a n a l y z e d

e l e m e n t s a n d themes i n t h e v e r b a t i m

Interpretations
findings

approaches.

(1982).

family

housing

v e r s i o n of a jealousy
Forty-five

defined jealousy in their

and i n t e r p r e t e d

their

t h e e m o t i o n and r e s p o n d e d

objective

item

emotional

reactions; general

most e x t r e m e

female
own words;

experiences

(on a o n e - t o - s e v e n

s u b t e s t s of j e a l o u s y p r e v a l e n c e ;

scale) to
p h y s i c a l and

r e a c t i o n s and c o p i n g

mechanisms.
Quantitative
preliminary
effects

and q u a l i t a t i v e

findings.

resulted

Among them were: a p p a r e n t

of the instrument;

objective

analyses

sex d i f f e r e n c e s

s u b t e s t s ; and q u a l i t a t i v e

i n many

therapeutic

i n each of the

s i m i l a r i t i e s and

differences

among i n d i v i d u a l s

participants'

and between t h e s e x e s i n

definitions, experiential

a c c o u n t s and

interpretations.
Several
for

future

counselling

h y p o t h e s e s were g e n e r a t e d and many

r e s e a r c h were d i s c u s s e d .
practice

generally

broader c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
jealousy

experiences.

Implications

suggestions
for

promoted a p p l i c a t i o n

and more p o s i t i v e

of a

outcomes f o r

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract

i i

List

of T a b l e s

List

of F i g u r e s

vi
v i i

Acknowledgements

viii

Dedication

ix

Chapter
I

II

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

G e n e r a l B a c k g r o u n d and P u r p o s e of t h e S t u d y .
D e f i n i n g J e a l o u s y .....
..
Assumptions
Limitations
T h e o r i e s of Emotion
...
LITERATURE REVIEW
J e a l o u s y and Envy
P e r s p e c t i v e s from A n t h r o p o l o g y
P e r s p e c t i v e s from P s y c h i a t r y
P e r s p e c t i v e s from P s y c h o l o g y
C h a p t e r Summary

III

..
and S o c i o l o g y

EMPIRICAL PHASE
D e s i g n and Method
Subjects
Instruments
P i l o t Study
D a t a C o l l e c t i o n and P r o c e d u r e s
Sample Demography
R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n
I.
Jealousy: Trait-Based?
II.
Response S e t a n d / o r R e - e x p e r i e n c e o f
the Emotion?
III.
J e a l o u s y and S i b l i n g P o s i t i o n
IV.
Jealousy Prevalence
V.
General Reactions to Jealousy
VI.
Physical Reactions to Jealousy
VII.
E m o t i o n a l R e a c t i o n s t o J e a l o u s y ....
VIII.
Coping with J e a l o u s y
H y p o t h e s e s and I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u t u r e
Research
C h a p t e r Summary

1
1
4
5
6
7
25,
25
30
45
61
113
116
116
116
116
117
118
119
121
121
123
128
129
129
132
134
137
140
145

IV

PHENOMENOLOGICAL PHASE

146

P a r t i c i p a n t D e f i n i t i o n s of J e a l o u s y : A
Discussion
P a r t i c i p a n t s ' J e a l o u s y E x p e r i e n c e s : Major
Themes
Implications f o r Future Research
C h a p t e r Summary
V

IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING

153
158
164

PRACTICE

165

General Considerations
Counselling Individuals
Counselling Couples
C o u n s e l l i n g Groups
C h a p t e r Summary

167
170
175
180
183

THE SI S. SUMMARY
REFERENCES

1 46

184

. ..'
Inventory

186

Appendix

A:

Jealousy

194

Appendix

B:

Request

Appendix

C:

Cover L e t t e r

Appendix

D:

Responses

t o Items

Appendix

E:

Responses

t o Item

120

224

Appendix

F:

Responses

t o Item

123

230

for Participation

i n Study

f o r Inventory
28, 29, 30

......

201
203
206

vi

L I S T OF TABLES

Table

1:

Frequencies

Table

2:

Jealousy Prevalence Questions:

Standard D e v i a t i o n s

Table
Table
Table
Table

3:
4:
5:
6;

o f t h e Demographic V a r i a b l e s

General Reaction Questions:

Standard D e v i a t i o n s
Ranking of P h y s i c a l
Mean R e s p o n s e
Ranking of E m o t i o n a l
Mean R e s p o n s e

... 120

Means and
130

Means and

Reactions

131
on B a s i s o f
133

Reactions

on B a s i s o f
"

Ranking of "Coping With J e a l o u s y "

B a s i s o f Mean R e s p o n s e

135

Items on
13.8

vii

L I S T OF FIGURES

Figure

1:

R e s p o n s e t o Q u e s t i o n s 20 and 122 by
Question

19

124

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank my

a d v i s o r , Dr.

and

patience

i n h e l p i n g me

and

thesis.

I thank my

and

Dr.

Robert

t i m e and
Roelofs

her

with

data

Centre,

and

Acadia

and

my

Neville

of

my

and

support
f o r her

and

Marv Westwood
consultation.

f r i e n d s h i p , her

G e r i Cymbluck

for their

s u b j e c t s , the

and

most

colleagues

importantly,

my

daughter

invitations

t o p l a y as

delivering

envelopes.

Kala

Sciences

for

husband,

f o r her

her

Park

'being

h i s support
West

in

response;

I thank my

w e l l as

help

participation

enthusiastic

for his love, his patience,

and

f o r her

r e s i d e n t s of A c a d i a

t i m e and
my

Gary

computer

of U.B.C. H e a l t h

Psychiatry,

guidance

research project

a s s i s t a n c e with

staff

f r i e n d s and

editing;

endless

stamping

the

Camp f o r t h e i r

West

and

word p r o c e s s i n g ;

study;

Finally

help with
and

and

f a m i l y , my

there'.

for their

teaching

Department

pilot

this

c o n s u l t a t i o n ; B r u c e M c G i l l i v r a y and

processing;

the

to complete

Adrienne Roelofs

for their

programming

Banmen f o r h i s

c o m m i t t e e members, Dr.

Armstrong

I a l s o thank Dr.

John

help

and
love
with

his

ix

DEDICATION

To N e v i l l e

and

Kala

" E v e r y human p a s s i o n has

i t s useful

purpose."

Descartes

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

General
Jealousy
experience.
it

Background and Purpose of t h e Study

i s an a n c i e n t

e a r l y stages

f i n d i n g s and a r e l a r g e l y

framework
to allow

of t h i s

about

Empirical

decade.

Widely

m e t h o d o l o g i e s and

a n a l y s i s have been u s e d y e t c l a r i f i c a t i o n

Completion

construct

of t h i s

f o r a l l human e m o t i o n s ,

task
which

i s not p r e c i s e or
awaits

conceptual

is flexible

enough

f o r i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e p l e t h o r a o f human phenomena

to account

f o r o u r i n n a t e human

Jealousy
dramatized
our

a product

j e a l o u s y as a t h e o r e t i c a l

comprehensive.

knowledge

of development.

operational definitions,

approaches t o data
of

and a u n i v e r s a l human

However, t h e body o f s c i e n t i f i c

i s i n the very

varying

topic

complexity.

h a s been e x a m i n e d , a n a l y z e d ,

and v i s u a l l y

c u l t u r e and o t h e r s .

portrayed
This

discussed,

by e x p e r t s

research

and a m a t e u r s i n

r e - e x p l o r e s the

topic.
The

researcher

assumes t h a t we a s humans have a

consensual

awareness of the u n i v e r s a l l y

jealousy.

T h i s does n o t mean we e x p e r i e n c e

identically.
shared

experienced

R a t h e r , we,have some h o l i s t i c ,

sense of the j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e

jealousy
universally

as a n a t u r a l

phenomenon.
This
linear

study

is subjective

refinement,

meanings.

ordered

approaches.

scientically

presented

statistics.

L a t e r , the

interprets

and

as.a

member of

takes p l a c e .

Using

seeking

and

O b j e c t i v e data

interpreted

are

using

descriptive

r e s e a r c h e r p r e s e n t s and

gained

d u r i n g the

t h e community

this

combined

logical

experiential

scientific

t h e e x p e r i e n c e s c o n t r i b u t e d by

includes insights

itself,

objective,

i n f o r m a t i o n and

I t i n c o r p o r a t e s both

phenomenological

also

and

her

creatively

subjects.

research

i n which

approach

the

she

She

process
study

assumes:

t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e h a v i n g
systems,
w i t h more d e p t h t h a n t h e layman, i n o r d e r t o h e l p t h e
n o n - r e s e a r c h e r have more i n s i g h t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
h i m s e l f and t h u s t o d e v e l o p a t h i s own p a c e ( N a s r u ,
1980,
p.16).
The

researcher, a counsellor,

system.

L i k e the c o u n s e l l i n g

outcomes seek
insight
She

and

further

understanding

e x p l o r e s both
Concepts

purposes,

p r o c e s s , her

and

which

similarities

change o v e r

time

essential.

of our

solicit
and
as

concept

A more c o n v e r g e n t
statistical

understandings

For purposes

of

this

open

approach
while

action

and
promoting

and

change.

differences.
they

serve

open and

add

i s not

just

changing
to

the

wise

but

research refinement

i s t h e r e f o r e secondary
conceptual approach

a n a l y s i s await

as an

validation,

so t h e need t o remain

complexity

jealousy

query

v i e w s man

further

to

and

of

the

re-exploration.
advanced

refinement

of t h e o r i e s

and models

f o r human

Rollo
'purpose'
to

May's
of

(1969)

our

May

in

gives

this

further

(1969)

r e s e a r c h which

b e l i e v e s emotions

one t h a t

purpose.

answers

The f i r s t

to

are

aspect

has

one's

side

aspect'starts

in the present

and p o i n t s

the w o r l d ,
feelings
first
the

of

and

"purpose

in a r e a l

why",

for".

but

Emotion

a r o u s e d by v i r t u e of
future.

He

the

is

present.

May b e l i e v e s

that

it

In
is

goals,

past

second
future.

from us

f o r m e d by

dealing

with

the

requires asking
is

to

the

e n t i r e l y sound t o

second aspect

ideals

The

toward the

partially

that

past experience.

meaningful

second aspect

in the

subjectivity.

emotions.

something

sense

other persons

aspect,

"reason

and s h a r e s

blends

t o do w i t h t h e

the r e g r e s s i v e

communicates

of

and

support

r e a s o n and t h e o t h e r

as

It

it

for

i n t e n t i o n a l and have

and is" c o r r e l a t e d w i t h d e t e r m i n i s m of
He s e e s

'reason'

fundamental

o b j e c t i v i t y with phenomenological

two a s p e c t s ,
serves

d i s t i n c t i o n between

emotions

the approach used

scientific

emotions.

ask
the

attraction,

and p o s s i b i l i t i e s

in

the

says:

The r e a s o n i s t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e p a s t w h i c h
e x p l a i n s why y o u a r e d o i n g t h i s or t h a t , and p u r p o s e ,
i n c o n t r a s t , i s what you want t o get out of d o i n g i t
. . . . The s e c o n d ( a s p e c t ) i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h f r e e d o m .
We p a r t i c i p a t e i n f o r m i n g t h e f u t u r e by v i r t u e of o u r
c a p a c i t y t o c o n c e i v e of and r e s p o n d t o new
p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and t o b r i n g them out of i m a g i n a t i o n and
t r y them i n a c t u a l i t y (May, 1969, p . 9 1 ) .

In

summary,

exploration

of

this

the

r e s e a r c h renews and a d d s

reasons

why and p u r p o s e s

for

to

the

jealousy.

It

adds

t o t h e G e s t a l t of what

is

open

and c r e a t i v e i n u s i n g

descriptive
Her

goal

ways and

i s jealousy.
her d a t a ,

r e m a i n d e r of t h i s

research
broader

of j e a l o u s y ;

chapter

explore

context

conceptually
provides

for jealousy

a brief

Many e a r l y and
jealousy

assumptions

treat

(Langfeldt,
Buunk,

(Francis,
Turbott,

jealousy
1962);
1982;

1922;

1957;

upon w h i c h
and p r o v i d e

Todd

1977); m o r b i d

three

major
Finally,

define

1962;

(Barrell

& Dewhurst,

1947;

1955);

Ziman,

1979).

have

logical

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of j e a l o u s y .

as:

been

1949)

erotic

1982;

Bohm,

heterosexual

1977;

(Mooney,

Seeman,

Riviere,

& Richards,

& Marks,

1981); o r p a t h o l o g i c a l

trait

cause-effect

Sokoloff,

efforts

to follow.

authors

Langfeldt,

(Cobb

this

further

somewhat c a t e g o r i c a l l y

sexual

These

new

presuppose a jealous character

(Freud,

seeking

Jealousy

some c o n t e m p o r a r y

(Klein,

t h e o r i e s of human e m o t i o n . .

O t h e r s presuppose or imply

relationships

1961;

present

o u t l i n e of t h e c h a p t e r s

i n ways t h a t

or d i s p o s i t i o n

and/or

will

of a p p r o a c h by p r e s e n t i n g

divergent

in

jealousy.

as w e l l as

Defining

1932).

on

i s b a s e d , examine t h e l i m i t a t i o n s

substantiation

it

in objective

c o u n s e l l o r s and c l i e n t s

a b r o a d e r more h e l p f u l p e r s p e c t i v e

definition

researcher

i n more s p e c u l a t i v e , s u b j e c t i v e ways.

i s to f a c i l i t a t e

The

The

Mowat,

1965;

Pao,

1966;
1977;

e n l i g h t e n i n g t o our

However,

they

contribute
strive

to

t o a t e n d e n c y t o be p r i m a r i l y
understand

a need f o r

our

realities.

phenomenological

diagnostic

This

as

tendency

conceptualization

we

indicates

and

exploration.
Nasru

(1980)

constructs"
build
our

(p.7).

them i n t o

incorporates

"exist"

is

not

it

is

the

then,

for

a triangular

and

preliminary

descriptors

a new one

and

to

them

in a

similar
T h e form

she

of

conceptually

purposes

of

this

research

human e x p e r i e n c e i n w h i c h
c o r e needs a r e

is
both

t h r e a t e n e d or

t o be t h r e a t e n e d .

i n an e f f o r t

she

to

not

solicits

as

a conceptual

r e m a i n open t o new
define

their

background.

possibilities

jealousy

for

her

subjects.

definitions

for

presentation

discussion.

Assumpt i o n s
1.

in

definition

in d i s c u s s i o n s

an a n c i e n t

interpersonal

r e s e a r c h e r does

Instead,

t h e n , we need

t h e human e x p e r i e n c e .

The above d e f i n i t i o n a c t s
However,

mental

and i l l u s t r a t e

researcher's

to

are

one.

d e f i n e d as

perceived

This

Rather,

Jealousy,

personal

"concepts

Phenomenologically

"form"

a triangle,

reliable

that

visually-oriented

effort,, giving

jealousy.

out

images t h a t

definitions.

uses,

points

Jealousy

is

constructs

a conceptually
u s e d as

broader

foundations

for

construct
the

than

currently

the

and

available
2.

Jealousy

measures of j e a l o u s y .
exists in a social,

situational
stake

F u n d a m e n t a l human needs a r e a t

and every person has a t l e a s t

experience
3.

context.

i n t e r a c t i o n a l and

the p o t e n t i a l t o

jealousy.

Humans have a c o n s e n s u a l a w a r e n e s s o f t h e j e a l o u s y
experience.

4. A combined a p p r o a c h
incorporates:
research
by

literature;

Inferences

of p r e v i o u s

i s both

and
adapted

for objective

subjects'

f e a s i b l e and v a l i d .

experiences

own s e l f - r e p o r t , b u t r e m a i n

basis

of the r e s e a r c h e r ' s
the topic

conventional

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s u b j e c t s '

their

with

which

a self-report questionnaire

accounts,

about

of j e a l o u s y

descriptive statistics

and s u b j e c t i v e

experiential
5.

critique

the researcher;

data;

t o the study

are subservient

valid

expertise

to

i n c l u s i o n s on t h e

a s a c o u n s e l l o r and

area.

L i m i t a t ions
1. The q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,

as a r e s e a r c h

a p p r o a c h have t h e u s u a l
including
scale
in

socially

problems,

recall,

These

d e s i r a b l e and other

selective returns,

difficulties

Platek

and t h e survey

well-established

i n sampling

i s s u e s a r e reviewed

Krewski,

tool,

response

sets,

individual differences
non-respondents, e t c .

extensively

& Rao ( 1 9 8 0 ) , B o r g

problems

by s u c h a u t h o r s a s

& Gall

(1979) and many

others.
2.

A non-random a d u l t
and/or
as

their

a male or

partners

Selection

of

the

4.

one

An

students

adult

a g e s of

20

is

and

pool

was

a wish

countries,

backgrounds.

b a s e d on
to

60.

These

findings.

financial
include

cultures,

Survey

defined

races

response

and

is a

factor.

Residency
criteria

the

c o n v e n i e n c e and

religious/social

university

g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y of

subject

from v a r i o u s

limiting

of

sampled.

restrict

considerations,
subjects

was

f e m a l e between

characteristics
3.

population

i n the
such as:

adult;

community

sampled

f u l l - t i m e student

essential parental

income; and

i s determined

proximity

of

status

status;

permanent

of

at

number of

residence

by
least
children;

to

the

university.

Theories

This
providing
the

section

further

reviews three

a broader

conceptual

of

context

divergence

substantiation

for

of

Emotion

major

jealousy.

these

f o r the

theories

of

emotion,

I t makes a p p a r e n t

theories,

approach used

thus
in

providing

this

research.
Plutchik's
Plutchik,
the

theory

(Plutchik,

1962;

1980b) i s p s y c h o e v o l u t i o n a r y

ways i n w h i c h e m o t i o n s

function

Plutchik,
and

1980a;

seeks to

adaptively

identify

i n humans

and

animals.

His

structural

interrelationships
acceptance,

fear,

anticipation.
analysis
by h i s

of

many mood terms

" w h e e l of

emotions"

emotion.

Mixtures

yields

love.

the wheel

Emotions

that

The w h e e l
globe.
position
equator.
emotion

is

of

yields

awe,

indicates

including

disgust,

were a r r i v e d a t

and a r e
which

anger
by

is

divided

such,

while
of

into

emotions

eight

like

result

a combination

of

of

is

distinguished

weakest

sadness

is

their

of
by

the p o l e s

while

uses c o l o r s

encapsulate

fear

acceptance

similarity.

a rather

opposed.

elongated

cross-sectional
and g r e a t e s t

or e q u i t o r i a l v e r s i o n

then g r i e f

He a l s o

Ten p o s t u l a t e s

at

in

around the c i r c u m f e r e n c e

the c r o s s - s e c t i o n
is

equal

primary

emotions

j o y mixed w i t h

the e x t e n t

and

represented conceptually

primary

As

joy,

factor

a r e most d i f f e r e n t a r e d i a m e t r i c a l l y

The i n t e n s e

pensiveness.

emotions

sadness,

adjacent

Proximity

Intensity
and

the

each r e p r e s e n t i n g a d i f f e r e n t

compounded e m o t i o n s .

and s u r p r i s e

primary

These emotions

wedges,

of

eight

surprise,

geometric

other

of

model d e s c r i b e s

its

of

polar

the

of

the

primary

version

to d i s t i n g u i s h

the essence

at

is

intensity.
Plutchik's

theory:
1.

2.

The c o n c e p t of e m o t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l
e v o l u t i o n a r y l e v e l s and a p p l i e s t o a n i m a l s as
as humans.

well

E m o t i o n s have an e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y and have

e v o l v e d v a r i o u s forms of e x p r e s s i o n i n d i f f e r e n t
spec i e s .

3. E m o t i o n s s e r v e an a d a p t i v e r o l e i n h e l p i n g o r g a n i s m s
d e a l w i t h key s u r v i v a l i s s u e s p o s e d by t h e
environment.
4. D e s p i t e d i f f e r e n t forms of e x p r e s s i o n of e m o t i o n s
d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n common
e l e m e n t s , or p r o t o t y p e p a t t e r n s , t h a t can be
identified.
5.

T h e r e i s a s m a l l number of
prototype emotions.

basic,

primary,

in

or

6. A l l o t h e r e m o t i o n s a r e m i x e d or d e r i v a t i v e s t a t e s :
t h a t i s , t h e y o c c u r as c o m b i n a t i o n s , m i x t u r e s , or as
compounds of t h e p r i m a r y e m o t i o n s .
7.

P r i m a r y e m o t i o n s a r e h y p o t h e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s or
i d e a l i z e d s t a t e s whose p r o p e r t i e s and

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can o n l y be i n f e r r e d from v a r i o u s
kinds'of evidence.

8.

P r i m a r y e m o t i o n s can be c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n terms
p a i r s of p o l a r o p p o s i t e s .

9. A l l e m o t i o n s v a r y
one a n o t h e r .

i n t h e i r d e g r e e of

10. E a c h e m o t i o n c a n e x i s t
i n t e n s i t y or l e v e l s of
p.8) .
Plutchik's
dichotomous

continuum.

"we know t h a t
the o p p o s i t e
various

1970)

places

He e m p h a s i z e s

the o p p o s i t e

love"

(Bartell,

Robinson

Honigmann,
seeming

of

is

disciplines

synergism
Huber,

joy

(1980b,

of

in

on a
by

saying

that

hate

Many a u t h o r s

from

of

to

of
1980a,

the concept

1934; C o u l t e r ,

1978; Maslow,

believe rather

view

sadness,

p.75).

1977; B e n e d i c t ,

emotions

this

who a r e p r o p o n e n t s

& Huber,

similarity

in varying degrees
arousal (Plutchik,

eighth postulate

of

is

of

1976;

1971; Maslow &

the e s s e n t i a l

unity

of

paradoxes.

Plutchik's

wheel a l s o

does

not a l l o w

for

a potential

10

approximation

of

researcher

is

exploring

model.

incorporates

It

spherical

to allow

emotion(s)

and r e c u r r i n g

triadic

p o s e d by Bower
relate
three

such

sets

interpretive
It

three

have

sets

conceptual
of

including

is

three subsets,

of

tetrahedrons

in c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
and F u l l e r

the

one

empirical effort
(1981)

to

claims

processes,
mood-congruous

latter

two of

indicating

triadic

these

the

vertexes

itself

to both e m p i r i c a l

is

a synergistic

explains

The use

and

of

and

conceptual
and

mathematical

e x p l a i n e d and s u p p o r t e d by
Nasru

circular)

t h e use

triangular

sphere

lends

(1975).

verses

true

useful

model

for

example,

a very

(as

strives

substantive

is

spherical

other

approximating

Bower

mathematically

research.

(or

again

tetrahedral

tetrahedron.

phenomenological

Fuller

exact

such

for

of

the

d e r i v e d by t h e

It

for

more

for

as,

and s a l i e n c e

representation.

(1980)

and

associative

that

conceptual

things:

to emotion.

noteworthy

The c o m b i n a t i o n
component

other

other(s);

processes

facility
the

among

This

i n t o movable

in h i s p r e l i m i n a r y

processes

material.

segmented

relationships

(1981)

cognitive

planes

a mathematically

for,

w i t h any

p o l a r i z e d emotions.

a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e

representation

components
any

otherwise

view
of

of

man and t h e

Nasru

T a o i s m and a

Y a n g - Y i n g movement

spheres

geodesies)

understanding

incorporates

thinking

into

universe.

packed with

tetrahedrons

i n model c o n s t r u c t i o n

the behaviour

of

her

whole

that

systems.

11

Plutchik's
s u c h as I z a r d ' s
that

presupposes

Izard's

(1971) t h e o r y ,

of the r e l a t i o n

separate

repeatedly

occur

emphasizes

cognition.
in contrast,

their

incorporates

usual

He c l e a r l y

harmonious

in consciousness,

of c o g n i t i o n "
at least.the

phenomena he g i v e s

(Izard,

the

possibility

response.

divergence

o f t h e two t h e o r i e s

claim

emotions

as one

and

(as v e r s u s
that

emotion

completely

1971, p.1850.

By

of independent

e m o t i o n more s t a t u s

equates emotion with

others,

in postulating

i n t e r a c t i v e n a t u r e but a l s o c l a i m s

independent

that

from

between e m o t i o n and c o g n i t i o n ,

a s "a p r o c e s s

suggesting

(1948),

but i n t e r a c t i n g s u b s y s t e m s .

consecutive)
can

also differs

(1971) and S a t r e ' s

emotion

notion
of

(1980a) t h e o r y

than

emotional

Plutchik

The c e n t r a l

who

conceptual

i s thus emphasized

" i n t e r a c t " (p.155) r a t h e r

by

Izard's

t h a n mix

like

colors.
Izard's
and

critique

r a i s e s many q u e s t i o n s

conceptualization.
as

of P l u t c h i k ' s

e s p e c i a l l y regarding

H i s own

theory

the p r i n c i p a l m o t i v a t i o n a l

fundamentally

postulates

and

that

s y s t e m but even

e m o t i o n s have n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l ,

(interest,

give

(p.183).

He

neuromuscular

aspects.

(1971) p o s t u l a t e s
enjoyment,

"not o n l y

more

as t h e p e r s o n a l i t y p r o c e s s e s w h i c h

phenomenological
Izard

i s s u e s of

views emotions

meaning and s i g n i f i c a n c e t o human e x i s t e n c e "

claims

i s extensive

nine

fundamental

emotions

surprise, distress, disgust,

anger,

1 2

shame,

fear

and c o n t e m p t )

mechanisms.

He c l a r i f i e s

f i x e d number and assumes

which are
that
"that

vestigial

and d i s a p p e a r

(p.234).

E a c h e m o t i o n has

motivational
amplify
negative

lead to p s y c h o l o g i c a l
facilitate
entropy"

(Izard,

Izard
five

(1971)

subsystems:

motor.

effective

becomes

Another

of

discrete
s u c h as

three,

his

fundamental

necessary
of

his

a more
for

attenuate

or

and

emotions

tend

to

a complex

of

tend

to
of

personality

drive,

for

is

emotion,

emotion,
uniquely

are
human

behaviour.

Therefore,

leads

interaction

is

that

breaks

separate

the

to

eventuate.

compounded

more than

and

t h e most

t h r e e subsystems

assumptions

something

cognition

and

emotions

summation

of

emotions.

A comprehensive
requires

that

these

exist.
are

and

positive

i n e f f e c t i v e behaviours

principal

jealousy

evolve"

the c o n v e r s e

When s u b s y s t e m

faulty

emotions

or

including

i n t e r a c t i o n of

down or

"some

not

p.182).

suggests

behaviours.

that

behaviour

and form t h e b a s i s

Harmonious

i d e a of

while.others

homeostatic,

The l a s t

important

more

1971,

is

may become

new ones may

the

rather

entropy

constructive

nine

One might a c t i v a t e ,

noting

innate

unique phenomenological

He q u a l i f i e s

emotions

by

postulated

some e m o t i o n s

and t h a t

properties.

another.

his

subserved

understanding

of

in-depth exploration

purposes

of

this

conceptualization, his

Izard's
of

review.

his

(1971)

text

However,

'open-system'

than
the

thinking,

theory
is
clarity
and

13

relative

to others discussed

applicability

of h i s t h e o r y

the

of h i s c l a i m s :

following

in this

section,

the

greater

t o humans i s made a p p a r e n t i n

1. E m o t i o n e l e m e n t s of p e r s o n a l i t y [ a r e r e f e r r e d t o ] as
a s y s t e m s i n c e , on t h e b a s i s of b o t h i n n a t e and
l e a r n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , emotions are i n t e r r e l a t e d
i n dynamic and r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e ways.
Largely
b e c a u s e of t h e n a t u r e of t h e u n d e r l y i n g i n n a t e
mechanisms, some of t h e e m o t i o n s a r e o r g a n i z e d i n a
k i n d o f h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ....
A novel
sound might e l i c i t t h e i n t e r e s t o f an i n f a n t o r
child.
I f i n i t s f i r s t p r e s e n t a t i o n the s t r a n g e
sound were q u i t e l o u d i t might e l i c i t f e a r .
I f the
sound were e x t r e m e l y l o u d and sudden i t m i g h t evoke
s t a r t l e ....
2. The c o n c e p t o f p o l a r o p p o s i t e s s h o u l d n o t be
c o n s i d e r e d as d e f i n i n g i n f l e x i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between e m o t i o n s , and t h e a p p a r e n t o p p o s i t i o n does,
n o t a l w a y s d e n o t e an e i t h e r / o r r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Often
o p p o s i t e s t e n d t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h or e l i c i t e d by
e a c h o t h e r , as e v i d e n c e d by t h e o f t e n o b s e r v e d
" t e a r s of j o y " .
3. C e r t a i n e m o t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h e p a i r s of p o l a r
o p p o s i t e s t e n d t o have f a i r l y r e g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
a t l e a s t under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I n t e r e s t may
o s c i l l a t e w i t h f e a r as t h e o r g a n i s m e x p l o r e s some
unknown o b j e c t or s i t u a t i o n ....
4. Two o r more f u n d a m e n t a l e m o t i o n s o c c u r r i n g
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o r a l t e r n a t e l y w i t h some r e g u l a r i t y
p r o d u c e a c o m b i n a t i o n of e m o t i o n s w h i c h may t a k e on
the q u a l i t y of a t r a i t or p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n .
The
c o m b i n a t i o n o f o n l y some of t h e components of two o r
more f u n d a m e n t a l e m o t i o n s p r o d u c e s mixed e m o t i o n ,
w h i c h may r e s u l t i n ambiguous, a m b i v a l e n t , o r
conflictive feelings....
5. A l l e m o t i o n s have c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n common.
A l l e m o t i o n s , as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h d r i v e s , a r e noncyclical.
One does n o t become i n t e r e s t e d or
d i s g u s t e d or ashamed two or t h r e e t i m e s a day i n
rhythm w i t h i n g e s t i o n , d i g e s t i o n , and m e t a b o l i c
processes.
6. E m o t i o n s have v i r t u a l l y u n l i m i t e d g e n e r a l i t y and
f l e x i b i l i t y as m o t i v a t i o n a l f a c t o r s .
While only
f o o d and d r i n k w i l l s a t i s f y t h e hunger and t h i r s t

14

d r i v e s , a p e r s o n c a n l e a r n t o be j o y f u l o r
contemptuous or a f r a i d i n response t o a seemingly
i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y of t h i n g s .
7. A l l e m o t i o n s i n f l u e n c e o r r e g u l a t e t h e d r i v e s and
o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y s u b s y s t e m s . ' One o f t h e i m p o r t a n t
and f r e q u e n t f u n c t i o n s o f e m o t i o n i s t o r e g u l a t e , t o
a c t as a m p l i f i e r or a t t e n u a t o r i n the m o t i v a t i o n a l
system complex.
F o r example, d r i v e s w h i c h a r e n o t
reduced t o a l e v e l w i t h i n the t o l e r a n c e l i m i t s of
t h e o r g a n i s m t e n d t o i n s t i g a t e and r e c r u i t e m o t i o n s ,
which i n t u r n a m p l i f y the d r i v e .
The e m o t i o n of
i n t e r e s t - e x c i t e m e n t may b r i n g t h e sex d r i v e t o h i g h
p i t c h ; the emotions of d i s g u s t , f e a r , or d i s t r e s s
may m o d u l a t e , mask, r e d u c e , o r c o m p l e t e l y i n h i b i t
t h e sex d r i v e ( I z a r d , 1971, p p . 1 8 5 - 1 8 7 ) .

Solomon
influential

(1976) a c k n o w l e d g e s
mentor.

Unlike

S a t r e a s h i s most

Satre

myth o f t h e p a s s i o n s w h i c h c l a i m s
the

same i n terms o f e m o t i o n s .

e m o t i o n a l metaphors

(eg. being

" h a u n t e d by g u i l t " ) ,

claiming

however, he d e n i e s t h e
that

deep down we a r e a l l

He r e f u t e s
"struck

the t r a d i t i o n a l

by j e a l o u s y " o r

they separate

us from o u r

e m o t i o n s and s u g g e s t o u r e m o t i o n s a r e s o m e t h i n g we
eliminate
believes

or deal

with

i n the l e a s t

d a n g e r o u s way.

should
He

o u r e m o t i o n s a r e s o m e t h i n g we "do" and s a y s :

An e m o t i o n i s a ( s e t o f ) j u d g e m e n t ( s ) w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e
our w o r l d , o u r s u r r e a l i t y , and i t s ' i n t e n t i o n a l
objects'.
An e m o t i o n i s a b a s i c judgement a b o u t
o u r s e l v e s and o u r p l a c e i n o u r w o r l d , t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f
t h e v a l u e s and i d e a l s , s t r u c t u r e s and m y t h o l o g i e s ,
a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h we l i v e and t h r o u g h w h i c h we
e x p e r i e n c e o u r l i v e s (Solomon, 1976, p p . 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 ) .
Solomon
of

(1976) e x p l a i n s

i t must a l w a y s

significance

involve

i n order

O t h e r w i s e we would

that

that

an i n c i d e n t

a personal

e v a l u a t i o n of

i t be s u f f i c i e n t

n o t be a b l e

or perception

f o r emotion.

to account f o r the f a c t

that

15

different
the

p e o p l e have v e r y d i f f e r e n t

same

incidents.

The

feeling

according
specific

t h e o r y of emotion

t o Solomon

(1976).

t o the s i t u a t i o n

have a l l t h e f e e l i n g s
emotion

of paradigm.

It results

or extremes

the emotion.

every

he p r o f e s s e s ,

and not the emotion.

with t h i s

instance

feeling,

of d i f f e r e n t

o r we c a n have t h e
feelings.

i n our t y p i c a l

of emotion,

He

examples

use o f

o f e m o t i o n , and'

f e e l i n g s a r e much t h e same i n

emotion.

The c o n c e p t o f

t o him, h a s t o o many d i f f e r e n t

of s p e c i f i c

ornamentation

Hence we c a n

t h e s e f e e l i n g s and s e n s a t i o n s

He b e l i e v e s

according

definitional

that

may be

t h e o r y as b e i n g a poor

when g i v i n g

our mistaken- b e l i e f s

are

Feelings,

and n o t t h e e m o t i o n

the problem

emergencies
in

i s a n e g a t i v e one

a n d none o f t h e u s u a l a c c o m p a n y i n g

describes
choice

emotional reactions to

emotion.

u s e s t o be

He s a y s " f e e l i n g

not i t s essence"

i s the

(Solomon,

1976,

p.159).
Solomon

s u g g e s t s we make o u r e m o t i o n s ,

t o make them by o u r c u l t u r e
each o t h e r r e s p o n s i b l e
judgements

of f a c t

we make s o m e t h i n g
They
It

are active,

may seem l i k e

necessarily
explicit,

at a very early

f o r them.

i n the usual
true

by v i r t u e

spontaneous
our emotions

They

a g e , and h o l d

a r e not simply

sense but i n the sense

o f t h e judgement

but n o n - r e f l e c t i v e

that

itself.
judgements.

"happen" t o us and we do n o t

remember making them b e c a u s e

articulated,

a r e t a u g h t how

or d e l i b e r a t e d .

they a r e not always

However, he s a y s

16

"emotions

c a n become r e f l e c t i v e ,

p u r p o s e s and t h e i r
An
series

emotion

objects"

about

must be s e l f - i n v o l v e d
love"

juried

that

personally
cast

to us.

set,
...

and t h a t

they a r e the g u i l t y

court

about

prosecutor role

and s e l f - r i g h t e o u s ,

1976, p . 1 9 0 ) .

attempts

In a n g e r

we

to elevate

t h e jaw

object

and s e l f - e s t e e m "
a r e "about"

"a r e l a t i o n s h i p

competition

We make

hence

"The u l t i m a t e

When e m o t i o n s

p e r s o n he s a y s t h e y c o n s t i t u t e

one

party.

we a r e p l a y i n g .

o u r own s e n s e o f d i g n i t y

or a n o t h e r , p e r h a p s

we s h o u l d t a k e i t

t h e w o r l d a n d we a c t o u t t h e

t h e t e n s e and f o r w a r d s t a n d .

(Solomon,

particularly

Our p o s t u r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e

out as s u p e r i o r

i s always

We

When we become a n g r y we have j u d g e d a n d

we have c a s t .

ourselves

a whole

When we " f a l l i n

someone h a s o f f e n d e d u s , t h a t

accusational,

includes

and our s e l f - e s t e e m .

t o make someone

a s e t o f judgements

role(s)

t o Solomon,

our s e l f

their

1976, p . 1 9 2 ) .

t o be e m o t i o n a l .

we make a d e c i s i o n

important

(Solomon,

then, according

o f judgements

aware o f t h e m s e l v e s ,

or comparison,

h i s self-esteem"

another

o f one s o r t
within

(Solomon,

which

1976,

p. 1 90) .
Solomon
emotions.
because

(1976) a l s o

speaks

of " b i - p o l a r "

J e a l o u s y , a n g e r , h a t e and l o v e a r e b i - p o l a r

they a r e not s o l e l y

about

oneself,

t h e o t h e r p e r s o n and n o t a c o n j u n c t i o n
about

(p.189)

not s o l e l y

o f t h e two.

the r e l a t i o n s h i p .
In Solomon's

(1976) view

emotions

are l o g i c a l ,

about

They a r e

17

describable

and e x p l a i n a b l e ,

uncontrollable.

They a r e "our most

instruments of s e l f - e s t e e m "
about

our present

importantly,

not a n i m a l i s t i c and
trustworthy

(p.252).

situation,

and r a t i o n a l

They a r e j u d g e m e n t s

our p a s t ,

other

people-and

most

they:

i n c l u d e i n t e n t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e , t o a c t , t o change
the w o r l d and change o u r s e l v e s , t o r e v e n g e o u r s e l v e s
i n a n g e r , ... t o c a r e s s a n d c a r e f o r a n o t h e r i n l o v e ,
t o d e s t r o y - b u t a t a s a f e d i s t a n c e - an o p p r e s s o r i n
r e s e n t m e n t (Solomon, 1976, p . 2 7 6 ) .

Theories

o f e m o t i o n a r e many and d i f f e r e n t . . O n l y a few

major c o n t e m p o r a r y
provide
the

t h e o r i s t s have been p r e s e n t e d

a broader context

divergence

f o r jealousy

particular
together

emotion.

theories discussed

discuss

extrapolate
Plutchik

about

(1962,

separately,

1980a,

of

1980a,

opposite,
discussion

draw

from t h e

model

(1971)

but i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

1980b) i m p l i e s

a l l ) of h i s e i g h t

h i s conceptual

jealousy

1980b) n o r I z a r d

of t h e i r
that

m i x e d e m o t i o n , a d e r i v a t i v e o r combined
possibly

section will

above.

from t h e main p r i n c i p l e s

(1962,

means we need t o

o f e x a m i n i n g any

of t h i s

some s p e c i f i c s

Plutchik

jealousy

This

at the l e v e l

The r e m a i n d e r

and c r i t i q u e

Neither

and t o make a p p a r e n t

in conceptualizations.

r e m a i n open and e x p l o r a t o r y

i n order to

primary

jealousy

isa

f o r m o f (some o r

emotions.

suggests that

theories.

jealousy

The s t r u c t u r e
has a p o l a r

a n o t h e r m i x e d , compounded e m o t i o n , b u t h i s
of t h i s

to h i s eight

polarity

primary

characteristic

emotions.

i s applied

H i s second p o s t u l a t e

only
implies

18

that

jealousy,

expressive

even

forms,

deal
of

be

serves

with

key

an

to

that

society

of

has

species.

construct

that

an

by

certain
and

evolutionary
the

evolved

organism

various

Jealousy

forms

i s , according

whose p r o p e r t i e s can

Izard
evidence,

or

e m o t i o n s , he

only

jealousy
of

emotions are

convinced

as

same s e n s e t h a t

awaiting

Plutchik

we

societies.

their

e m o t i o n does not
1980a, p . 5 ) .

the

more

for

exist
His

in

theory

degrees

of

substantive

psychoevolutionary

least,

as

that

emotions

He

sources

Plutchik.

fundamental

(p.410).

i n a l l c u l t u r e s , or
attempt

does

"the

u n i v e r s a l phenomena"

fundamental nine) e x i s t

than

arousal.

f o r humans a t

innate,

inner

a b s e n c e of a word

emotions to a l l s p e c i e s ,

that

in

e x i s t s in varying

h e s i t a t e s to extend

concludes,

in western

the

(Plutchik,

(1971), w i s e l y

d y n a m i c s of

as

that

"the

their

more l i k e l y

components

says

mean t h a t

levels

not' l a b e l

western c u l t u r e s are

in question"

implies

intensity

the

i t has

some c u l t u r e s do

e m o t i o n does not

further

not

familiar

i n a l l humans

role in helping

include, p s y c h o l o g i c a l

descriptions

He

in

inferred.

others

and

adaptive

a hypothetical

mood s t a t e s and

the

emotions,

in d i f f e r e n t

Observing

an

evident

patterns

s u r v i v a l i s s u e s and

expression

t o him,

prototype

L i k e a l l other

history,

clearly

is potentially identifiable

common e l e m e n t s or
animals.

i f not

(other
at

He
than

least

i t seems, t o

his

not

to o b j e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b e

would a g r e e ,

is

in

them

some

19

common p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t
all

of the j e a l o u s y

c u l t u r e s a n d , on a more o b j e c t i v e

less

differentiated

subjective

level,

depending

in

t o some more o r

r e c o g n i t i o n and e x p r e s s i o n

experience

experience

of t h i s

on t h e p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l

environment.
Jealousy,
discrete

by i n f e r e n c e

and s e p a r a t e

combination

of I z a r d ' s

emotion,

(1971) t h e o r y ,

isa

s o m e t h i n g more t h a n a

of fundamental emotions.

It influences

some o r

other

d r i v e s , a n d has some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n common w i t h a l l

other

emotions.

I t i s part

o f an o r g a n i z e d

subsystem of p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t
by
has

four

other

giving

i n f l u e n c e s and i s i n f l u e n c e d

s u b s y s t e m s and by t h e s y s t e m a s a w h o l e .

neurophysiological,

aspects.

"emotion"

Most

neuromuscular

importantly,

It

and p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

i t h a s some m o t i v a t i o n a l

basis

meaning and s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s

existence.
Solomon

(1976) d e a l s

than e i t h e r P l u t c h i k
closely
envy,

more s p e c i f i c a l l y

or I z a r d .

He o b s e r v e s

r e l a t e d t o a n g e r and h a t r e d .

with

jealousy

that

jealousy i s

He compares

i t with

saying:
J e a l o u s y shares envy's 'green-eyed monster' s t a t u s
.... T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s however; j e a l o u s y , u n l i k e
envy, s e e s i t s e l f a s t h e e q u a l o f t h e o t h e r .
Where
envy g l o w e r s q u i e t l y a n d i n e f f e c t i v e l y - even
u n n o t i c e a b l y - from a d i s t a n c e , j e a l o u s y i s w i l l i n g and
even a n x i o u s f o r a c o n f r o n t a t i o n .... U n l i k e envy,
j e a l o u s y wants t h e o t h e r t o f a c e i t s f a b l e d g r e e n e y e .
Moreover, j e a l o u s y i s u s u a l l y c o n f i n e d t o a s i n g l e
p o s s e s s i o n o r i n c i d e n t ; envy o f t e n i n c l u d e s major
a s p e c t s o r even t h e e n t i r e l i f e s t y l e o f i t s d i s t a n t
o b j e c t (Solomon, 1976, p . 3 3 3 ) .

20

Jealousy,
involving

competition

particular
object

Solomon

and

i n c i d e n t or

status.

s e r i e s of

is a bi-polar

I t s s c o p e or
incidents"

i s "another person's c o m p e t i t i v e

intersubjectively
( p . 3 3 4 ) ; and
what

(1976) c l a i m s ,

the

rightfully

belongs

involved

gain"

t o me"

i s one

(p.334).

focus

is

"a

(p.333); i t s

i t i s " c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l and
mythology

emotion

(p.334);
defensive"

of

"you've

taken

Jealousy:

l o o k s t o t h e o t h e r as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o n e ' s own
deprivation.
But l i k e e n v y , r i g h t [my e m p h a s i s ] i s
more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e q u e s t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i n
j e a l o u s y , one seems h i m s e l f as h a v i n g a r i g h t t o t h e
c o v e t e d o b j e c t - a t l e a s t as much r i g h t as the o t h e r
(Solomon, 1976,
p.334).

Jealousy's
is

one

of

(p.334).

desire

i s "to get

i t back"

" p l a c i n g o n e ' s stamp on

Solomon

(1976) c l a i m s

uncommonly become j e a l o u s
possessions,

about

over

which they

He

discusses

Its

strategy

things

the

earth"

of

further that
possessions,

have l i t t l e

Solomon a p p l i e s h i s t h e o r y
jealousy.

the

(p.334).

of

not

i n c l u d i n g human

or

no

concern.

emotions n e g a t i v e l y

r i g h t s without

discussing

or p r i v i l e g e .

practical

a p p l i c a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y when a c o u n s e l l o r

faced

by

the

relatively

babe

i n arms, who

with

another
It

for
as

common c a s e of

i s threatened

by

her

but

not
is

a woman, s u c k l i n g
mate's

involvement

woman.

seems q u i t e

other

i s convenient,

to

freedom,

committment,
or

This

people

emotions,

acceptable
that

to consider,

jealousy

will

as

does Solomon

i n some c a s e s

a s p o n t a n e o u s , n o n - r e f l e c t i v e judgement.

occur

However, i n

21

discussing
his

jealousy

earlier

claims

judgements about
instance,
forget

as a p a r t i c u l a r
that

the past

and f u t u r e

(his context,

includes p r i m a r i l y the p r e s e n t ) .

trustworthy
(Solomon,

and r a t i o n a l
1976, p . 2 5 2 ) .

evidenced

sees

that

of

1976,

1980, 1981a) view

experienced

perspectives

(e.g.,

as o c c u r r i n g a f t e r
about

Cbnstantine,
jealousy

when t h e t h r e a t

jealousy's

Certainly

the jealousy

speak

suggested
jealousy
person

d e s i r e . . Mb'st
1972; W h i t e ,

as a f e a r of l o s s

i s imminent, a p p a r e n t o r

judgement

t o our p e r c e i v e d

t h e l o s s as

1976; F o s t e r ,

imagined and i t i s thus a s s o c i a t e d with

other

He a l s o seems t o

self-esteem"

N e g l e c t i n g these
ft

by h i s s t a t e m e n t

authors

Our

in this

e m o t i o n s a r e "our most

instruments

jealousy

other

is

forgets

i n h i s negative i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

Solomon

will

Solomon

e m o t i o n s a r e i n t e n t i o n s t o a c t and

h i s fundamental c l a i m

results

emotion

will

a " y e t t o happen".

be a m o r a l one and i t

s t a t u s or p l a c e

by Solomon's g e n e r a l

i n the world

as

d i s c u s s i o n of emotions.

does s a y s o m e t h i n g a b o u t

t h e way we s e e t h e

and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h a t

we view e i t h e r a s o b j e c t s , a s he seems t o i n d i c a t e when

applying

h i s general

theory

including

that

the

j e a l o u s y may

loss,

what t h e o t h e r
those

F o r many

the f e a r of l o s s n e c e s s a r i l y o c c u r s
just

as l i k e l y

person p r o v i d e s

essential,

such as l o v e

to jealousy.

be d i r e c t e d

and r e c e i v e s

before
toward

( f o r example,

b u t a b s t r a c t and ' n o n - o b j e c t '

and i n t i m a c y ,

reasons,

qualities

w h i c h we a l l need t o g i v e

as w e l l

22

as

receive,

only

keep or p r o t e c t ) .

a f t e r we

party's

gain

lose

fear

envy d i r e c t e d a t

"jealous

loss,

woman" i n the

f o r h e r s e l f and

unique environment
l o s s has
Solomon's
back" or
(p.234).

not

yet

likely
that

(both

loss

back"

involves a

third

a f t e r the

loss,

that,
the

them

new

possessor

we

rather

occurred

I t may

i n f a n t , of

and

her

her

moral

that

infant)

then

special

of

f e a r may

her

the

judgements

she

as

and

i s being

that

of

the

the

(in this

cheated.

broken-

would

committment

( b e c a u s e of
aside,

same p r i v i l e g e s or

f r e e d o m s as

(1976) a l s o c l a i m s

jealousy's

it

earth"

society)
A

Rights

to get

r e l a t i o n s h i p can

p h y s i o l o g i c a l bondage

i s being

Her

transcend

"wanting

things

make s e n s e t o her

r e s u l t e d i n her

have the

above example m i g h t

physical andmeta-physical).

" p l a c i n g a stamp on

include

suckling

her

(1976) p e r s p e c t i v e

s t o l e n but

not

i f our

"get

jealousy.
The

be

want t o

i t seems more l o g i c a l

would e x p e r i e n c e
than

them and

We

her

she

the

does

"delinquent"

mate.
Solomon
intimate,
instance

not
of

the

certainly

not

redefines

or

or

impersonal"

situation.

jealous

jealousy

p e r s o n who

in the.instance
resolution-seeks
These

behaviour, proposed
that

'(p.234).

four
by

of

This

within

different

is frequently

may

be

w i t h d r a w s or

the

Constantine

distance

person
the

who

so

is

"not

i n . the

denies

but

antagonizes,

jealousy t r i a n g l e

t y p e s of

jealousy

(1976, p . 3 8 8 ) , make c l e a r

intimate

and

always

involves

23

fear
the

of l o s s .

The l a s t

are active e f f o r t s

to protect

p a i r bond and a r e s e q u e n t i a l l y more i n t i m a t e .

first,

jealous

withdrawal,

Solomon's c l a i m
In

place

three

within

divergence,
search

i s the only

jealousy's

this

one t h a t

theories

t o a need

fits

discussed

of emotion g i v i n g

I t h a s made a p p a r e n t

pointing

The

distance.

s e c t i o n has p r e s e n t e d ,

major

each.

their

and

jealousy a

conceptual

t o remain d e s c r i p t i v e and i n

of p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s .

Chapter
summary.

two i s d i v i d e d

The/first

envy.

selected

The n e x t
literature

psychiatry,

major

s e c t i o n s and a

s e c t i o n examins comparisons
three

sections

present

from a n t h r o p o l o g y

three

presents

After presentation

statistics

i n t o four

of

jealousy

and c r i t i q u e

and s o c i o l o g y ,

and p s y c h o l o g y .

Chapter
study.

about

summary,

critiqued

and

three

are presented

the e m p i r i c a l phase of t h e
of the methodology, d e s c r i p t i v e

f o r the o b j e c t i v e data

collected

by t h e s u r v e y .

Preliminary

discussed

and some h y p o t h e s e s

that

findings will

for future

research

were
be

will

be

presented.
Chapter
in

four

the jealousy

will

discuss

survey.

It will

appendices which p r e s e n t ,
insights,

use examples

completely

collected

from t h e

and v e r b a t i m , t h e

d e f i n i t i o n s and e x p e r i e n t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

seventy-three
few

the s u b j e c t i v e data

personal

people.

The r e s e a r c h e r

i n s i g h t s gained

during

will

a l s o present

the research

process.

Again,

suggestions

Chapter
for

five

counselling.

suggested.

for future
will
A

few

discuss

research

will

be

made.

implications

of

this

study

interventions

will

be

specific

25

CHAPTER I I

LITERATURE REVIEW

This

chapter

were o u t l i n e d
because

page.

t o the usual

i t prepares

sections

The t e x t

which

i s extensive

for empirical

f o r the l a t e r

examination

phenomenology

of m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y

and p r a c t i c e .

Jealousy

Jealousy
their

heritages.

The l a c k

assuming, as t h i s

study

awareness of our s u b j e c t i v e
conceptual
verbal

clarity

distinctions
origins

experiences.

to c l a r i f y

between

jealousy

"although

summarizes

and envy.

semantically

'jealous'

who

uses

ambiguities.
several

Discussing
r e l a t e d , they

their
refer

a s o c i a l (and

(p.167).

English Dictionary

f o r the a d j e c t i v e

i s often

S e m a n t i c and

a s p e c t s o f what may be c a l l e d

Oxford

i n s p i t e of

t o the c o u n s e l l o r

emotional) s t a t e , a r t or emotion"
The

of c l a r i t y

(1972) "Anatomy o f Envy"

he s a y s

to d i s t i n c t

confused

does, a c o n s e n s u a l

are important

communication

Foster's

and Envy

and envy a r e f r e q u e n t l y

distinct

semantic

root

major

background

the reader

o f f e r i n g an i n - d e p t h

theory

i n t o four

on t h e p r e v i o u s

in addition

research,
by

i s divided

(1933) g i v e s

and t h e noun

a single
'jealousy'

26

through the L a t i n zelos

Latin

meanings

'emulation'

jealous

f o r the a d j e c t i v e

and ' z e a l '

Webster

back t o t h e Greek
include

(1976) d e f i n e s

hostile

vigilance"
The

Greek and

'jealousy',

(p.562).
'jealousy'

t h e noun as " a
1

d i s p o s i t i o n or s t a t e : a j e a l o u s

feeling:

^7jXos.

rivalry:

nature,

suspicion, mistrust

a t t i t u d e or
2

zealous

(p.1212).

verb

" t o be j e a l o u s "

i s defined

i n t h e same

source

as:
i n t o l e r a n t of r i v a l r y or u n f a i t h f u l n e s s ; d i s p o s e d t o
s u s p e c t r i v a l r y or u n f a i t h f u l n e s s (as i n l o v e ) :
a p p r e h e n s i v e o f t h e l o s s of a n o t h e r ' s d e v o t i o n : h o s t i l e
t o w a r d a r i v a l o r one b e l i e v e d t o e n j o y an a d v a n t a g e
(as a p o s e s s i o n o r a t t a i n m e n t ) : e n v i o u s , r e s e n t f u l ;
z e a l o u s i n g u a r d i n g (as a p o s e s s i o n ) : v i g i l a n t :
s o l i c i t o u s ; d i s t r u s t f u l l y w a t c h f u l ; a p p r e h e n s i v e of
harm o r f r a u d : s u s p i c i o u s ( p . 1 2 1 2 ) .
1

Greek' and L a t i n
other

form

p.167).
defines

the

from

The c o n t e m p o r a r y

the L a t i n

" i n v i d e r e " meaning

maliciously

on

f o r "envy" and " e n v i o u s " ,

hand, a r e d i s t i n c t .

"envy" stems
verb

forms

upon, t o c a s t

account

advantage"

noun

i s related to a

askance a t , t o look

eye upon"

( F o s t e r , 1972,

International Dictionary

(1976)

envy t o w a r d o r

aware o r r e s e n t f u l l y aware o f

of (another) with

a desire

t o p o s s e s s t h e same

(p.760).

Foster
meanings,

which

" t o envy" as " t o f e e l

o f : be p a i n f u l l y

advantage

" t o look

a an e v i l

W e b s t e r ' s T h i r d New
t h e same v e r b

"invidia"

English

on t h e

(1972),

"to feel

looking

to Oxford's

a grudge a g a i n s t

(1933)

a person;

obsolete
to regard

27

person

or a c t i o n

with desire

observed envy's

aggressive

Foster

believes

envy

and

targeted

at

is

is

the t r i g g e r .

involves

jealousy

something

that

is

envy and

is

of

He

significantly,

fears

normal

or

acquire

possession,

which

d i r e c t e d at

the

its

loss.

He

counterpart

of

envy,

when t h e e n v i e d p e r c e i v e s ,
it

as

or

significant

p.168).

(1980),. i n c o n t r a s t ,
jealousy.

is

t h e envy and v i e w s

1972,

(p.562),

to a t t a i n

their

jealousy

"the

triggered

becomes c o n s c i o u s
(Foster,

not

and t h e s u b j e c t

that

Most

a desire

the p e r s o n ,

concludes

Neu

potential.

Conversely,

valued possession

threat"

or d i s a p p r o v a l "

sees

desire

as

central

to

both

says:

What i s s p e c i a l about t h e f e a r of l o s s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s
j e a l o u s y i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h what i s s p e c i a l about
p e o p l e : w h i l e one c o u l d l o s e p o s s e s s i o n of a t h i n g , one
c o u l d not l o s e i t s a f f e c t i o n
i t has no a f f e c t i o n t o
g i v e or t o be t a k e n away.
T h i n g s do not r e s p o n d t o o u r
feelings.
People do.
And when t h e y d o , we may f e a r
t h e i r l o s s , not j u s t as t h i n g s (as o b j e c t s of d e s i r e
and l o v e ) , but as f e e l i n g a g e n t s (as s o u r c e s of d e s i r e
and l o v e ) .
At t h e c e n t r e of j e a l o u s y i s i n s e c u r i t y ,
f e a r of l o s s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f e a r of a l i e n a t i o n of
a f f e c t i o n s . . . . t h e d e s i r e [my e m p h a s i s ] t o be d e s i r e d
or t h e d e s i r e f o r a f f e c t i o n , t h e need t o be l o v e d (Neu,
1980, p . 4 3 3 ) .
Neu

(1980)

the person
admiring

sources
decides,
it

is

wants t o

envy,

the o t h e r .

distinguishes
lower

the other

when one s e e k s

He c l a i m s

between m a l i c i o u s

to

raise

unlike

o f t e n without

own l e v e l

oneself

t h e y have d i f f e r e n t

and d e v e l o p m e n t a l p a t h s .
is

to h i s

either

appropriate

and

t o be

envy,

or a d m i r i n g

objects.

when

like

instinctual

Malicious

jealousy

envy,

"Its

he

envy

because

occurrence

28

may a l w a y s

involve pathology"

(Neu 1980, p . 4 3 4 ) .

perceives

broad contexts

to Foster

who l o s e s s i g h t o f man's c o m p l e x i t y ,

situational

complexity

interrelationship
simplistic

for jealousy

and envy

and the c o m p l e x i t y

Neu

in contrast
the

of the

between c o g n i t i o n and e m o t i o n .

t o imagine a poignant

jealousy

I t i s too

experience

lacking

desire.
Klein

(1957) i s s i m i l a r

distinctions.

b a s e d on e n v y "

poles

polarity

(p.8).

believes

drawing

i s always

struggle

and

professing
less

person

them on

opposite

a s n o b l e when
when

i t

insatiable.

in its train"

Like Riviere

Competition

i s "always

is potentially

t o do w i t h

satiable

(1932) she

frustration

a t i t s most b a s i c

and d e a t h

is

this

she c l a i m s

passions

it

is

She does n o t a p p l y

the worst

life

"jealousy

instincts,

of e a r l y

level,

as

underlies

t h e s i s f o r envy and j e a l o u s y .

Scheock
in

jealousy

to her, jealousy

between

angry a s p e c t of

She s a y s

places

t o envy, w h i c h

b o t h e m o t i o n s have

object-relations.

Klein's

by f e a r .

characteristic

According

envy

but l a t e r

She s e e s

stimulated

a base p a s s i o n ,

the

(p.6),

of j e a l o u s y .

s h a r p e n e d by f e a r , b u t i g n o b l e

greediness

but

aspect

of a continuum.

emulation

(1972) i n some o f h e r

She t o o s e e s an a g g r e s s i v e ,

envy and a p a s s i v e
is

to Foster

(1969) p a r a l l e l s
jealousy

problematic

Foster(l972)

t o be l e s s

than

envy.

and K l e i n

aggressive,

more

(1957)

passive

He b e l i e v e s t h e e n v i o u s

knows e x a c t l y what p r o v o k e s him; t h a t

envy i s

29

occassioned

by

ill-will

by c o n t e m p l a t i o n
directed
cannot

emotion;

occur"

and K l e i n ,
as

to

superior

without

a target,

the nature

of

his

primary

when a r i v a l

the

emotions.

the

antagonist

and i s

never a

appears

hostile

on t h e

E a c h has

scene.

the p o t e n t i a l

and t o have n e g a t i v e
depending

of

her

review

and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s
of

study.

this

and

of

The s e c t i o n

the
to

took

four major

several
jealousy

of

and p s y c h o l o g y .
contemporary

especially

occur.

a closer

subjects

the

who

samples

presenting
theorists.

decades

about

very

factors,

takes

1931; and B e n e d i c t ,

contributions
psychiatry

of

in which they

follow

and/or

positive

b e f o r e examining

of

It

and/or

chapter

on j e a l o u s y

1936; Mead,

t o be a d a p t i v e

on a m u l t i t u d e

the c o n t r i b u t i o n s

is

occurring

changing

and s o c i o l o g y ,

1982)

doubt

and

remainder

theorists.

in

behavior

on t h e b a s i s

from a n t h r o p o l o g y

(Davis,

often

Foster

They have e v o l v e d t o meet d i f f e r e n t

literature

this

with

is

and e x p e r i e n t i a l a c c o u n t s
in

contrast

it

related

consequences

The

a victim,

person

but

maladaptive

social

"is

and envy a r e d i s c r e t e ,

human n e e d s .

the

accompanied

jealous

aggressor

jealousy

In

is

Envy

without

p.7).

The r e s e a r c h e r a s s u m e s ,
critique,.that

and

advantages.

(Schoeck,1969,

he b e l i e v e s

spontaneous
only

of

and m o r t i f i c a t i o n

look

objective

participated
the

and

literature

critiquing

The f i r s t

1934)

at

are

three

early

before t h e i r

significant

were n o t i c e d by t h e

disciplines

The f o u r t h t h e o r i s t

and adds a new d i m e n s i o n

(Fisher,
to

30

anthropological

and

other

Perspectives
The

and

in d e f i n i n g the

that

institutions
normatively
norms as
To

only

jealousy's

because

t o the

reaction
of

the

He

Davis'

cites

Descartes

fear r e l a t e d to a
Davis

regulated

says

Kingsley

"not

strength

observes

by

only

the

of

social

is i t

to the

societies.
he

social

of

community

In

love
has

support

of

this

interest

depend on
the

claim

i t s purpose

relationships.

an

r e s t s upon

social

highly variable

discusses

in

As

in love

i t but

peaceful

such
"not

also
distribution

(p.187).

(1936) a c k n o w l e d g e s an
by

jealousy
nervous

e m o t i o n s as
or may

jealousy's

i t s i n e v i t a b l e but

universality

sympathetic

w h i c h may

he

review

(p.176).

understanding

cohesion

aroused

many o t h e r

Sociology

by

of

and

future generations

of major v a l u e s "
Davis

kind

i t gives

preservation

that

social

And

(p.192).

in d i f f e r e n t

because

"a

jealousy

underscores

proposes

jealousy.

Property".

i s defined

c o n t r o l l e d but

he

relation
he

of

promote an

appearance
about

and

well"

function

Sexual

a possession"

property

on

including in this

e m o t i o n as

to preserve

sexual

of

a n a l y s i s i s demonstrated

(1936) " J e a l o u s y

desire

from A n t h r o p o l o g y

importance

sociological

perspectives

not

be

but

system

well.

inherent p h y s i o l o g i c a l
describes
that

Other

i t as

function

is generalizable

than

this

externally evident,

he

jealous

to

flash,

proposes

that

31

this

emotion

response
says

i s expressed

to different

differently

situations

"each c u l t u r e d i s t r i b u t e s

society

an

inherited
For

stimulus

western

bolstering
likewise

the value

or whatever

situations

content

Davis

thus

on monogamy.

r a t h e r than

institution

is a distributive

cannot

value

as

(p.188).

j e a l o u s y -as

In o t h e r

prevails.
his belief
and he

of the

be r e g a r d e d

response"
views

He

i n i t s own

societies i t

c a u s e s monogamy,

or c a u s a l p e r s p e c t i v e with

affection

cultures.

the sexual property

t o an i n h e r i t e d

society,

supports

polyandry
polar

in different

and d e f i n e s t h e c o n f l i c t

way... t h e r e f o r e t h e c o n c r e t e

and e x p e r i e n c e d i n

polygamy,

He r e f u t e s t h e
that

sexual

says:

t o l e t i t go u n d i s t r i b u t e d would i n t r o d u c e a n a r c h y i n t o
t h e . g r o u p and d e s t r o y t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m . . . The s t i m u l u s
t o j e a l o u s y , m o r e o v e r , i s n o t so much a p h y s i c a l
s i t u a t i o n a s a m e a n i n g f u l one. The same p h y s i c a l a c t
w i l l i n one p l a c e d e n o t e o w n e r s h i p , i n a n o t h e r p l a c e
r o b b e r y . . . . J e a l o u s y d o e s n o t r e s p o n d i n h e r e n t l y t o any
p a r t i c u l a r p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n ; i t responds to a l l those
s i t u a t i o n s , no m a t t e r how d i v e r s e , w h i c h s i g n i f y a
v i o l a t i o n of t h e a c c u s t o m e d s e x u a l r i g h t s ( D a v i s , 1936,
pp.189-190).
To
any

understand

given

particular
type

pride,

between e c o n o m i c
processes

of a t t i t u d e

to property
whether

c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of j e a l o u s y f o r

s o c i e t y we must have an an a w a r e n e s s o f : t h e i r

distinction

the

Davis'

that

the value

and s e x u a l

of c o m p e t i t i o n ,

property;

rivalry

and t r e s p a s s ;

assumed by t h e i n d i v i d u a l

i s owned, p o s s e s s e d
of t h e p r o p e r t y

l o v e o r some c o m b i n a t i o n ) ;

their

in relation

or i n custody

(e.g.,

i s b a s e d on need, v a n i t y ,
their

particular

cultual

32

definition
roles

and

of

different social

the

statuses

means, ends and

For

instance,

western

of

conditions

discussing

society

relationships,

the

p a r t i c i p a n t s ; and

which

some of

i n terms of
Davis

s i t u a t i o n s i n terms of

influence

finally,

a l l of

the

these parameters

for

jealousy's

the

function

in

the

above.

intimate

says:

As a f e a r r e a c t i o n i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s of r i v a l r y i t
i s s i m p l y the o b v e r s e s i d e of the d e s i r e t o win
the
object.
The d e s i r e t o win b e i n g
institutionally
c u l t i v a t e d , t h e f e a r of l o s i n g i s u n a v o i d a b l y
s t i m u l a t e d a l s o , though i t s e x p r e s s i o n i s p u b l i c l y
f r o w n e d upon.
But a f t e r o w n e r s h i p has been a t t a i n e d ,
j e a l o u s y i s a f e a r and r a g e r e a c t i o n f i t t e d t o p r o t e c t ,
m a i n t a i n and p r o l o n g the i n i t i m a t e a s s o c i a t i o n of l o v e
(Davis,.1936, p.183).

In

conclusion,

maintenance

function

institutions
neutral

Davis'

and

of
he

the

for

view

jealousy

that

in question.

"the

hasty

to

jealousy's
t o deny

or

It
review
broad

of

breach.
i n so

He

f a r as

perspective

the

to p r a i s e
relation

He

says

or

of

i t s tendency

i t admits
" i t is

i t muddles

is

sees

while noting

because

the

to

destructive

its

own

of

this

(p.183).
will

that

become a p p a r e n t
Davis'

f o r the

and

protective
intimacy

threatened
only

His

structure"(p.187).

harmony of

i t [intimacy]

purpose"

for

social

i n t e n t i o n as

the

perceived
of

the

g r o u p s and

readiness

condemn p r e v e n t s a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
jealousy

stresses i t s

i n d i v i d u a l s , dyads,

society

notes

of

conceptualization

times.

against

in later

sections
of

jealousy

A l t h o u g h a r g u m e n t s can

his various

be

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , he

was
posed

very
both

acknowledges

33

a need t o a l s o s t u d y
view.

This

the emotion

i s i n contrast to h i s cohorts

disciplines

who l a r g e l y

neglected

p e r s p e c t i v e s he had made
M a r g a r e t Mead's
Civilized"
jealousy

from a p e r s o n a l i t y p o i n t o f

the s o c i o l o g i c a l

available.

(1931) " J e a l o u s y :

p o r t r a y s how

situations

in others.

who f o l l o w e d h e r , Mead c o n c e i v e s

a threat to the self-esteem.

individual

P r i m i t i v e and

that are p r o v o c a t i v e of

i n one c u l t u r e a r e i n n o c u o u s

many o t h e r s

i n the other

Without

d i f f e r e n c e s she n o t e s

threatening

will

sociocultural

be d e t e r m i n e d

setting.

She

of j e a l o u s y as

entirely

t h a t what

L i k e so

discrediting

i s p e r c e i v e d as

by t h e p a r t i c u l a r

says:

However v a r i e d t h e s o c i a l s e t t i n g , i t w i l l be seen t o
be t h e t h r e a t e n e d ego w h i c h r e a c t s j e a l o u s l y .
S i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h i s s e l f - e s t e e m w i l l , however,
t a k e w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s . . . . T h e r e i s h a r d l y any
l i m i t of p e r f o r m a n c e o r a p p a r e n t d e p r i v a t i o n t o w h i c h
t h e i n d i v i d u a l may n o t be p u s h e d by h i s s o c i e t y ' s
standards.
Whatever t h e s o c i a l s e t , however, i t w i l l
i n s p i r e him t o z e a l f o r h i s s o c i a l l y d e f i n e d p o s i t i o n .
And i f he f e e l s h i s s e l f - e s t e e m i s t h r e a t e n e d , i f h i s
r e p u t a t i o n as a g r a c i o u s w i f e l e n d e r or a s u c c e s s f u l
r u l e r o f a harem i s i n d a n g e r , j e a l o u s y w i l l be t h e
r e s u l t (Mead, 1931, p . 1 1 9 ) .
(

As

will

results
remain

become a p p a r e n t

t h a t attempt

in this

chapter,

to c o r r e l a t e self-esteem

i n c o n s i s t e n t and m o d e l s f o r t h e e m o t i o n

have c o n s i g n e d
discussion
-

later

spurious
jealousy.

i t to a less central

of s e l f - e s t e e m

nature

As t h i s

will

role.

with

research
jealousy

(White, 1976)

Also,

the l a t e r

disclose its potentially

i t c a n be a s s i t u a t i o n a l l y
a p p l i e s t o Mead's

dependent as

interpretation,

34

possibly

t h e harem r u l e r ' s r e p u t a t i o n

apparent

t h a n an a c t u a l

if

h i s jealous

society

e f f e c t on h i s s e l f - e s t e e m

behaviour

jealousy,

i s e x p e c t e d and c o n d i t i o n e d

(1931) draws a f i n e l i n e
a distinction

the l i t e r a t u r e .

that

i n the attainment

personal

status"

angry defense
societies
zealous

of
the

status"

to exemplify

impotent

this

displayed

there

their

lovers

to allay

Adhering

i s jealous.
confused

possession

subject

sexual

that

by t h e r e q u i r e m e n t i n
jealousy

by t h e o b j e c t

generally

to a negative

that

of the loved

view o f j e a l o u s y ,

side

object.

of l o v e

She n o t e s

for exclusive

Jealousy,

that the

of a p r i v i l e g e which they

because
share

outsiders"

i n h e r v i e w , need n o t be s e x u a l

i s t h e most e g o c e n t r i c

Mead

w h i c h wants

possession

but which they m a i n t a i n a g a i n s t

variety

instead

of z e a l .

"many p e o p l e a r e z e a l o u s

(p.116).

that the

She o b s e r v e s

misinterpretations

need n o t be w a n t i n g

with others

polygamous

a c e r t a i n amount o f

(1931) r e l a t e s i t t o t h e e g o c e n t r i c
for

Mead u s e s

p o l i c e s h i s 200 w i v e s

s i t u a t i o n s that

i s a lack

(p.119).

i s "a f r i g h t e n e d

buy many w i v e s t o enhance h i s p r e s t i g e b u t

two a t t i t u d e s a r e f u r t h e r
love

jealousy

of s o c i a l or

difference, noting

man who r i g i d l y

overlooking

elsewhere

z e a l a s "an a t t e n t i v e

or p r e s e r v a t i o n

(p.119) whereas

of such

man w i l l

romantic
be

by h i s

between z e a l and

i s largely neglected

She d e s c r i b e s

interest

the

especially

and f a m i l y .

Mead

in

h a s more o f an

and s e l f i s h .

but the

35

Comparing

the

Banaro t r i b e

peasants p r i o r to

the

male's e x c l u s i v e ,

proprietary

evident

that

the

to

lend

because the
emphasized

Frenchman's

social

In c o n t r a s t ,
as

living

new

Mead

bride

of

within

father

sex

was

to e a r l i e r

The

several

each person's
addition
set

to

does not

give

Generally,
only

he

that

established
their

rise

to

their

by

sexual

to

she

planning

Banaro

peoples

exogamous s y s t e m

a ceremonial

in

f r i e n d of

initiation
friend's

to
wife.

a r r a n g e m e n t s mean t h a t
will

have t h r e e

Mead c l a i m s

the

that

in

mates i n

this

social

jealousy

occurs

However,

she

Banaro people always

Her

specific

Hence

sexual

arrangements.

boundaries..

t o any

being

jealousy.

i n t e r m s of

response

the

ceremonial

spouse.

illicit

place.

by

the

sexual

and

she

for deflowering

bridegroom's

extra-regular

ritualistic
duration

a complex

Mead c o n s i d e r s

in response

is

and

p a r t i c i p a t i o n in- t h e

the

or

regular

s e e m i n g l y assumes t h a t
their

and

reported

lifetime

their

feelings

lord

the

However,

outraged d i g n i t y at

i s deflowered

bridegroom's

other

French

(1931) shows t h a t

(1931) d e s c r i b e s

the

attended

the

impotence.

contentedly

w h i c h the

an

lack

to

societies.

jealous

h i s woman t o h i s

peasant's
his

Guinea

a t t i t u d e toward h i s wife

complex

b e h a v i o u r s were e l e m e n t a l l y
required

New

r e v o l u t i o n , Mead

i n b o t h s i m p l e and

suggests

of

discussion

i t would be

deviations

does

arrangements are
persons,

respect
indicate

planned

and

occasions,

i n t e r e s t i n g to

from t h e s e norms.

know

Also,

36

Mead's e v i d e n c e
society

f o r the i n d i v i d u a l ' s contentment

i s based

recruitment

on whiteman's p o o r

f o r labor

possible

that

expected

sex p a r t n e r s

purposes.

recruitment

Mead a l s o g i v e s

success

i n Banaro

rates at

Alternatively, i t

was p o o r

is

b e c a u s e any l o s s of

may have p r o v o k e d
examples o f f e m a l e

intense

jealousies.

jealousies

occurring

in

polygamous s o c i e t i e s when t h e husband has been t o o l o n g

in

acquiring

In

this

extra

instance

distinguishing
her

view

feeling

that

suspicion
Mead
the

between

jealousy

the widely

and c h i l d b e a r i n g .

to ascertain
and envy.

varying

of jealousy

labor

i f Mead was

Generally,

s i t u a t i o n s preclude

because

and h u m i l i a t i o n "

Rather,

is

t o anger,

(p.116).

(1931) makes a s t r o n g ,
stereo-type

i t

i t "sometimes

more t o f e a r , sorrow a n d shame, a t o t h e r s

traditional

sex".

i tis.difficult

definition

inclines

wives t o share

c l e a r statement

to reject

of t h e female as "the j e a l o u s

she s a y s :

T h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , w i t h a few r a r e e x c e p t i o n s , women
have been t h e i n s e c u r e s e x . T h e i r s t a t u s , t h e i r
f r e e d o m o f a c t i o n , t h e i r v e r y economic e x i s t e n c e , t h e i r
r i g h t o v e r t h e i r own c h i l d r e n , h a s been d e p e n d e n t upon
t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s men.
I n t o t h e f i e l d o f p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s have been t h r u s t
a l l t h e s e o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s n o t g e r m a i n e t o i t . The
w i f e t h r e a t e n e d with the l o s s of her husband's
a f f e c t i o n , f i d e l i t y , i n t e r e s t or l o y a l t y , whichever
p o i n t h e r s o c i e t y has d e f i n e d a s t h e p i v o t o f w i f e l y
tenure, sees the very r o o t s of her s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e
b e i n g c u t f r o m b e n e a t h h e r . She h a s been i n t h e
p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h a man would be i f he h a d r e a d i n t o
h i s w i f e ' s a v e r t e d shoulder t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n of a l l h i s
s t o c k s , a l o s s of h i s b u s i n e s s r e p u t a t i o n , e v i c t i o n
f r o m w h a t e v e r p o s i t i o n he h o l d s , b o t h s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l , a s w e l l a s t h e l o s s o f h i s home and p o s s i b l y
a l l c o n t r o l over h i s c h i l d r e n .
I f women's s u p e r i o r

37

morbid anxiety concerning t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with the a l l n e c e s s a r y male p u r v e y o r s o f economic a n d s o c i a l goods

be r e a d i n t h e s e t e r m s , i t becomes a t r u i s m t h a t women
p r o b a b l y a l w a y s have been " t h e j e a l o u s s e x " (Mead,
1 931, p.125) .
In

spite

of her r e l a t i v e l y

many s i t u a t i o n a l
considers

t h e emtion

little

t o be s a i d

mainly

because

repellent"
factors
are

and s o c i a l

in i t sfavor"

(p.120).

Othello

belonging

other

of j e a l o u s y ,

obessive

group judged

from whom he won h i s w i f e "

born

with

culturally-prized
to

jealously cling

Nevertheless,
to

rather

endowments

she d e p r e c a t e s

than m i t i g a t e s "

effects
the

of j e a l o u s y .

word

aspect

(p.125).

jealousy

inferior

and p e r s o n a l
the l a t t e r

For

i n the case of
born of

by t h e g r o u p

In h e r v i e w , t h e p e r s o n
other

i s u n l u c k y and w i l l

be l i k e l y

t h a t comes h i s way.

h i s jealousy

because

i t "adds

(p.125) h i s m i s e r y .
(1931) s e e s

few o r no p o s i t i v e

She i s i n d u c t i v e i n r e f u t i n g u s e o f

b u t she goes on t o c a t e g o r i z e
d e s t r u c t i v e way w i t h o u t

individual

with

i s so

t o an " i n s e c u r i t y

"exclusive" i n defining jealousy's

exclusively
of

social

p h y s i c a l and/or

to anything

In c o n c l u s i o n , Mead

both

(p.124).

fewer o r d i f f e r e n t

phenomenon

but concludes, that

h i s misfortune

to a racial

(1931)

forms o f e x t r e m e e g o i s m , i s

o f bad l u c k "

she e x e m p l i f i e s

attributing

Mead

(p.120) and t h i s

She c o n s i d e r s

r a r e and "the r e s u l t

instance,

determinants,

t o be an " u n f o r t u n a t e

i t , "like

as. c a u s a l

b r o a d view o f j e a l o u s y ' s

differences.

possessive

t h e emotion
presenting

i n an

observations

Her l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e

i n the

38

latter

categorization

suggestion
eliminate
She

that c i v i l i z e d
or d r a s t i c a l l y

tempers- t h i s

might

i s p o r t r a y e d by h e r t e n t a t i v e
societies
reduce

suggestion

be s e r e n i t y

jealousy
examining

strive to

the emotion's o c c u r r e n c e . .

with a caution that the r e s u l t

a t t h e c o s t o f t h e p a s s i o n and i n t e n s i t y

which produce g r e a t m y s t i c s
discuss-ion

should

i s thus

and g r e a t a r t i s t s .

very

useful

in giving

but i t i s l e s s

useful

and l e s s

j e a l o u s y ' s "purpose"

than

Her

"reasons" t o
intricate in

Kingsley Davis'

(1936)

sociological perspectives.
Exactly
referred

i s evident

Culture".
1970,

the k i n d and q u a l i t y

i n Ruth B e n e d i c t ' s

Benedict

was "never

(1934) " P a t t e r n s o f

a n e u t r a l person"

individual,

Likewise,

her concern

behaviour

but with

seer,

t o w h i c h Mead

p.51) and y e t she d i d n o t name t h e r i g h t

good o r bad s o c i e t y ,

find

of p a s s i o n

a place

feeling

was n o t w i t h

"the extent

or behaviour.

t o w h i c h one c u l t u r e

which another

abnormal o r w o r t h l e s s "

o r wrong,

'normal' o r ' a b n o r m a l '

f o r e x t r e m e s of b e h a v i o r

the a r t i s t

(Harris,

could

i n the mystic, the

culture

branded as

( c f . p r e f a c e by Mead

i n Benedict,

1934,).
Of

j e a l o u s y she s a y s

of many d i f f e r e n t
that

" i t i s evident

cultures,

c a n be most e f f e c t i v e l y

[that

the p r a c t i c e s

i t ] i s one o f t h e e m o t i o n s

f o s t e r e d by c u l t u r a l

a r r a n g e m e n t s , o r i t c a n be o u t l a w e d "
p. 109).

from

( B e n e d i c t , 1934,

But she d i d n o t p o r t r a y t h e e x p e r i e n c e

of j e a l o u s y ,

39

in

itself,

issue

as

with emotions

distinguish
determined
social
as

abnormal,

those

and b e h a v i o u r s

that

from t h o s e

as

are

She

or p r o b l e m a t i c
in general

instinctive

that

conditioning.

automatic

destructive

are

or

was not

to

organically

l e a r n e d or

says

and h e r

engrained

by

"the c o n d i t i o n e d response

the o r g a n i c a l l y

determined

is

[response]"

(p.17).
Instead,
levels
whole
that

of

Benedict

synergy.

In

s y s t e m s and f o r
jealousy,

l a b e l l e d as
expression
social

units

constructive

their

examined s o c i e t i e s
this

she

dyadic

and o t h e r

are

of

these

attributing

exclusive

Dobu

and v i o l e n t
these

in disharmony

values

of

(1934)

in Melanesia,

healthy

Conversely,

the

synergy

of

compares
Pueblos

and t h e

expression

between

their

to

of
the

social

individual

of

New

Kwakiutl
a
in

fierce
structures
objectives

She e x e m p l i f i e s

t h e Dobu

their

beliefs

and

jealousy

and norms.
in

of

She d e s c r i b e s

observations

and c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s

values

synergy.

cultures

of' the American Northwest.

t h e Dobu,

when t h e i r

which

Benedict

Indians

and s o c i e t a l

traditionally

emotions.

the n a t i v e s

aggressive

subsystems,

encourage

of

their

their

and p r a c t i c e s

Mexico,

frequent,

for

levels

Culture"

of

of

for

r e p r e s e n t e d by h i g h

expression

which r e s u l t s

and g r o u p

emotions

levels

three very d i s t i n c t

exclusivity

implied,

become p r o b l e m a t i c

customs

"Patterns

contrasts

doing

impeded by low
that

have b u i l t - i n

In

fear,

negative
is

(1970)

the; most

about

the

40

ownership

of

yams

(their

major

foodstuff)

c o n s i d e r e d t o have an h e r e d i t a r y
couple

share

children,
have

jealously

been grown from t h e

guard

describes

many

arising

from o t h e r m a r i t a l

Always,

the o r i g i n

emotion

harmony

basis,

of

resides

marital

for

gardens

their
which

respective

problematic

individual

between t h e i r
(1934)

expressed

arrangements

the couple a l t e r n a t e

Benedict

their

similarly

in a s o c i a l

between t h e

example,

common f o o d

separate

s e e d yams of

the

lines.

Benedict

the

their

are

Although

a common home and p r o v i d e

they

hereditary

line.

which

of

the

behavioural

structure
and h i s

observes

Dobu.
expression

that

or h e r

of

precludes
society.

their habitation,

respective matrilineal

jealousies

on a

For

yearly

villages.

that:

The spouse who i s on a l i e n t e r r i t o r y p l a y s a r o l e of

humiliation.
A l l t h e owners of t h e v i l l a g e may c a l l
him [ o r h e r ] by h i s name.
He may n e v e r use t h e name of
one of t h e m . . . . W h e n p e r s o n a l names a r e u s e d i t
s i g n i f i e s t h a t i m p o r t a n t l i b e r t i e s may be t a k e n by t h e
namer....He is a perpetual outsider
(p.137).
In

contrast,

by B e n e d i c t
Their

the

(1934)

society

is

as

Zuni

(a P u e b l o p e o p l e )

having

affirmative

a much h i g h e r
of

life,

has

c o m p e t i t i o n and v i o l e n c e and a h i g h l e v e l
Jealousies
instance,

still

occur

she d i s c u s s e s

They do not
r e s p o n s e on
cut o f f the
even i n t h e

but a r e managed
marital

are

level
a low
of

described
of
level

of

cooperation.

differently.

jealousy

synergy.

For

saying:

meet a d u l t e r y w i t h v i o l e n c e .
A usual
t h e p l a i n s t o t h e w i f e ' s a d u l t e r y was t o
f l e s h y p a r t of h e r n o s e .
T h i s was done
Southwest by n o n - P u e b l o t r i b e s l i k e t h e

41

Apache. But i n Zuni the u n f a i t h f u l n e s s of the wife i s

no excuse f o r v i o l e n c e .
The husband does not regard i t
as a v i o l a t i o n of h i s r i g h t s . I f she i s u n f a i t h f u l , , i t
i s normally a f i r s t step i n changing husbands, and
t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s make t h i s s u f f i c i e n t l y easy so that
i t i s r e a l l y a t o l e r a b l e procedure. They do not
contemplate v i o l e n c e (Benedict, 1934, p.107).
Benedict

(1934) d e s r i b e s

wives i n the instance

"Controversies,

the same a t t i t u d e of Zuni

of t h e i r husbands'

adultery.

whether they are ceremonial or economic or

domestic are c a r r i e d out with an u n p a r a l l e l e d lack of

vehemence" (p. 106).
of j e a l o u s y ,

She i n t e r p r e t s that t h e i r

g r i e f , anger and other

traditionally

emotions are moderate because cooperation

their

expressions,
negative

i s the essence of

lifestyle.
The

p o i n t s made by Benedict are not i n exoneration

deprecation

or

of exogamy, monogamy, polygamy or polyandry.

Rather, she observes the harmony or lack of i t that r e s u l t s

from the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s which vary widely even among
s o c i e t i e s that have s i m i l a r m a r i t a l arrangements.
f i n a l a n a l y s i s , t h i s renouned a n t h r o p o l o g i s t
the l i s t

of those who b e l i e v e jealousy

cultural universal.
emotion w i l l
result

In the

can be added to

to be a c r o s s -

The i n s i g h t she adds i s that the

be expressed as a means to a c o o p e r a t i v e

i n d e s t r u c t i o n and v i o l e n c e

between these poles)

synergy which i n turn

end or

(or some consequence

depending on the s o c i e t y ' s l e v e l of

i s based i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l

structure.
Helen F i s h e r

(1982), a contemporary

anthropologist,

42

looks
She

at

the

evolution

suggests

million
living
She

ago

together,

believes

jealousy

sharing

who's

behaviours.
t h a t , by

females

were

four

bonding,

learning

to

cooperate.

evolution

of

these

patterns,

(p.132).

emotions

to

one

such

another

as
[and

Cooperative

required the

emotions

that

came

along

them.
Central

to F i s h e r ' s

pair-bonding
says

and

"clearly

laugh

life"

and

cry

free

survival"

emotions
other

people
Sexual

bonding

is

and

Fisher

and

for

emotion

understood"
jealousy,

she

of

feelings.
our

humans

to

was

key

to

a l l

demanded

developed

trust

be e x p r e s s e d

the

"not

slowly

friendship,

She

selection

that

Cooperation

of

ancestors

was

natural

proposes

early

came

evolution

togetherness

(1982)

love,

the

social

concepts

Thus

is

encouraged

learned....[yet]

(p.119).

"each

for

facilitation

together

will

thesis

requirement

inclinations
and

(1982)

Integrating

human b e h a v i o r

natural

its

social

(p.119).

a n d human

for

and

indicate

and

individuals

who"

thus

and

with the

tie

to

males

food

behaviour

"to

responsibilities

to

along

complex

evolved

evidence

protohomid

that

to]....Define

with

human e m o t i o n s

and p r o v i d e s

years

relatively

of

and
so

other

that

(p.119).
suggests,

reciprocal altruism.

evolved

She

along

with

pair-

says:

B e c a u s e a m a l e was now o b l i g e d t o d e f e n d t h e c h i l d r e n
of h i s m a t e , he w o u l d d e v e l o p a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y t o
make s u r e t h a t t h e y w e r e h i s c h i l d r e n t o o .
T h o u g h he
m i g h t n o t know i t c o n s c i o u s l y , h e d i d n o t w i s h t o
expend h i s t i m e , h i s energy, and perhaps h i s l i f e f o r
the genes of a n o t h e r m a l e .
T h u s was b o r n s e x u a l

43

jealousy
She

explains

(Fisher,
that

s c r a t c h mine"
form of

although

(p.113)

natural

outrage

felt

apology

and c o n t r i t i o n

guilt,

summary,

emotions

a nouvelle

functional,

t h e r e were a l w a y s
received.

for

critiqued

earlier

To summarize
critiqued

adding
in

this

this

Although

were a v a i l a b l e

had l i t t l e

or

it.

the

man

who

learned

jealousy,

Meanwhile,

the
Pardon,

showdown.
on j e a l o u s y

with

to

and

environmentalism.

i n f l u e n c e of

dimension

early

T h o s e who were

thesis

evolution

an

self-deception.

from a

(1982)

she e x a m i n e s

the

early

man's

perspectives

section.

section,

one s o c i o l o g i c a l

on j e a l o u s y .

as

you

T h e r e f o r e , even

revenge.

resulted

integrates
way

and

back,

those

d e c e i t and e a r l y

embarassment

Fisher's

structures,

Benedict

was

would e x p e r i e n c e and e x p r e s s

cheater

social

s c r a t c h your

t o n e u t r a l i z e or c o u n t e r a c t

indignation,

In

"I'll

agreement

s e l e c t i o n allowed

e x p l o i t e d by o t h e r s

In

the

r e t u r n the h e l p they

feelings

other

pp.113-114).

reciprocal altruism,

wouldn't

moral

1982

it

has

presented

and

and t h r e e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

the p e r s p e c t i v e s
early

interdisciplinary

in

this

effect

of

Davis,

century

until

Mead,

they

several

views
and

seemingly
decades

later.
Davis'
maintenance

(1936)
of

view

stresses

each s o c i e t y ' s

jealousy's

institutions

role

is

a l s o c o n t r o l l e d by t h e

institutions

he s e e s

it

as

the extent

only

to

the

and norms.

emotion

destructive

in

The

and norms

that

it

and

defeats

44

its

own

purpose.

Mead's
pejorative
social

(1931)

and r e a s o n - o r i e n t e d .

structures

oriented

anthropology

implies

Zuni

result

(1934)

levels

of

that

are

this

with

(as

chapter,

and l e s s

purpose-

Finally,

this

integrates

on j e a l o u s y

chronologically

individual

as

psychiatry

beginning

(or

high levels

a means
In

several

As

synergy

decades

synergy

will

is

likely
later

re-associated

and e n v i r o n m e n t a l
The n e x t

thesis

perspectives

section

perspectives

w i t h F r e u d and e n d i n g
(1981).

be

later.

and c r i t i q u e s

l i t e r a t u r e by T u r b o t t

as

to

become a p p a r e n t

examined F i s h e r ' s ( 1 9 8 2 )

emotions.

She

when l e v e l s , of

jealousy

will

of

be l i k e l y

contrast,

society)

of

will

for

she

between

effect.

explores

Accordingly,

harmony

evolutionary

and o t h e r

be compared

societies.

values

section

to

several

the c o n c e p t

theory

recent

examined

of

i n Dobu

jealousy

which

is

jealousy

t o have a d e s t r u c t i v e
in

analysis

and s o c i e t a l

low

societies

'synergy'.

when t h e r e

society)

that

in a c o o p e r a t i v e end.

synergy

primarily

she

i n t r o d u c e d a new c o n c e p t

a comparative

objectives
in

Like Davis,

i n a more p a r o c h i a l

by s u g g e s t i n g

varying

presents

but

was

way.

Benedict

their

p e r s p e c t i v e on j e a l o u s y

with

from

t h e most

45

Perspectives

The

most c l a s s i c

Psychiatry
ascribes
grief,
are

Psychiatry

on j e a l o u s y

i s Freud's

four

e n m i t y and s e l f - d o u b t .

t h o u g h t ] of t h e n a r c i s s i s t i c

"against

the s u c c e s s f u l r i v a l "

criticism

"tries

his

(p.232).

loss"
Freud

to hold

believed

the loved

wound"

complex,

homosexuality.
jealousy
Normal
derived

or t o a d i s g u i s e d

- normal or c o m p e t i t i v e ,
he s a i d

from t h e a c t u a l

c i r c u m s t a n c e s and under
conscious

ego" ( F r e u d ,

delusional
repressed
Freud.

impulses

subject,
rightly

situation,

the enmity

accountable f o r

Oedipal

or

expression

of

brother-

and d e l u s i o n a l .

proportionate

1922, p . 2 3 2 ) .

i n the

l a y e r s or stages of

projected

the complete

that i s

to the r e a l

c o n t r o l of the
Projected

j e a l o u s y and

towards u n f a i t h f u l n e s s , a c c o r d i n g
result

Delusional

i n that

and i t " r e p r e s e n t s
takes

(p.232);

i n b o t h men and women a r e d e r i v e d

unfaithfulness.
i s different

o b j e c t and

" i s by no means r a t i o n a l ,

The f o r m e r may a l s o

actual
hand,

jealousy

and g r i e f

t o be u n i v e r s a l , r o o t e d

He d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h r e e

jealousy,

pain,

( p . 2 3 2 ) ; and t h e s e l f -

u n c o u s c i o u s and r e l a t e d t o an u n r e s o l v e d
and-sister

H i s account

the pain

the person himself

jealousy

both

emotions

He d e c i d e d

of l o s i n g

from

(1922).

overlapping

" c a u s e d by t h e t h o u g h t

[the
is

reference

and P s y c h o l o g y

to jealousy

from

from
to

from t h e s u b j e c t ' s
jealousy,

the object

own

on t h e o t h e r

i s t h e same sex a s t h e

an a c i d u l a t e d h o m o s e x u a l i t y , and

i t s p o s i t i o n among t h e c l a s s i c

forms o f

46

paranoia"

(Freud,

Jones

1922,

(1929) e x t e n d e d F r e u d ' s

reinforced

jealousy's

s t a t u s as

pathological.

He

predisposition

results

emanating
inversion.

The

added h e r

Generalizing

i n s i g h t s on

jealousy

from t h e

as

resolve
p h a s e of

of

and

as

the
a

[and]

f e a r of

others

and

women

p a t h o l o g i c a l to

"means of

defence

a symptom of

coquetry

and

Deciding

could

be

not

the
against

her

explained

infidelity, Riviere

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : while

were r o b b i n g
was

her

(the

robbing

Both behaviours

through a fantasy

study.

unconscious

(p.423).

i n f l i r t a t i o n she

everything.

conflict

are

patient)

those

an

effort

o r i g i n a t i n g i n the

to

oral

development.

Riviere

agreed with

Freud

the

emotion's a s s o c i a t i o n with

and

in r e l a t i n g

wound.

father

infidelity.

f o l l o w i n g symbolic

jealousy

everything;

around her

f e a r of

a p r o j e c t i o n of p e r s o n a l

o f f e r e d the

experiencing
of

to

f u r t h e r to

of

the

dependency

b a s i s of a s i n g l e c a s e

super-ego"

j e a l o u s y and

sufficiently
instead

the

her . c o n c l u s i o n s

unconscious c o n f l i c t s . . .

patient's

leading

f l i g h t and

and

i n h i s example) t h a t

from n a r c i s s i s t i c

inversion leads

viewed

accusations

dispositional

and

(1932) t r a n s l a t e d many of F r e u d ' s works

own

she

(1922) t h e s i s

( f o r men

guilt

in projected

Riviere

normal,

suggests

from O e d i p a l

resulting

p.234).

(1922) and
f e e l i n g s of

even

"normal"

jealousy

However, she

explains

the

Jones

self-criticism

to the

wound as

(1929) a b o u t

narcissistic

"the

condemnation

47

by

the super-ego

unconscious
himself"

predatory

(Riviere,

Sokoloff's
physician
the

and the e x p i a t i o n

evolution

and r o l e

sentiment.

negative

form,

emotion

notes

great

(Sokoloff,

manifestations

destructive

jealousy

H i s study

and

he c l a i m s ,

is

It i s s t i l l

with

by e v e r y o n e

into

of

instinctual,

in a

less

but i n h i b i t e d
cannot

i t may

result

a complex

(an

i n the z o o l o g i c a l

for purely

two

more

in
obsessive
He

says

economy

the group.

social

by

be

on p r e d i s p o s i t i o n .

function

corrective

us

the sentiment

i f repressed

i s much

soma.

i s comprised

the i n d i v i d u a l as a g a i n s t

1947,

Sokoloff

character,

of psyche

depends

of

misinterpreted i t s

reaction,

and

to the

nature

and a

subject

h i s colleagues,

a n d humans.

he c l a i m s

"retains

the complex

reaction

jealousy)

to conserve

nature's

He

I t s transformation

delusional

i n the

a primitive

The

inhibited

complexes.

f o r the

i s addressed

or negatively

experienced

In c o n t r a s t ,

completely

this

jealousy

that

and a t a v i s t i c .

primitive

or

on

i n animals

units

impulses

t o which

neglected

concludes

psychological

most.

text

s t r e s s i n g the unity

Sokoloff

t h e ego

p.423).

and the extent

Freud,

complex

1932,

(1947)

including

broader,

and a g g r e s s i v e

and the p a t i e n t .

emotion

by

It is

emotion"

p.22).

(1947)

discusses

of jealousy,

i t s demand
potential

many

and v a r y i n g

stressing

for satisfaction
for subject,

i t s

types

autonomous

and revenge

object

and

and i t s

and s o c i e t y .

He

48

claims

i t t o be

concealed
it

and

the

and

as

the
the

jealousy

period

effort

of

that

and

time.

He

traditional
jealousy.

his

jealousy

and
and

discussion,
to

p e o p l e of

ancient

and

the

The

Sandwich
the

G r e e k s and
former

English
Romans

related

claimed

it

had

love.

believes

i t is

of

a l o n e n e s s and

His

suggestions
given

the

s u g g e s t s open d i s c u s s i o n
and

cautions
nature

that

should

e f f o r t s and

for childhood

if i t is s t i l l
good-natured

for

"an

in a

treatment

state

of

the

are

art

to n e u t r a l i z e

i t s importance
not

extra

r a t i o n a l he

to e x c e s s i v e

be

at

the

and

and
He

f o r any

attention

stresses

intelligent,

is optimistic

early

problematic

recommends

demands.

or

underestimated.

love

jealousy.

teasing

Sokoloff

isolation

to

r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n surrounding

i n d i v i d u a l i z e d treatment

his discipline,

the

latter

by

exemplifies

n a t i o n a l i t i e s and

The

comprehensive

submit

that

i n d i v i d u a t i o n and

destructive

detection

agrees

in adults

(p.35).

treatment

most

jealousy

fears

family

He

the

excessive

concealment

Collaborative

yet

Sokoloff

(p.15).

love

However, he

potential

refusal

child

world"

insightful

of

(1947) t r a c e s

t o combat

hostile

the

jealous"

w i t h envy t h a n

Sokoloff
the

cultures.

least.

to excessive

and

l e s s e f f e c t i v e l y coped with

jealous

the

commonest

human e m o t i o n s .

more or

most

little

more t o do

the

S o m a l i s and

A m e r i c a n s as

were " v e r y

in

but

of

i n d i v i d u a l s and

French,

Islands

oldest,

disguised

is universal

different

are

the

Relative
in his

free
friendly
to

others

prognosis,

49

claiming

the

e f f e c t i v e n e s s of

intelligent

efforts

experienced

by

Ziman

the

prevention
and

and

at

jealous

a symptom of

he

wants s o m e t h i n g

person

jealousy

w o r r y and

with

first

and

one

text

given

wounds

others.

to

i t s era.

He

"a c h i l d

for

parents

sees

jealousy

is jealous

(p.5).

the.same and

look

suggest

i s a guide

proclaims

and

and

modern p s y c h i a t r i s t t o

someone e l s e h a s "

envy as

patience

psychological

i n c h i l d r e n and
His

holistic

as

and

the

treatment.

is relatively

jealousy

in dealing

(1949) was

comprehensively

understanding,

He

deals

when

with

v i e w s them

as

normal d e v e l o p m e n t a l

reactions,

s t r e s s i n g w i s e management

and

of

the

source

rather

supress

the

emotion.

understanding

eliminate

or

"jealous

child

adult"

(p.5).

sibling
adult
for

does not

competitiveness,

power emanate o n l y

Basically,

emphasizes

n e c e s s a r i l y grow up

Ziman a l s o d e a l s

p o s i t i o n s and

He

than attempts

family

with

configurations,

aggression

and

an

in

involves a high

the

jealous

different

suggesting

unsatiable

from mismanaged c h i l d h o o d

h i s treatment

that

t o be

jealousy

to

quality

that

search

jealousy.
parental

nurturance.
Schmideberg
still

more o r a l ,

However, her
emphasize

f e a r of

agrees with
and

work

(1953), another
anal

and

i s the
l o s s as

Ziman t h a t

psychoanalyst,

focuses

on

genital contributing factors.

first

i n the

fundamental

field
to the

to c l a r i f y

and

emotion.

She

childhood

jealousy

i s developmental

views p a t h o l o g i c a l adulthood

jealousy

as

a "schizoid

50

inability

to love"

(p.3).

In h e r v i e w ,

jealousy

includes

elements of sadism, a c o m p u l s i o n

to c o n t r o l the loved

object,

fear, g u i l t ,

hostility,

anxiety,

ambivalence

doubts about
loneliness

o f -the l o v e

and

jealousy

(1953) a g r e e s w i t h

Freud

i s a defence against

She r e l a t e s j e a l o u s y

introduces

to psychoanalysis

jealousy,

and i n c o r p o r a t e s

social,

expectation

in patriarchal societies

For instance,

and j e a l o u s o f h i s w i f e

t o be a s u r v i v o r o f c h i l d i s h
"bullied,

(p.13).
it

According

emphasize

of j u s t i f i e d or
c u l t u r a l and

she n o t e s a

traditional

f o r t h e man

over

hurt"

he c o n t i n u e d
dispositional.

resulting

feeling

she

speculates

from

having

and f r u s t r a t e d "

i s clung

sadistic

t o because

impulses

which

and c a s t r a t i o n c o m p l e x e s .

(1962) was t h e f i r s t

the r o l e

Finally,

f a c t o r and

humiliated

unconscious

t o be

and t o r e g a r d

hurts

to her, t h i s

from O e d i p a l

Langfeldt

as

nagged, t e a s e d ,

reduces g u i l t

emanate

but

"feeling

complex

emotions,

as t h i e v e r y o f h i s m a s c u l i n i t y .

e m p h a s i z e s an e l e m e n t a l

been

t h e s i s i s more

the p o s s i b i l i t y

factors.

it

that p a t h o l o g i c a l

t o many more

situational

unfaithfulness

hurt,

unconscious

However, h e r g e n e r a l

than h i s .

possessive

dependency,

obsession.

homosexuality.

rational

strong

r e l a t i o n s h i p , impotence or

potency, possessiveness,

Schmideberg
adult

exaggeration,

in Psychiatry

of u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h o d y n a m i c

the t r a d i t i o n a l
Studying

tendency

t o deprocesses

to label

the case h i s t o r i e s

jealousy

o f 66

51

psychiatric
jealousy,

patients

troubled

he d e s c r i b e d

(p.317), c l a i m i n g

that

by f r e q u e n t

an " e r o t i c

has

p o t e n t i a l l y present
a significant

alcoholism.
alcohol,
organic

can

predominance

some b i o l o g i c a l

results

i n diagnosed

syndrome

chronic

i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e abuse o f

phases of s e v e r a l

(especially schizophrenia

he s u g g e s t s t h a t
i n poor

this

people

f a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e menopause,

have a r e l e a s i n g e f f e c t

Finally,

He b e l i e v e s

syndromes and p s y c h o t i c

mental d i s o r d e r s

syndrome"

i n a l l t y p e s of mental d i s o r d e r s but

He-observes that

brain

jealousy

intense

i t c a n be common among n o r m a l

or a b n o r m a l and even- c o n g e n i t a l .
is

and

and

on t h e j e a l o u s y

a low l e v e l

insight into jealousy

of

melancholia)'

syndrome.

intelligence

ideas,

rendering

them

more o r l e s s p e r m a n e n t .
Mooney
discipline
the

(1965), a B r i t i s h
a still

difficulty

pathological
western
tribe

ideal

that

suppressed.
jealousy
potential

jealousy

faithful

He e v e n t u a l l y

is irrational
f o r frequent

noting

to define the

f r o m t h e norm.

Comparing

(a polygamous and p o l y a n d r o u s

I n d i a ) , he c l a i m s

on a d u l t e r y

on j e a l o u s y ,

i n attempting

s o c i e t i e s t o t h e Tobas

is lifelong

neglects

arises

perspective

as a d e v i a t i o n

i n southern

censure

broader

P s y c h i a t r i s t , gave h i s

that

when t h e r e

must be s u p p r e s s e d

monogamy
decides

infidelity
that

i s no

b u t when t h e
must be

pathological

and u n f o u n d e d , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e
e r r o r s by t h e d i a g n o s t i c i a n

a c a r e f u l study

who

o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s and s o c i a l

52

context.
Even

t h o u g h Mooney

with d e f i n i n g
he

goes on

the

(in a

(1965) a c k n o w l e d g e d

pathological

as

jealousy

certainty"

(p.1024) from o b s e s s i v e

has

After

the

jealousy

surveying

outlines

factors,

epilepsy;
paranoid

organic

be

drug

degenerative

(e.g.,

analysis

p r e g n a n c y and

and

(1965) p r o g n o s i s

65

other

familial

intoxication

or

disorders;

and

poat-partum

(e.g.,

other

state;

initial

On

c a s e h i s t o r i e s (8 of
concludes

favorable

(p.1034).

His

variant

explained,

but

he

problems with h i s
of

for delusional

jealousy.

a u t h o r s ) he

validity

with

i n v o l u t i o n a l changes).

for obsessive

of

and

(1965)

p s y c h i a t r i c syndromes

the

patient

problems.

associated

cerebral

with

evidence

Mooney

state, manic-depressive psychosis);

worse t h a n

the

the

emotional

hereditary

personality;

mental d e f i c i e n c y ;

Mooney's

an

including

to

norm,

i s held

when t h e

literature,

thought

from the

belief

jealousy

of

difficulty

distinguish

to a p p r e c i a t e

Psychiatric

or

to

"mistaken

i s symptomatic

jealousy

menopause and

three

reality

categories

premorbid

addiction;

factors

the

eight

pathological

had

i n which a

enough t o u c h w i t h

realize

a deviation

s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y way)

delusional

the

l e v e l s of

h i s own

that

e f f e c t on

the

instituting

the

basis
and

of
57

delusional

reader

from

well

is left

chemotherapy

drugs

jealousy"

s i g n i f i c a n c e are
and

is

his

"phenothiazine

documents e x t e n s i v e l y
s t u d y and

jealousy

not
the

other

t o wonder a t .
j
i n the f i r s t
place.

53

No o t h e r
and

non-chemical

treatment

a l t e r n a t i v e s are suggested

a p e s s i m i s t i c long-term prognosis
The

next

study of " d e l u s i o n a l

i s predicted.

jealousy"

was Mowat's

(1966) a n a l y s i s o f 110 m u r d e r e r s and a t t e m p t e d

He c o n c l u d e s t h a t

"12% o f male and 3% o f f e m a l e

murderers murdered
single

delusion

suicide

f o r morbid

and murder"

w h i c h t h e a v e r a g e man

of

his

s i x years

average,

and

he soon m i s i n t e r p r e t s

later.

i n h i s mistaken
eventuate

later.

The man's d e l u s i o n s

four-and-a-half

delusional
The

Seidenberg's

acts
as

years

a t the outset
developing,

state

on

escalates

i n c r e a s i n g l y more

Angry

s c e n e s and

leaving only

frequently

o r murder o c c u r

to return

become

on t h e a v e r a g e

a f t e r the onset

relative

of the

excuse

to avoid

and f i d e l i t y

"the p r i n c i p l e

on j e a l o u s y i s

of s o c i o - c u l t u r a l

to f i d e l i t y

he v i e w s s e x u a l

sentiment

literature

(1967) e x p l o r a t i o n

of u n f a i t h f u l n e s s .

former

then

psychoanalytic

considerations

overrated

i n the wife

from

system.

next

Basically,

H i s deluded
growing

other

showed a p a t t e r n

h i s wife

judgements.

attacks

Suicide

about

trivia,

violent

about

so many d e a t h s

The murders

h i s delusions

psychotic

[ a n d ] ... no

was f r e e o f j e a l o u s y

the

hallucinations.

with

(p.115).

in

convinced

jealousy

i s associated

marriage,

murderers.

and

infidelity
dealing

with

jealousy.

a s w e s t e r n man's
other

infidelities

He d i s t i n g u i s h e s between
as l o g i c ,

i s followed

claiming

that

fidelity
i n the

more o r l e s s b l i n d l y f o r

or

54

its

own s a k e "

the

s e r v i c e of e x i g e n c y "

infidelity,
meaning

he d e c i d e s ,

'sexual'

extramarital
sexual
of

U n f a i t h f u l n e s s and

"have s u f f e r e d t h e p e j o r a t i o n o f

reflect

He b e l i e v e s

jealousy

between p a r t n e r s "

Seidenberg's

In h i s v i e w ,

d e p e n d e n t needs a s much a s

(p.30) and f r e q u e n t l y

foreplay

that

(p.29).

i t i s "a p r i n c i p l e i n

e x c l u s i v e l y " (p.28).

affairs

needs.

living"

the

(p.29) and i n t h e l a t t e r

(1967) view

i s "an e x p e c t e d

"a p a r t

affect

of the t i t i l l a t i o n ,

(p.31).
o f j e a l o u s y "in m a r r i a g e i s

i t a r i s e s from t h e p a t r i a c h a l monogamous s y s t e m .

claims

that

i n the m a t r i a r c h a l

jealousy

hardly

"another

by-product

extend

this

instances

(1922) b e l i e f s .

jealousy

the

absolute,

(Seidenberg,
Hoaken

that

o f male d o m i n a n c e "

In t h e s e

and

organic

e x i s t e d and c o n c l u d e s

provoked

be

normal

the emotion i s

he a g r e e s w i t h

His final

analysis

are " i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d
f o r the u n a l t e r a b l e

He does n o t

and e x t e n d s

i s that

t o man's b a s i c

and

natural

or d e l u s i o n a l

fidelity
wish f o r

infallible"

1967, p.51').
(1976) d e s c r i b e s

jealousy

as a symptom o f

or f u n c t i o n a l p s y c h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r

as

system

(p.38).

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n to obsessive

jealousies.
Freud's

polyandrous

He

or unprovoked.

Provoked

and c l a s s i f i e s i t

jealousy,

or e x c e s s i v e

and n e u r o t i c , whereas

jealousy

i s irrational

and a l w a y s e x c e s s i v e .

provoked

jealousy

he

he c l a i m s

unprovoked
Normal,

says:

may be c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s a r e a c t i o n t o a
person's f r u s t r a t e d d e s i r e to preserve a s i g n i f i c a n t

may

55

e m o t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . . . [ I t ] runs a n a t u r a l c o u r s e
[and] i s e x p e r i e n c e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a blow t o t h e s e l f e s t e e m , r a i s i n g d o u b t s t h a t may have had t h e i r o r i g i n
i n e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s (Hoaken, 1976,
p.47).
Excessive

or n e u r o t i c j e a l o u s y d i f f e r s

only

according

t o him

b e c a u s e of

or

prolonged

revealing
morbid
an

and

"most c a s e s

p r o v o c a t i o n " (p.48),

of u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m s .

and

may

be

one

among t h e

latter

firmly

jealousy

the

patients

or a f i x e d

stresses

the

process

of

f o r the p a t i e n t

he

fixed

d e l u s i o n s he

f a v o r s the

personality

s h o u l d be

assessed

trait

e x c e s s i v e use

person

of a l c o h o l .

should allow a l i m i t e d
h e l p the person

and

determining
If

morbid

suggests

and

use

and

the
for

of

with a jealous

f o r and

The

helped

therapist

to

in a l l

a p p r o p r i a t e d i s c h a r g e of

recognize that

i s exaggerated,

trait,

distinguish

of o v e r t o r c o v e r t d e p r e s s i v e i l l n e s s

with

affection

To

importance

The

anger,

jealousy i s

a personality

delusion.

therapy.

cases

repeated

are, nevertheless,

Unprovoked

electroconvulsive

control

degree

subject holds his/her b e l i e f s .

i s a new

possibility

he

but

of t h r e e k i n d s

obsessive suspicion

how

occur

in

promote

h i s / h e r need f o r
emotional

independence.
Seeman

(1979) p r e s e n t s and

analyzes

five

cases

of

pathological

j e a l o u s y i n women, n o t i n g t h e

special

significance

of t i m e

p a t i e n t s at

time

of o n s e t

were " f e e l i n g

subordinate....[and]
diminish

of o n s e t .

[their]

life

A l l of h e r

unusually insecure

circumstances

self-esteems"

(Seeman,

had

the

and

conspired to

1979,

p.352).

The

56

author

notes

recent

precipitating

l o s s of a parent

f a c t o r and g e n e r a l l y ,

t i m e when t h e need t o be l o v e d
She

a l s o notes the frequent

provocation
she

found

directed
that

by t h e p a r t n e r

little

by t h e s u b j e c t

often

of

and

interactions.

the r i v a l

of the j e a l o u s

evidence

at a

subject.

Although

i n h e r sample o f envy

at the object

she e v e n t u a l l y

claims

i n t h e game o f s i b l i n g - r i v a l r y "

She o b s e r v e d
often

and a l l f i v e

occurs

o u t w e i g h s t h e need t o l o v e .

took

that

quite

apparent i n

the sexual

t h e form o f

had " d e c r i b e d

f a n t a s i e s p r i o r ' t o the development

jealousy"

onset

b o t h envy and c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s

her female p a t i e n t s

with

that

p r e s e n c e and y e t d e n i a l o f

t h e y a r e "engaged

(p.354) w i t h
their

initial

as a p o s s i b l e

fantasies

identification

homoerotic

of the

dreams

[problematic]

(p.355).

Seeman

(1979) o b s e r v e s

jealousy

frequently

explains

i n an e v o l u t i o n a r y

that

experience

p a t i e n t s with

increased

problematic

libido.

She

sense a s :

a r e s p o n s e t o t h e t h r e a t o f s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e mates and
[ i t ] c a n be seen a s n a t u r e ' s a t t e m p t t o p r e v e n t t h e
s e p a r a t i o n and e n s u r e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e s p e c i e s .
One
p a r t n e r t h r e a t e n s l o s s o f i n t e r e s t ; j e a l o u s y and
heightened l i b i d o r e s u l t , l e a d i n g to stronger bonding
of t h e m a r i t a l p a i r (Seeman, 1979, p . 3 5 8 ) .
She
of

a l s o observed
ruminations,

partners

in

rage,

a cycle

r e m o r s e , and mania and i n t h e i r

In h e r view both p a r t n e r s

f o r i t s secondary

order

(female) s u b j e c t s

male

a c y c l e o f s u r r e p t i t i o u s n e s s , f u r t i v e n e s s and

untruthfulness.
alive

i n her jealous

to prevent

gains

or r e s o l v e

and need h e l p

keep t h e j e a l o u s y
to gain

"one p a r t n e r ' s

insight

withdrawal

57

from

reality,

unresolvable
Seeman
psychiatry

the

other

hurts"

partner's

(Seeman,

(1979) i s t h e

the

jealousy

temporal

and

involves

both p a r t n e r s .

and

stresses

first

life

representative

the

She

reality

s i t u a t i o n and

past

and

concentrate

1979,

p.360).

from b o t h
does not
latter

She

intuitions

their

b e l i e v e s are
secondary

the

separated

sexual

discussed.

psychiatry

and

of

past

retaliatory

gains

date.

Cobb and

Marks
be

the

She
with

present.

hunches"

actions"
not

To

partner

(Seeman,

role

of

jealousy.
and

of any

(1979) c l a i m t h a t

i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from

their

She
which
is

games

children

i s the

The

Fantasy

parenting

are

most

suggested

"morbid

"candor

(p.360).

supportive.

r e l a t i o n s h i p s with

humanitarian

to

occasionally

secondary

t h r o u g h open d i s c u s s i o n

'turn-on'

their

and

self-

stresses that

O v e r a l l , Seeman's t r e a t m e n t

comprehensive

restore

contracts

on

from a c t i o n , s i b l i n g - r i v a l r y

e x p o s e d and

treatment

encourages each

a c t i o n s and

include confessions

neutralizes

e n c o u r a g e s t r u t h f u l n e s s and f r a n k n e s s

regarding

she

includes

other's

she

with

relationship.

the

e l a b o r a t i o n of d e l u s i o n s

" v a l i d a t e the

to

of

prevent

interactional

reduce

i n t o the

forget

are

the

Her

distortions,

candor

and

from

in combination

intervenes

both to

to

social

events p e r s p e c t i v e .

re-introduce
the

p.359).

triangle

esteem, a r r e s t p e r c e p t u a l
gains

1979,

t o examine c l o s e l y

e l e m e n t s of

bondage, and r e c i p r o c a l

by

jealousy

can

obsessive-compulsive

58

neurosis"
jealous

(p.301).

p e r s o n s on

"combines o p e r a n t
can

be

are

taught

to

partner

(object)

questions
The

and

over h i s / h e r

the

object

in deciding

Given

the

not

rather

n e u t r a l i z i n g secondary

basis

of

target

criterion

for

more p o i n t s
points

for

one,

but

in this

scores

an

at

8-point

improved,
t h e y do

and

got

worse.

duration

f r o m two

to

questioned.

The

i s made j u d g e
the

q u a l i t y of

their
and

f o r two

power
and
the

Seeman

promoting

outcomes on

Their

was

of

reduction

for

d i d the

Cobb and

2 to

or

3.9

rating.
improved

fourth

for

patient

Marks v a r i e d

Finally,

not

p a t i e n t s and

months.

the

ruminations.

t a b l e , the

F o l l o w - u p by
fifteen

be

2 points

i n d i c a t e who

their

may

by

f o r much i m p r o v e d ,

l e s s than

not

i n d i c a t e d by

actually

jealous

gains.

follow-up

scale

were much i m p r o v e d
as

instance

for r i t u a l s

The

uncommon p a r e n t a l i z a t i o n

(1979) e v a l u a t e

improvement

on

i m p r o v e d , but
Rituals

Marks

and

latter.

ignore

couple dynamics d e s c r i b e d

therapist

Cobb and

the

and

Patients

therapist establishing definite

(1979), the
than

to

a p p r o a c h must be

partner

sibling-rivalry

(p.303).

to d i s r e g a r d

questions.

couple

questions.

treatment

between n o r m a l

normal

the

Their

four

response prevention

i s taught

this

treated

basis.

jealousy

reward

e t h i c s of

they

reinforcement"

(p.303) and

between the

other's
and

out-patient

c o n d i t i o n i n g with

of

example has

jury

study

"distinguish clearly

thoughts"

lines

an

termed d i f f e r e n t i a l

jealous

last

In a p i l o t

one

of

in

their

59

patients

was

duration

of

"attempts

on an a n t i - d e p r e s s a n t
treatment

and f o l l o w - u p .

to withdraw

the drug

in anxiety

and d e t e r i o r a t i o n

in

rituals"

jealous

patient's
indicate

increase
that

rituals

evidence
The
case

or

for

by T u r b o t t

the

of

only

married couple
delusional
The w i f e

prevent

jealousy

reciprocity
"morbid

of

(p.166).

makes

clear

the

being

alert

to

say

change

that

still

the

mood
significant

substantive

psychotherapy.

reports

the

instance

subsided

the p o s s i b i l i t y

of

assessing
of

treatment.

When h i s

paranoid

"clear
that

interaction
examples

both p a r t n e r s

actively

provoked

to

jealousy

and c a u t i o n s

own and o t h e r

of

partner

Turbott concludes
(p.166)

with

with

from t h e u n i q u e

i m p o r t a n c e of

terms

and made a t t e m p t s

treatment.

his

in

on t h e

presented

is

the

developed a f l o r i d

remitted.

Using

neglect

and not

refused treatment
further

apparent

earlier

which r a p i d l y

may r e s u l t

two p e o p l e "

t o any

w i t h no

makes

subject

psychopathology"

jealousy

behaviour.

It

Turbott

r e t u r n e d her p s y c h o s i s

to

increase

from t h e p s y c h i a t r i c " l i t e r a t u r e

jealous

her husband's

not

were

behavioral

interim "rapidly

(p.167),

it

left

i n w h i c h t h e husband

in the

psychosis"

We a r e

(1981).

relationship.

that

and d e t e r i o r a t i o n of

the d i s c i p l i n e ' s

on t h e

the

immediate

but

problems

Cobb and M a r k s '

significance

or

underlying

example

l e d t o an

Suffice

in a n x i e t y

for

They r e p o r t

i n mood,

(p.303).

no r i t u a l s .

final

study

focusing

his

medication

of
he

and

jealous

60

This

r e v i e w and

development
by

the

theory

of

jealousy

d i s c i p l i n e of
largely

interpretation

in

intensive

therapy

psychiatry.

and

effort

the

the

look c l o s e l y at

f o c u s of

f o c u s of

theory

"pathological".
a professional
primarily

as

though the

No

that

the

the

involve

of

jealousy

relationship

is gradually

exclusively

or

"personality"

report

more d y n a m i c ,
with

seems t o

t r a d i t i o n to view

trait

partners

experiences.

t h i s tendency

lay-person

both

The

e f f o r t i s made t o

remains almost

construct

on

p r o c e s s and

treatment

a personality

documented

Freudian

exclusively

1979.

Generally,
and

as

i s apparent

(Seeman's) t o

in

historical

unconscious processes.

client's interpretations

Although

It

almost

the

treatment

t r a d i t i o n of

underlying

dynamics appears only

the

the

focusing
of

outlined

t h e o r y and

follows

psychoanalysis,

first

c r i t i q u e has

the
result

in

jealousy

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c even
has

itself

not

been

validated.
Nevertheless,
subjective
to

the

b e c a u s e any

i n s i g h t s and

body of

discipline

interpretations

knowledge,

continues

to

be

the

useful

i t seems, would be

very

trend

treatment

for

to de-empathsize
processes;

and

the

introduce

are

well

advised

inclusions

unconscious

more o b j e c t i v e

and

by

this

to continue

its

interactionally-based

heed L a n g f e l d t ' s

r o l e of

valid

applicable.

t o w a r d more d y n a m i c ,

jealousy;

therapist's

l i t e r a t u r e contributed

Psychiatry,
recent

individual

(1962) i n c l i n a t i o n
psychodynamic
valid

empirical

61

research,
and

especially

introduce

accounts

by

The

from t h e

and

discipline
ends w i t h

Pines

the

of

rest

of A d l e r

tradition.

theoretical
and

cultural,

The

Jung who

recent

I t begins
research

on

with

by

focus

research

published

prior

b a s e d and

subjects

on

a speciality

adhering

partly

and
be

treatment

traced

a departure

to the
are

of

t o the

from

era

Freudian

e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n theand. a wide v a r i e t y of

Gradually

this

i n c r e a s i n g the

individual

jealousy

itself

a n a l y s i s of

affects
focus

i n t e r p e r s o n a l d y n a m i c s and
on

within

separates

to the

diagnosis

can

this

i n t e r v e n t i o n s by

i t s application within

most p a r t

initiated

perspectives.

a chronological

and

several s p e c i a l i t i e s

the

perspectives

Psychology

As

the

separation

f a m i l y and

decreasing

and

In p s y c h o l o g y

emergence of

theory

theory

of p s y c h o l o g y ,

This

and

from

f o r the

unconscious processes
pathology.

critiques

most

of p s y c h i a t r y . "

medicine, p s y c h i a t r y ,
from t h e

chemotherapy;

of p s y c h o l o g y .

section presents

jealousy

discipline

of

(1983).

previous

development

and

the

Perspectives
The

use

clients.

section presents

(1928) and

Aronson

their

r e p o r t i n g of more s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n t i a l

their

next

jealousy
Adler

the

regarding

jealousy
on

socio-

by

pathology.

contributed

mid-seventies
r e f e r r e d t o as

by

psychology

is primarily
" j e a l o u s " or

trait"non-

and

62

jealous"

persons.

were a t l e a s t
thirties.

This

i s in spite

i m p l i e d by A d l e r

and Jung

The 1976 a p p e a r a n c e o f

interactional
integration

model

of a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t

for jealousy

i n the twenties

and

Constantine's

allows

for a preliminary

o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l and s t a t e - o r i e n t e d

perspect ives.
To

demonstrate the development

practice

within

the d i s c i p l i n e

r e v i e w s and c r i t i q u e s

with

Constantine's
synergism
research

t h e most

the e x c e p t i o n

recent

that

on j e a l o u s y

later

Adler

It i s a

instruments,

(1977) r e s e a r c h on

by A r o n s o n and P i n e s

recent

(1983) a r e

from t h e s e q u e n c e and d i s c u s s e d

of t h e s e c t i o n t o f a c i l i t a t e

section

with

research.

jealousy

(1976) m o d e l , B a r t e l l ' s

t h e o r y and

this

beginning

i n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e most

extracted
end

of p s y c h o l o g y

the l i t e r a t u r e

(1928) and e n d i n g w i t h
chronology

of j e a l o u s y

together

near the

i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h i s and

chapters.
Adler

(1928) t r a c e s

months o f l i f e
individual

jealousy's

when, a c c o r d i n g

i s developing

origin

to h i s theory,

his life

goal

being

i s a character

neglected

trait

that

inherent

In h i s view,

results

or d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t ,

few

each

t o overcome

w e a k n e s s e s and f e e l i n g s o f i n f e r i o r i t y .
jealousy

to the f i r s t

from

f e e l i n g s of

and i t s g o a l i s

power.
A

1982 t r a n s l a t e d work

indicates

that Adler's

"Cooperation

Between t h e S e x e s "

i n s i g h t s i n t o the dynamics of j e a l o u s

63

behaviour
in

emphasized

a Freudian

humanistic,
of

in

the

a social

and

his

jealousy
status
since

p e r s o n can

food"

(p.154).

t r i g g e r e d by
Jung

their

a self-effort

lost
the

t o an

sublimated

alcoholic
but

Jung

claims

early

i t "can

strive

that

the

now

jealousy"

real

also

stirrings

notes

sphere"
i n the

i t is reinforced

desire

rather

eroticisms.
jealousy

for their

t o get

"emotional

sexual

of p a r a n o i d ,

"unconscious compensation"
love

of

p.144).

( p . 1 1 5 ) , but
to

social

f o r power

feeling

among h i s

its original

He

consciously

form of

1982,

jealousy

(1960) r e l a t e s the

alcoholics

is

i t "has

only

that

Woman's r e a l

need t o

entirely

his

" i s possible

implies

t o l e r a t e the

(Adler,

power,

actual, socio-cultural

of p s y c h o s e x u a l i t y "
belong

v i e w s were more

( A d l e r , -1982, p. 146)]

i n women.
greater

not

t o man's " e v a l u a t i o n

[which

to the

simply

(1961) i n c l u d e s

i t "does not

than

her

inferiority"

(p.154) b e c a u s e
for

drive

f e m a l e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t he

thus a b d i c a t e s

manifestations

Adler's

of male d o m i n a n c e "

i s more p r e v a l e n t

Jung

sex

d e v e l o p m e n t , but

In h-is view of

references

to the

"no

sexual

"masculine p r o t e s t "

order

apparent

that

the

purposes.

frequent

obstacles

or

subordinating

of

of

d e t e r m i n i s t i c sense.

i t f o r h i s own

concept

issues

back on

perceives
reappear

(p.209) f o r

partners.

This

the

of

that

[from

course

his love
the

chronic

compensation

duty.
is

The

entirely

unconscious] only

(p.209).

(1954) a l s o u s e s the

case

s t u d y of

a seven

year

in

64

old

boy

to exemplify

manifestation.
d i a g n o s e d as
tests

walking

being

boy,

opposite.

squint

i n one

When the

impossible

was

affection.

(1979) f o r h e r
chapter.

adult

i n the

on

their

participate,

therapists

t o examine the

Feelings

of

purposeful

before

impotence
and

circumstances

child,

in learning

i n the

the

to

and

compete

form

things.

of

These

birth

of a

that

were

a c y c l e of

rage

and

moods of

the

emphasize

which they

others

in

things

the

clients

earlier

in

and

by

situation

the

social

and

the

Seeman

this

r a g e may

individual

groups

and
in

for

pathology.
appear

t h a n p a t h o l o g i c a l when
the

by

r o l e s of

individual

resulting

i n d i c a t e that

and

unfair expectations

t h u s p o i n t i n g t o a need

diagnosing

adaptive

remorse

cycle described

sample d i s c u s s e d

Both authors

involved

(later

expected

rage

for doing

approximates

judgements p l a c e d

was

throwing

a l t e r n a t i n g with

This

intelligence

sibling.

Jung d e s c r i b e s ,
vindictiveness

boy

five after

soon p r a i s e d

for his

eventuated

would e x p r e s s

a t age

later

l a c k of c o o r d i n a t i o n

eye

b u l l y i n g and

power

originally

impediment

speech

and

problems exacerabated

was

surgery),

who

child,
but

simple

problems.

a compensatory

retarded

tantrums,

brother

only

mentally

u n f a i r g r o u n d s he

temper

an

r a g e as

by

behavioural
on

The

showed t h e

resolved

jealous

is

more

the
experiencing

powerlessness.
In

summary, J u n g ' s

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s focus

on

situational

65

factors
His

brief

role
his

and a r e c o n c e r n e d
discussions,

of unconscious
"optimistic

p.19).

with the c l i e n t ' s

goal or purpose.

t o Freud's,

de-emphasize the

relative

sexual impulses

and c r e a t i v e

Jung's r e c o g n i t i o n

view

and a r e c o n g r u e n t

o f humans"

of s o c i e t y ' s

( C o r e y , 1977,

r o l e and

e x p e c t a t i o n s acknowledge t h a t

jealous behaviour

sometimes be t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s

best

Reik

(1946) c o n t e n d s

something
of
and

love"

(p.173).

on t h e b a s i s

He b e l i e v e s
of c l i n i c a l

consists

i n Reik's

i n the organism

o b s e r v a t i o n s he n o t e s
elemental

(1949) v i e w ,

and a g g r e s s i o n .

mainly

some sex

feelings,

aims

i s t o d e f e a t her r i v a l

Her

fears

attention,

However, t h e f e m a l e ' s

involve

loss

and g e t back t h e l o v e d

of emotional

and s e c u r i t y

as w e l l

e x p e r i e n c e and a c t o u t a n g e r
this

i s because

often

involvement.

one o f r e t a l i a t i o n

threatened

The woman's
object.
time,

and r a g e .

i s more

likely

According to
interprets

with another

that

implies her

H i s aim, i n R e i k ' s view,

but h i s rage, emanating

sexual self-concept,

experience

o f abandonment, so

The male

t h e male a c c u r a t e l y

woman's s e x u a l i n v o l v e m e n t

emotional

involvement,

as t h r e a t

becomes p o s s e s s i v e a n d schemes.

Reik,

i s compounded o f envy,

o f envy a n d t h e m a l e ' s o f r a g e .

aim

his

rotten,

that

behaviours.

depression

to

effort.

i t i s a symptom n o t a d i s e a s e

i n terms o f predominant

Jealousy,

she

may

j e a l o u s y i s "a s i g n

i s wrong, n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

differences
and

that

with

i s more
from a

r e n d e r s him i n c a p a b l e o f

66

rational

t h i n k i n g or

women r e a c t by
t o win

scheming.

holding

them b a c k .

their

partner's

react

by

on

Men,

sexual

withdrawing,

Reik

to t h e i r

(1949) p r o p o s e s

partners

in contrast, w i l l
involvement
rejecting

with

their

or by

focus

the

fighting,

on

third

partners

that

images of
party

and

or

r e t a l i a t ing.
Central
jealousy
already
with

as

to Reik's
being

a symptom of

research

o f inferiority

results

& Lindsey,
are

t o be

1979;

jealousy

and

Wylie

that

of

be

jealousy

low

(Buunk,

1978;

regard.

Corzine

(1974) c i t e s

overview

of

but'

1982;

Jaremko

White,

1976,

methodological

individual

may

or may

not

rather

than

are

p.31).

spurious

The

effectively

or

individual

ineffectively

and/or o t h e r s .

Secondly,

he

associated

labelled

high

with

with

to a r r i v e

Coopersmith

problems

self-concept.

scientific

is associated

both

self-esteem.

and

difficult

The

review

c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of

self-esteem

"the

and

of

This

self-esteem,

later

i n v o l v e the

(1961) i n an

expressions
1974,

self-esteem.

& Mosher,

inconsistent in this

Accordingly,

study

or a

reviewed

Teisman

problems encountered

and

low

i n d i c a t e s some c o n s e n s u s t h a t

feelings

1981)

thesis i s also a perspective

be

low

and

low

He

he

aware t h a t

genuine"

(Corzine,

i t from

self-esteem
norms f o r
that

the

his

some

thus

himself

that personal

notes

to

observes

s e l f - r e g a r d may

a t commonly a c c e p t e d

evaluation"'(p.32).

inherent

Firstly,

concealing

observes

(1967)

values

"make i t

67

investigators
narcissism

assume a r r o g a n c e ,

are a s s o c i a t e d

inferiority,

timidity,

and

However,

in t h i s

lack

consider
than

that

should
of

personal

are a s s o c i a t e d

view,

Therefore,

of

it

involve,

it

is

with

have not

also very

low

minimally,

a time

approaches,

this

such as

approach.

author, i s

in

motivations

assuming

field"

that

behaviours,

Thus,

1974,

human b e h a v i o u r s ,

will

we a r e aware

(Corzine,

of.

p.35),

Wylie

(1974)

The

of

first

interventions
clear

jealousy's

author
is

Ard

in

Emphasizing

that

on u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s
detail

by

his/her

extradyadic,

limits

of

opposite-sex

who s t r e s s e s

with
to

outside

the

seemingly

these

that

views.

self-esteem.

suggest

the

acceptable behaviour

specific

importance

behaviours

he recommends t h a t

persons.

saying

i n a more p r e c i s e

affiliation

jealous

terms

agreement

communication to a v o i d d e s t r u c t i v e r e a c t i o n s

jealousy.

In

by s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n s

the d i s c i p l i n e

(1967)

rather

jealousy

re-emphasizes

a c o m b i n e d a p p r o a c h may r e s u l t

understanding

thus

including

be i n f l u e n c e d o n l y

to

jealousy

they n e g l e c t
phenomenal

validated

and

criticisms

and u n c o n s c i o u s

self-

important

w i t h C o r z i n e who u n d e r s c o r e s W y l i e ' s
"drives

while

and c h a n g i n g

series

and

self-

been

e m p i r i c a l measurement

with other c o n s t r u c t s

phenomenological

pride

acceptance,

s e l f - e s t e e m may be dynamic

static.

comparison

of

these assumptions

author's

egotism,

with very high s e l f - e s t e e m ,

h a t r e d and s u b m i s s i v e n e s s
esteem.

vanity,

of

to

are dependent

each p a r t n e r
with

T h i s exchange

should

be

68

r e v i e w e d as t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
committment
successful

and e x p l i c i t
relationship

Beecher

communication
in t h i s

and B e e c h e r

"The Mark o f C a i n "

progresses.

jealous

competition.

between

jealousy

general

references to A d l e r ' s

philosophies,
about

ambition

practice"

exist,

(James

glossary

use

t h e word j e a l o u s y

of

Jealousy

indicates

symptomatic,
in h i s t o r y
person

has spoken

who t r i e s

himself"
Testament
Is

pathological

(p.5).

"I

the C h r i s t i a n

he/she

stating

perceived

of

am a j e a l o u s

God making

an i n t e n t i o n

rights

A r e v i e w of
may w e l l

their

jealousy,

their

and p r i v i l e g e s

jealousy
and every
Elliot's

connotes

envy.

p e j o r a t i v e way
it

is

always

They say " n o one

except perhaps

discussion

to hide
neglects

G o d " (Exodus

it

the
from

the Old

20:5, R.S.V.).

s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s or

to zealously

is

be an a r c h a i c

view

in order

negative

The book

be d i s o r d e r

or d e s t r u c t i v e .

to excuse h i m s e l f
However,

claim

In

oh

" f o r where

i n an e x c l u s i v e l y

well

frequent

specifics

passages.

w h i c h more l i t e r a l l y

(1971).

and

and w r i t t e n

there w i l l

this

wrote

distinguish

t h e y make

citation,

that

is discussed

by B e e c h e r and B e e c h e r

jealousy

r e l y predominantly

3:16, R . S . V . ) .

(1967)

of

t o any of h i s

of B i b l i c a l

p r e f a c e d w i t h a New T e s t a m e n t

vile

spoken

of A d l e r ' s ,

t h e y do n o t

and a l t h o u g h

Instead,, they

interpretations

and s e l f i s h

the i s s u e s

t h e y do not r e f e r

jealousy.

personal

and e n v y ,

of a

view.

students

Unfortunately,

clear

are the essence

author's

(1971),

addressing

Trust,

protect

is

his

which a r e the f o u n d a t i o n s

of

69

Christian
The

philosophy
Beechers,

tendency

and

i n s p i t e of

to confuse

frequently

practice?

jealousy

their

with

Unfortunately,

associate

behaviours with

and

jealous

This

neglects

jealousy

useful

The

for either jealousy

interpersonal
perspective

dynamics,

that

the

and

analogies
seeking

of

always

of a

emotions

a u t h o r s do

an

power.

individual,

defensive

or

pathological.
beyond

for

Jealousy,

not

superior

in

general

consider

any

Their

rather

typically

the
which

seek and

necessarily
may

'superior'

be

protective,

and

therapeutic

i n d i v i d u a l how

his

have a

suggestions
jealous

and

initiative

and

as

a p r o b l e m of

keep

dependent.

that

the

may

than d e s t r u c t i v e

his creativity

jealousy

some a s p e c t

i t "leaves

characterizes

not

t e x t makes few

(1972) d i s c u s s e s

love claiming

neglect

f a c t o r s , and

in these circumstances,

comparisons destroy

May

They

in circumstances

'more' but

adaptive

and

power.

vulnerable,

i n t e r p r e t i n g f o r the

infantile

or

situational

r e n d e r him/her v e r y

f u n d a m e n t a l need

him

power

their

complexity

in p a r t i c u l a r .

and

p u r p o s e or p o t e n t i a l l y p o s i t i v e i n t e n t i o n or

motivation

indeed

the

views

envy, a d d r e s s i t s

mentioned a s s o c i a t i o n with

competitiveness.

power.

restricted

the

of

i t i s healthy

realms of

normal

r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h one

than

love"

(p.117).

that

a r i s e s in d i r e c t

He

also

says that

proportion

to

the

power

but

and

more

caring....[and]
s e e k s more power

" i t i s an
impotence

impotence
of

the

70

individual"

(p.117).

He

associates

e s t e e m , p o w e r l e s s n e s s and
privileges
occurs

has

i n the

that

freedom.

when the

nothing,
out

and

person

no

cold.

by

negatives.
jealousy

May

falls

(p.19) and

"power

and

whipped
only

violence.

into action"

ineffective.
is

names f i v e

a potentiality

when t h e

purely

power

other
He

as

being

i s more

do

left

implies

than

perspective
of

on

power

positives

and

r e l a t i o n s h i p between
holism.

A clear

power w i l l

facilitate

developing

we

and

other

these

" i n the

right

Aggression

i s always

i t strength"

how
One

of

power

self-assertion,
exist

situation

and

pole

is

levels

have been b l o c k e d

"power
call

the

human.

self-affirmation,
E a c h of

levels

i n t e r m s of

ontological levels

(p.42).

says

personal

polarities

demanding, w h i l e

power t o be,

humans a s

of

i n f a n t and

including

and

a c t u a l l y can

i s essential for a l l l i v i n g

discusses

He

the

violence

therefore

a continuum

short

cooperative.

aggression

J u n g , he

rights,

jealousy.

(1972) s a y s

competitive

for

himself

a holistic

transcending

power emerges i n t h e
is

and

of May's t h e s i s a b o u t

t h e s i s about

jealousy

low-self

determined.

power

understanding

things"

Like Adler

However, h i s p r o p o s e d

and

struggles

experiences

(1972) a c c o m p l i s h e s

i n c l u d i n g and

new

experiencing

r e l a t i o n s h i p with

intrapsychically

with

From h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ,

power and

jealousy's

May

resulting

jealousy

violence
or

in a l l
can

be

occur

are

interpersonal; i f i t
(p.35).

He

71

e m p h a s i z e s a modern day
against
(May,

the

that

d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s of

1972,

t h a n as

tendency,

p.20),

t o v i e w power

a significant,

the

i s "a

reaction

m i s u s e of. power"

i n a p e j o r a t i v e way

fundamental aspect

of

the

rather

life

process.
May
prevent

(1972) d e f i n e s
change"

(p.99),

power as

"the

pointing

out

ability
that

i t can

in

a c t u a l or p o t e n t i a l t e r m s .

He

e x p l o i t a t i v e , manipulative,

competitive,

integrative.
Nutrient

the

power, he

exemplifies
in

Only

caring

says

i t along

through

person"

thesis,
its

attraction
He

idea
in

of

order

to

stimulate

and

by

three

plane.

In

and

a polar

holistic
using

i n t e g r a t i v e power

nonviolence

solicits

i n t o a new

s y n e r g i s t i c because

this

conceptual
way

May

points

the

body"

he
exerts

Integrative
i s "with

process
i s one

(May,

when t h e

of

p.110).

of i t

creator

May's c o n c e p t

then

or

1972,

interpersonal

i t transcends

the

body,

repulsion

i n G h a n d i ' s use

i n an

creativity.

and

(p.109) and

type,

there

in instances

response

power

power a p a r e n t

i s "a d i a l e c t i c

synthesis...

two

t y p e s of

i t s best.

g r o w t h p r o c e e d s by

these

exemplifies

through

It

viewed

power p o t e n t i a l l y

most a l t r u i s t i c

a n t i t h e s i s and
and

to the

or

explanation.

other"

from t h a t

be

nutrient

need some

i s " f o r the

child

(p.109).

antibody,

names f i v e

statesmanship at

power, u l t i m a t e l y the
other

two

a range

for his/her

expressed

last

to cause

an

exchange

of

the

of

power i s
continuum

thus

intersecting a

new

supports t h i s

a u t h o r ' s model

for

72

e m o t i o n s as

proposed

With these
power can
There

be

applied

agreement

pejorative,
trend

trend

manipulative

It

be

need

power

then

" t o be"

his

t o the

any

theories

five

powers
and

of

of

In

jealousy

power.
i t with

congruence

and

of

Izard

(and
and

i t s purpose

achieves"

i s the

(as

something

that

and

the

or h i g h l y

and

the
by

and/or

expressed

in/of

exercise

of

types.

of

and/or

same p o t e n t i a l i t i e s

in

from

the

self-affirmation, selfAs

l e v e l s can

May

most o t h e r

(1972) s a y s

also

experiences

Solomon

types

integrative

an

can

constructive.

ontological levels,

be

of

emotions

of

"whipped
jealousy.

i f we

consider

reviewed e a r l i e r )

i s to c r e a t e

c e n t r a l question
is truly

with

p o s i t i v e l a b e l s ' , w'e

violence.

these

the

jealousy.

internally

(p.42) i n v a r i o u s

power, j e a l o u s y

be

power.

constituted

m o t i v a t e s and

may

that

to a s s o c i a t e

destructive

nutrient

aggression

into action"

the

power t o

occurring

be

t o e a c h of

power, p o s s i b l y

Like

jealousy.

i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h e a c h of May's f i v e

can

assertion,

of

of

literature

toward

side

f o r power e x i s t i n g w i t h

relation

concept

about

his e x p l o i t a t i v e , competitive

highly

i n c l u d i n g the

Jealousy

(1972) t h e s i s

l e a s t some a s p e c t

both p e j o r a t i v e

v i e w e d as

externally
power,

as

the

i n the

been

t y p e s of

jealousy
can

has

applies

Considering
see

at

destructive
May

one.

i n mind May's
t o expand

involves

However, t h e

this

ideas

i s general

elementally

in chapter

change.
asked

creative

by

i n the

"What i t
May

of

power)

positive

73

sense, or something
that

that

i s very

destructive,

l i e s between o r a t a t h i r d

point

or something

"beyond"

these

polarities.
Ellis

(1972) c a l l s

jealousy

(p.118) a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e s
jealousy.

Rational

between

jealousy

observations"

contrast,

" i s one o f t h e common

reaction
with

(p.119).

t o someone b l o c k i n g

i t an i l l o g i c a l

absolutistic

...

religionists

devoutly

Ellis'
can

test

check

scientifically
expected

with

in applying

t h e major

theories

logic;

the

emotion having

implies

secondly,

that
little

signal

f o r things

denies

jealousy, in

forms o f e m o t i o n a l

like

idiosyncratic

i s "dogmatic,

those

i n which

of r a t i o n a l i t y

evidence.
theory

of emotion.

h i s theory

not only

connection

(1974), c i t e d

of

individual,

rather
with

Some d i f f i c u l t y
which

i s to

lacks a f f i l i a t i o n

Firstly,

excludes

"the"

logic i s

the p o s s i b i l i t y of

has no i n d e p e n d e n t

o r no p u r p o s e beyond
gone wrong

orthodox

the

feelings i s a

logical

this

that

along

(p.121).

jealous

the p o s s i b i l i t y

Corzine

logico-

any p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t ;

emotion

serves

Irrational

system

f o r the l e v e l

observable

on t h e

i t " i s an

believe"

for their

and i r r a t i o n a l

y o u " (p.120) a n d s e e s

and e x a c t l y

his

it

belief

a t t r i b u t e to his/her

simplistic

be

(p.118).

He s a y s

tearfulness"

rational

" i s based

empirical

disturbance"

"sex-love

serving

thirdly,

s t a t u s , but

as a warning

i n the c o g n i t i v e

bank;

finally,

intuition.

above

he

i n reference

to h i s

74

critique
of

of self-esteem

t e s t s the a s s o c i a t i o n

integrative/dis-integrative personality

jealousy.
an

methodologies,

He c l a i m s

and p r o v i d e s

support

i n t e g r a t i v e / d i s - i n t e g r a t i v e schema

"Butler-Haigh
instrument,

Q-Sort"
designed

instrument

that

he u s e s .

specific

(Corzine,

time"

t o measure

b a s e d on s u b j e c t s '

characterize

into the

This

attention

1974, p . 7 6 ) ,

in a pre-therapy/post-therapy

u s e s an a d a p t e d v e r s i o n
concept

that

by C a r l R o g e r s and a s s o c i a t e s " t o
by t h e r a p e u t i c

administered

to indicate

i s structured

measure c h a n g e s e f f e c t e d
periodof

p r o c e s s e s and.

"jealous"

over a

i s usually

fashion.

"the notion

of

Corzine

self-

s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n s " (p.76) t o

and " n o n - j e a l o u s " p e r s o n s .

associates

high

self-esteem

individual

with

integrative personality

He

and t h e s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g
p r o c e s s e s and low

self-esteem

o r t h e non s e l f - a c t u a l i z i n g i n d i v i d u a l w i t h

integrative

personality

"movement away
conflict"

F-test

and

tests

theories

proposition,

jealousy.

was t h e o r y - t e s t i n g

procedures.

derivative

possible

1974, p . 1 7 6 ) ,

rather

than a d i v i d i n g or

of the psyche.

Corzine
and

D i s - i n t e g r a t i v e means a

i n t e g r i t y and i n the d i r e c t i o n of

(Corzine,

destruction

be

from

processes.

dis-

This

by way o f o f Q-methodology

methodology

"by way of s i n g u l a r

of a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y "

uses

propositions
(p.76).

i n essence, views p e r c e p t i o n

personality

dimension

He a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t

small

in a larger

samples
that

may

His singular

of s e l f

as a

theory of

this proposition

reflects

75

only
is

on

the

also

internal

important

derived

t o remember

An

a l s o excludes

p e r s o n s were

self-report

significant

problem

relationships.
assume t h a t
The
rather

Corzine's

jealousy

current

than

conceive

of

conclusions

may

as

his

by

esteems and

to

the

t h a n as

and

suggest
and

jealousy

attitudes

t o be

i n t e r p e r s o n a l l y as

and

thus

Hence,

that

had

"process"

a t t r i b u t e s the

as

i t i s relevant

to

f o r some of
he

Corzine's

t e s t e d the

points

Accordingly,
original

and

territoriality

as

partners

( j e a l o u s agents)

Rogers
of

self(1972),

of

dynamics

Rogers'

a possible biological

i n t e r p e r s o n a l and

he

the

context

group-influenced
Even

in time,

their

design
i n the

as

similarly

i n t e r m s of

j e a l o u s y moreso

socio-cultural

dynamically

well

involved others

jealousy

suggests

of

not

procedures

" s u b j e c t s " at v a r i o u s

questioned

of

"non-

was

their

jealousy

a personality characteristic.

suggestion
of

assumes

self-actualization.

relationship,

or

others.

basis

t h a t a l l p a r t i e s were, o v e r a l l ,

t o whom C o r z i n e
instrument,

and

38

the

e i t h e r was

are

jealousy
involved

on

i n t e r m s of

experienced.

jealous

have f o u n d

affected

solely

alternate explanations
and

of

conclusions

" j e a l o u s " and

sampling

research

(jealous objects)
well

Corzine's

view, i t

is dispositional.

statically,

intrapersonally

38

jealousy

f o r them

author's

r o l e ( s ) of

identified

that

this

assessment

the

homogenous sample of

jealous"

In

that

from a u n i d i m e n s i o n a l

dynamics t h a t

their

experience.

possibly

group

aspect

76

involvement.
t e r m s of

Also,

own

containing

36

p e r s o n " ) and
of

61

are

each

hopelessness").

three

vote

by

an

results

used a

cards

the

differences
concludes

that

me"

to

first

r e q u i r e d by

of what

this

on

example, an

a n a l y s i s of power

subject,

loss,

of

because he/she

i s temporarily

responsible

recording

On

like

the

sheet

would
of

reflecting

me".

the
a

Subgroupings

hypotheses.
showed

conclusion

i n the

that

that

significant

adults.

group] i n

i n terms

of

wants f o r

process

that

subject.

triangle

is experiencing

Corzine

and

[the non-jealous

jealous

two

completion

both c o n s c i o u s

the

been

three

Viewed d i f f e r e n t l y ,

i t i s about

part

cards

"I have a-

of

non-jealous

them

more c o p i n g

the

the

panel

hypothesis

strategems,

(p.151).

97

b a s i s of a

into his six

null

group dynamics,

consideration

the

piles.

"least

j e a l o u s and

"fewer

are

to cope"

triangular

the

between

unconscious,
order

to

from each c a t e g o r y

nine

of h i s sample were s t r u c t u r e d
of

i n a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n

"most l i k e

Testing

"I am
(e.g.,

on

independent

number of

t o e a c h of

this

from

inherent

in

B e f o r e h a n d , a l l i t e m s had

Each subject

the

allotted

earlier,

i n t o -9 p i l e s ,

(e.g.,

to e i t h e r category

psychologists.
structured

sorted,

d i s - i n t e g r a t i v e items

out

range

a construct

i n t e g r a t i v e items

to belong

sorting

as

subjects

judged

be

discussed

design.

Corzine's

of

limitations

self-esteem

Corzine's

feeling

the

requires

For

suggests

the

threat

i n a lower p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e

to

that
of

both

77

object

and a g e n t .

additional
change

coping

Hence, he/she w i l l

indeed

mechanisms, and more t h a n

i s t o o c c u r and i f dynamic

require
t h e others., i f

equilibrium

i s t o be r e -

established.
Several
null

other

s u b g r o u p i n g s by sex and a t o t a l

h y p o t h e s e s about

were u s e d

by C o r z i n e

i n t e g r a t i v e / d i s - i n t e g r a t i v e processes
(1974) t o c h a r a c t e r i z e

p e r s o n " and t h e " n o n - j e a l o u s p e r s o n " .

a priori

characterizations,

culturally
oriented

differences

jealous

males

jealous

females

interpretation
not

integrative
his

processes

property,

indicating
is

likewise

western

jealous

given

these

use o f s o c i o -

than' t r a i t -

males

(JM) and nqn-

differences
females

i n the f i r s t

between

(NJF).

instance,

that

His
NJM do

t h a n JM i n terms o f i n t e g r a t i v e / d i s -

because

(Corzine,

"viewing

the l o v e - o b j e c t

h i s perception

1974, p . 1 5 3 ) .

as

of the j e a l o u s

H i s evidence

more i n t e g r a t i o n among J F when compared w i t h NJF

interpreted

society's

traditional

between

he e x t e r n a l i z e s

circumstance"

rather

( J F ) and n o n - j e a l o u s

measure d i f f e r e n t l y

At i s s u e ,

"jealous

F o r example, he f i n d s no

(NJM) b u t s i g n i f i c a n t

includes,

the

is his conflicting

b a s e d and s t a t e - o r i e n t e d

interpretations.

significant

of s i x

s o c i o - c u l t u r a l l y and g r o u n d e d i n

sanctioning

role expectations

o f woman's v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s v i a
so t h a t :

J e a l o u s y i s r e a d i l y p e r c e i v e d by t h e f e m a l e a s an
i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m . . . [ a n d ] s h e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e male,
senses that her p e r s o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s a r e f i n a l l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the c i r c u m s t a n c e s which p r e c i p i t a t e her
j e a l o u s f e e l i n g s " ( C o r z i n e , 1974, p . 1 5 6 ) .

78

Corzine

incorporates

interactionally-based
adequately

supported

"non-jealous
individual
affects

by

comparing
followed

experiences

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s then

grounding

i n the

processes.
exclude

subjects
the

and
as

and

agent

w e l l as

has

on

the

b a s i s of a

jealousy

1976

before

following
For
is

roles
an

at

The

the

intial

i n t r o d u c t i o n of
is discussed

h i s model a r e

evidenced

both
the

tendency

Corzine

was

to

label

which

life

process.
researching

Constantine's

toward

expanded p e r s p e c t i v e s

example, a new

of

the

which

on

the

end

of

jealousy

i n s e v e r a l of

the

studies.

suggested

text

the

model w h i c h

section.
by

comparisons

o n l y .temporary meaning t o t h e i r

interactional

group

s i n g l e emotion

that

by

requires

i n c o r p o r a t i o n of

a r e l i n q u i s h i n g of

remembered

provided

i t likewise

require

process

is indicated

i n t e r p e r s o n a l and

However, i t must be

this

societal

much as

with

a n a l y s i s of

s u b j e c t i v e - e x p e r i e n t i a l a c c o u n t s by

individual

probably

a n a l y s i s of

I f the

more

triangles"

inter-group

Alternatively, individual

object

objective

by

as

Corzine's

would be

"jealous

reciprocal roles.

individual

and

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s that

triangles"

and

socio-cultural

by

approach

Clanton

and

" s u b j e c t " of

involved others.
stock-taking

contribution

f o r working with

Smith

(1977) who

jealousy,
Their

kind

of

direct

type

of

work t o be

their

discounting

interventions

to determine

o f mood and

without

jealousy

the

incorporate

jealousy,
done on

the

79

relationship.
improvement
suggest
first

an

and

jealousy

opening

experiences,

i s s u e s of

then

distrust,

the

recognize

jealousy

" f e a r of

communication

as

which

meanings, b e l i e f s

experience

several

loss"

authors
talking

a trigger

and

jealousy

jealousy

provide

simultaneously

jealousy-evoking
while

the

other

second-guessing his/her
responses.

of

emotion,

and

of"needs,

of

analyzes

the

for a

Her

jealousythem

emotion,
(negative)

i n terms

disclosing
enhancement

before

subjects

Both p a r t n e r s

in a Likert
The

rating

of

interviewer

know

are
potentially
questions

one

o b s e r v e s t h r o u g h a one-way g l a s s ,
partner's

Four q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

written,

are

anonymous

administered

after

the

interview.
Francis
variations

(1977) shows e v i d e n c e

in jealousy

of

i n v e n t i v e methodology

interview

situations.

flash",

(p.213).

investigated.

involved

important

for constructive

She

expression

a structured

the

to c l a r i f i c a t i o n

values"

response.

i s being

of

and

manipulation

d i s c u s s i o n of

component

self-

fantasies

and

(1977) e x a m i n e s a s p e c t s

b a r r i e r s that

incorporates

partner

sharing

deception

related-couple-communication.

the

The

c h a n n e l s by

to candid

"leads

and

Then F r a n c i s

of

for

They a c k n o w l e d g e a p h y s i o l o g i c a l " j e a l o u s

emphasize

the

a catalyst

intimacy.

of c o m m u n i c a t i o n

eventually progressing

issues.

as

for strengthening

about past

discussing
and

They view

experience,

f o r wide

individual,

especially

i n terms

of

80

eliciting

f a c t o r s and

regarding

the

the

manner of

attribution

s o u r c e and

of

expression

infidelity

s i g n i f i c a n c e of

jealous

S o c i a l u n d e s i r a b l i t y of

response

inhibits

communication

of

intervention

at

dealing

with

jealousy

(1967),

she

working

through h y p o t h e t i c a l

cautions

that

jealousy

communcation
as

underlying

extradyad'ic

toward mutually
problems are

she

t o be

directs

recommends
Like

Ard

assumptions

and

s i t u a t i o n s but

must, be

acceptable

the

basic

Therefore

s y s t e m and

open c o m m u n i c a t i o n

partner,

jealous

a n e u t r a l phenomenon.

suggests c l a r i f y i n g

negotiations
if

the

the

prevents

these d i s c r e p a n c i e s .

and

f e e l i n g s and

coping.

recognition

also

to s e l f

means of

and

but

followed

by.

r u l e s and

prevented

or

boundaries

withstood

by

(1978) examine

the

the

relationship.
Shettel-Neuber,
effects
third

of

party

subject's

B r y s o n and
sex

and

p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s of

i n t e r l o p e r i n t e r m s of

jealousy.

They a s s e s s

simulated,

jealousy-evoking

female undergraduate
f o r the

alterations

in fashion,

the

"projected"

different

p h y s i c a l movements.

responses

experimental

Analysis

of

to

sex,

interaction

of

of

their

Regardless

of

sex,

12

subjects

variance

video-taped,

42

male and

skin

by

condition

revealed

dependent

were more l i k e l y

41

is

a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , or
36

of

conditions

clothing, hairstyle,

d i f f e r e n c e s due
for

to

Attractiveness

significant

both,

expression

s i t u a t i o n s , using

students.

manipulated

and

Young

to

the

measures.

feel

angry

81

or

e m b a r a s s e d when t h e i n t e r l o p e r

authors
and/or

explain

as being

the d i f f e r i n g

unattractive
al.,

this

nature

interloper

"due t o t h e s o c i a l

of the t h r e a t

included

in their

study

(Shettel-Neuber et

were more l i k e l y

that

they

Although

this

Corzine,

possible

finding

particular

social

supports

earlier

their

of t h e i r

by t h e i n t e r l o p e r ' s

partners while

more l i k e l y

to their

think

didn't care.

views about
resulting

(cf . Reik,

e t a l . do n o t d i s c u s s
age range

to report

feeling

a c t i o n s and more

females

the e f f e c t s

Again

and

male s u b j e c t s .

reported that

" t u r n e d on"

they

these

findings

would be

more

p a r t n e r and t r y t o make t h e i r

distinctions

Adler

views

get

person.

t o c r y when a l o n e , make t h e m s e l v e s

attractive
they

themselves,

i n terms of the s p e c i f i c
milieu

angry

Examples

t h r e a t e n the other

M a l e s were a l s o more l i k e l y
"flattered"

with

1974 ) , S h e t t e l - N e u b e r

confounds

to i n i t i a t e

as a response.

would g e t a n g r y

drunk o r h i g h and v e r b a l l y

(cf.

situation

t h a t an

seems t o p r e s e n t "

and/or a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r s

by

The

1978, p . 6 1 4 ) .
Males

1949;

was u n a t t r a c t i v e .

partner

support

other

o f s e x - r o l e t r a d i t i o n a l i s m and
i n t e r m s o f power

1928, 1982; May,

diffusion

1972; C o r z i n e ,

1974; and W h i t e ,

1981) .
M a l e s were a l s o more
start

going

likely

out w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e

to report that

they

and become more

aggressive with others i f the i n t e r l o p e r

would

sexually

was a t t r a c t i v e , b u t

82

f e m a l e s were more l i k e l y
interloper
the

was

authors

to

respond

unattractive.

To

i n t h e s e ways when

explain

these

the

differences,

say:

I f we assume t h a t an a t t r a c t i v e i n t e r l o p e r i s seen as
more t h r e a t e n i n g t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e n as t h e
t h r e a t i n c r e a s e s m a l e s become more l i k e l y t o seek
s o l a c e or t o b o l s t e r t h e i r ego by p u r s u i n g a l t e r n a t i v e
relationships.
F e m a l e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, become l e s s
l i k e l y t o engage i n b e h a v i o r s t h a t might a c c e n t t h e
t h r e a t t o the e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p ( S h e t t e l - N e u b e r e t
a l . , 1978,
p.614).

The

researchers

correlates
the

(locus

various

role)

the

Their
projected

research

possibility
different
quite
can

be

t h a n by
sample.

actual

reactions
that

accounted
sex

than

life

that

f o r more by

i n the

instance

image) of

not

results
(e.g.,

sex-

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in

jealousy

"males' and

reactions"

findings

females'

situation

However,

b e c a u s e of

his

the

and

elicit

Also,

socio-cultural

age
of

events.

are

i t i s again

c i r c u m s t a n c e s might

simulated

some of

are

present

jealousy-evoking

the

body

p.615).

d i f f e r e n t " (p.615).

that

possible

"the

m a g n i t u d e of

reveals

to g e n e r a l i z e

and

c u l t u r a l factors

a l l , 1978,

responses to a

qualitatively
difficult

et

personality

findings

than p e r s o n a l i t y

n a t u r e and

(Shettel-Neuber

but

that

s i t u a t i o n a l or

more i m p o r t a n t

determining

self-esteem'

reactions

They c o n c l u d e

that

are

examine p o s s i b l e

of control,

jealousy

significant.
suggest

also

explainations

sub-cultural

this university

i t is

milieu

undergraduate

83

The

late

research

part

of t h e l a s t

on j e a l o u s y

development,
correlates

and f u r t h e r

predominantly
conceptual

a t model

development

The r e s e a r c h
empirical

since

and. i n s t r u m e n t

as " j e a l o u s "

( e . g . , Jaremko

inconsistent

o.f p o t e n t i a l

of t h e r a p e u t i c
t h e n has r e m a i n e d

and the problems c o n t i n u e

and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l .

individuals

evidenced p r o l i f i c

attempts at the i s o l a t i o n

interventions.

apparent

aimed

decade

The t e n d e n c y t o s u b g r o u p

and " n o n - j e a l o u s " p e r s o n s i s s t i l l

& Lindsey,

findings.

Model

1979) a n d r e s u l t s i n

development

encounters the c o n c e p t u a l misplacement

Instrument
poignant

development

being

from o t h e r
there

Mosher,
1979;

i n theory

envy.

f o c u s on j e a l o u s y
development

1979).

sex d i f f e r e n c e s
gradually

r o l e s and r o l e

(Buunk,

t h a n a s an i s o l a t e d

intrapsychic

first

by B a r r e l l

remainder of t h i s

Cohen,

This

Jealousy i s
process

a n d i n 1982 t h e

and R i c h a r d s a p p e a r s .

section

r e v i e w s and c r i t i q u e s the

i n these developments.

model.

(Daher &

interactional

dynamic

i s made i n t h e c h r o n o l o g y t o d i s c u s s
interactional

1982, T e i s m a n &

and r e m a i n p e r t i n e n t .

r e c o g n i z e d more a s a complex

s t u d i e s mentioned

side,

The themes o f power, s e x u a l i t y a n d

continue

phenomenology

jealousy

On t h e p o s i t i v e

1978) a n d i n t h e r a p y d e v e l o p m e n t

Teisman,

The

of s e l f - e s t e e m .

with d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

emotions, e s p e c i a l l y

reciprocity

( W h i t e , 1976)

e n c o u n t e r s many p r o b l e m s , t h e most

the d i f f i c u l t y

i s an i n c r e a s e d

t o be

Then

a regression

Constantine's

i s followed

by a b r i e f

84

introduction

to B a r t e l l ' s

human r e l a t i o n s h i p s
instruments.
and P i n e s
facilitate

is

t h e most

discussed.

integration

of

T e i s m a n and Mosher
including

some of

those

predominantly Caucasian
unmarried,
by sex

to

conditions
while

jealous

this

the other

(98%),

and

(4)

sex

closeness.

used s i g n i f i c a n t l y

subjects

non-jealous

to

eighty,

(57%),
assignments

role-playing

t o overcome t h e

The a u t h o r s

in d i s t a n c i n g

roles

found

sexual

jealousy

issues

However,

jealousy

it

i n terms

long-term patterns.

issues

of

of

distance

that,

and e x p e r i e n c i n g

for

non-jealous

loss

noteworthy
initial

They c o n c l u d e

that

jealousy

involving
is

role

more r e j e c t i o n and c o e r c i o n

who e n a c t e d d i s t a n c i n g

select

attention.

Using

t h e y made random

no sex d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t e d i n

tended to

used

differences

Roman C a t h o l i c

improvised e f f o r t s

jealousy

assess

examine

is

Aronson

chapters.

s u g g e s t e d by R e i k .

subjects

selected

and l a t e r

(1978)

overall,

However,

format

in

jealousy

i n w h i c h one p a r t n e r assumed a d i s t a n c i n g

and r e - e s t a b l i s h

did

r e c e n t r e s e a r c h by
This

heterosexual couples
(4)

r e s e a r c h on s y n e r g i s m

and an o v e r v i e w and c r i t i q u e of

Finally,

(1983)

(1977)

of

time

that

the

reasons.

regard.

while

than

Men

women
and

authors

c o n f r o n t a t i o n and

not

that:

W h i l e seeming t o c o n t r a d i c t t h e i d e a t h a t j e a l o u s
c o n f l i c t has an e s c a l a t i n g and r e s o l u t i o n - r e s i s t i n g
n a t u r e i n terms of t h e q u a n t i t y of v e r b a l a c t s , t h e r e
does seem t o be some e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e q u a l i t y of
v e r b a l b e h a v i o r (more r e j e c t i o n and c o e r c i o n ) r e f l e c t s
t h e i d e a of t h e r e s o l u t i o n - r e s i s t i n g n a t u r e of j e a l o u s
c o n f l i c t in comparison to other i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t
( T e i s m a n & M o s h e r , 1978, p . 1 2 1 5 ) .

85

Conceived
initial

rejection

the d e n i a l
also

i n terms of t h r e a t e n e d

stage

and c o e r c i o n m i g h t
o f an a n t i c i p a t o r y

be t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

jealousy
jealous

discouraged

also
grief

their

reaction.

and p r e c l u d i n g more e f f e c t i v e

I t may

attached to

i t s open acknowledgement by
indirect

subjects'

be e x p l a i n e d a s

pejorative labels

s u b j e c t s l e a d i n g t o more

communicate

loss,

their

e f f o r t s to
resolution-

seeking.
Although
(1949,

1952) p r o c l a i m e d

t h e male
with

Teisman. and" MO she r f o u n d

sex d i f f e r e n c e s

no sex d i f f e r e n c e s

possibly,
couples

as they

regarding

because

were n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y

i s suggested
the couple,

the i n d i v i d u a l s

in their

a t the j e a l o u s

by T e i s m a n

(1979).

"The s y s t e m

but a l s o

the r i v a l ,

the

norms o f t h e s u b c u l t u r e "

(p.153).

concept

of the t h e r a p e u t i c t r i a n g l e

paradox

and symptom

transfer
the couple

they

issues,

directed

only

into

loss,

interdependent.

therapy

not

incorporating

i s s u e s of

involvement

on h e r f e a r s of t i m e

i n terms of r e s o u r c e

suggest,

A problem-solving
system

for. R e i k ' s

f o c u s i n g more on h i s p a r t n e r ' s s e x u a l

o t h e r s and t h e f e m a l e

found

support

includes

the t h e r a p i s t

and

He d e s c r i b e s t h e

a s w e l l as t h e use o f

and s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e
s y s t e m an a t t i t u d e

of

of s e r i o u s

playfulness.
Teisman's therapy
author

questions

has many f a v o u r b l e p o i n t s , b u t t h i s

i t svery

directive

and b e h a v i o u r a l

approach

86

as
the

well

as

i t s demand f o r a

therapist

counsellors
for

the

might

by,

c o u p l e and

contact

for

the

to

control

find

usually

refuses

tell

him/her

to c o n t i n u e

the

He

jealousy"

(p.153).

the

the

this

to

treat

therapist's

rival's

refusal"

intervention

i n need of

temporary

boundaries.

"means" w h i c h might

the

extramarital

one

i n j e c t e d by

that

be

is

is
In

acceptable

that

loyal,

the

and

i s Teisman's

through

only

the

behaviour,
provide

to a l t e r

hope f o r the

therapist ascribes

t o the

of

passionate,

imaginative

to accent

use

the

emotional experience

zealous,

therapist

(1979)

language

"society orchestrates

Hence, words s u c h as

jealous

promote a c t i o n

acceptable

consequently

sexually-curious,

the

the

point

s y s t e m as

notes

and

transfer,

this

i n knowing how

through

symptom t r a n s f e r

labelling

of

rival

at

directive counsellor.

and

alteration.

and

jealous

i s Teisman's

reframing

rival

"ritualize

rationale underlying

P e r h a p s more w i d e l y

polarity

therapist

i s done t o
the

the

therapeutic

rival

exclude

highly

the

suggestions

He

in viewing

question

are

Teisman's

Many

to p a r t i c i p a t e in therapy.

This

The

(p.153).

by

him/her

the

phoning

strategies

the

o v e r p e r m e a b l e and

of

difficult

of

i n f r o n t of

facilitate

and

(p.153).

t o the

realize, goals"

instance,

should

couple.

sound

also

requesting

that

therapist

the

to

use

t h e r a p i s t t o assume c o n t r o l of

triangle

claims

in order

"continual

the

and

sensitive

positive

perspectives,
system.

In

symptom

non-jealous

person,

87

e m o t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s s i m i l a r
person.

The p u r p o s e

his/her

self-focusing

struggles.

all

i s to re-direct

recognizes that

p a r t s of the system.

opportunity

i s that

of the j e a l o u s

the l a t t e r

and more toward

The p r i n c i p l e

once t h e c o u p l e

t o those

their

from

partner's

change w i l l

similar

away

be

emotions

facilitated
permeate

The d e p e n d e n t member t h u s h a s an

t o become t h e h e l p e r .

Daher and Cohen

(1979) s u g g e s t

group therapy f o r

c o u p l e s and p r e s e n t

t h e c o n c e p t u a l base and f o r m a t

workshop,

a five-phase process:

involving

for a

1. r e c o g n i t i o n o f j e a l o u s y
2. l a b e l l i n g a s p e c t s o f j e a l o u s y ( l a b e l l i n g and c o g n i t i v e
e f f e c t s on j e a l o u s y b e h a v i o r s )
3. c o m m u n i c a t i o n about j e a l o u s y w i t h . o t h e r s
4. a c c e p t a n c e o f j e a l o u s y a s a l e g i t i m a t e p o s s i b l e a s p e c t
of r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and
5. f o c u s i n g on o p t i o n s t h a t may i n d u c e r e s o l u t i o n (Daher &
Cohen, 1979, p . 4 8 0 ) .
They d i r e c t
learning

modalities

structured
options
theory

participants

these phases,

persons.

t a s k s , and a p p l y i n g b e h a v i o r a l

jealous"

Group'

format.

t o t h e o r y d e v e l o p m e n t , Jaremko and L i n d s e y
that

of d i f f i c u l t
The p u r p o s e

jealous person's
stress"

three

r e l a t i o n s h i p - d i l e m m a s " (p.481-482).

(1979) h y p o t h e s i z e d
stress

using

a c o g n i t i v e model, s h a r i n g

i s w e l l managed w i t h i n t h e i r

Returning

the

"building

experiential

to actual

through

(p.548).

non-jealous

persons

self-disclosure

of t h e i r

response

study

tendency

They t a u g h t

subjects a cognitive,

would cope

better

than

with

jealous

was " t o s t u d y t h e

i n coping with

17 " j e a l o u s "

social

and 13 "non-

reversal-of-affect

technique

88

as

the t e s t c o n d i t i o n .

disclosure

sessions

questionnaire
intimate
used
the

Private,

served

f o r the p r e - t e s t
post-test.
The

as t h e s o c i a l

i t e m s were r a n k e d

by a l l s u b j e c t s

while

from most

No c o n t r o l g r o u p was

is

i d e n t i f y i n g jealous

desirability.
condition
lowest

consisted

scorers

imply a t o t a l
jealous
They
low

though t h e i r
of only

s a y " i t may w e l l
in jealousy

(p.554).
jealousy

the very

In t h e f i n a l

useful

situations
It

that

therefore

example

jealousy
could

that

people

the idea

that

eventually

[who m e a s u r e d ]
jealous

the age-old
underlies

conclude

assumption

that

several

other

"certain

experiment

empirical

that

i t may be more

i n most p e o p l e "

this

persons"

t h e many p r o b l e m s

They m e n t i o n

be e l i c i t e d
that

and t h e v e r y

o f 80, t h e y

a s r e s u l t i n g from

seems e v i d e n t

supports

highest

by s e l f - r e p o r t m e a s u r e s .

analysis,

c o n f o u n d s and f i n a l l y

Jealousy

to social

masked h i g h l y

i s a personality trait

t o view

non-jealous

i n terms o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

have been

w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e measurements.
possible

pool

persons

were i n f a c t

experiment

sample o f 30 f o r t h e t e s t

of c o n f i d e n c e

from n o n - j e a l o u s

from

their

(1979) " S e l f - R e p o r t

from an o r i g i n a l
lack

to support

persons

i t t o be s u s c e p t i b l e

Even

1, 3 and -5 were

key p r o b l e m w i t h t h e i r

They u s e d B r i n g l e ' s

and f o u n d

to least

formed.

evidence

The r e p o r t e d

Scale"

intimate

Six

i t e m s 2, 4 and 6 were u s e d f o r

hypothesis.

persons.

self-

stressor.

and i t e m s r a n k e d

authors d i d not f i n d

common

tape-recorded,

(p.553).

i s an

research

used

alone

89

is

less

lead

than

efficient

to a greater

i n t e r m s of p r o d u c i n g

understanding,

of

the

results

that

human e x p e r i e n c e

of,

jealousy.
Using
1980,

the

for three

jealousy.

development
first

of

stage

has

with

three
two

His

threat

stages

White

of

study

"romantic

as

and

(1976) m e a s u r e s

(among o t h e r

self-esteem,

due

developed

things)

feelings

relationship,

results

of
the

His

as. t h e

first

of a n g e r

over

i n a d e q u a c y as

alternative

jealousywith his

to partner's

would p r e d i c t l a t e r

collected

model

jealousy".

feelings

on

(p.51).

hypothesizes

the

(1976,

conceptualized

a .consequence of

"Relationships Questionnaire"

the

explores

including "feelings

relationship

that develop

relationship"

1977

to s e l f - e s t e e m

components

alternative

partner

to

s t u d i e s , White

1981a) d i s c u s s e s a power-and-dependency p e r s p e c t i v e

"romantic"

the

same sample

a n g e r and

from a s u r v e y

to support

of

these

a b s e n c e of e v i d e n c e ,

where s e l f - e s t e e m

f o r the

150

with

inadequacy,
fights.
couples

predictions.
a new

study

that perceived

involvement
of

17-scale

model of

His

threat

to

rival,

perceived

threat

a n a l y s i s of .data

d i d not
He

and

generate

concludes

jealousy

that " i n

i s required

i s r e l e g a t e d t o a more p e r i p h e r a l

role"

(p.135).
In a

later

more l i k e l y
especially

to

paper, White
induce

i f they

are

sexual
in a

(1980) r e p o r t s t h a t
j e a l o u s y than

are

low-power p o s i t i o n

females

are

males,
relative

to

90

their

partner.

relationship
The

considers

indicates a

subjects*

were most

He

relatively

f r e q u e n t l y , to t e s t
increase

esteem, and

least

involvement

i n the

that

o f t e n , as

to gain

to

m a l e s , on

final

and

for

involved

powerful
inducing

in

the

position.
jealousy

r e l a t i o n s h i p , followed

form of

r e l a t i o n s h i p was

specific

indirect
the

to b o l s t e r

punishment.

not

relevant

reported

concrete

ways i n w h i c h
suggestions,
of

the

power"

by

self-

Level
to

of

these

forms of

He

jealousy
power.

this

power
exercise

suggests,

in

the

i s r e l a t e d to

the

Unlike

many

earlier

i s r e l a t e d more t o

r e l a t i o n s h i p than

in

(1980') e x p l a i n s

more f r e e t o

(p.226).

share

jealousy

stereotypically

personal

ordinary

White d e c i d e s

the

is

hand, a r e

couple

inducing

r e w a r d and' so W h i t e

and

other

a n a l y s i s , that

shaping

less

f o r revenge,

" f e m a l e e x e r c i s e of power

direct

more

motives.

constrained
...

the

rewards,

F e m a l e s more f r e q u e n t l y
order

being

s e l f - r e p o r t e d motives

a d e s i r e to

various

that

t o the

the

individual

personalities.
Possible
self-esteem,
of

c o r r e l a t e s of
self-esteem

i n a d e q u a c y as

traditionalism,

examined

failed

romanticism,

dependence on

i n White's

jealousy

including

dependence, e x c l u s i v i t y ,

a partner,

d e p e n d e n c e of p a r t n e r ,
are

romantic

birth

the
order

role

relationship, perceived
and

(1981a) s t u d y .

to predict jealousy.

sex

feelings

r e l a t i o n s h i p stage
The

Expectations

of

last

three

sexual

91

exclusivity
only

v a r i a b l e s that

sexes.
with

a n d f e e l i n g s of i n a d e q u a c y a s a p a r t n e r

Self-esteem

jealousy

traditional

were p r e d i c t i v e o f j e a l o u s y

d e p e n d e n c e was p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d

male was more l i k e l y

as j e a l o u s .

belief,

fixed

than

White d e c i d e s

i n the t r a d i t i o n a l

role,

However, sex r o l e

of jealousy

may,be b e c a u s e
double
are

h a s t o do a

t h a n man a n d so any
be o v e r i n t e r p r e t e d by

t r a d i t i o n a l i s m was n o t

f e m a l e s no l o n g e r

assumptions

that

this

endorse the

t h a t male a t t r a c t i o n s t o o t h e r s

self-eseem

low s e l f - e s t e e m

m a l e s were f o u n d
males.

p r e d i c t s male a n d n o t f e m a l e
discusses

sexual

component

of self-esteem
(as a p a r t n e r )

perception

of t h r e a t

that

t o be l e s s

self-esteem

j e a l o u s y White

(1981a)

that

i s captured

and t h e r e f o r e

i t may be a
by f e e l i n g s o f

related to

f o r men b u t n o t f o r women.

Dependence on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p was t h e o n l y
White

female

(1981a) f o u n d t o be i n d e p e n d e n t l y

jealousy.

jealous

To e x p l a i n why

p r e s t i g e , suggesting

inadequacy

that

that

not s e r i o u s .
High

than

this

i n f e m a l e s and he e x p l a i n s

traditional

standard

males t o r a t e

which h o l d s

she h a s t o a n o t h e r man w i l l

partner.

predictive

other

that

woman i s more monogamous o r f a i t h f u l

her

f o r both

f o r males but not f o r females and the

himself

attraction

were t h e

He e x p l a i n s

variable

p r e d i c t i v e of

this as:

b e i n g r o o t e d i n an economic s t r u c t u r e t h a t c r e a t e s more
r e l a t i o n s h i p d e p e n d e n c y i n women t h a n i n men. A
female's m a t e r i a l and s o c i a l s t a t u s as w e l l as h e r
s e l f - e s t e e m may be more r e l a t e d t o m a i n t a i n i n g a

92

r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a n i s t r u e f o r men.
I f a r e a l or
p o t e n t i a l r i v a l a t t r a c t i o n e x i s t s , t h e t h r e a t would be
c o n s e q u e n t l y g r e a t e r than f o r the male.
The d e p e n d e n t
male may h a v e , or f i n d i t e a s i e r t o d e v e l o p ,
a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of e s t e e m and s t a t u s and hence
would be l e s s a f f e c t e d by a p e r c e i v e d a t t r a c t i o n
( W h i t e , 1981a, p . 1 4 4 ) .
This

explanation

"jealous

woman"

recalls

Mead's

(1931)

r e j e c t i o n of

stereotype presented e a r l i e r

in

the

this

chapter.
White's
cultural
His

three

perspectives

explanations

views

studies

are

and r e s e a r c h

must be k e p t

add t o and s y n t h e s i z e

on j e a l o u s y - r e l a t e d
insightful

in a d d i t i o n

i n mind t h a t

his

consisting

of

(91%).

he a c k n o w l e d g e s ,

As

predominantly

engaged or m a r r i e d and so
seriously

affected his

measurement
Buunk

of

anticipated

sexual

self-esteem,

samples

involvement.

The s a m p l e s

in both

and s e c o n d

in

the t h i r d

white
very

own d a t a . '
was v e r y

(84%),

sample)

r a n g e s and v a r y i n g

the

Finally,

students

(16%)

his

were

may

have

static

confounding.

relationship

differing
or

between

variables

in age,

including

large

samples

sexual

(125 men and

125 women

and 242 men and

138 women

and h e t e r o g e n e o u s

relationship

He u s e s

socio-economic

extra-relationship

are

it

homogeneous,

committment

and s e v e r a l

However,

university

few c o u p l e s
of

earlier-

d e p e n d e n c y and r e c i p r o c i t y .

and e x t r a - m a r i t a l

first

sample

findings.

jealousy

emotional

three male/female
status

to h i s

level

examines

differences.

and s u p p o r t e d by

s e l f - e s t e e m may have been

(1982)

sex

socio-

including

structures.

wide

Again,

age

the

93

situations

are

"anticipated".
correlations

hypothetical
The

author

f o r e i t h e r m a l e s or

of

inconsistencies

of W h i t e ' s

hence h i s use

does not

females.

role"

that

the

Again,

we

self-esteem

term

significant

jealousy

in jealousy/self-esteem

(1977) s u g g e s t i o n

t o a more p e r i p h e r a l

of

establish

between a n t i c i p a t e d s e x u a l

esteem
the

and

and

are

self-

reminded

research
be

and

"relegated

(p.135) i n b u i l d i n g m o d e l s

for

jealousy.
Buunk
and

-.67

at

intended
He

(1982) f i n d s n e g a t i v e

p<.001, r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r

extramarital

concludes that

involved

this
third

"the

(p.314).

higher

He

factor

s u c h as

of

the

sexual

s p o u s e or

exchange t h e o r y

(-.79,

3 samples

anticipated

intention

behavior,

the

by

the

jealousy.

to become
-

lower

influence

dependency, the

-.55

) between

some s u b s t a n t i a t i o n

explained

emotional

the

and

one's

provides

r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not

activities
Using

involvement

in extramarital

jealousy"

correlations

one's
that
of

extramarital

self-representational bias.

his explanation

is

that:

P e o p l e w i l l r e a c t l e s s j e a l o u s l y when t h e y t h e m s e l v e s
f e e l a need t o engage i n e x t r a m a r i t a l s e x u a l b e h a v i o r .
In s u c h a c a s e i t may be f e l t u n j u s t i f i e d t o m a n i f e s t
j e a l o u s y , even when t h i s e m o t i o n i s f e l t .
By t h e same
t o k e n , someone who r e f r a i n s from e x t r a m a r i t a l sex w i l l
r e a c t j e a l o u s l y when t h e p a r t n e r does engage i n
e x t r a m a r i t a l a c t i v i t i e s b e c a u s e the norm of r e c i p r o c i t y
i s v i o l a t e d (Buunk, 1982,
p.311).
As

the

author

investigation
when r e a l

suggests,

this

t o d e t e r m i n e whether

behaviours are

f i n d i n g warrants
the

incorporated.

association
However,

further
holds

typical

94

problems are e v i d e n t
not

use

t h e word

b e c a u s e he
by

relevant

people
using

i t .

indirect

of t h e

term

and

They

necessary

person

focus

and

he/she

of

of

feeling

and

sufficient

especially

self-esteem

totally

emotion

that

feel

an

deserving"
these

on

reliant

on

i n terms

of.

phenomenological
what

j e a l o u s and

factors.

The

i t must be

it difficult

i t is like
they

identify

first
of

to

i s that

or

object,

event,
the

to o u r s e l v e s .

impossible
person"

feeling

"a

another

perceived that

of t h e o t h e r

" a b s e n c e of

by

in his subjects.

i s d e s i r a b l e t o h i m / h e r and

Richards
way

reader

d e s i r a b l e aspect

Secondly,

"must

Implementing
Barrell

created

likelihood

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h an

t h e r e must be

[ o b j e c t ] t o be

emotion

instead relying

s u b j e c t s on

have t h e d e s i r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e
Finally,

i t and

(1982) use

their

a single

(p.42).

other's experience
Thirdly,

i n c r e a s e the

some o t h e r

sufficient

experience

or p e r s o n "

was

situational* e l i c i t o r s

Richards

f o c u s e s on

person's

felt

j e a l o u s y and

l e a v e s the

not

i n the e x p e r i e n c e

four

using

of h i s f i v e

j e a l o u s y and

approach.

the

did

s e l f - i m a g e s would d e s c r i b e t h e m s e l v e s

terminology,

Barrell

i n s t a n c e , he

usual a r t i f a c t

T h i s he
of

might

However, not

the v a l i d i t y

be

f o r the

connotations.

w i t h poor

evoking

to c o n t r o l

to h i s c o r r e l a t i o n s

b e c a u s e use

For

' j e a l o u s y ' i n h i s measure of

wished

i t s negative

in his design.

the

to

(p.43).
person

(p.43).

four e x p e r i e n t i a l

(1982) recommend

f o r overcoming

components,

that a necessary

jealousy i s to learn

"a

and
sense

95

of

relatedness

believe

that

them s i m p l y
ourselves"
t o an

(p.44).

of

former

of how

i n our

part

latter

other

togetherness

trusted mutuality"
The

authors

i s aimed a t
jealousy

and

belief
their

an

like

and
us

t h a t we
being

must

the

The

learn

same i n

authors

identification.
wants t o be

one-sided"

derive

The

our

r e l a t e d to

object,

leads

unique

own'

others.

(p.45)

resulting

and

in a

from a s h a r e d

setting.
t o our

further research

on

i n d i v i d u a l s to explore

and

sense

and

jealousy
their

understanding.

own

contributes

something

However, t h e i r

be

that are

problem with

unconsciously

motivated

from c o n s c i o u s l y
accounting

outside

phenomenologies

the

phenomenal

i s discussed

while

perceived

for aspects

of

human

field.

This

i n the

new

most

i n t e r v e n t i o n recommends a f u n d a m e n t a l change

emanates o n l y

that

s h a r e them t h r o u g h d i s c l o s u r e i n a

Their a r t i c l e

" a w a r e n e s s e s " , t h u s not

experience

of what comes t o

own

whole.

f o r c e d and

recommend

s y s t e m t h a t may
data

profess

a l l broadly

"does not

encouraging

different

emphasized

are

we

(p.45).

experiences

controlled

"each o f

p e r s o n as

that

our

b o u n d a r i e s as

i s "generally

observes the

they

that

s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n that

create

relatedness

we

so

as human b e i n g s

of a g r e a t e r

between

(p.45) but

we

and

recognizes, that

person"

exist

others"

deserving

They s u g g e s t

jealousy

being

distinguish

of

persons are

because they

include others

terms of

The

"other

understanding

experience
to

or c o n n e c t e d n e s s w i t h

earlier

in a

96

critique

of

self-esteem

a p p r o a c h e s may
alone.
other

The

transcend

on

gives

and

context.

His

interviews,
jealousy

a level

model and

theory

questionnaires

behaviours
jealousy

kind

s i t u a t i o n which

valued

involves

which g e n e r a t e

actor

(another
person).

object"
possible

to

research.

structure
which

from

observations

of

relationships.

He

as

of

situational

response

i s perceived

to a p a r t i c u l a r

threatening

f e e l i n g s that
The

context
has

person),

an

The

and

actor

(p.385).
secondary
in

may

to

The

is a

or may

not

be

involves

( t h a t need n o t ,
an

impending

[ h e / s h e ] has
actor

emotional

also

i n the

positions:

object
but

may

be

l o s s of
r e l a t i o n s h i p with

"experiences

responses

expressed

three

a r e l a t i o n s h i p with
agent

process

then i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

always

"perceives

which

(1976) v i e w

perceptions,

( p e r s o n ) who

behaves

agent.

in s i t u

"a d e f e n s i v e

initial

something v a l u e d

and

and

and

process

model

were d e v e l o p e d

in Constantine's

behaviourally.
an

this

r e l a t i o n s h i p " (p.385).

Jealousy,
that

as

within

in m u l t i l a t e r a l

defines
of

approach

transformational

behaviour

either

facilitate

incorporate

a combined

combined

using

(1976) s u g g e s t s a c o n t e x t u a l

a sequential,

jealous

below w i l l

and

Again,

d e f i c i e n c i e s of

s t u d i e s which

jealousy

Constantine
jealousy

the

model d i s c u s s e d

preliminary

perspective

methodologies.

to the

primary

and

l o s s or

threat

' j e a l o u s manner' t o w a r d b o t h o b j e c t

and

97

Constantine's
is

either

automatic

sequential.

The

"programmed
with

non-sequential

former

i f any,

experience"
and

and

response

little,

unfelt

(1976) model a c c o u n t s

results

triggered

i n behaviour
by

a s e t of

"societal

and

or e x p e c t a t i o n s of

jealousy in specific

independent

p e r c e p t i o n of

process

j e a l o u s y , on

that begins

behaviour.
insecurity

The

with

jealousy.
synergic
for

an

The
has

the

(Constantine,
threshold
especially
object
and

the

likelihood

individual

a way

"essential

situational
of

1976,

important

hand,

involves a

culminates
of

committment,
l o n g e v i t y of

his ability
a c t as

or

or

tendency

perceptual

and

express

is highly

interdependence

by

which

threatening

t h a t he/she w i l l

of

that

allows

dichotomies"

security-insecurity

a multitude

t h e d e g r e e and

of

relationship.

jealousy behaviours,

factors,

nature

the p e r s o n a l m a t u r i t y
their

in

security

as p o t e n t i a l l y

The

but

(p.387).

r e a d i n e s s or e a s e w i t h

p.387).

are

affectual

circumstances

of o r g a n i z i n g h i s / h e r r e a l i t y
u n i t y and

cues

i s expected

whose p e r c e p t i o n

is also affected

Eventual

sense

is a

familial conditioning

p e r c e p t i o n and

he/she p e r c e i v e s a s i t u a t i o n
the

other

synergically,

Both determine

consequently

loss"

r e l a t i o n s h i p and

to p e r c e i v e s i t u a t i o n s
filters.

the

actor's personal

i n the

that

T h i s b e h a v i o u r a l type

emanates from

Sequential

o r , more commonly,

intervening interpretation

(p.387).

of any

for jealousy that

of

of both
,

i f they

but

the a c t o r partners

occur,

are

of

98

four

types

including

redefinitional

and/or

(1976) s t r e s s e s

statement"

jealousy

affect

people.

By

(or

emotional

quickly

initial

into

d e s p a i r and

internalize

or a n g e r ,

unique

to

primary

very c o n s i s t e n t

feelings

include
of

and

with perceived actual

secondary

emotional

i f the person's

r a g e and

hate

across

"anxiety

loss,

in jealousy situations

guilt

hurt

loss"

are

often

responses
style

such

i s to

i f the person's

style

is

externalize.
Jealous behaviours

in

c l a i m s t o be

hurt

This i s in contrast

pain) a s s o c i a t e d

transformed

i s "almost

with perceived threat

A n x i e t y and

as g r i e f ,

to

(p.390).

his report,

fear) connected

However, C o n s t a n t i n e

jealous behaviour

w h i c h he

(or

antagonistic,

resolutional.

that

personal

(p.389).

isolational,

t e r m s of

system

and

resolution

their

or

and

refusal

behaviours

to f i g h t
less

or

a common enemy

of

resolution"

T h i s model

...

in effective
behaviour

such

as

o r n e g o t i a t e , and

functional

because

but

(e.g., the problem

that

" u n i t e s the

[but] p o t e n t i a l l y

( C o n s t a n t i n e , 1976,

involves

positive

the

A n t a g o n i s t i c and

' s e d u c t i v e men')

against

as

pair-boundary

a r e more e f f e c t i v e

intellectualization

'infidelity'

result

Isolational

i s not m a i n t a i n e d .

redefinitional

real

they

reintegration.

silence,

model a r e seen

to m a i n t a i n the

s e p a r a t i o n are thus

pair-contact

i n v o l v e an

intention

t o the e x t e n t t h a t

withholding,
silence

in this

several

the

latter

is
pair

at the

expense

p.393).

other transformations

99

between

initial

jealous

behaviours.

point
to

to

Each p r o v i d e s

for a potential

i n t e r v e n t i o n s i s h e l p i n g the c o u p l e

emotion,
trigger

the purpose

of

entry

t o the

that

(1976),

boundaries.

source

of

He

f e a r s and

i s perceived, actual

or

to

that w i l l

committment

s t r e s s e s the
clarifying
impending.

t h e r e f o r e , names s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t

Basic

recognize

the p o t e n t i a l

communication

of v a l u e s , b e l i e f s ,

individual/couple
getting

i t s e r v e s and

more e f f e c t i v e

a clarification

loss

eventual consequences

f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n s when j e a l o u s y i s p r o b l e m a t i c .

these

the

p e r c e p t i o n and

i t has

result

in

and
importance

the

type

of

of

Constantine

types

of

loss

including:
1. L o s s of f a c e , s t a t u s , ego-hancement, e t c .
2. L o s s of need g r a t i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g s e x u a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l , e m o t i o n a l and o t h e r n e e d s .
3. L o s s o f c o n t r o l o v e r O b j e c t , of c o n t r o l o v e r A c t o r ' s
own l i f e , of power i n r e l a t i o n t o O b j e c t .
4. L o s s of p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , d e p e n d a b i l i t y of b e h a v i o r of
Object i n r e l a t i o n to Actor.
5. L o s s of p r i v a c y , t e r r i t o r y , e x c l u s i v e a c c e s s , e t c .
6. L o s s of a c t u a l t i m e w i t h O b j e c t , c o n t a c t ,
e t c . ( C o n s t a n t i n e , 1976, p . 3 9 5 ) .
Constantine's
situational
usual

context

etc.

t h e wants,

as

More
source

sexual, heterosexual,
important
of

i s an

f e a r s and

f o r a v a l u e - f r e e approach

and

practice.

highly

useful

Jealousy,

need

of

loss.

to theory

for i t s

(p.391) or

of

wants

His

development

i n h i s v i e w , can

interpersonal process"

time,

examination

type

model a l l o w s
clinical

s t r u c t u r e and

f o r j e a l o u s y e l i m i n a t e s the

categorization

opportunity,
under

p r e s e n t a t i o n of a t r i a d i c

be

i t can

"a
"work

100

to the disadvantage
fundamental

level

perception

correlated

o f h i s model

that

with

Unfortunately,
this

(p.391).

of the s i t u a t i o n

hypothesizes

at

of a l l "

time

i s the i n d i v i d u a l ' s

and C o n s t a n t i n e

the r e s u l t i n g

current

because a s u i t a b l e

most p e r t i n e n t

revealed several
were t h a t

t o number o f i t e m s

jealousy

instrument,

exist.
from

spread

problems.

Inventory"

item-format

and t y p e

Among

any c o r r e l a t i o n s

are forced

which

(1974)

p r e f e r e n c e , and t h e base

one s u b s c a l e t o c r e a t e a s e p a r a t e new
for establishing

with

statistics

Finally,

mind

i s sane,

that

cannot

1969, p . 3 9 4 ) .

reliability

established

in Bartell's

rational

be measured

and e t h i c a l
solely

that

may

"Personal

line

extracting

instrument.

(Thorndike,

(1982)

This

depend on t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s

himself"

comparison

them, t h e

ipsatively.

individual

does n o t a l l o w

f o r the

c h o i c e and were drawn

i s scored

of s c o r i n g

of r e l a t i v e

study

f o r o b t a i n i n g the

s u b s c a l e of Shostrum's

Orientation

"pattern

i n the p i l o t

i n A r o n s o n and P i n e s '

to demonstrate

the "synergy"

i s not a v a i l a b l e .

(1974) was d e s i g n e d t o

d i d not a l l o w

A l s o , h i s items

empirically

i t s s m a l l number o f i t e m s ( 1 4 ) ,

relative

necessary

be t e s t e d

instrument

need b u t i t s i n c l u s i o n

project

(p.397).

h y p o t h e s i s cannot

Constantine's Contrast Scale

meet t h i s

(1976)

"jealous behavior i s

synergic perception"
this

A t t h e most

i s the

Hence,
instrument

or v a l i d i t y

by

f o r Shostrum's

(1977) v i e w

the synergic

and o p e r a t e s

i n a mode

by t h e c o g n i t i v e

a b i l i t y to

101

transcend dichotomies.
Scale
the

(1971),

items

Therefore,

measures

only

require only

t h e most s o c i a l l y
Although

desirable

synergic

has

been c l o s e l y

study

pair

constituting

synergistic.

These

relationships

but a l s o

and p r o f e s s i o n a l
things,

that

individual
qualities

synergism

that

including

pairs

blending

positive

For

found t h i s

t o be t r u e

t h e two p e r s o n s

will
in

of

the

each c o n t r i b u t e

dynamics

individual

i n human
(1977).

were not

She

She

(by
to

only

of

the
be

when t h e

couple/lover
co-worker

traditionally

and i n t e r m s

of

the

the

the
and

the
in a

feminine-

qualities

be more s y n e r g i s t i c .
of

other

individuals

masculine-positive

terms

highly

paradoxical

serious/playful

both

to

f o u n d , among many

sets

not

used

were r e p r e s e n t e d by
four

is

relationships

and o p p o s i t e - s e x ,

instance,

and t r a d i t i o n a l l y

relationship

the

and

apparent.

realistic/imaginative,

individualistic/collective,
masculine/feminine.

quite

them and' by o t h e r s )

same-sex

the

decisions

were r e p o r t e d

relationships

synergistic

is

because

r e s e a r c h methodology)

relationships.

and p a i r

relationship

in

examined by B a r t e l l

relationships

individuals

response

(a q u a l i t a t i v e

Contrast

the c o n s t r u c t

cognitive

perception

e m p i r i c a l l y measurable,

theory

of

simplistic

yet

grounded

part

constantine's

the

Bartell

interactions

c o u p l e - i n t e r a c t ion

between
with

others.
West's
experiencing

(1983)

d e s i g n of

problematic

a group

jealousy

workshop

includes

for

several

couples
exercises

1 02

aimed at improving couple communication.

incorporates B a r t e l l ' s

One

of them

(1977) four c a t e g o r i e s i n t o a shared

assessment of r e l a t i o n s h i p synergism.

The process of the

e x e r c i s e i s as important as the a c t u a l d e c i s i o n s a r r i v e d at
by the c o u p l e .
structured

For i n s t a n c e , i n moving through

the

format of the e x e r c i s e couples become aware of

the need to a r r i v e at some harmony i n terms of being- at once

s e r i o u s and p l a y f u l .

I t i s expected that the e x e r c i s e w i l l

help the couple-system

to be more s y n e r g i s t i c .

i n t e r v e n t i o n holds p o t e n t i a l

This

f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h on

jealousy.
As mentioned e a r l i e r ,

instrument development emerged

l a t e i n the l a s t decade and has s i n c e been p r o l i f i c .

s e v e r a l j e a l o u s y measures are now

available.

the "Jealousy Question" l a t e r developed

They include,

i n t o the

"Sexual

Jealousy Inventory" by Aronson and Pines (1982); the

Report J e a l o u s y " and

Hence,

"Self-

" P r o j e c t i v e J e a l o u s y " s c a l e s by B r i n g l e

et a l . (1979); the " I n t e r p e r s o n a l J e a l o u s y S c a l e " by Mathes

and Severa

(1981a, 1981b); the "Chronic J e a l o u s y " and.

" R e l a t i o n s h i p J e a l o u s y " s c a l e s by White (1981b, 1981c) and

an as yet unnamed s c a l e by T i p t o n et a l . (1978).
There are s t i l l
these s c a l e s .

many conceptual and other problems with

E x c e p t i n g the one by T i p t o n , a l l were f a c t o r

analyzed by Mathes, Roter and Joegor

convergence

was

not found.

other emotions remains

(1982) but the

Distinguishing

a c e n t r a l problem

expected

j e a l o u s y from

and t h i s i s r e a d i l y

1 03

evidenced

in

instance,

the

simply

poses

elicitors
the

name

each

the

28-item
a

and
of

on a

his/her

someone

of

formats

simply

is.

is,

Item

the

or

at

scales
at

cognitive,

and

approximating
jealousy,

remains
by

subjects'

rating

prevalence

f i l l

in

"I

feel

an

and

level

one

often

by

by

all

Pines.

by

accounts

of

emotional,

two of
that
The

Other
jealous

the

story

sexual

required
result

in

physical

about

Pines

to
a

(1982)

the

behavioural,

are

crucial

(1971)

then

in

and

to

phenomenological
theory

except

jealousy

unique

and c o l l e c t s d a t a

in

often

w h i c h may

inventory

which are

also

are

instruments

own d e f i n i t i o n s

when

how

exclusively

Aronson

Izard's

Their

weight

set.

picture.

suggested

good

ways,

imply

the

then

irritated").

various

subjects

with

admired

frequently

intimate

a blank

feel

the person

and

(1981b)

"If

in

For

situational

upset

one

is

Severa

or

a whole

instrument

of

to

would

subject,

except

their

and

(e.g.,

instruments.

g i r l f r i e n d and

a f f e c t i v e domains

and

experiential

This

sex

jealous

untouched

Aronson

for

the

an

least

or

nine

d e s i r a b i l i t y response

All
neglect

ask

subject

f r i e n d " and

jealousy

self-disclose
social

to

opposite

how

of

one

several

variety

boyfriend

a new

formats

definition

of

of

the

of

by M a t h e s

narrow

requests

makes

he/she

scale

rather

scale

item formats

also

used as
and
it

emotions,

again,

solicits
but

that

of

the

not

one

only

their

the

general

criteria
reactions.

examines

culture,

aspect

family

jealousy
of

1 04

origin,

and

current

demographic
results

information.

the

next

adapted,

For

this

were 35

undergraduate

sample of

Their

individual

they
the

was

will

w o u l d be
b a s i s of

on

able

selected,

"Sexual

promote

subjects'

evident

i n the

yes/no q u e s t i o n

jealousy.

and

Their
in" age

s e c t i o n , in that

but

Jealousy

from

i t remains a

(94%)

married

i t did

than
not

selective
(41%)

s i g n i f i c a n c e of

dispositional

not

defined

couples.

study

on

options

for their

their

the

f o c u s i n g more

f a c t o r s in order

experience.

focus

own

that

r e p o r t i n g of

f o r change.
subjects

d e g r e e of

so

that

jealousy

However, g i v e n

situational

you

their

consider

on

the

factors

the
and

s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n , a weakness becomes

"Do

21

jealousy.

own

i n t e n t to

but

correlates

to p a r t i c i p a t e in a

to define

their

discussed

i s more h e t e r o g e n e o u s

have more d i s t i n c t
was

survey

t o be

females ranging

white

s t r e s s the

than

jealousy

authors'

others

their

sample

students,

sexual

authors

64

in this

were a p p r o a c h e d

situational

Sexual

i n terms of

which

study.

(1983) use

predominantly

investigating
The

this

m a l e s and

(M=34) y e a r s .

Subjects

inventory

s e l f - r e p o r t e d sexual

other -studies reviewed

use

(and

other

i s i t s length

t o examine p o s s i b l e a n t e c e d e n t s ,

c o n s e q u e n c e s of
subjects

Pines

w e l l as

problem

reasons

f o r p u r p o s e s of

Inventory"

64

these

chapter)

A r o n s o n and

to

One

i n some l a c k of p r a c t i c a l i t y

application.
in

r e l a t i o n s h i p , as

findings
yourself a

they
jealous

use

the

on

105

person?" as a c r i t e r i o n
"jealous"
The

and " n o n - j e a l o u s "

current

criterion

than

the use of t h i s

a s s u m i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s have osmosed, t o
t o focus

on j e a l o u s y

Hence, t h e e x a m i n a t i o n

d i f f e r e n c e s i s very

rather

persons.

re-explores

t h e tendency

dispositional.

Pines

research

question

some e x t e n t ,

just

t o e s t a b l i s h d i f f e r e n c e s between

an i m p l i e d

as being

of s i m i l a r i t i e s not

r e l e v a n t a n d r e q u i r e s a documented

focus.

F o r i n s t a n c e , A r o n s o n and

(1983) r e p o r t :
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r own p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r j e a l o u s y ,
other peoples' r e a c t i o n s v a l i d a t e d the c r i t e r i o n
v a r i a b l e : p e o p l e who d e s c r i b e d t h e m s e l v e s a s j e a l o u s
were c o n s i d e r e d j e a l o u s by more p e o p l e who knew them
w e l l a n d by more p e o p l e w i t h whom t h e y h a d an i n t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p (p.115).

However,

i t must be remembered

t h e m s e l v e s were q u e s t i o n e d
with
well.

whom t h e y

only

the subjects

by t h e s u r v e y ,

intimate

not the people

and not o t h e r s

who knew them

Hence, t h e above a n a l y s i s i s n o t v a l i d a t i o n

criterion
tendency
they

were

that

question

but r a t h e r

t o assume t h a t

perceive

criterion

themselves.

question

researcher

uses

differences,
"positive"

others

i ti svalidation
perceive

Instead

r e p o r t i n g seemingly

findings.

of response s e t .

The

research

Aronson and P i n e s

them t h e same way

of d e l e t i n g

this

and seemingly

i t t o re-examine t h e

also differs

(1983) i n t h a t

this

s i m i l a r i t i e s and

"negative"

She a l s o u s e s

implications

current

of s u b j e c t s '

from t h e a d a p t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,

i t t o examine b o t h

of the

f r o m t h e s t u d y by

i treturns

to a basic

106

assumption

about

otherwise,

depending

describe.

This

phenomenological

theory

aspect

"sexual"

themselves

and s e x u a l
other

referred

self-concept.

themes

and t o

include

t o as t h e

of e m o t i o n s

this

study

adapts

instrument.

The f o c u s

on s e x u a l

issues a n d e l i c i t o r s

eliminated,

t h e use of

subjects'

own d e f i n i t i o n s

experiences

i s m a i n t a i n e d and added' t o by r e q u e s t i n g

insights

and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

original

inventory

questions
are

(e.g.,

or

r e v i e w has i n d e e d r e v e a l e d a

invalidating

(1971)

emotion,

on what t h e s u b j e c t s

sex, s e x u a l i t y ,

to avoid

what I z a r d ' s

as a d i s c r e t e

literature

theme i n v o l v i n g
However,

jealousy

Hence,

large

see A p p e n d i x

A, q u e s t i o n s

is

and

portions

a r e d e l e t e d and a d d i t i o n a l

the

their
of the

subjective

2 9 , 30 and 123)

incorporated.
A few of

and P i n e s
that

t h e many

(1983)

integrates

their

findings
Aronson

findings

from t h e s t u d y

a r e now p r e s e n t e d
the c u r r e n t

that

will

and P i n e s

study

by A r o n s o n

incorporating
and g i v i n g

discussion

precedence to

be c o m p a r a b l e .

(1983)

say

that:

[When compared w i t h ' n o n - j e a l o u s ' p e o p l e ] s u b j e c t s who

d e s c r i b e d t h e m s e l v e s as ' j e a l o u s p e o p l e ' r e p o r t e d
e x p e r i e n c i n g more j e a l o u s y n o t o n l y a t t h e t i m e o f t h e
i n t e r v i e w (M=4.4 v s . 2.2) b u t a l s o d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d
(M=4.0 v s . 3 . 4 ) , a d o l e s c e n c e (M=4.9 v s . 4 . 4 ) , young
a d u l t h o o d (M=5.5 v s . 2.8) and a d v a n c e d a d u l t h o o d (M=4.7
v s . 2.3)
(p.115).
"Jealous

people"

be more e a s i l y
longer

in t h e i r

triggered,

study

also

r e p o r t e d the emotion

t o o c c u r more f r e q u e n t l y ,

and t o be a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h more

intense

to

to

last

p h y s i c a l and

1 07

emotional
report

reactions.

significant

level

of

their

data

findings
if

in

be

the

empirical
The
used

had

Significance,

own

jealousy,

study

data

collected

hypotheses

issues

their

the

subjects'

in

additional

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and

hoped

the

Aronson
the

average,

inventory

chapter

reader

and

generally

for

most

reported

during

young

during

advanced
of

their

people'

(p.116),
of

be

(1983)
being

to

seven

as

being

adulthood
subjects
but

people

are

order

to

and

that

found

are

actually

do

the

to

present.

jealous,

the

one

in

was
less
less

Fifty-four

as

"when
the

on

(Their

childhood,

that

is

subjects,

Jealousy

themselves

it

same.

adolescence,

during

i t i s noteworthy

the

jealous.

discussed.)

"defined

verbatim

her

identical

at

their

Ultimately

also

least

as

by

present

during

will

definitions

and

to

rating

study

well

stimulated

less

the

become

discussed

insights.

most

even

as

completely

"somewhat"

responses

adulthood,

percent

percentage

one

in

will

Pines

reported

uses

Appendix

four

and

research.

therefore

Examples

exploring

current

e x p e r i e n t i a l accounts

appendices.

at

investigation

instead

researcher

that

the

future

presented

only

findings

further

authors

established.
in

for

the

were

reliability

and"

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are

within

they

Their

be

when

is applicable

require

i s to

and

that

because

hypotheses.

validity

phenomenological
of

no

significance

suggest

this

generation

current

objective
to

i s noteworthy

differences

hypothesis
and

It

'jealous
asked

average

what

108

r e s p o n s e was
and

75%"

women t o be
The

was

(p.119).

equally

inventory

changed

original

to-a

one

therefore

to

seven

allow

jealousy

occasion

this

question).

Given

to

(55%),

i t may

be

of

as

a response

actually

do

respond

rational

discussion
the

The
Pines
of
and

only

younger

was

younger

more o l d e r

brothers,

assault

social

the

80%

to

and

7%

(56%),

thing

79%

order.

brothers,

many more

acknowledged
i n t e n t at

by

Aronson

c o n s t e l l a t i o n i s that

was

negatively

the

less jealous).

the

do).

p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with
brothers

For

acknowledged

their

to

(18%).

these

t h u s wonders how
that

to

frequently

in a reversed
that

process

'yes'

denial

desirability,

the

subjects

sarcasm

f i n d i n g reported
family

and

Their

reponded
their

(7%)

reflecting

acceptable

The

researcher

much l e s s

(60%),

than

coping

Pines.

r o l e and

of

and

one

way)

(perhaps

significant

brothers

the

percent

(e.g.,

this

socially

number of

(e.g.,

(e.g.,

significant

(1983) i n terms of

older

lose

more s i g n i f i c a n t

violence

men

to acknowledge u s i n g

physical violence

likewise

and

this

through t h e i r

rational discussion;

responses are

t i m e or

likely

Severtty-nine

a consideration

instance,

Aronson

i s u s e d by

most

they acknowledged v e r b a l
acceptance

by

s t r a t e g i e s for

for d i r e c t comparison.

to think

stood/feared

acknowledged

format

scale

were, o v e r a l l ,

also believed

jealous...

yes/no

subjects

they

subjects

section assessing

does not

what

Their

number

jealousy

correlated

more j e a l o u s ;
However,

and

the

this

more

109

interpretation
of

must be c o n s i d e r e d

t h e few c a s e s

would

fall

possible

possibly
sibling

(for the r e l a t i v e l y

i n t o the necessary

subgroupings

positions

very

i n various
the majority

small

but p o s s i b l y

i f they
family

t e n t a t i v e l y because
sample)
vast

that

number o f .

had c a l c u l a t e d a c t u a l

constellations.

of t h e i r

sibling

For instance,

sample were from a p a r t i c u l a r

position.

Aronson

and P i n e s

(1983) r e p o r t

t e r m s o f sex d i f f e r e n c e s .

very

few f i n d i n g s i n

They s a y :

In t e r m s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e , , i t s e l f , a n d i t s g e n e r a l
e f f e c t s , however, t h e r e were no sex d i f f e r e n c e s ; and
when a s k e d d i r e c t l y who were t h e most j e a l o u s , men o r
women, t h e r e s p o n s e was ' e q u a l l y j e a l o u s ' .... The few
sex d i f f e r e n c e s f o u n d i n t h e s t u d y ( e . g . , women were
more l i k e l y t h a n men t o f e e l ' c l o s e t o a n e r v o u s
breakdown', ' i n f e r i o r ' a n d ' h u m i l i a t e d ' a n d t o
e x p e r i e n c e ' f e a r of l o s s ' , ' g r i e f ' and ' v u l n e r a b i l i t y ' )
c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d by W h i t e ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a s
r e s u l t i n g from t h e women's l a c k o f power i n t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p or i n s o c i e t y a t l a r g e (p.129).
However,

i t i s noteworthy

previous

trend

men

in this

most

people.

and now r e p o r t

study,

jealous

The c u r r e n t

of
and

findings

themselves as j e a l o u s

r e - e x a m i n e sex d i f f e r e n c e s i n

s e c t i o n has reviewed and c r i t i q u e d the

from

the d i s c i p l i n e

of t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s

Jung.

themselves as

emotions.

on j e a l o u s y

the departure

their

f o r a l l women and a l l

t h o s e who r a t e d

research

summary, t h i s

literature
variety

as versus

t h e a u t h o r s change

o r t h o s e who d e f i n e d

terms o f e l e m e n t a l
In

that

from F r e u d i a n

of psychology.

emerged a s a c o n s e q u e n c e

tradition

The r e s u l t i n g d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n

initiated

by A d l e r

of s p e c i a l t i e si n

110

psychology
jealousy

partly

that

that

research

and

in psychiatry,

In s p i t e

negative

the e a r l y

the emotion

or d e s t r u c t i v e

individual.
empirical

Much of

the

Adlerian

and

therapy

the e a r l y

and

was

emerges.

T h i s was
setting

in psychology

viewed

as

directed

inherently
o n l y a t the.

some o f t h e more r e c e n t
"jealous person"

socio-cultural

with Ard's

is

Jungian

G r a d u a l l y , the

initially

As

jealous disposition.

and

r e s e a r c h t h u s compares t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p and

practice

on

in theory, in

to therapy.

literature

was' p r i m a r i l y

"non-jealous person".

family,

of both

f o r t h e most p a r t ,

implications,

were p r e s e n t e d

the developments

o f more o p t i m i s t i c

of r e s e a r c h

used.

psychology

to r e f l e c t

about

f o r the v a r i e t y

i n the a p p l i c a t i o n

concentrated,

the

have been

p e r s p e c t i v e s from

chronologically

ongoing

f o r t h e many themes

have emerged and

methodologies
The

accounts

influence

dynamics

of

also

e v i d e n c e d most d i r e c t l y
(1967) f o c u s on

with

i n the

couple-

communication .
May's
researcher
these

two

(1972) t h e s i s

to jealousy in order
concepts

continuum,

things,
but a l s o

and

and

studies

from

critiqued.

the broadening

applied

by

this

t o expand h i s a s s o c i a t i o n

t r a n s c e n d the b a s i c

thus b u i l d i n g

Several
discussed

on power was

of

positive-negative

a more h o l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e .
the e a r l y
They

and

mid-seventies

indicated,

among o t h e r

conceptual understanding

a continuing reticence

were

i n research to

of j e a l o u s y
relinquish

111

the

tendency

basis

of

evidence
and

the

to l a b e l

f o r wide

of

of

the

jealousy

emotion

about

preventing

of

loss),

short

envy, h u r t ,

jealousy
of

jealousy
that

the

the

that

security

to t h e i r

were t y p i c a l l y
roles

and

partners
1978;

pain,

i n the

by

open

being

and

by

to

explained

i s s u e s of

(Corzine,

White,

1980) .

White's

(1976,

1980,

idea

that
the

sum

experienced.
and

theme and
to

the

beliefs

expression

there

was

emotion
and

emotional

cooperation

1974;

combinations

the

fixed

on

the

basis

f e m a l e s more

These
in

and

on
the

differences

traditional

or p o w e r - s h a r i n g

Shettel-Neuber,

of

consensus

involvement

relationships.

by

compounded

humiliation,

many p r o p o s e d

self-esteem

their

were

( s o m e t h i n g more t h a n

react

their

status

powerlessness,

vulnerability,

experience

ongoing

sexual

threats

provided

as

r a g e , power or

i s uniquely

were a l s o an

of

social

jealousy

"whole" t h u s s u p p o r t i n g

males e x p e r i e n c e

basis

e m o t i o n s of

However, the

differences

threats

how

individual discrepancies.

i s a d i s c r e t e emotion

i t s parts)
Sex

of

of

inhibit

showed

experience

demonstrated
to

the

(1977) r e s e a r c h

i t is described

anger,

love and/or h a t e .

of

elemental

Generally,

fall

serves

recognition

suggested.

self-doubt,

and

on

i t , thus r e i n f o r c i n g i t s negative

Many d i f f e r e n t

(of

Francis'

i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s i n the

expression

communication

fear

individual's character

s i n g l e emotion.

disapproval

and

the

Bryson

1981a) s t u d i e s added

between

& Young,

to

and

11 2

synthesized
sex

socio-cultural

differences.

remain grounded
either
are

neglect

perspectives

However, t h e s e

on j e a l o u s y - r e l a t e d

proposed

i n h i s and o t h e r

empirical

the phenomenological aspect

sex d i f f e r e n c e s
findings that
of j e a l o u s y or

i n c o n c l u s i v e b e c a u s e o f t h e many m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

discussed

in this

section.

White's

(1976) s t u d y

also

demonstrates the problems encountered i n r e s e a r c h

static

m e a s u r e s of s e l f - e s t e e m

defined

concept

The
in

first'phenomenological

and s u f f i c i e n t

experience.
"a

i n a c e n t r a l conceptual

1982 and i n i t B a r r e l l

necessary

and/or p l a c e s

They

study

with

others"

adds a new e x p e r i e n t i a l p e r s p e c t i v e
exemplifies
it

a c e n t r a l problem with

does n o t a c c c o u n t

the

phenomenal

motivation).

field

problems encountered
approach

t o the study

Accordingly,
most
of

f o r aspects
(e.g.,

For t h i s

jealousy

role.

emotions.

appeared

identified

jealousy

(p.44).

four

by l e a r n i n g

Their

on j e a l o u s y

reason

study

but i t a l s o

phenomenologies

i n that

o f human e x p e r i e n c e

outside

and

and b e c a u s e o f t h e many

i n e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s , a combined
of j e a l o u s y

i s supported.

instruments

were c r i t i q u e d

r e l e v a n t problems o u t l i n e d , emphasizing

inefficiency

nebulously

unconscious processes

the phenomenological aspect

their

this

uses

f a c t o r s which c o n s t i t u t e the

recommend o v e r c o m i n g

sense of r e l a t e d n e s s

that

of j e a l o u s y

and R i c h a r d s

problems

and t h e

their

neglect

of the emotion as w e l l as

i n d i s t i n q u i s h i n g jealousy

from

other

113

Toward t h e end o f t h e s e c t i o n
facilitate

integration

Constantine's

and i n o r d e r t o

o f t h i s , and f o l l o w i n g , chapters,,

(1976) i n t e r a c t i o n a l

model was e x t r a c t e d

the c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence, p r e s e n t e d ,
partial

foundation

foundation also
synergism
jealousy
adapted
model,

f o r the current

i n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s

instrument

preliminary
pursued

(1977) r e s e a r c h on

and p o t e n t i a l

recent

(1983),

jealousy inventory.

e s p e c i a l l y an
T h i s use of

intervention

f a c i l i t a t e the

combined p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l - e m p i r i c a l

approach

i n the current research.

Chapter
This chapter
first

This

and t h e most

r e s e a r c h by A r o n s o n and P i n e s
v e r s i o n of t h e i r

and d i s c u s s e d a s a

research.

incorporates Bartell's

from

section

was d i v i d e d

j e a l o u s y and envy.

presented

and c r i t i q u e d
i n order

The

(along with

chapter

one) s u p p o r t s

depending

The

t h a t compares and

The n e x t

three sections
:i

for this

i n the f i r s t

section

the t h e o r i e s of emotion
this

t o meet d i f f e r e n t

but r e l a t e d

of t h i s

examined i n

emotions;

and c h a n g i n g

t o be a d a p t i v e

on t h e t h e s o c i a l

research.

r e s e a r c h e r ' s assumptions

and envy a r e d i s c r e t e

each has t h e p o t e n t i a l

sections.

m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a - r y perspectrves 'on

examined

chapter

have e v o l v e d

f o u r major

t o p r o v i d e a background

literature

jealousy

into

examined l i t e r a t u r e

contrasts

jealousy

Summary

or

and c u l t u r a l

that
they

human n e e d s ; and

maladaptive
contexts

i n which

11 4

they

occur.
The

second

s e c t i o n of t h i s

chapter

perspectives

on j e a l o u s y

anthropology

and s o c i o l o g y .

( 1 9 3 6 ) , Mead

( 1 9 3 1 ) , and B e n e d i c t

very

significant

emotion.
effect
the

seventies

used
The

perspectives

follows
almost

that

Benedict's

The

of s y n e r g y

by t h i s

Jealousy

as e i t h e r

literature

clinical
subjects'
The

own

t o be

T h e r e were no p r e s e n t a t i o n s

t h e most

May's

jealousy

and c r i t i q u e s

of p s y c h o l o g y

beginning

recent

and

Pines

the

c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of j e a l o u s y .

t h e s i s on power was
new

only

of the

experiences.
perspectives

with

research

This

and

'non-pathological'.

o r i e n t e d and d i s c u s s e s

fourth section presents

(1983).

underlying

was and c o n t i n u e s

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e i r

(1928) and e n d i n g w i t h

focusing

in psychiatric literature

i s not r e s e a r c h

from t h e d i s c i p l i n e

The

psychoanalysis,

' p a t h o l o g i c a l ' or

observations.

of

discipline

e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

discussed

was

i s a chronology

of p s y c h i a t r y .

of F r e u d i a n

viewed as a p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t
is

i t was n o t u n t i l

concept

chapter

contributed

unconscious processes.

view o f t h e

jealousy.

from t h e d i s c i p l i n e

the t r a d i t i o n

t o be

interdisciplinary

For i n s t a n c e ,

s e c t i o n of t h i s

on j e a l o u s y

major

Davis

(1934) were f o u n d

interactional

i n a s s o c i a t i o n with

third

literature

The c o n t r i b u t i o n s of

v i e w s had l i t t l e

f o r s e v e r a l decades.

late

again

their

four

from t h e d i s c i p l i n e s o f

t o a dynamic,

However,

sampled

Adler
by A r o n s o n

used

to extend

1 15

conceptualization,
relationships,
the

research

together
to

B a r t e l l ' s research

A r o n s o n and

t o e s t a b l i s h an

(1983),

Pines

for

jealousy

were

i n t e g r a t i v e base

i n human
and

discussed

f o r the

chapters

follow.
The

current

next

survey.
because

chapter

study.

statistics

constitutes

It w i l l

f o r the

More a d v a n c e d
this

present

objective

p h a s e of

generation

and

individual

subjects

own

synergism

(1976) model

Constantine's

by

on

the

conceptualization

using

previous
of

requires

of

that

analyses

chapter

but

incorporates

interpretations

their
and

data are

has

that

hypotheses
measures

supported

so

lend

this

empirical
something.

in chapter

involvement

of

by

their

insights.

a
itself

well

preliminary
research
Thus

four,

researcher

definitions, their

their

eschewed

criterion

does not

a p p r o a c h and

phenomenological phase, d e s c r i b e d
face-to-face

are

jealousy

jealousy.

each phase r e l i n q i s h

usual

the

descriptive

i s aimed" a t

a subjective
with

p h a s e of

c o l l e c t e d i n the

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l and

the

empirical

discuss

objective

jealousy

to a s i n g u l a r l y o b j e c t i v e
combination

data

research

because the

the

and

statistical

most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e
Finally,

the

the
eschews

and

experiences,

subject
their

1 16

CHAPTER I I I

EMPIRICAL PHASE

Design

and Method

Subjects

This
who

reside

British
the

study

s u r v e y e d a non-random p o p u l a t i o n

i n student

Columbia.

family

housing

was b a s e d

on f i n a n c i a l

wish to i n c l u d e
races

from v a r i o u s

and r e l i g i o u s / s o c i a l

community

i s determined

"limitations"

Selection

considerations,

subjects

t o be between .

of the s u b j e c t

pool

c o n v e n i e n c e and a
countries,

backgrounds.

by c r i t e r i a

families

at the U n i v e r s i t y of

P a r t i c i p a n t s were r e q u i r e d

ages o f 20 and 60 y e a r s .

of

that

cultures,

Residency

i n the

are described

under

i n c h a p t e r one.

Instrument

The

instrument

adapted v e r s i o n
Jealousy

instrument

i n a p p e n d i x A.

o f A r o n s o n and P i n e s '

Inventory".

deleted.

i s included

Whole s e c t i o n s

(1982)

i n chapter

14-page

and s e v e r a l

The r a t i o n a l e f o r use and a d a p t a t i o n

was d i s c u s s e d

I t i s an

two.

"Sexual

i t e m s were

of the

Additions

included

i t e m s 6, 7, 14, 15, 16, 18, 29, 30, 53-58, 94 and 123.

1 17

Items 8 and 9 were r e - w o r d e d

Pilot

f o r comprehensiveness.

Study

The

pilot

study used

They were n u r s i n g ,

15 f e m a l e and 16 male

m e d i c a l and s u p p o r t s t a f f

Sciences Centre Hospital

at the U n i v e r s i t y

volunteers.

at the Health

of

British

Columbia.
On t h e b a s i s
basic

of L e r t a p

correlations,

originally

a decision

adapted v e r s i o n

for

total

test

of the j e a l o u s y

statistics,

0.97 a n d a C r o n b a c h ' s

a Hoyt's

A l p h a o f 0.72.

respectively

f o r each of t h e f o l l o w i n g

general

reactions.

entitled

results for

demonstrated,

E s t i m a t e of

Hoyt's

physical

Lertap

inventory

demonstrated

prevalence;

( N e l s o n , 1974) and

was made n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e

i n t e n d e d measure o f s y n e r g y .

the

of

item a n a l y s i s

Reliability

Subtest

statistics

o f 0.81, 0.94, 0.95 a n d 0.78

reactions;
A decision

subtests:

jealousy

e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s ; and
to include

"coping with jealousy"

the subtest

was made f o l l o w i n g

study.

On t h e b a s i s

of feedback

changes

were made i n t h e o r i g i n a l

from t h e s u b j e c t s
wording

of items

the p i l o t
minor
numbered

8, 9, a n d 18.
The
interest

statistics

more i n terms

more a d v a n c e d
empirical

presented f o r the p i l o t
of f u t u r e

statistical

phase

of t h i s

study a r e of

s t u d i e s which

analysis

study which

than

incorporate

f o r purposes of the

uses o n l y

descriptive

118

statistics.
to assess

interest

the o v e r a l l
items

t h e main

the purpose

and r e s p o n s e

structuring

(especially

facilitate

Data

Otherwise,

the weekly housing

and d a t a h a n d l i n g f o r

t o t h e commencement o f d a t a

(see appendix

300

s e l f - a d d r e s s e d envelopes

unsealed,

t h e homes i n t h e h o u s i n g

B).

complex.

inventory, the envelopes

(see appendix

C) s t a t i n g :

participation

requirements;

participants

week

were d i s t r i b u t e d t o

In a d d i t i o n

to the

contained a cover

letter

of the study;

delivery

considerations.

the next

two n e w s l e t t e r s .

returned

t o t h e two c o l l e c t i o n

used

the f o l l o w i n g

procedural information; a return

of the r e t u r n

were d e s t r o y e d b e c a u s e

During

the purpose

( s e t a t 21 d a y s a f t e r

the usual e t h i c a l

remind

collection

newsletter published'the request f o r

participation

and

to

and P r o c e d u r e s

One week p r i o r

deadline

about:

i n v e n t o r y ; wording of

i t e m s ) ; and f i n a l l y ,

of p r o c e d u r e s

was

study.

Collection

jealousy

study

and t o g a i n f e e d b a c k

of the adapted

subjective

refinement

of the p i l o t

of the e n v e l o p e s ) ;
Follow-up

notes to

d e a d l i n e were p u b l i s h e d i n

Seventy-seven
points.

i n three cases

inventories
Four

were

inventories

respondents

had n o t

t h e p r o v i d e d s c a l e s and i n one c a s e more t h a n two-

thirds

of both

omitted.

objective

and s u b j e c t i v e

i t e m s had been

119

Sample Demography
The

final

demography
they

at

the

i n age

from

percent

level

of

93%

of

countries

residency)

and

responses to

culture

item

three

the

22

t o 43

the

subjects

(of b i r t h ,

7.

and

Iran

and

the

were C a u c a s i a n ,

New

Spain,

on

Table

1)

and

(and

range

the

the

one

and

the

Guyana,

The

and

Haida

were e a c h named

Paraguay,

Australia

"other"

West

Indies-y

Yugoslavia.

hence not

separately

i n c l u d e d : M e n n o n i t e , T a o i s t , Mormon,
Latter-Day

Saint,

"unclassified".

Seventy-three percent
second

subjective

separately

Zealand

Tosan, U n i t a r i a n , E v a n g e l i s t , Buddhist,
Agnostic

permanent

instances,

The*-Middle - E a s t ,

Kenya, S w i t z e r l a n d ,

indicated

i n the

many

I r e l a n d were e a c h named t w i c e

Italy-,

as

education

beyond.

Cree c u l t u r e i n

Columbia,

specified

(M=31; S.D.=2.7).

Canadians

were named o n c e : B r a z i l ,

Religions

In a d d i t i o n ,

f r e q u e n t l y named Canada,

Germany but

instance

1.

r e a r i n g and/or

Subjects

Their

i n d i c a t e d formal

d e g r e e or

following

Nigeria,

Table

years

respondents

O t h e r w i s e , J a p a n and

times,

by

Q u e b e c o i s c u l t u r e i n two

i n one

instance.

respondents.

c u l t u r e s were d e s c r i b e d

U.S.A., E n g l a n d and
specified

73

in part,

of a b a c h e l o r ' s

Although
different

included

i s described,

ranged

Sixty-four

sample

sibling

of

subjects

positions in their

f o r number of

were from

f a m i l i e s of

c h i l d r e n i n f a m i l i e s of

first

origin.

origin

was

or
The
from

1 20
Table 1
Frequencies

o f t h e Demographic V a r i a b l e s

Var i a b l e s
Subjects
Students

Race:
Caucasian
Negroid
Or i e n t a l
Canadian Indian
East Indian
Other
Religion:
None
Protestant
Catholic
Jewish
Moslem
Hindu
Sikh
Other
Twins

Total

Females

73

(100.0)

28

(100.0)

45

(100.0)

45

( 61.6)

16

( 57. 1 )

29

( 64.4)

68
2
1
1

( 93.2)
( 2.7)
(
1.4)
1.4)
(

24 ( 8 7 . 5 )
1 ( 3.6)
3.6)
1 (
3.6)
1 (

1
23
18
12
1

1.4)

( 3T.5)
( 24.7)
( 16.4)
(

1.4)

l9-( 26.0)
4

Ma l e s

Note.

1. Absolute

41
20
5
7

7 ( 25.0)

5.5)

( 56,.2)
( 27,.4)
( 6,.8)
( 9,.6)

and ( r e l a t i v e )

10 ( 2 2 . 2 )
14 ( 3 1 . 1 )
9 ( 20.0)

3.6)
12

( 26.7)

4 (

Present M a r i t a l or R e l a t i o n s h i p S t a t u s :
Single
6 ( 8.2)
4 ( 14.3)
Divorced
1 0 ( 13.7)
2 ( 7.1 )
Separated
8 ( 11.0)
2 ( 7.1 )
Widowed
Partnered
6 ( 8.2)
4 ( 14.3)
Cohabiting
6 ( 8.2)
2 ( 7.1)
Remarried
4 ( 5.5)
1 ( 3.6)
Married
33 ( 4 5 . 2 )
1 3 ( 46.4)
Other
Current Family:
Two-parent
Single-parent
Blended
Other

44 ( 9 7 . 8 )
1 ( 2.2)

3.6)

13 ( 4 6 . 4 )
4 (14.3)
3 ( 10.7)
1

1 6
3
2
7

( 5 7 ..1 )
( 10.,7)
( 7..1)
( 2 5 ..0)

8.9)

2 ( 4.4)
8 ( 17.8)
6 ( 13.3)
2 ( 4.4)
4- ( 8.9)
3 ( 6.7)
20 ( 4 4 . 4 )

25 ( 5 5 ,.6)
1 7 ( 37,.8)
3 ( 6..7)

frequencies

2. C a l c u l a t e d on b a s i s o f p o s i t i v e
Yes/No q u e s t i o n

response

to a

121

one

to eight with

represented
contained

three

'only'

i n t h e sample.

more t h a n

It
results

i s not f e a s i b l e
from t h i s

survey

allow

Therefore,

the researcher

I. J e a l o u s y :

f o r m u l t i p l e combinations

subjects
in

(Do y o u c o n s i d e r

review

labels.

to apply

The l i t e r a t u r e

t h a t women w i l l

no
the

status.

s u r p r i s e that

there

above q u e s t i o n

t o some

as r e s e a r c h e r s

inventory

extent
critiqued

' j e a l o u s ' and 'nona l s o supports

be more l i k e l y

With these

yourself a

when t h e o r i g i n a l

I t s i n c l u s i o n assumes t h a t

acknowledge a ' j e a l o u s ' l a b e l

inferior

of t h e o r e t i c a l

Trait-Based?

have t h e same t e n d e n c i e s

prediction

critique

only

and t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y .

the l i t e r a t u r e

jealous'

of data.

i s selective in presenting

j e a l o u s p e r s o n ? ) was n o t d e l e t e d
was a d a p t e d .

a l l of the o b j e c t i v e

b e c a u s e even t h e b a s i c d e s c r i p t i v e

19 o f t h e i n v e n t o r y

Item

household

and D i s c u s s i o n

r e s u l t s v i s a v i s the e a r l i e r

perspectives

'twins'

(M=3.4).

to present

statistics

key

The a v e r a g e c u r r e n t

3 people

Results

c h i l d r e n and f o u r

t h a n men t o

because of t h e i r
considerations

were no o c c a s i o n s

even t h o u g h t h i s

an a

d e p e n d e n t and

i n mind,

i t was

of non-response t o

a l t e r n a t i v e was

clearly

122

stated

i n the enclosed

The
refute

pattern

instructions.

of responses

or support

to this

item

trait-based theories

(19)

does n o t

of j e a l o u s y .

However,

i t demonstrates

the i n a c c u r a c i e s

that

applying

d i s p o s i t i o n a l l a b e l s on t h e b a s i s

result

from

of a s i n g l e

emot i o n .
Forty-eight
question

subjects

(66%) r e s p o n d e d

and 25 (34%) r e s p o n d e d

sample o n l y

25% (7) r e s p o n d e d

women d i d t h e same.jealousy

scores

emotional

response.

(19)

than males.

Of t h e 28 men i n t h e

while

40% (18) o f t h e 45

were a s s i g n e d "

of t h e i r

When a l l s c o r e s
more l i k e l y

to score

that

r e s p o n d e n t s ) would d o m i n a t e

mentioned

total

jealous

from w h i c h

found

i n t h e t o p two i n t e r v a l s w h i l e

t h e y were d e r i v e d )

were i n t h e same i n t e r v a l s .

(38%);

difference

females=45

persons

(62%)] along

scores.

the one-to-seven

17.8% o f a l l men were

only

Considering

i n sample

('yes'

f o r t h e above-

( i n accordance with

scale

porportionate

closely

t h e above median

i n t e r v a l s were c r e a t e d
scores

above t h e

l i k e l i h o o d of o c c u r r e n c e .

we would e x p e c t

When s e v e n

females

t h e (18) " y e s " a n d

"no" r e s p o n s e s above t h e median v e r y

Logically,

stronger

were r a n k e d

However, sex a s i d e ,

a p p r o x i m a t e an i d e n t i c a l

total

summed r e s p o n s e s t o

females o v e r a l l i n d i c a t e d a

were a l s o p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y
median

"yes"

When s u b j e c t s

on t h e b a s i s

emotional, r e a c t i o n s

"yes".

"no" t o t h e

15.5% o f a l l women
t h e much l a r g e r

structure

[n=73; males=28

with the p r e d i c t i o n

that

1 23

women a s a s u b g r o u p a r e more l i k e l y
jealous
not

t o be d i s p o s i t i o n a l l y

then

men, t h e n

they

s h o u l d be f o u n d

a lesser

frequency

than

men i n e s p e c i a l l y

intervals.
these

intervals

theories,
that

Even an i d e n t i c a l

would be i n c o n s i s t e n t

especially

given

t h e t o p two

o f men and women i n

with

trait-based

the frequent support

women a r e more l i k e l y

personalities

occurrence

with a greater

to f i n a l l y

ascribe

f o r the idea

to their

basic

the consequences of n e g a t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d

circumstances.
Random s a m p l i n g
interval

w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y

significance
these

a n d an a d e q u a t e number

of t h e above

experimental

to verify

findings.

the e m p i r i c a l
However, even

p r e c a u t i o n s , i t would be v e r y

to c o n t r o l

f o r the s o c i a l l y - i n f l u e n c e d

determined

and seemingly

categorize

themselves

theories

and the ongoing

recommendation

II.

that

o f women t o
trait-based

lack

of evidence

separately

c o l l e a g u e s and c l i e n t s .

1 graphically

level

of t h e E m o t i o n ?

p o r t r a y s ( f o r a l l s u b j e c t s and

f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s )
a t each

supports a

c o u n s e l l o r s a v o i d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n and

caution their

Figure

("How

Hence,

Response Set and/or Re-Experience

responded

difficult

or s o c i a l l y -

g r e a t e r tendency

as j e a l o u s .

with

a n d r e s e a r c h on j e a l o u s y a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y

impractical

likewise

of cases per

t h e number

of the response

j e a l o u s a r e you a t t h i s

time

scale

i n your

o f s u b j e c t s who
f o r items

life?")

20 ;

and 122 '

124

F i g u r e 1. R e s p o n s e s t o q u e s t i o n s 20 ( s o l i d l i n e )
and 122 ( b r o k e n l i n e ) bu, q u e s t i o n 19 (Yes/No)

125

("Using y o u r own
graphs are
arid

"no"

further divided

responses

There
dotted
that
sex

being
are

end

of

regardless

phendnmenon.

answer"

The

("Are

shift
with

you

toward
the

whether or

the

solid

inventory

usual

answer

(Borg

The

b a s i s of

jealous
right

line.

"yes"

person?").

when
This

the
indicates

a l l subjects

(regardless

not

acknowledged

they

had

would commonly

by

subjects

that

than

by

fault

However,

case

in assessing
than at

effect

the

of

Given

subjects

the

this

a true

in a patterned

self-report

jealousy

beginning

definition,
reports

measure t o the

in

t o a c k n o w l e d g e and

their

true

conflicting

in s o l i c i t i n g

of

the

by

the

measure
which

general.
subjects

were

p e r h a p s more

end

b e c a u s e of a

way

extent

of

the

therapeutic

instrument.

that

much c a u t i o n

the

and

Using
the

difference

i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e that

more aware o f , more l i k e l y

inventory

with

responded

inaccuracy

accurate

that

efficient

demonstrates the
in this

respondent

p.311).

suggested

subjects

There

apparent

i n d i c a t e s "the

the

1979,

indicate a

i t is less

simply

given

be

of

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would" a t t r i b u t e t h e

s e t which

& Gall,

it

or

19

you?).

the

interpretations for this

to a response

between the

that

of

j e a l o u s are

j e a l o u s p e r s o n ) were r e p o r t i n g more j e a l o u s y .

many p o s s i b l e

shift

the

how

i n t o p a i r s on

item

i s compared

the

and

to

is a visible

line

by

definition,

was

no

definition

taken

of

to avoid

were e s s e n t i a l l y

jealousy
implying

responding

was
a

to the

presented

and

definition,
same q u e s t i o n

in

126

items

20

and

definition
be

122.

If they

when r e s p o n d i n g

a p r o j e c t i o n and

own

were a s s u m i n g a

definition

to

item

hence s t i l l

w h i c h was

the

20

researcher

i t would n e c e s s a r i l y

closely

criterion

comparable

to

for response

their

to

item

122.
Therefore,

the

usual

negative

assumptions

response

set

i n t e r m s of

i t s confounding

findings

can

be

in this

if

the

reversed

differences portrayed

response' s e t
because

i t . i s one

that

by
acts

i t demonstrates that

encouraged

presenting

their

reflecting

on

(see a p p e n d i x D),
experience

and

d e f i n i n g the

accuracy

their

g i v e a more " t r u e " or

This
by

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

s u b j e c t i v e and

overall
study

subjects.

i n terms of

jealousy,

negative

effects

o b j e c t i v e data

observations.

both

i n t e r m s of

main s t u d y

the

speaks to the

even

123

(requesting

to

insights/thoughts/experiences
contribute)

they
hence

item

k e e n n e s s and

to

large

pilot
keenness

content

which s u b j e c t s might

a l s o speaks to t h i s

supported
The

specific

responses

the

and

is also

The

of

to

E),

jealousy

of p a r t i c i p a n t s t o s e l f - e x p l o r e .
length)

After

self-report.

survey

the

with

their

phenomenological

r e s p o n s e t o the

and

by

inventory

(see a p p e n d i x

t o own

accurate

words,

way

feelings relative

emotion

were s e e m i n g l y more p r e p a r e d

In o t h e r

to the

p o s i t i v e and

examining

research

in a constructive

most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e

i t s ultimate

on

graph demonstrate a

responding

self-determined

effect

instance.
the

about

(and

other
wish

their

to

127

willingness
feelings,
appendix

t o s h a r e and

t h o u g h t s , and
F,

especially

Alternatively,
set

i s an

aspect

objective

(which

codes

possibly

items

cognitive

39 and

43).

suggested

that

demonstration

of the

Interpreted

19 and

prior

the

Of

in relation

an

of t h e s e e v e n t s

(see

response

to the
jealousy

actual

r e - e x p e r i e n c i n g of

inventory.

If

is insufficient

in

f o r these d i f f e r e n c e s ,

responses

item

(122)

may

o r more a c c u r a t e

that

i s experienced following
Again,

the

speak

emotion.

approached
accumulated

"true"

phenomenological

interpretation.
code 06)

the

The
on

by

fellow

and

evidence

subjective

one

on

t o the

final
feeling

self-exploration.
supports the

responses

b e h a l f of the s u g g e s t e d

Also,

122

differences

accounting

reflect

their

to responding to item

d u r i n g c o m p l e t i o n of t h e

recall

of

phenomenological

2 0 ) , the d e m o n s t r a t e d

the. e f f e c t

use

jealousy

most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h

indicate

emotion

22,

be

subjects contributed

but a f t e r

the

about

experiences with

i t can

of the emotion.

statements

make more c o n s t r u c t i v e

several

above

(e.g., appendix

r e - e x p e r i e n c i n g of

o c c a s i o n s the r e s e a r c h e r

community members.
non-respondent

F,

Process notes

was
were

i s n o t e d as s a y i n g :

"It's
s i t t i n g t h e r e l o o k i n g a t me, p a r t of me wants
t o do i t and p a r t o f me d o e s n ' t .
I g u e s s I'm a f r a i d
of what i t might s t i r up f o r me.
I'm a s i n g l e p a r e n t
and I've gone t h r o u g h a l o t g e t t i n g t o t h e p o i n t t h a t
I'm now a t .
I j u s t want t o l e t a l l t h a t go now, y e t
I know a l o t of i t i s s t i l l t h e r e and I g u e s s
I'm
a f r a i d the j e a l o u s y q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i l l r e a l l y s t i r i t
a l l up a g a i n " .

128

This person's

indecision

was

seemingly based

a w a r e n e s s o f t h e phenomena b e i n g d i s c u s s e d .
participating
Further

would

conversation

to p a r t i c i p a t e
resolution.
because

because

negative

of h e r

reveals

jealous

emotions.

encouragement
complete

for counselling

because,

i n the p r o c e s s

h e r an a l t e r n a t e

feelings

that

may

and

less

have

only

becomes e v i d e n t

without

data.

o b s e r v a t i o n s and

that

subjects'
from

losing

by

figure

one

be p o r t r a y e d by

the o b j e c t i v e

s e p a r a t e d from

evaluations

set demonstrated

more t h a n c a n

phenomenological

be

i s s u e s and

the response

something

interpretating

cannot

referred

that

h e r responses-.

In e s s e n c e ,

it

was

past

she wanted

an

sensed

t o r e a c h a more

the r e s e a r c h e r o f f e r e d

view

influenced

that

of a wish

of her p a r t i c u l a r

She

in re-experiencing

indicated

I n s t e a d , she

of h e l p i n g ,

and

result

on

When b o t h

f i n d i n g s are

insights

their

combined

and e x p e r i e n c e

objective

a large part

empirical

self-

of t h e

"whole"

meaning.

III.

J e a l o u s y and
Sibling

separately
then
73%

12 and

Sibling

position

adding
13

was

Position
determined

for a l l subjects

responses to inventory

(see appendix

o f t h e sample were f r o m

their

families

of o r i g i n .

along

w i t h t h e wide range

A).
first

Given
of

items

As p r e v i o u s l y
and
this

family

10 and

by
11

mentioned,

second p o s i t i o n s
sample

size

and

in

characteristic

(and t h e r e f o r e

the

1 29

vast

possibilities

evident
beyond

that d e s c r i p t i v e
saying that

distributed
for

total

IV.

i n a random

Jealousy

responses

a r e not

and

siblings

second

f a s h i o n above and

t h e means and

again

meaningful
were

below

seemingly

the

standard

median

deviations (for

s e p a r a t e l y f o r males and

'jealousy prevalence'

scores are h i g h e s t

adolescence

and

findings

A r o n s o n and

by

statistics

i t is

response.

2 presents

to

family constellations)

Prevalence

s u b j e c t s and

that

first

emotional

Table
all

i n t e r m s of

f o r both

m a l e s and

young a d u l t h o o d .
Pines

for

I t i s noteworthy
females

In c o n t r a s t t o

during

the

(1983) d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r

two,

subjects in this

sample, on

less

j e a l o u s d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d than

However, when m a l e s and

items.

females)

females

the

are

average,

during

reported

being

adulthood.

considered separately

m a l e s r e p o r t more c h i l d h o o d j e a l o u s y t h a n

females

(M=3.4 v s .

2.7).

V.

General

Reactions

Table

3 presents

responses
the

to

items

inventory.

more t h a n

Subjects

'days'

Jealousy

t h e means and

i n the

extreme e x p e r i e n c e s
for

to

with
but

'general
on

standard

r e a c t i o n s ' s u b s e c t i o n of

the average

jealousy are
less

than

deviations for

reported that

'rare'

and

'weeks' and

they

are

last

coped

130

Table
Jealousy

P r e v a l e n c e Q u e s t i o n s : Means and

Standard D e v i a t i o n s

Total
(n=73)

Males
(n=28)

Females
(n=45)

SD

SD

19. Do you c o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f
a j e a l o u s person?
1=Yes, 2=No

1.7

0.5

1.7

0.4

1.6

0.5

20.

How j e a l o u s a r e you a t
t h i s time i n your l i f e ?
1=not a t a l l ... 7 = e x t r e m e l y

2.5

1.5

2.5

1.4

2.4

1.1

21.

During childhood
1 = n o t a t a l l ' - ' . . . 7=extremely

2.9

1.5

3.4

1.5

2.7

1.5

22.

During adolescence .
1-not a t a l l ... 7 = e x t r e m e l y

3.9

1.6

4.4

1.6

3.7

1.6

23. D u r i n g young a d u l t h o o d
1=not a t a l l ... 7 = e x t r e m e l y

3.9

1.7

3.7

1.8

4.0

1.6

24.

3.0

1.4

2.8

1.2

3.0

1.4

Question

During adulthood
1=not a t a l l ...

SD

7=extremely

25.

Have any of y o u r i n t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s ended
b e c a u s e of y o u r j e a l o u s y ?
1=none ... 7 = a l l o f them

1.6

1.1

1.6

0.9

1.6

1.1

26.

Do most p e o p l e who know you

2.1
w e l l c o n s i d e r you a j e a l o u s
person?
1 = d e f i n i t e l y not ... 7 = d e f i n i t e l y

1.3

2.0

1.0

2.1

1.5

2.5

1.6

2.9

1.9

yes

27. Do p e o p l e you have been

2.8. 1.8
i n t i m a t e w i t h c o n s i d e r you
jealous?
1 = d e f i n i t e l y not ... 7 = d e f i n i t e l y y e s

131

Table
General

Reaction

Questions:

Means and S t a n d a r d

Deviations

Total
(n=73)

Males
(n=28)

Females
(n=45)

Question
SD

SD

SD

4.4 1 .6
89. R e c a l l i n g y o u r most e x t r e m e
e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y , how
long d i d the experience
last?
1=seconds ... 4=days ... 7=years

4 .3

1 .5

4. 5 1 .6

90. How o f t e n do you

e x p e r i e n c e extreme j e a l o u s y ?
1=never ... 7=always

3.0 0.9

2 .7

1 .0

3. 2 0 .9

91 . Do you t h i n k you c o p e d w e l l
w i t h t h e extreme s i t u a t i o n
you
described?
1=very p o o r l y ... 7=very w e l l

4.2 1.7

4 <4

1 .8

4. 1 1 .7

92. Do you c o n s i d e r y o u r
j e a l o u s y a problem?
1=not a t a l l ... 7=a v e r y

2.2 1 .5

1 .9 1 .5

2. 5 1 .5

93. Can you make y o u r s e l f s t o p

4.3 1 .8
being
jealousy?
1 = d e f i n i t e l y n o t ... 7 = d e f i n i t e l y yes

4 .9 1 .7

4. 0 1 .8

94. How o f t e n do you e x p e r i e n c e

mild jealousy?
1=never . .. 7=always

3 .7 0 .8

3. 8 0 .7

s e r i o u s one

3.8 0.8

95. Do you t h i n k t h a t j e a l o u s y
,5.7 1 .6
i s a normal response i n
certain situations?
1 = d e f i n i t e l y n o t ... 7 = d e f i n i t e l y yes

6 .0

1 .2

5. 4 1 .7

96. Do you c o n s i d e r y o u r own

2.1 1 .3
j e a l o u s y i n extreme s i t u a t i o n s
t o be an a p p r o p r i a t e
reaction?
1 = d e f i n i t e l y not ... 7 = d e f i n i t e l y y e s

2 .0

1 .0

2. 1 1 .5

132

with

'averagely

jealousy

was

not

"occasionally"
average,

not

The

"rarely".
t o be

t o be

to

females.

i t e m s 92
their

subjects

mild
The

jealousy

response

jealousy

an

appropriate

differences

and

93

be

are

l e s s of

findings

stop being

by

White

interpretation

jealous.

(1976,

i s posed

1980

in certain
situations
thus

apparent
the

average

in that

and

they p o s s i b l y

r e l a t i o n s h i p and

h e n c e her

l e s s powerful p o s i t i o n .

support

i n the

m a l e s and
especially

but

the

females

to

c o d e s 01,

i t e m s 28,
02,

08,

await

29,

09,

subjective
and

25,

30

36,

(see
41,

the

Again,
more

interpretation also

between

the

d e p e n d e n c e on

these d i f f e r e n c e s

above

differences

and

reflect

involvement

advanced a n a l y s i s

their

similar

emotional

s i g n i f i c a n c e of

did

support

female's greater

statistical

than

in reporting

These d i f f e r e n c e s
1981)

in

a problem

M a l e s were a l s o more c o n f i d e n t
to

the

status.

w i t h m a l e s on

to

on

reaction

taboo

that

occurred

i n extreme

sex

jealousy

reported

e m o t i o n was,

normal

i t s ongoing

most v i s i b l e

considering

"a

In c o n t r a s t ,

supporting

responses

ability

not

considered

seemingly

Overall,

a p r o b l e m but

reported

situations".
was

well'.

finds

responses

by

appendix

D,

46,

48,

55

and

56) .

VI.

Physical
Table

Reactions

4 lists

responses to

the

28

and

to

Jealousy

ranks the

'physical

ten

highest

reaction'

means

for

items, again

for a l l

1 33

subjects

and s e p a r a t e l y

f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s .

Table
Ranking

of P h y s i c a l R e a c t i o n s

T o t a l (n=73)
Mean R e s p o n s e

4
on B a s i s

o f Mean R e s p o n s e

M a l e s (n=28)
Mean Response

F e m a l e s (n=45)
Mean Response

Fast
heartbeat

3. 6

Shakey

3. 4

Fast
heartbeat

3. 9

Shakey

3. 5

Fast
heartbeat

3. 1

Energized

3. 9

Energized

3. 5

Stomach empty

3. 0

Insomnia

3. 6

Insomnia

3. 2

Blood

2. 9

Shakey

3. 6

2. 8

Appetite

loss

3. 2

Hot

2. 7

Stomach empty

3. 2

Energ i z e d

2. 7

Blood

rushing

3. 1

short

3. 0

Stomach

Blood

rushing

empty 3. 1 .A p p e t i t e
l o s s 3. 1

Appetite

r u s h i n g 3. 0

loss

Trembling
hands

2. 8

Insomnia

2. 6

Breath

Hot

2. 6

Exhausted

2. 6

Trembling
hands

3. 0

2. 6

Trembling
hands

2. 5

Sweaty

2. 6:

Breath
Note.

short

In t h e c a s e o f t i e d means, t h e r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e
smaller standard d e v i a t i o n i s l i s t e d f i r s t . A l l
i t e m s were a n s w e r e d on a 7 p o i n t s c a l e .

noteworthy

that

although

the ten r e a c t i o n s

sample a r e a l l m o d e r a t e l y
describe
or

It i s

an a u t o n o m i c

seemingly,

w e i g h t e d and g e n e r a l l y

nervous

the 'jealous

f o r the t o t a l

system

flash'

they

fight-flight

described

i n the

response

134

literature.

However, f e m a l e s

considerably

h i g h e r than males p o s s i b l y

tendency
also

to fight

generally

rather

ranked " e n e r g i z e d "

than

flee.

several

threat

be g r e a t e r f o r t h e f e m a l e

earlier

because of the former's

greater

reactions

response,
feelings

support

than

social

a autonomic

a greater

responses are

that

again

the f e l t

f o r t h e male

s t a t u s and h e r
Also,

because

nervous

s e n s a t i o n s ) may be g e n e r a l i z e d
He s a y s

not i t s essence"

these

system

i s g i v e n t o Solomon's" (197/6) t h e s i s

emotions.

emotion,

that
t o many

" f e e l i n g s are the ornamentation

(p.159).

Emotional Reactions to Jealousy

Table

responses

5 lists

and r a n k s

t h e t e n h i g h e s t means f o r

t o t h e 30 ' e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n '

s u b j e c t s and s e p a r a t e l y
and

inferior

describe

(as v i s c e r a l

different

VII.

interpretations

d e p e n d e n c e on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

physical

of

Female

somewhat h i g h e r t h a n male r e s p o n s e s

supporting
may

indicating

for a l l

f o r m a l e s and f e m a l e s .

females are c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y

"envy",

items

"fear

When-males

of l o s s " ,

" p o s s e s s i v e n e s s " and "low s e l f - i m a g e " a r e r a n k e d

among t h e t e n h i g h e s t means f o r f e m a l e s b u t n o t f o r m a l e s .
Again,

female

responses.

responses o v e r a l l

a r e higher than

"Pain", " s e l f - p i t y " ,

male

" v u l n e r a b i l i t y " and

" d e p r e s s i o n " a r e among t h e t e n h i g h e s t means f o r m a l e s b u t

not
is

f o r females.

This

stereo-typically

finding

supports the idea

c o n s i d e r e d t o be j e a l o u s y

that

what

i s seemingly

1 35
Table 5
Ranking of Emotional

Reactions

T o t a l (n=73)
Mean R e s p o n s e

on B a s i s o f Mean

M a l e s (n=28)
Mean R e s p o n s e

Response

F e m a l e s (n=45)
Mean Response

Anger

4 .8

Humilation

4 .5

Anger

5 .2

Resentment

4 .6

Depression

4 .3

Rage

5. 1

Rage

4 .6

Resentment

4 .2

Resentment

4 .8

Humiliation

4 .5

Anger

Excluded

4 .8

Anxiety

4 .4

Frustration

3 .9

Anxiety

4 .7

Excluded

4 .3

Self-pity

3 .9

Fear

4 .6

F r u s t r a t ion

4 .3

Anxiety

3 .8

Low

Depression

4 .3

Rage

3 .8

Frustration

4 .5

Fear

4 .2

Vulnerability

3 .0. H u m i l i a t i o n

4 .5

4 .2

Excluded

3 .6

Possessiveness

4 .4

4. 1

Pain

3 .6

Envy

4 .4

of l o s s

Low s e l f image
Inferiority
Note.

4 .0

s e l f - i m a g e 4 .6

I n t h e c a s e o f t i e d means, t h e r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e
smaller standard d e v i a t i o n i s l i s t e d f i r s t . A l l
i t e m s were answered on a 7 p o i n t s c a l e .

b a s e d on e m o t i o n s t h a t t y p i f y
if

traditional

of

a focus

depression

It

on i t s e l e m e n t s o f p a i n ,
and s e l f - p i t y

i s also

total

woman's e x p e r i e n c e .

Perhaps

v i e w s o f j e a l o u s y h a d been d e r i v e d from more

j e a l o u s man" r a t h e r t h a n

the

of l o s s

sample

then

t h e s t e r e o - t y p e would be " t h e

" t h e j e a l o u s women".

noteworthy t h a t
"envy"

vulnerability,

i n the t o p t e n rankings f o r

i s n o t on t h e l i s t

image" a p p e a r s o n l y n i n t h .

and "low s e l f -

The a b s e n c e o f envy

in this

136

ranking

s u p p o r t s a v i e w of

something

more and

ranking

of

for

female

the

subsample
relegate

"low

j e a l o u s y as a d i s c r e t e

different

than

envy.

The

s e l f - i m a g e " f o r the t o t a l
subsample

ranking)

(as w e l l

as

supports White's

emotion

relatively

sample

i t s absence

s e l f - e s t e e m t o a more p e r i p h e r a l

role

low

listing
i n the

(1976) d e c i s i o n

and
male

to

i n models of

jealousy.
Unlike
m a l e s and

'physical

females

highest

rankings

females

and

responses
females

finding
and

f o r the

a r e anger

for rating

was

results

t h e most p o i g n a n t
and

rage

and

top

elemental

emotions

f o r t h e male t h e y

that

also

both
and

the
this

on

socialization

of

the

feel

separate
anger,

humiliation

f o r the

the

emotional

Comparing

females,

two

interactionally

i n somewhat d i f f e r i n g

under

for

experience,

Reflecting
the

very

depression while for

j e a l o u s y as an

emotion.

the

from' t h o s e

The

individual's

anxiety, frustration

and

time

Re-emphasizing

jealousy experiences.

resentment,

this

markedly

(1976) view of e m o t i o n s ,

seemingly

where t o p r a n k i n g s f o r

sample.

rage.

the

a v i e w of

r a n k i n g s under m a l e s and

anger

total

and

influenced

j u d g e m e n t s of

rage,

similar,

f o r males a r e h u m i l i a t i o n

socially

sexes

items

f o r males d i f f e r

supports

Solomon's

were v e r y

those

they

criterion

reaction'

female

are h u m i l i a t i o n

but

are
and

depression.
Using
synergistic

Bartell's
couples

(1977) c r i t e r i a
(thus v e r i f y i n g

to i d e n t i f y
a high l e v e l

highly
of

social

137

and

possibly

economic

hypothesized
would not

that

differ

for these

necessary
emotion

in their

emotions.

i n acceptance

of

i t could

relationships.,

significantly

jealousy's elemental
evenuate

interdependence)

m a l e s and

rankings

differences

or

between t h e

this

hypothesis

in addition
sexes

females

of

However, i f f i n d i n g s
i t will

t o c o n s i d e r t h e common p u r p o s e s e r v e d

r a t h e r than,

be

still

by

the

to, s i m i l a r i t i e s

i n terms of

be

and

internal

exper i e n c e .

VIII.

list

Coping

With

Table

6 lists

of

'coping with

24

sample, m a l e s and
The

and

ranks

females

the

i s evident.

socially

"negotiation"

t e n h i g h e s t means f o r t h e
Again

the

total

are each c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y .

The

higher

female

top three

acceptable

appears

the

j e a l o u s y ' items.

same p a t t e r n of o v e r a l l

responses
are

Jealousy

than

items

male

a c r o s s the

" t h i n g s t o do".

table

However,

c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e c on- the' l i s t - ,

supporting

a suggestion

that

j e a l o u s y i s not

recognized

as a t r i g g e r

for interdependent

thus-

typically

change t o

the

relationship.
A l s o apparent
items

suggest

antagonistic

a female

ranking

tendency

i s t h a t the next

t o g i v e more w e i g h t

or a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r s

g i v e more w e i g h t
a withdrawal.

in this

to behaviours

Reflecting

on

and

several
to

a male t e n d e n c y

that portray a c l o s i n g

Constantine's

(1976)

to

o f f or

typology

138
Table 6
Ranking

of "Coping With J e a l o u s y "

Response

T o t a l (n=73)
Mean R e s p o n s e

Items on B a s i s

M a l e s (n=28)
Mean R e s p o n s e

o f Mean

F e m a l e s (n=45)
Mean R e s p o n s e

Thinking
through

4 .8

Thinking
through

4.5

Thinking
through

5. 0

Acceptance

4 .2

Acceptance

4.4

Rational
discussion

4. 1

Rational
discussion

4. 1

Rational
discussion

3.9

Acceptance

4. 2

Sarcasm

3 .6

Withdrawal

3.5

Sarcasm

3. 8

Withdrawal

3 .4

Stoney

3.4

Crying

3. 7

Arguing

3 .4

I solation'

Arguing

3. 6

Isolation

3 .2

Sarcasm

Negotiation

3. 4

Stoney

s i l e n c e 3 .2

silence

3.3

Suffer
silently

3.0
+ visibly

Withdrawal

3. 3

2.9
+ covertly

I s o l a t ion

3. 2

Negot i a t i o n

3. 1

Suffer
silently

Crying

2 .9

Negotiation

Note.

of

2.7

Stoney

s i l e n c e 3. 0

In t h e c a s e o f t i e d means, t h e r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e
smaller standard d e v i a t i o n i s l i s t e d f i r s t . A l l
i t e m s were a n s w e r e d on a 7 p o i n t s c a l e .

jealous

behaviours discussed

antagonistic,

redefinitional

females a r e r e p o r t i n g

i n t h e ways t h a t

likely

to preserve

i n chapter

two

and r e s o l u t i o n a l )

a greater

behave

with

' 3.4

tendency

(isolational,
i t seems

than males t o

Constantine maintains w i l l

the r e l a t i o n s h i p .

that

This

i s also

t h e many v i e w s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d

be more
congruent
i n chapter

1 39

two

in that

the

female's

g r e a t e r d e p e n d e n c y on

r e l a t i o n s h i p a b d i c a t e s her
Again,

these d i f f e r e n c e s

so a p p a r e n t
on

economically

of t h e i r

differences

occurred

on

higher
1.2

membership

the

in socially

"crying",

of

24

and

i t e m s t h e most

"screaming"

F o r a l l t h r e e items' f e m a l e

t h a n male means
and

(3.7

vs

1.6;

and

"throwing

means were
2.5

f e m a l e s were a l s o

considerably

1.6;

and

1.5).

A l t h o u g h a l l o f t h e s e means a r e r e l a t i v e l y

may

important.

and

4 out

violence

as a r e a c t i o n
One

reaction

and

subjectively

feeling,

i t is a killer"

ratings

male a c k n o w l e d g e d

remembered t h a t

reporting
on

physical
this

( o r 14%)

to jealousy

more o f t e n .

must be

than males

A c c o r d i n g l y , n i n e of t h e

of 28 m a l e s

beseeched

v i o l e n c e may

item.

occurs

i t as h i s

be

low

vs

they

females

(or

physical

"rarely"

or

"usual"

70).

undesirability
resulting

vs

more

(1.6

" t r y t o overcome

(appendix. F, code
the s o c i a l

45

acknowledged
that

2.0

very s l i g h t l y

t o acknowledge p h y s i c a l

20%)

violence

vs

females

likely

be

be

f o r study

between means f o r m a l e s and

items

respectively)

identified

not

relationships.

t h e whole l i s t

apparent

things".

f e m a l e s were

interdependent

Considering

to preserve i t .

i n c o p i n g mechanisms m i g h t

i f m a l e s and

the b a s i s

g r e a t e r need

the

this

Also, i t
of

i n lower

1 40

H y p o t h e s e s and I m p l i c a t i o n s
As

has been

empirical

phase of t h i s

based only

along

with

( i n c l u d i n g data

broader

study

are preliminary.

a w a i t s more a d v a n c e d

When c o n s i d e r e d

They a r e

and t h e i r
statistical

analysis.

f i n d i n g s of the phenomenological

i n t h e a p p e n d i c e s ) t h e y promote a

conceptualization

to as " j e a l o u s y " ,

Research

mentioned, the f i n d i n g s of the

on d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s

"significance"

phase

frequently

f o r Future

o f t h e human e x p e r i e n c e

thus a c h i e v i n g

the o v e r a l l

referred

purpose of the

study.
It

i s hoped t h a t

research

on j e a l o u s y

this
that

study
again

will

i n each phase.

empirical

generation-of

methods t h a t a r e

Hence, among o t h e r

phase of t h i s

study

hypotheses

i s used

things, the

to exemplify

from p r e l i m i n a r y

Several
are

of o b j e c t i v e data-,

of the subsections

again

briefly

implications
counselling
research

for future

I above

result

hypotheses using

t h e above

be *-presented*.
7

and D i s c u s s i o n "

o f new h y p o t h e s e s and

Specific

implications for

from b o t h p h a s e s o f t h i s

i n chapter
implies

"Results

in light

research.

practice derived

are presented

Section
jealousy

discussed

from

o n l y a- few- w i l l

under

the

findings.

A l t h o u g h many h y p o t h e s e s c a n be e x t r a p o l a t e d
discussion

future

c o m b i n e s e m p i r i c a l and

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l approaches but u s i n g
additive

encourage

that

five.
t r a i t - b a s e d t h e o r i e s of

in inconsistent research

findings.

" j e a l o u s " and " n o n - j e a l o u s "

Thus

categorizations

141

of

i n d i v i d u a l s are

b a s e d on
well

as

the
on

chapter

the

Instead,
the

different

and

issues

in

who

i n terms of

change.

and

the

consider

r o l e s than

the

r o l e s as

II

aimed a t

development

experience

frequent

B o r g and

goal

of

research

take

"research

and

also

or

Gall

be

viewing

the

assessment
of

subject,
As

and
found

preliminary

of

VII,

and

VII)

e x i s t i n g programs
for

problems with

(1979) s t a t e t h a t

the

couples
jealousy.
primary

methodology

incorporate

of

past.

s e c t i o n s VI,

(R&D)

of

the

less frequently

i n the

of

should

f o r more s o c i a l

ongoing

knowledge and

of

i t s role in

group t h e r a p i e s

development

i n terms

dynamics change.

improvement

new

dynamics

p r e s e n c e or a b s e n c e

implements

the
of

Instead

f o r the

women may

(and

examine

about

possibility

t h e y were

that

Couple

research

allow

i n c r e a s i n g l y allow

be

Accordingly,

Future

as

the r e l a t i o n s h i p ,

i n t e r m s of

will

changing

the

research

researched

process.

examined

section

above c o u l d
and/or

be

future

be

re.s.earch

study.

assumptions

can

jealousy

research

of

this

d e p e n d e n c e on

interdependence,

Future

and

cooperation

of

agent

'subject'

findings

beliefs

methods t h a t

relationships
economic

in jealousy

the

i t can

and

f i n d i n g s of

boundaries,

reciprocity

object

previous

triangles.

dynamic p r o c e s s

role

of

roles

behaviour

incorporate

critique

implication is

that

they e f f e c t

pathology

two

This

i t i s recommended

p o w e r - s h a r i n g and

individual

recommended.

objective

s u c h as

relationship

how

not

i t into a

i s to
product

1 42

that

c a n be u s e d "

implies

purposes

effect

Alternatively,

individuals

i t might

selected

differences

i n terms of t h e i r

experiences

with

be u s e d

cannot

without

one i n d i v i d u a l

changes i n

t o t h e same a n d / o r
experiences.

be u s e d t o

individual

alot

and c o u p l e

i t s expression.

Or, i t

the o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s of

be s e p a r a t e d

losing

from

of v a l u a b l e

the s u b j e c t i v e
understanding.

between t h e a n g e r and r a g e

described

and t h e h u m i l i a t i o n and v u l n e r a b i l i t y

by t h e n e x t

(forsimilar

jealousy) are determined

perceptions,

also

j e a l o u s y and w i t h

Hence, t h e d i f f e r e n c e

very

in a

t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and

t o d e m o n s t r a t e how

human e x p e r i e n c e

be

"coping

c o u l d be used

individual

jealousy

might

for participants

In

The

and a b r o a d e r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n

j e a l o u s y , the instrument

described

t o assess or

a p r o g r a m t h a t p r o m o t e s s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n and

negotiation.skills

experience

be u s e d

i n response

demonstrate

by

i t may be u s e f u l f o r

of the instrument

h y p o t h e t i c a l or r e a l

Given

might

Hence,

f a s h i o n t o measure

of behaviours

different

of

r e s e a r c h had a.

f o r the group e x p e r i e n c e .

jealousy" section

teaches

in this

on s u b j e c t s .

pre-test/post-test
types

used

I I above

o f f o r m a t i v e and summative e v a l u a t i o n o f s u c h

programs.

with

For instance, section

that the intrument

therapeutic

prepare

(p.623).

beliefs,

experiences

to a l a r g e extent

v a l u e s and

terms o f i m p l i c a t i o n s

with

by t h e i r

unique

assumptions.

for section

r e l e v a n t t h a t t h e sample o f p e o p l e

I I I above,
who

i t may

responded

to

143

the

jealousy

second

inventory

siblings.

positions

was c o n s t i t u t e d

Perhaps

have a g r e a t e r

Future

research

by 73% f i r s t

i n d i v i d u a l s from
need t o e x p l o r e

that

uses very

of

e x p e r i e n c e s and v a r i o u s

sibling

chapter

of a s s o c i a t i o n s

two d i s c u s s i o n s

power o r s t a t u s ,
provide

a u s e f u l context

development
others)
coping
that

of b e l i e f s

that

mechanisms.

society

Given the

between

j e a l o u s y and

sibling

position

would

which

to explore

the

and a s s u m p t i o n s

This

(about

self

and most

and i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e

i f we assume

important

u n i t of
cooperative

that

were s u g g e s t e d

(by t h e

from a n t h r o p o l o g y

and s o c i o l o g y '

section)

influential

t o t h e outcomes o f j e a l o u s y

Two h y p o t h e s e s a r e s t a t e d
implications

and

s e l e c t i o n of e f f e c t i v e

i s e s p e c i a l l y relevant

i s the f i r s t

could

jealousy

i n t e r m s of l e a r n i n g and p r a c t i c i n g t h e

'perspectives
being

within

samples

positions.

e i t h e r enhance o r impede

the f a m i l y

values

i t seems t h a t

sibling

the t o p i c .

large

examine t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n

these

and

for section

in null

as

experiences.

terms t o

exemplify

IV a b o v e :

1. T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between male
and f e m a l e ( s e l f - r e p o r t ) o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e s o f f e l t
t h r e a t when an h y p o t h e t i c a l j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e i s
i d e n t i c a l l y described for a l l subjects.
2.

T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between male
and f e m a l e s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f a
h y p o t h e t i c a l and p o t e n t i a l l y t h r e a t e n i n g
jealousy
e x p e r i e n c e when t h e l a t t e r i s i d e n t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d
for a l l subjects.

144

The
using

first

objective

'general
the

o f t h e above h y p o t h e s e s c o u l d

reactions'

inventory

could

used

be t e s t e d

judges

items

(blind

s i m i l a r t o some of t h o s e under t h e

and ' e m o t i o n a l
in this

by u s i n g

reactions'

research.

an e x p e r t

segmented

from e a c h h y p o t h e s i s would t h e n

be v e r i f i e d

group.

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , subjects

used as t h e judges

provided

categories for

responses.

be compared.

by t h e s u b j e c t s ,

panel of

who would be

The r e s u l t s
To

a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l phase t h e c a t e g o r i e s ' a n d / o r
could

hypothesis

and i n d e p e n d e n t

t o t h e sex o f s u b j e c t s )

o f whole a n d / o r

s e c t i o n s of

The s e c o n d

w i t h a v a r i e t y of t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d
placement

be t e s t e d by

incorporate

findings

i n d i v i d u a l l y or as a

( i n an open

for categorizing

forum) c o u l d

be

t h e p o o l e d anonymous

data.
The

hypothesis already

s u g g e s t e d and d i s c u s s e d

s e c t i o n V I I above c a n be s t a t e d

in null

under

terms a s :

1. T h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between male
and f e m a l e r a n k i n g s o f e l e m e n t a l e m o t i o n s when an
h y p o t h e t i c a l and p o t e n t i a l l y j e a l o u s y - e v o k i n g
e x p e r i e n c e i s i d e n t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d - f o r s u b j e c t s whoa r e ( i n d i v i d u a l l y ) members of c o u p l e s p r e v i o u s l y
a s s e s s e d t o be h i g h l y s y n e r g i s t i c .
The
could
any

'emotional

be u s e d

reactions'

f o r measurement

s e c t i o n of the

o f t h e above h y p o t h e s i s and

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e x e s

tested

f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e by u s i n g

(Glass

& Stanley,

assessment

1970, pp.

inventory

i n t h e r a n k i n g s would be
a two-tailed

316-317).

of the purpose that

Again,

would be s e r v e d

Kendall's

subjective
by t h e

145

emotion

f o r each s u b j e c t

(relative

to the h y p o t h e t i c a l

situation)

would enhance

constitute

the phenomenological p o r t i o n of the a n a l y s i s .

Finally,
VIII

h y p o t h e s e s c a n be d e r i v e d

i n t e r m s of e x a m i n i n g

mechanisms.
of

various

t h e meaning o f r e s u l t s and would

jealousy

potentially

results in physical violence

and h e n c e

methodology

i s highly

I t i s evident

t h e gap between

that

recommended
research

Chapter
This
study.

chapter

study, data

collection

The p r e s e n t a t i o n

dealing

with

with

perspectives.

were g e n e r a t e d
along

with

many

the e m p i r i c a l phase of t h i s

pool,

preliminary,

t h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y

theoretical

and p r a c t i c e .

the instrument,

including
the p i l o t

and p r o c e d u r e s , and t h e sample

demography.
only

because of i t s aim t o

and m e t h o d o l o g y were p r e s e n t e d ,

a d e s c r i p t i o n of the s u b j e c t

this

Summary

has p r e s e n t e d

The d e s i g n

i n terms

and f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f p r e l i m i n a r y
problematic

bridge

section

sex d i f f e r e n c e s and c o p i n g

A g a i n R&D m e t h o d o l o g y would be u s e f u l

implementation

findings.

from

of r e s u l t s "

wa-s-selective-rn>

key f i n d i n g s

i n accordance

and t h e e a r l i e r

Finally,

from t h e p r e l i m i n a r y

c r i t i q u e of

s e v e r a l hypotheses
f i n d i n g s were

implications f o r future

research.

that

presented

146

CHAPTER IV

PHENOMENOLOGICAL
The
study.

last

chapter

presented

phase.

t o the s u b j e c t i v e data

This chapter

the phenomenological
Subjects'

appendices

integrating

this
which

D, E a n d F) c o n s t i t u t e

responses

i n a way t h a t

inter-comparisons

frequent

t h e body

phase.

verbatim

interpretations,

thus

made

d i s c u s s e s the s u b j e c t i v e data

(contained w i t h i n appendices

and

t h e e m p i r i c a l phase of t h i s

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the o b j e c t i v e data

references

of

PHASE

are organized

facilitates

of d a t a .

reader

To o f f e r

within the

interpretation

some o f h e r own

t h e r e s e a r c h e r e x t r a c t s a few major

e l e m e n t s o r themes from

e a c h o f two main

participant

definitions

of j e a l o u s y

participant

d e s c r i p t i o n s of j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e s (see

appendix D).
theory

Finally,

development

discussed

are presented,

i n chapter

Participant

loss

f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h and

adding

t o those- a l r e a d y

of J e a l o u s y : A D i s c u s s i o n

definitions

of j e a l o u s y a r e p r e s e n t e d i n

Female s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s

male s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s .
and

( s e e a p p e n d i x E ) ; and

three.

Definitions

Participants'
appendix E.

implications

s e c t i o n s of data:

are separated

C o n s i d e r i n g both

together,

from
fear

emerge a s t h e major d e s c r i p t o r s o f t h e e m o t i o n .

147

Otherwise,
betrayal;

subjects
deception;

confusion;
self,

envy; t r u s t

partner,

or about

i n terms of s e l f ,

rivalry;

competition

covetousness;

partner

or the r e l a t i o n s h i p ) ;

a focus

than

one o f r e s i g n a t i o n o r a c c e p t a n c e .

i s more one o f p r e v e n t i o n

apparent q u a l i t y of p r e s e r v a t i o n ,

20,

negative

evaluations

"stimulus"

(as b e i n g

the

subject's

definitions

descriptors.

products

creating)

( c o d e s 09, 10,

i t s ongoing negative

use more

or

logical

resources"

which

theories

"there

teaching

we p l a y

this

(code

view

little

part

results in
who s e e

02) and " n o t c o n t r o l l a b l e by

(code 0 3 ) .

by I z a r d

"source"

view of emotions

by s e v e r a l s u b j e c t s

i s no c u r e

of emotion

have d i r e c t

Seemingly,

expressed

as "automatic"

that

"effect",

"cause",

The t r a d i t i o n a l

of our " b e i n g "

i s evident.

hopelessness

jealousy

for

of t h i s

a l s o make

of t h e e m o t i o n

"response" or " r e a c t i o n " d e s c r i p t o r s than

in

or p r o t e c t i o n

status.
Overall,

or

elemental

In s p i t e

subjects

59, 60, 64) s e e m i n g l y c o n f i r m i n g

taboo

The

possessiveness;

f i t a framework o f a n t i c i p a t e d g r i e f

with

frequent

with

the r e l a t i o n s h i p ; inadequacy

and hope o r h o p e l e s s n e s s .

that

pain;

an i n s e c u r i t y

or f e a r of c o m p e t i t i o n ;

e m o t i o n s named b r o a d l y

hurt;

or l a c k of i t ; doubt;

i n d i g n a t i o n ; anger; h o s t i l i t y ;

about

(again

name: d e s i r e ; l o v e ; c a r e ;

It i s a "sickness"

(code

60)

and no way o u t " (code

06).

The

(1971) and Solomon

(1976) t h u s

i m p l i c a t i o n f o r c o u n s e l l i n g p r a c t i c e i n terms o f

a l t e r n a t e and more complex

ways o f v i e w i n g , our

1 48

e m o t i o n s and t h e r o l e s t h e y
Male d e f i n i t i o n s
cognitive
variety
toward

locus

the external

negative

more f r e q u e n t
descriptors

subject's
the

internal

(codes

status

subjects

this

emotion

recognize
being
they

have some

a fundamental

e v o k e d by b o t h

this

liason.

i n t o the s o c i a l

above.

though

of

the

they

external factors,

t o "blame" t h e m s e l v e s f o r

by making n e g a t i v e

Again,

nature

i n terms of j e a l o u s y

and ( s o c i a l )

males) tend

of the

confirms

maintaining

Thus even

reciprocity

emotion

public.

i s an

some t h r e a t t o

This perception

insight

internal

"personalities".

general

there

an a n t i c i p a t e d d i m i n u t i o n

but i t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

e s s e n c e o f more r e c e n t
the

by

" d i s e a s e " and

i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p and/or

(and e s p e c i a l l y

their

typified

their

o f d e c e i t , b e t r a y a l o r abandonment o f

view d e s c r i b e d

experiencing

of p a t h o l o g y

explain

55, 59, 60, 64)

by t h e o b j e c t ,

that

partially

more

b o t h male and f e m a l e d e f i n i t i o n s

b o u n d a r i e s of t h e i r

negative

l o c u s and an even

f o r t h e e m o t i o n may

perception

subject

In male d e f i n i t i o n s t h e

s u c h as " s i c k n e s s " ,

Throughout
apparent

t h r e a t and i n t e r p e r s o n a l l y i n f l u e n c e d

attribution

"irrationality"

w h i c h name a w i d e r

d e s c r i p t o r s and a r e d i r e c t e d more

o f a more

status

process.

s e e m i n g l y have more o f an i n t e r n a l and

of the emotion.

combination

i n our l i f e

female d e f i n i t i o n s

of emotional

qualities

the

than

play

this

a t t r i b u t i o n s to

i s evidence

that the

t h e o r i e s o f e m o t i o n has n o t r e a c h e d

Otherwise,

there

would be a

greater

149

balance

in subjective

recognizing

jealousy

for constructive

responses

i n terms of

participants

i n a. more, p o s i t i v e way

action

i n v o l v i n g on

as

their

motivator

primary

relationships.
Comparisons
across

male,

imagining
the

of

female, o b j e c t i v e

a t r i a n g l e of

experiential.

In

perspective

of

'within'

or

from an

internal

focus

of

our

perspective
'without'
describe

of

and
how

sense t h i s
of

be

the

fear

of

trust

deceived

total

viewing

speak t o

our

us

(or

or

the
our

be

agent

how
or

we

or

or

abandoned.

Seemingly

r a n k i n g s of

jealousy's

g r o u p were a n g e r ,

'source'

self

the

be

resentment,

or

projective
the
see

us

' s o u r c e ' as

in

betrayal

having

of

been

the

emotions

r a g e and

to

'subjective'

in congruence,
elemental

try

served.

threatened
of

a
from

agent

'want'

female
or

from

attempt

others) to

'reason'

imagined, a c t u a l

or

In a

emotion w i l l

c o m b i n e d male and
jealousy's

(or

and

this

to. t h e

subject).

then

self

unconsciously)

jealousy

(the

view may

the

p o s i t i o n we

by

attempt

'reason'

committment; a n d / o r a p e r c e p t i o n

'objective'
the

of

' p u r p o s e ' of

l o s s ; an

or

object

subjective,

to the

in relation

made

perceptions

p o s i t i o n we

perceived

objective

be

Seemingly,

(consciously

jealousy

Accordingly,
definitions

the

the

in r e l a t i o n

experience

objective

that

subjective

the

also

subjective

i n t e r n a l focus.

In

the

and

objective,

experience

speaks to

the

our

the

the

hence we

o t h e r s ) might

order

the

jealousy.

object

t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s can

highest
for

humiliation

150

(see
the

table

5).

If

r e l a t i o n s h i p the

agent

know t h i s )

these

e m o t i o n s and

descriptors
However,

i f anger,

n o r m a l and

or

anticipated

requires
the

and

letting

deny or

the

the

i f not

resentment,

r a g e and

tests

the

accuracy

or

trust,

and

the

etc.)
stage

'threat
With

display

of

loss

will

rather

anger,

explains

subjective

the

'pathological'.
and

humiliation

to

the

and

are

threat

seen

of

This

the

emotions thus
(and

a/the

validity
(the

agent

anticipated

loss

view

subjective

and

we
With

subject

'objectively'

loss, felt

to

anger,

'source'

'reasonable'

in a grief reaction

the

o t h e r s ) know

loss

his/her

of

serve

threat.

the

of

fear

does t h i s i n

or

betrayal

ways

of

given

'anticipated

loss'

or

loss'.
reference,

'acceptance'

premature because with

object

by

objective

accept

t h i s frame of

an

served

and

humiliation

emotions

inadequately

'purpose'.

our

yet

'subjective'

his/her

the

object

refute

'recognize'

and

t h e y make more s e n s e .

of

preserve

object

grief reactions

l o s s then

to

letting

resentment

objectively described

p u r p o s e of
we

or

'irrational'
rage,

is really

(e.g.,

this possibly

a combination

The

that

'purpose'

initial

'reason'

intent

seems p o o r l y

s u c h as

as

jealousy's

emotions

would make l e s s s e n s e or
them t h e

i n t e r p r e t them an
t h a n as

objective

subject

as

recognition

rage, h u m i l i a t i o n

and

of

the

resentment

be

r i s k s that

a c c e p t a n c e of

the

threat.
may

not

that

the
potential
Thus

be

the

most

151

efficient

emotions

serve

purpose during

the

i n t e r m s of
the

the

ultimate

initial

goal

s t a g e of

but

they

anticipatory

grief.

for

Examining

table

humiliation

and

highest

5 once a g a i n ,
depression

f o r a n g e r and

rage.

can

objective

subjective.

subjective

the

'possessiveness'

55,

59,

frequently

f o u n d by

61,

70)

and

'desire',

06,

12,

09,

10,

11,

18,

male

48,

51 ,

54,

are

more-

competion'

(codes
22,

for
the

female d e s c r i p t o r s
of

are

descriptors"

( c o d e s 46,

'envy'

14,

the

include

' i n s e c u r i t y ' , 'fear

again

08,

combining

Accordingly,

whereas the

highest

rankings

explanation

again

'envy'

v e r s u s c o m p e t i t i o n ) and
07,

female

d e f i n i t i o n s more f r e q u e n t l y

s u c h as
56,

while

A possible

these d i f f e r e n c e s
and

be

male r a n k i n g s a r e

23,

(as

01,

03,

04,

05,

26,

29,

32,

34,

36,41).
The
powerful

male

i n our

social

and

society

t o assume h i s

relative

to

the

jealousy

(as a t h r e a t

one

female.
to

In
the

of

point

the

'subjective'

p o t e n t i a l l o s s of
of

powerful

sense t h a t

position

should

instance

of

b o u n d a r i e s of
humiliation

source

of

his

and

relationship)
depression

be

i s moreso
internal

'irrational'

in a r e l a t i v e l y

suddenly

felt

From h i s

is likewise

someone

his
the

be

ownership

jealousy

'possession'.

view h i s e x p e r i e n c e

makes l i t t l e

the

more

'logically'

r i g h t s , p r i v i l e g e s and

thus o b j e c t i v e l y d i s p l a y s

because

relatively

e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n would

more l i k e l y

he

with h i s

more

in a v i c t i m . r o l e

and

it

152

required
his
in

to

fear

l o s s and/or

possessions.
the

process

In

This

of

of

necessarily

the

the

should

desire,

value

she

includes

on

the

insecurity,

to

l e v e l s of

male and

t y p e of

fear

the

be

values

on

necessary

only

behaviours

She

as

of

in chapter

(the
is

power

May's

the

of

'anger'

l e v e l s of

also

and

'source'

etc.).

aggression

and

are

named above

(cf. discussion

her

dependent

subjective

others

two

c l a i m s and

relatively

descriptors

display

off

of

relationship

competition,

in chapter

female c o p i n g

her

position

blocked

power

of
to

from her

be

on

Hence, her

more l i k e l y

because

perceived

places

o n g o i n g b e c a u s e of

objectively
'rage'

'reasonably'

female's p r o t e c t i o n

less powerful p o s i t i o n .
jealousy

c l a i m s and

acquisition.

contrast,

portrayal

re-state

and
are

thesis

comparison

three,

of

section

VIII).
Females a l s o

described

behaviours a greater

(objectively)

tendency

in t h e i r

toward a g g r e s s i o n

a n t a g o n i s m w h i l e m a l e s were more l i k e l y

to

off.

offered

In

(e.g.,

this

using

indicators
ways t h a t
that
but

sense,

that
will

as

interpretation

and

w i t h d r a w or

one

f e m a l e s have a g r e a t e r
preserve

the

f e m a l e ' s p u r p o s e as
that

tendency

relationship)

i s more

can

possibly

'required'

by

be

more
her

close

earlier

C o n s t a n t i n e ' s model t h e s e data, were seen

views the
also

the

coping

as

t o behave

in

seen as

one

altruistic

social

status.
In

contrast,

when t h e

male's p o s i t i o n

i s threatened

he

1 53

will

be more l i k e l y

than

loss

by w i t h d r a w i n g

and

depression.
relatively
this

less

impending

imminent

or

Alternatively,
than

which

his).

In

i f her

than

display

and

priori
the

of a c c e p t a n c e
may

i s not

relationship

becomes one

jealousy

f o r b o t h m a l e s and

of

e l e m e n t a l emotions
are

further

and

in their

their

be

grief.

objective

experimental

Jealousy Experiences: A

Participants'

most extreme e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h

responses

i n appendix

'speak

extrapolates

than

emerges
This
ratings

descriptions

d i s c u s s e d below.

Participants'

are d e p i c t e d

of

as

females

e x p e r i e n c e of a n t i c i p a t o r y

evident in subject's d e f i n i t i o n s ,

one

of more power

summary,

in

or ending i t

t h e m a l e ' s n o n - a c t i o n may

is

loss

jealousy

'finally'

action.

an

of

be more e f f e c t i v e

female's

and

loss

'threatened'.

as t h e

as a d i s p l a y

which

an

the

i n him

powerful.)' f e m a l e ' s

of t h e

c a s e her p o s i t i o n

t o evoke

simply

intention

the boundaries

sense,

managing

the

and

t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e of

is actual

less

himself to

humiliation

of a t h r e a t

(dependent,

In t h i s

effective

rather

objective

behaviour

sabataging
(in

an

to resign

approaches

the t h r e a t

recognition

the

female

emotion,

that

evoking

displaying

powerful

confirmation

reversing

female

From h i s p e r s p e c t i v e

'irrational'

rather

the

(item

for themselves'.

some o f t h e major

28).
The

Discussion

These

verbatim

discussion

themes t h a t

jealousy

to

follow

seem e v i d e n t t o

154

the

researcher.

items

29 a n d 30 i n t h e same
Again

and

Very

often

appendix.

are central

f o r both males

'fear

of l o s s ' i s

name t h e p a r t i c u l a r

The most d i s t i n c t

loss

that

i s a naming o f a ' l o s s o f

( c o d e s 08, 11, 30, 34, 40, 44, 60, 66, 71, 7 3 ) .

Sometimes

this

loss

of t r u s t

t h e p a r t n e r ' s sex ( c o d e s

overall, ability
definitions,

to trust

i s generalized

(codes

these responses

11, 40", i t e m 3'07.

reveal

to relationship

object

h a s b e t r a y e d an assumed

been d e c e i t f u l

t o a l l members

34 a n d 66) o r t o t h e s u b j e c t ' s

threat

has

themes

a generalized

and many r e s p o n s e s

anticipated.

trust'

of

l o s s and f e a r

females.

described
is

R e f e r e n c e s a r e a l s o made t o r e s p o n s e s f o r

an a p p a r e n t

As i n t h e

or p e r c e i v e d

b o u n d a r i e s and a s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e
or e s t a b l i s h e d

committment o r

or d i s h o n e s t .

F e m a l e s a l s o d e s c r i b e many o t h e r t y p e s o f a n t i c i p a t e d
loss

including:

loss

of c o n f i d e n c e i n s e l f

as a woman

(code

attention,

intimacy, interest,

relationship
respect
(code

(codes

for self

34); loss

freedom

(code

Few
sexual

01, 13, e t c . ) ;

or o b j e c t

time or l o s s

(codes

affection,

of the

21, 2 4 ) ; l o s s

with another

mention

their

l o s s of
of c o n t r o l
2 6 ) ; l o s s of

(code .42).

name t h e p a r t n e r ' s

as the primary

to re-directed

that

(code

of a p p r e c i a t i o n

responses e x p l i c i t l y

a l t h o u g h many do a l l u d e
few e x p l i c i t y

of l o v e ,

of f r i e n d s h i p w i t h agent

involvement

g e n e r a l l y or

25, 27, 31, 36, 37, e t c . ) ;

3 8 ) ; and l o s s

female

loss

threat

sexual attention..

jealousy

emanated more

A
from

1 55

the

potential

partner's
itself.

of e m o t i o n a l

infidelity
The h i g h

specificity
losses

loss

than

level

and

and f e a r s

those

as

well

as her d i s t i n c t

Males
or

loss

frequently

of sexual

understanding,
48,

60,

As

they

than

their

fear

the a c t u a l

t h e many

findings

i n c h a p t e r two,
greater

i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p

of s o c i a l i z a t i o n .
loss

(codes
status

of l o v e r

o r sex p a r t n e r

46, 50, 5 8 ) ; l o s s o f
o r hoped

of p a r t n e r ' s

loyalty

or i t s s t a b i l i t y

of p a r t n e r ' s

f o r status

(code 4 8 ) ;

(codes

interest,

(codes

49, 50, 58,

attention

or

( c o d e s 63, 65, 70, 71, 72, 7 3 ) ; a n d l o s s o f

friendship

with agent

(code 7 0 ) .

in their definitions

name o r i m p l y
jealousy.

67,

understood

61, 64, 6 9 ) ; l o s s

intimacy

as

fidelity

of the r e l a t i o n s h i p

with

involvement

describe

indeed

the female's

process

55, 57, 67, 6 9 ) ; l o s s

loss

sample have named

were d i s c u s s e d

d e p e n d e n c e on and e m o t i o r i a l

and t h e

relationships

discussed

by t h e i r

knowledge o f t h e a c t

that

i s congruent

that

that

further

to their

This

interpretations

implied

of s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e

indicates

of f i d e l i t y .

especially

from t h e i r

w i t h w h i c h women i n t h i s

more t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s
loss

intimacy

elemental
responses.

males

'envy' o r u s e i t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y

They do n o t d i s t i n g u i s h

c l e a r l y a s do f e m a l e s
68).

of j e a l o u s y ,

Again,

their

(codes

with

between t h e two e m o t i o n s

51, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 62,

responses generally

emotions and a r e l e s s

frequently

disclosing

They seem more r e s i g n e d

name

fewer

than

female

to or a c c e p t i n g

of the

1 56

threat
their
65,

o f l o s s and more
feelings

inclined

t o withdraw and/or

and t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e

(codes

67, 68, 7 0 ) . A few m a l e s m e n t i o n

recall

T h i s may be t h e c a s e

likely

remember
Our
jealousy

than

females

occurrences
society

by e i t h e r

stereotype.
expression

either

don't

relatively

of t h i s

emotion.

emotion

t o r e p r e s s t h e e x p e r i e n c e and

(even

more t h a n

women) i n o r d e r t o

a s s o c i a t i o n s with emotional

rare experiences

with

this

dependence,

Their claims to
'irrational'

ascribed to the i n s t i n c t u a l

cognitive control
itself

t h e acknowledgement o f

b e c a u s e o f t h e ' j e a l o u s woman'

envy and p o s s e s s i v e n e s s .

are congruously

manifest

taboo

sex and i t may be even more d i f f i c u l t f o r

of j e a l o u s y

i t snegative

with

t o r e c o g n i z e , acknowledge or

Men may t e n d

femininity,

their

that they

o r i t may be t h a t t h e y a r e

does n o t f a c i l i t a t e

men t o c l a i m t h i s

avoid

56, 58, 61, 64,

o r have had 'no', 'few' o r ' o n l y one' e x p e r i e n c e

jealousy.
less

avoid

emotion

o r f o r c e s beyond

( c f . code 72 " j e a l o u s y d i d n o t

t o the person

i n v o l v e d " a n d many o f t h e male

def i n i t i o n s ) .
Males

in this

sample who name t h e i r

c o n t r i b u t e more t h a n
and

30 i n a p p e n d i x D a n d i t e m

appendix F.
by

other males

code

socialization
with

i n responding

123, ' o t h e r

For instance, responses

48 d e m o n s t r a t e

jealousy.

process

emotions

t o items

t o each of these

t h a t was m o t i v a t e d

29

insights' in

the s u b j e c t ' s i n s i g h t

In c o n t r a s t , code

also

into

items

t h e male

by h i s e x p e r i e n c e s

56 d e m o n s t r a t e s ( i n

157

responses to
between

items

j e a l o u s y and

norms of

the

negative

jealousy

final

most

experiences

of

loss

are

is poignantly

the

experience.

The

and

that

idea

e a c h new

she

that

communication

and

29,

appendix D).

named as

the

significant

or

Sometimes

this

with

a motivator

the

i n code

02

Sometimes s u b j e c t s

by

she

i s evident

or

report

that

ultimately resulted in stronger,

r e l a t i o n s h i p s (codes

19,

29,

33,

negative
the

28,

effects

erosion

of

are

trust

31,

resolution

42,

many and

61,

the

subject's

re-activates
new

65,

for

the

extreme

more
04,

73).

of

responses

their

intimate
08,

11,

15,

Likewise,

most p o i g n a n t

a s s o c i a t e d with

u n d e r s t o o d committments.

way.

re-evaluation

i n many of

defined

27,

the

n o t e s her

or more c l e a r l y
22,

but

characteristics

experience

f o r review

to

experiences

of

is a positive trigger

boundaries

29.

f o r both p a r t i e s

on".

relationship
item

one

Positively,

"moved

Many

i n a much more n e g a t i v e

jealousy

jealousy

experiences

item

described

of how

the

and

most e x t r e m e

relationship.

affiliation

with

societies.

both p o s i t i v e

their
to

distinction

affiliation

in western

report

i s viewed

description

insight

a l a c k of

a c o n s t r u c t i v e step

i t s effect

earlier

123)

male r o l e

for ending a

Jealousy's

and

a strong

i n t e r m s of

i s seen as

often

envy and

( c f . responses

trigger

ending

30

many s u b j e c t s

effects

times these

29,

traditional

Overall,

with

28,

b e t r a y a l of

is

(again)

assumed

or

l a c k of c o n s t r u c t i v e or p o s i t i v e

p e r v a d e s many r e s p o n s e s and

is typified

i n code

158

06

by t h e s u b j e c t ' s

feeling

that

demonstrate
subjects

responses

the broad

will

share

t o item

characterized
abnormal,

i n response

negative,

contributed
elemental

constructive, positive,
and many

causes,

t o a very

i s evident

r e s p o n s e s and from

Solutions

and r e s o l u t i o n s

broad c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n

their

willing

of

jealousy.

Research
of s u b j e c t s '

of s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e t h a t

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f f e r e d
as a m o t i v a t i o n

they

the-ir

by t h e

for further

discourse.
understandings gained

data

yet

unrefined

the

continuing

terminology

level

they

b u t keen t o s e l f - e x p l o r e a b o u t

were p r e s e n t e d

broad

subjective

for Further

from t h e g e n e r o s i t y

experiences.

theoretical

other

e f f e c t s and'

A l l r e s p o n s e s a r e u n i q u e and t o g e t h e r

researcher

question.

Different s o c i o - c u l t u r a l insights are

and many and v a r i o u s

were n o t o n l y

that

i s variously

destructive, pathological

Implications

The

understandings

jealousy

e m o t i o n s a r e named.

contribute

jealousy

F) e f f e c t i v e l y

t o an open-ended

as normal, h e a l t h y ,

categorizations.

It

t o hate myself f o r

123 ( a p p e n d i x

and v a r i o u s

these generous responses

abound.

"I l e a r n e d

jealous".

Finally,

In

claim

i n d i c a t e t h e need

conceptualization

will

allow

the

t o r e m a i n open t o t h e a s

of j e a l o u s y .

use o f a d e f i n i t i o n a l

that

by r e v i e w i n g

They

support

" f o r m " and a b r o a d

for flexibility

i n terms of

159

incorporating

jealousy

i n t o an o v e r a l l framework

f o r human

emotions.
The
needs

d e f i n i t i o n presented

by g i v i n g

synergistic
It
are

grounds

the concept

development
the emotion

dynamic,

a form t h a t

of s u b j e c t i v e

further

network.

and s o c i a l l y

development

as w e l l

of a

are

implied

of p e r c e p t i o n

as

discussed
subjects
of

data

of d i r e c t i o n s

major

The

p r e v i o u s phase

research

For instance,

presented

i n an open
leading

with
(as

groups of

forum

generation

t o a more

t o a more d e t a i l e d o u t l i n e of

themes and e l e m e n t a l
i n t h i s phase

of t h i s study

and/or

emotions.
as w e l l

indicate a central

definitions

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of j e a l o u s y

d e f i n i t i o n and/or

interpretations

i n terms of t h e

of j e a l o u s y

H a v i n g been

be i n c o r p o r a t e d

experiental

networks

for future

of the r e s e a r c h .

and a q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s

convergent

allows

structure

triangular

positions

above), i n d i v i d u a l s , couples,
could

form a l s o

jealousy.

i s indicated.

triangular conceptual

which

intrapersonally

of other

more d e t a i l e d q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s

the

ideas.

r o l e s and i n t e r a c t i o n and

of

a number

by t h i s phase

and e x p e r i e n c e s

for a

and o b j e c t i v e

into a tetrahedral

subjective-objective-experiental

Accordingly,

allow

these

cognitive-behavioural-emotional

f o r the a n a l y s i s

s u c h as s u b j e c t ^ o b j e c t - a g e n t

individuals

will

The t r i a n g u l a r

I t c a n be expanded

thus a l l o w i n g

one meets

i n human needs and e x p e r i e n c e

d e t e r m i n e d and i n f l u e n c e d .
for

i n chapter

as the
need

for a

160

qualitative
different
by May

analysis

t y p e s and

(1972) and

Price

and

(involving

an

attend"

jealousy's relationship

levels

of power

Barrell

might

be

approach

useful

investigators

( e . g . , from

as o b j e c t , and

as

those

s.ug,ge_sted
two.

(1980) d e s c r i b e a r e s e a r c h p a r a d i g m
quantitative

research.

" q u e s t i o n and

of t h e i r

different

as a g e n t )

with

i n such

would

(p.75) t o a v a r i e t y

jealousy

such

with

d i s c u s s e d at l e n g t h i n chapter

experiental

methods) t h a t
methodology,

of

role

own

Using

this

passively

experiences

positions

with

as s u b j e c t ,

and

d e s c r i b e t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e c o n t e x t of p l a c i n g
t h e m s e l v e s i n s i t u a t i o n s or r e l i v i n g p a s t s i t u a t i o n s .
T h e . e x p e r i e n c e s a r e t h e n d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s of how t h e y
e x p e r i e n c e t h e phenomenon [ i n t h i s i n s t a n c e t h e i r
power] r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r m s of t h e t a r g e t of t h e i r
a t t e n t i o n or t h e s t i m u l u s c o n d i t i o n s ( p . 7 6 ) .
Analysis
definitional
necessary

seemingly

be

that

types

variously
of power

(1972).

in satisfactory

or

these

some of

important

to

as

i n the
the

A l s o , the

eventuates

levels

generate

about

elements

(p.76).

to

the

f o r the

These

would

i n i n s t a n c e s of j e a l o u s y

result

such

used

"statements

competitive, nutrient

by May

i s then

experiental

quite different

manipulative,
suggested

sufficient

which are

of a g i v e n phenomenon"

experiences
different

hypotheses

and

occurrence

of t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s

exploitative,
and

integrative

types

jealousy process

resolution

of power

s h a r i n g of

may

that

move t h r o u g h a l l

s h a r i n g and

hence

incorporate subject-investigators

who

i t may

be

report a

161

range o f a d e q u a t e - i n a d e q u a t e
Price

and B a r r e l l

qualitative
be

analysis

used t o g e n e r a t e

"statements about
elements"
in

The

authors

suggest

fear

subjects

using

be u s e d

them

research.

to test

research

t o examine t h e many o t h e r
such as j e a l o u s y

as w e l l

t o te"st

relationships

and f e a r

as j e a l o u s y

methodology

of l o s s or

and s y n e r g y .

sample o f c o u p l e s c o u l d

and d i f f e r e n c e s

outcomes f o r j e a l o u s y
l e v e l s of synergy

be u s e d t o

demonstrate

i n terms of c o p i n g

experiences

For

given

or s e l f - a s s e s s e d

mechanisms

different

self-

types of l o s s

t h e i r meaning.
Equally

jealousy
data

questionnaires

h y p o t h e s e s and t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l y

similarities

and

phase of t h e

of the above-described

of c o m p e t i t i o n

assessed

tested

hypotheses.

example, a h e t e r o g e n e o u s

and

experiental

who a r e n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h

the q u a n t i t a t i v e

by t h i s s t u d y

generate

can a l s o

h y p o t h e s e s and r a t i o - s c a l i n g t e c h n i q u e s

Variations

implied

t h e above

Both types of hypotheses a r e then

this constitutes

also

that

f u n c t i o n a l hypotheses which a r e

and

could

suggest

of e x p e r i e n t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n s

experiments using

functional

(1980) f u r t h e r

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

(p.76).

definitional

resolutions.

relevant

and t r u s t .

i n t h i s study

i s t h e need

for further

The q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s
indicates

that

extreme

e x p e r i e n c e s have e s p e c i a l l y n e g a t i v e
when t h e y

involve

a perceived

study of
of

subjective

jealousy

or d e s t r u c t i v e

or a c t u a l

betrayal

outcomes

of t r u s t or

162

committment

that

some s u b j e c t s
involving

i s based

report

sexual

conceptualization
re-evaluation
and

for their

research

However,

experiences

were u l t i m a t e l y

positive for

relationships.

This

to further

of j e a l o u s y

incorporate

indicates a
the broader

( a s a t r i g g e r f o r change o r

of r e l a t i o n s h i p b o u n d a r i e s )

into

quantitative

q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f s o c i o - c u l t u r a l and o t h e r

factors

that

r e s u l t i n these

Development
further

trust
held

of j e a l o u s y

the r e c i p r o c a l r o l e s

possibility
that
value

may s e r v e

that

jealousy

outcome
theory

polarities.
a l s o needs t o c o n s i d e r

i n our c u l t u r e and t h e

i s sometimes p r o v o k e d

i s ultimately

or e x c l u s i v e l y based

on monogamy.

In t h i s

Thus, by p r o v o k i n g

unconsciously) through a c t i o n s
contrary

process

instance,

to test a

in a

rigidly

the value

t o the expectations

(altruistically

jealousy
contrary

(consciously or
to this

v a l u e and

b a s e d on i t , t h e o b j e c t

o r o t h e r w i s e ) a s a change a g e n t .

anywhere

Depending

c r e a t i v e or h i g h l y

d e s t r u c t i v e or

i n between.

A c r e a t i v e outcome t h r o u g h e f f e c t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n
( f o r example) t h a t

value
and

acts

how t h e d y n a m i c s a r e managed by a l l c o n c e r n e d , t h e

outcomes c a n be h i g h l y

be

itself

a l e s s t h a n u s e f u l p u r p o s e and i t may be g r o w t h -

inhibiting.

on

on monogamy.

outcomes o f j e a l o u s y

infidelity

themselves and/or
need f o r f u t u r e

that

i n a value

the subject

b u t does so l e s s r i g i d l y ;

new o r e x p a n d e d b a s e s

continues

respect

might

to hold the

i s re-established

f o r t r u s t a r e formed.

163

In

contrast,

d y n a m i c s , may

and

those d e s c r i b e d

denial

ruminations,

by

empirical

the

study

norm
of

the

indicates

seemingly
i n our

the

t h e i r combination
combined a n a l y s i s

that

men

and

a common
is

'reasons'
'purpose'

expressed

validation

of

a p p r o a c h e d by
grounded

i n the

later

practice.

and

like

of

the

ways.

is

b o t h p h a s e s of
their

shared

for
the

be

this

jealousy
i n terms

awareness

but

of

somewhat

i t s occurrence,

humanely

evidence

that

t o human e x p e r i e n c e

via

yet

that

clarification
most

of

their

relationship)

Further
will

and

recommended.

emotion

of

Because

infidelity

interpreted

phenomenological
applied

other.

p r o c e s s of

'sources'

and

phenomenological

have a

(preservation

seeking

cycles,

i n the

of

t h i s was

these d i f f e r e n c e s

i n and

counselling

f o r or

in d i f f e r i n g

An

their

partner

women d e f i n e

Seemingly, they

phenomenological aspect

differing

rare

society,

c u l t u r a l phenomena

socialization.

i n one

remorse

e x p e r i e n c e s d i f f e r e n t l y and
differing

f e e l i n g s and

destructive

furtiveness

r a g e , mania and

Finally,
study

and

for destructiveness.

jealous
of

different

(1979) r - u n t r u t h f u l n e s s ,

Seeman

outcomes a r e

approaching

of

perpetuation

surreptitiousnous

creative

same s i t u a t i o n , g i v e n

have e q u a l p o t e n t i a l

example would be
provocation

the

is

and

1 64

Chapter
This
of

this

chapter

study.

participants

has p r e s e n t e d

The s u b j e c t i v e

were p r e s e n t e d

discussed.

Researcher

motivation

for further

emphasized

that

within

the

Finally,

development
previous

p h a s e were

of t h i s

by

phase

b u t i t was

is

contained

r e s o n s e s and i n t h e i r

d a t a and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

integrated

for future

were d i s c u s s e d

chapters.

contributed

theoretical discource

Objective

implications

data

phase

( i n a p p e n d i c e s D, E and F) and

p a r t i c i p a n t s ' verbatim

empirical

the phenomenological

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were o f f e r e d a s

the essence

interpretations.

Summary

own
from

i n t o the d i s c u s s i o n .

research

at length,

and

again

theory

integrating

1 65

CHAPTER V

IMPLICATIONS FOR

The
the

definition

subsequent

study

conceptualization
Implications
discussed
from the
the

of

and

f i n d i n g s of

body of
The

or

findings.

research

three
this

and

theory

four.

s t u d y and

core

threat
needs.

which

from an

of

were

derived

i n t e g r a t i o n of

jealousy

involves

threat

l o s s and
trust

sees

i t as

dynamic

and
in a context

to both p e r s o n a l

or a c t u a l b r e a c h of

and

development

They were

It occurs

This

f e a r of

one

earlier.

conceptualization

perceived

m a i n l y as

perceived

and

among c o g n i t i v e , b e h a v i o u r a l

interpersonal
subject

in chapter

many p r e l i m i n a r y

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l components.
actual

presented

broader

human e x p e r i e n c e

interaction

PRACTICE

have r e s u l t e d i n a

knowledge r e v i e w e d

broader

triangular

jealousy

for future

in chapters

COUNSELLING

of

and

i s experienced

often

involves

or committment

by

the

a
by

the

object.
Jealousy
sum

of

i s a d i s c r e t e emotion,

i t s elemental

emotions.

interactional

process

people

p e o p l e and

or

activity

two

or m a t e r i a l

s o m e t h i n g more t h a n

It i s a

w h i c h e f f e c t s and
some o t h e r

possession.

social,
i s e f f e c t e d by

agent

s u c h as

It i s variously

an

three

166

interpreted
and

and v a r i o u s l y

the s o c i a l

expressed

by i n d i v i d u a l s , c o u p l e s

groups t o which t h e y belong

many f a c t o r s

including

assumptions,

norms, v a l u e s and t h e r u l e s

boundaries
This

f o r t h e i r primary
chapter

practice.
gained

their particular

discusses

They emanate

from t h e r e v i e w

implications

t h e y make about t h e

for counselling

from a c o n s o l i d a t i o n
of three

critique.of perspectives

the

d i s c i p l i n e s of a n t h r o p o l o g y ,
the data,

beliefs,

relationships.

the

psychology;

d e p e n d i n g on

of i n s i g h t s

main t h e o r i e s

and r e s e a r c h

of emotion;

on j e a l o u s y

sociology,

p s y c h i a t r y and

f i n d i n g s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of both

p h a s e s o f t h e s t u d y ; and from t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s

experience.

First,

they a r e f o l l o w e d
principles

general

considerations

by a t h r e e - s e c t i o n

and s p e c i f i c

individuals,

from

are discussed

presentation

interventions

for counselling

clinical
and

of

for counselling

c o u p l e s and f o r c o u n s e l l i n g

groups.
The
of

author

assumes t h a t ,

her suggestions w i l l

counsellor's
for

his/her

jealousy
out.

assessment

c l i e n t ( s ) given
She f u r t h e r

experience with

i s strong
jealousy

and c o n s u l t a t i o n

application

by t h e i n d i v i d u a l
of t h e i r

suitability

t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r and unique
assumes t h a t

a s a symptom of o r g a n i c

I f there

referral

be p r e c e d e d

professional

circumstances.

in a l l instances,

evidence

the p o s s i b i l i t y of

dysfunction
that

h a s been

the c l i e n t ' s

i s b a s e d on d e l u s i o n a l
should

ruled

be s o u g h t

material,

promptly.

167

Physical
out

violence,

s u i c i d e and h o m i c i d e

i f circumstances

to him/herself

or

suggest

for

primary

love,

other

role

as w e l l

When

involves
fears

The
his/her

the c l i e n t

also

c l i e n t ( s ) recognize
emotions which

and o t h e r
l o s s or

the c o u n s e l l o r ' s

i d e n t i f y and p r i o r i z e
losses.

and'express

jealousy's

many

seem t o be r e l a t e d t o v a r i o u s
grief reaction.

Fear

been b e t r a y e d

and/or

fear

o r abandoned

subjective

communicate a n g e r ,

with

and

t o b e the'most' s i g n i f i c a n t i n terms- o f t h e '

individual's

other

sexual

the a n t i c i p a t e d
things,

needs

needs t o be aware a n d t o h e l p

l o s s and f e e l i n g s o f h a v i n g

appear

social

i n r e l a t i o n to these a n t i c i p a t e d

s t a g e s o f an a n t i c i p a t o r y

emotions.

rage,

potentially useful

status,

Objectively,

resentment, h u m i l i a t i o n
i n connecting

his/her

he/she may
a n d / o r many

emotions

i n a m e a n i n g f u l and p o s i t i v e way

movement t o w a r d

However,

experience.

Guidance

the experience

foster
and

occurs

Among o t h e r

helping

counsellor

elemental

of

as economic,

jealousy

a r e complex.

his/her

Considerations

r e l a t i o n s h i p meets many and v a r i o u s

intimacies,

losses

t h e c l i e n t , may be a d a n g e r

i n t e r e s t , a f f e c t i o n , time, a t t e n t i o n ,

securities.

be r u l e d

others.

General
The

that

should also

in light

recognition

of j e a l o u s y

will

as a v a l i d

emotion.
of j e a l o u s y ' s

alternative perspectives

n e g a t i v e and/or

are frequently

taboo

warranted.

168

Accordingly,
as

the c l i e n t ( s )

a motivator

that

or t r i g g e r

traditional

and

replaced

for potentially

'jealous person'

by t h e d y n a m i c ,

have been d i s c u s s e d
labels

label

in this

t o negate

should

"loyal",

be b a l a n c e d

"passionate",
involves

with

These

context

practice
couples

be

work.

emotional

"adaptive",

experience

or " p r o t e c t i v e " .

i s s u e s of competition,

skills

that

more p o s i t i v e l a b e l s s u c h

power and

freedom,

and e x p e c t a t i o n s .

of n e g o t i a t i o n

discouraged

Pejorative

i s s u e s need t o be o p e n l y

beliefs

Use o f

perspectives

r i g h t s and

discussed

o f ' r e l a t i o n s h i p ' a n d i n terms o f

assumptions,

jealousy

for experiencing

power-sharing, c o n t r o l , cooperation,
privileges.

should

their

t o "blame" t h e m s e l v e s o r o t h e r s

Jealousy

the

t o view

creative action

interactional

at length

u s e d by c l i e n t s

jealousy)
as

be h e l p e d

may have p o s i t i v e outcomes f o r a l l i n v o l v e d . .

the

(or

should

will

and g r o u p s who seek harmony

within

individual

D e m o n s t r a t i o n and

facilitate
in their

individuals,

intimate

relat ionships.
Jealousy

a l s o fundamentally

i n v o l v e s a need f o r

maintenance,

r e - e v a l u a t i o n a n d / o r change o f r e l a t i o n s h i p

boundaries.

This

discussion
other

intimacies

f o r e a r l y a n d open

o f c o u n s e l l o r and c l i e n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p arrangements.

committment

their

i m p l i e s a need

should
should

biases

Other

a l s o be d i s c u s s e d .
be d i s c u s s e d

meaning and v a l u e

a b o u t monogamy o r

bases

f o r t r u s t and

Emotional

and compared

and s e x u a l

i n terms of

f o r e a c h member and f o r t h e d y a d .

169

The
of

counsellor will
the couple

facilitating
potential
The

s e p a r a t i n g and s h o u l d
this

process

unless

'source'

f o r the emotion

a central

promoting

goal

an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

agent;

and

by: i n d i v i u a l
the ongoing

stages

milieu;

individual,

negotiation

will

of the s u b j e c t ' s

of t h e o b j e c t ' s e x p e r i e n c e
and i n v o l v e m e n t

v i sa

i n evoking

remember t h a t b e h a v i o u r s

will

process

among s u b j e c t , o b j e c t and

type

couple

grief

reaction;

and p e r c e i v e d potency

and s o c i e t a l

t o i n c l u d e the agent

be c o n s i d e r e d .
in this

circumstance(s);

be

p e r c e p t i o n of the j e a l o u s y

levels

of

cultural
of
synergy

factors.

A decision
may

understanding

of the a n t i c i p a t o r y

many o t h e r

process

emotions) as

the jealousy process.

subcultural

threat;

The ' r e a s o n ' o r

by i t s v a r i o u s " e x p r e s s i o n s

behaviours

c o u n s e l l o r should

experience;

of p h y s i c a l

The same means and g o a l a r e recommended f o r

maintaining

^effected

and

f o r mutual

g e n e r a l l y be

i t s characteristics

(and i t s e l e m e n t a l

served

h i s / h e r emotions,

The

should

i s evidence

dangerous behaviour.

as t h e 'purpose'

experience.

or

g r o w t h - i n h i b i t i n g outcomes.

there

or other

vis

i n a way t h a t m i n i m i z e s t h e

w i t h i n t h e framework o f l o s s ,

violence

be

be s k i l l e d i n

subject's jealousy behaviours

i t s process

well

need t o be open t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

for destructive,

normalized
and

also

regard

In t h i s

i n the t h e r a p e u t i c
author's

v i e w , any

should c o n s i d e r the p a r t i c u l a r

t h e w i s h e s o f s u b j e c t , o b j e c t and

agent;

1 70

and

the c o u n s e l l o r ' s

decision
require

sections

most

of t h i s chapter

that

present

will

i n each

sections.

client-counsellor

Choice

of

suggestions

of s e t t i n g

three

specific
counselling.

modification

i s assumed t o be a

Individuals
the c l i e n t - c o u n s e l l o r

an a d e q u a t e o r b e t t e r

self-understanding

the c l i e n t

l e v e l of

has been g u i d e d i n
a t which a

goal

i s s u i t a b l y pursued ( c f .

1975, p . 3 6 ) .

1. H e l p t h e c l i e n t
dispositional

transcend

labels.

humans a s dynamic
jealousy
don't
of

into

applicable to

p r o c e s s of s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n t o a p o i n t

Egan,

2.

some

are also

below assume t h a t

t r u s t and h e n c e , t h a t

dynamic

will

decision..

r e l a t i o n s h i p has reached

the

and w i t h

section

Counselling

shared

i s divided

f o r i n d i v i d u a l , c o u p l e and g r o u p

statements

subsequent

t h e agent

p r i n c i p l e s and a few

these p r i n c i p l e s overlap

The

If a positive

and d i s c r e t i o n .

remainder

interventions
Often

judgement.

i s made, t h e means f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g
sensitivity

The

professional

Instead,

and c h a n g i n g

present

t o use
a perspective

and a p e r s p e c t i v e

as a s o c i a l - i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s

experience

an i m p o r t a n t

Give

the tendency

jealousy

jealousy

in isolation

of

(e.g.,

"We

but i n the c o n t e x t

and v a l u e d r e l a t i o n s h i p " ) .

a valid

unique e x p e r i e n c e .

context

within

H e l p him/her

of

the i n d i v i d u a l ' s

to recognize

that

171

j e a l o u s y may e x i s t
perceived

threat

pyschological
differing
jealousy

to his/her

well-being.

socio-cultural
i n varying

expression
values,

a s a sound

judgement

p h y s i c a l , emotional
Remember t h a t

situational

contexts
about

and t h e a s s u m p t i o n s

or

clients

backgrounds w i l l

of i t i s a statement

beliefs

of a r e a l or

with

experience
and t h e i r

their

they

norms,

make a b o u t

their

intimate r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
3.

Proceed

from a r e a s

experiences
threat.

(e.g.,

to areas

childhood

of; g r e a t e r

recent

the jealousy

and most

or current

process

and r e l a t e

to anticipatory loss.

refine

s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n i n an o n g o i n g

r e c o g n i t i o n of the elemental

jealousy

emotions

way t o
in his/her

experience.

Help the c l i e n t
messages" t h a t
in

threat

use p a s t ,

to describe

4. Promote c l i e n t

5.

jealousy)

Accordingly,

. experiences
it

with

of l e a s t

name s p e c i f i c
he/she w i l l

open a n d d i r e c t

f e a r s and p r a c t i c e " I -

be a b l e

ways w i t h i n

t o u s e t o communicate

the context

of h i s / h e r

intimate r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
6. E v e n t u a l l y
destructive
justify
7.

Guide

introduce

a perspective

behaviours

over

"blaming" o u r s e l v e s

the c l i e n t

that

c h o i c e of

c o n s t r u c t i v e ones d o e s n o t
for experiencing

i n the process

values,

a s s u m p t i o n s and b e l i e f s

current

intimate

of e x p l o r i n g

jealousy.
needs,

i n t e r m s o f h i s p a s t and

relationships, especially

with

respect

1 72

to boundaries.
security,
8.

Help

What a r e h i s / h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s

shared

the c l i e n t

to c l a r i f y

what b e h a v i o u r s
and
9.

m u t u a l i t y and

context
and

of

the c l i e n t ' s

needs t h a t u n e r l i e

expressed.
practice

t o be

opposite-sex

E n c o u r a g e e x p l o r a t i o n s of

skills

acceptable

(for self

persons.

experience.
those

of

i n terms o f

jealousy's goal within

the

Examine t h e

t h a t a r e more

Accordingly, explore

the

intimacy?

his/her limits

are considered

for partner) with

emotional

for

wants

superficially

the p r i n c i p l e s

and

r e s o l u t i o n - s e e k i n g through

effective negotiation.
10.

Promote open d i s c u s s i o n of n e e d s f o r a t t e n t i o n ,
interest,
within

l o v e , time,

the c o n t e x t

of

e t c . from

p a r t n e r and

realistic

e x p e c t a t i o n s as

expressed

examine

them

versus

demands.
11. O p e n l y

d i s c u s s the

jealousy

i n our

resultant

culture

barriers

d i s c u s s i o n s and
12.

i s s u e of

to

and

ways f o r o v e r c o m i n g

throughout

in maintaining c l i e n t

subject

and

assume new
require
of

their

author's

their

without

mutual

'losing

insight

current experience
preference

(cf. previous
the

i n the

ways i n w h i c h c l i e n t

roles

the

paper).

i n t e r m s of p a r t n e r ' s p o s s i b l e

investment

d i s a p p r o v a l of

i t s communication

suggestions

Explore p o s s i b i l i t i e s

social

for couples

the

of

partner

face'.

into
and

and

role

This

jealous
can

will

reciprocal

r o l e s and
or g r o u p

hence

nature
this

therapy.

1 73

However, t h e r e w i l l
other

partner

counsellor

13.

responses
and

triangle

that

of and s e n s i t i v e

i s , nevertheless,

t o name h i s / h e r p a r t i c u l a r
during

parallel

conditioned
tendency

feelings
it'

response,

of c o n t r o l "

control

breath,

responses
drinking
other

a cold

develop,

behavioural

Distinguish

their

about the

r a t h e r than

the c l i e n t

i n which he/she
i n which these

managed.
and o t h e r

g l a s s of water very

a tendency

noting

and p h y s i c a l
'being

important

in talking
felt

"loss

occurrences

Suggest

cues t o h e l p

physiological

(e.g., abdominal b r e a t h i n g

As i n s i g h t s

included

support

ways

cues are e s p e c i a l l y

expresses

Talk

that i s

theory.

experiences

heartbeat

Distinguish

and b e h a v i o u r

the emotion

be more s a t i s f a c t o r i l y

and e n c o u r a g e

jealousy.

territoriality

and s u g g e s t

created.

and our s o c i e t y ,

(1976)

to the

physiological

'automatic'.

t o t h e above,

emotional

with

behaviour

by o u r f a m i l i e s

a s p e r Solomon's

about

of

instinctual

as accompanying

In r e l a t i o n

may

experiences

t o be e q u a l l y

fight/flight

15.

be c o g n i z a n t

and a c c o r d i n g l y , t h e

A d d r e s s the i s s u e of the ' j e a l o u s f l a s h '

the c l i e n t

14.

i n w h i c h one o r t h e

refuses to p a r t i c i p a t e

should

therapeutic

be i n s t a n c e s

techniques
slowly).

and/or

T h e s e and

f o r the c l i e n t

who

toward p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e .
guide

options

the c l i e n t

for jealousy

i n an e x p l o r a t i o n

experiences.

e a c h o f t h e f o u r main b e h a v i o u r a l

in Constantine's

(1976) model

types

(isolational,

174

antagonistic,
evaluate

redefinitional

progress,

compare

terms o f t h e c l i e n t ' s

techniques

exchanges with

partner.

for
a)

about

b)

love

effectively

Use r o l e - p l a y i n g
verbal

intervention

include:

and j e a l o u s y .

I t i s written

o f a h u s b a n d and' h i s s e c o n d

demonstrates

i n the j e a l o u s y

'object'

outcomes i n

(1965) "Atmosphere o f L o v e " w h i c h i s

t h e two v i e w p o i n t s

shifts

To

to practice constructive

S u g g e s t i o n s might

Andre Maurois'

It

various

may be u s e f u l a s a s p e c i f i c

some c l i e n t s .

a novel

their

own e x p e r i e n c e .

or e m p t y - c h a i r

Bibliotherapy

and r e s o l u t i o n a l ) .

role

triangle

wife'.

r e c i p r o c i t y and
as ' s u b j e c t '

becomes

i n a new r e l a t i o n s h i p .

A.M. Dahms'

"Emotional

Requirement

f o r S u r v i v a l " which t a l k s about the

skills

implied

perspective

social

I n t i m a c y : An O v e r l o o k e d

i n the t i t l e

on i n t i m a c y

constructive
the

from

and p r o v i d e s

a s a committment t o

human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a t a l l l e v e l s o f

system.

This

book

is practical

and n o t

sent imental.
c)

Robbe-Grillet's
French version
experiential

(1957) " J e a l o u s y "

(or the o r i g i n a l

"La J a l o u s i e " ) p r o v i d e s

perspective

characters

on t h e e m o t i o n .

has

three

the

presumed l o v e r .

and

the s t r u c t u r e of the novel

very
The s t o r y

t h e h u s b a n d , t h e w i f e and

It i s narrated

by t h e husband

has t h e r e a d e r

i n an

175

'absent-I"
of

the

position.

narrator

'experience'
time d u r i n g
the

poignantly

of

visual

through

the

scenes

into a

the

of

few

The

days space

ever-present

of

lives

The

reader

'missing

bit

narrator's

i n v o l v i n g h i s wife

his

content

jealousy.

detail.

because the

complete

justify

mental

o b s e r v e s and

in great

blind's or

f o r the
to

subject

i s extremely

slatted

necessary

plot

information'
of

i s the

narrator

aware o f

lover

allowing

i s the

which the

is

description

text

i s compacted

e v e n t s of

presumed

who

The

and

d e t a i l e d but

her

h i s view

' j a l o u s i e s ' thus

never

information

would

suspicions

that

of

is

be

her

infidelity.

Counselling
The
are

suggestions-

searching

I f , on

the
and

outlines

structured

separation.
a hope of
on

helping

decision;

other
will

strategies.

Her

them g e t
a plan
that

For

i s that

i n the

sense t h a t

be

hand,
to

Lynch
at

most c o u p l e s

they are

involved;

different

(1982)
the

point

separate

interview
making t h e

a w a r e n e s s of
a

is

incorporate

Her

couple

their

for couples

an

the

separation

instance,

future.

for proceeding;
will

improve

need

interview

premise

reconnecting

difficulties

the

counsellor

principles
a

s e c t i o n assume t h a t

f o r ways t o mend or

relationship.
imminent,

in this

Couples

feeling

of

with
focuses
right

the

that

not a l l

176

is

d e s t r o y e d ; and a s e n s e
Most

o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s under

also applicable

be

below.

universally

comprehensive

be n e c e s s a r y .

Finally,
applied

and t h i s

treatment

plan.

therapy.

therapist

To e f f e c t

will

need

decision

that

i n the couple
of c o n t r o l

therapist

therapy.

One way t o p r e v e n t

the

therapist

role

each

p a r t n e r and u n t i l

exchanges b r i e f .
discussions
unless
or

only a f t e r

necessary.

i n terms o f

collusion

i s t o agree t o
h a s been i s s u e d

i n telephone

o f p r o b l e m s w i t h one o r t h e o t h e r

i n which case
Otherwise,

requires the i n i t i a l

of p h y s i c a l

crisis

clarify

to requests

p o i n t , keep v e r b a l

Do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e

there are indicators

homicide

system the

respond

the request

that

initiation

needs t o make an a

how h e / s h e w i l l

for

by

a r e not

i s n o t i n t e n d e d as a

i s " s e t up" by

the balance

about

although

Hence, t h e y

section

change

the. p r o c e s s and so e a c h
priori

setting,

none o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s below c a n

1. Be aware o f t h e t r i a n g l e
of

f o r growth.

t h e s e c t i o n s above a r e

i n the couples-therapy

some m o d i f i c a t i o n s may
repeated

of the p o t e n t i a l

violence,

suicide

intervention i s

that

and o n g o i n g

partner

lasting

change

involvement

of b o t h

partners.
2. A v o i d p o l a r i z i n g
person'
couple
by

the couple

and a ' h o n - j e a l o u s
as a system

and e f f e c t i n g

by w o r k i n g
person'.

with a 'jealous

I n s t e a d , view t h e

and t h e j e a l o u s y a s a p r o c e s s c r e a t e d

that

system

and i t s members.

1 77

3. I f one o r t h e o t h e r
pathology
that

to their

contributes

member o f t h e c o u p l e
partner,

confront

efforts

in this

sessions

i twill

be i m p o r t a n t

to avoid

process

to s t r u c t u r e the process

During

f o r the l i s t e n i n g

(e.g.,

Accordingly,

a better

that

person

"As p a r t

t o speak w i t h

each

t i m e i t i s v e r y .t o be i n v o l v e d b u t

to f a c i l i t a t e

understanding

of the

a t a common

demonstrate a t t e n d i n g

explain active listening

gaining

to affirm

E s p e c i a l l y i n the e a r l y

o f t h e p r o b l e m , I am g o i n g

silent.").

in

w i t h i n the

both of you t o a r r i v e

of y o u f o r 10 m i n u t e s .
important

regard.

three-way exchanges

of helping

description

and

on ' s e l f '

a s an i s s u e ,
of the p r o c e s s .

o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p and remember

positive

and

this

to the d e s t r u c t i v e part

4. E n c o u r a g e e a c h member t o work
context

assigns

behaviours

the l i s t e n e r

of h i s / h e r

partner's

perspective.
5. A s s e s s what
to therapy

e a c h member a n d t h e c o u p l e
i n terms o f i n v o l v e m e n t

professionals;
and

family

importantly,
loss'

previous

current

unresolved

social

intimacy

f o r by t h e c o u p l e

in this

6. A c c o r d i n g l y ,

and o t h e r

brings

helping
family

marriages or
circles;

losses.

may be an i n d i c a t o r t h a t

been g r i e v e d

other

h i s t o r y and s t r u c t u r e of c u r r e n t

of o r i g i n ;

relationships;

with

as a u n i t

a n d most

Jealousy
a previous

as a ' f e a r of
l o s s has n o t

a s a u n i t , hence

blocking

areas.

the essence of therapy

may be i n r e d e f i n i n g

178

t h e p r o b l e m a s a common need

f o r intimacy.

Introduce the

perspective

t h a t t h e o l d p r o b l e m s may be f a i l e d o r

ineffective

attempts

because

at solution.

They d i d n ' t work

t h e p r o b l e m was n o t c l e a r l y

d e f i n e d i n the f i r s t

place.
7. As soon a s p o s s i b l e ,
naming a common g o a l
behavioural
this

of

f o r therapy

i n the p r o c e s s of

and i n naming t h e

g o a l h a s been a t t a i n e d .

therapy

a s a need

Often

f o r more and b e t t e r

a beginning

therapy

When t h i s

i s a negotiable

9. Speak t o h e a l t h y , p o s i t i v e
and

affirm

this

s i g n s t h a t they

point

good/bad,

i s reached

issue.

aspects

of t h e i r

relationship

a r e making c o n n e c t i o n s

right/wrong

each p a r t n e r ' s tendency

and o t h e r

black/white

Provide

a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t each person's

his/her

own a n d i s a v a l i d

one f o r h i m / h e r .

them t o examine t h e i r

jealousy process

11. H e l p

toward t h e

with

aspect.

If present, discourage

patterns

and c y c l e s such

as those

(1979) a n d d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r .
to

intimacy.

a n d an end by naming t h e number

t h a t h a s been named.

further

that

t h e g o a l c a n be

s e s s i o n s t h a t w i l l be d e d i c a t e d t o w o r k i n g

goal

10.

the couple

changes t h a t w i l l s e r v e as i n d i c a t o r s

encapsulated
8. G i v e

guide

demonstrate

future

these

patterns visually

r e f e r e n c e when p l a n n i n g

polarities.

reality is

suggested

A flip

t o use

i n terms of
by Seeman

c h a r t may be u s e f u l
and t o use f o r

or e v a l u a t i n g a c t i o n -

179

oriented
12.

Inject
to

sex

humor i n t o

laugh

13. D e f i n e
of

changes.

about

the couple

some o f t h e i r

'affairs'

intimacy'.

by t h e i r

'source'

may

which they
14.

Dialogue

i n v o l v e both
should

openly

excitement,

about

shared

between

serves a similar

15.

Introduce
Solicit

accept
want"

affairs

t o name.
of intimacy

such as

sex, the a b i l i t y

e t c . Draw a 'common

purpose'
t o show how

are i n d i r e c t

each

attempts

for intimacy.
as a grounding

from

i n a vague

feelings

e a c h member

f o r intimacy.
when h e / s h e s t a t e s

way.

t h a t may come a l o n g

client

w i t h making " I -

statements.
develop

face their

in m a i n t a i n i n g
levels

The j e a l o u s y

i n separate

g o a l and how b o t h

'fear

another

between wants and needs and h e l p e a c h

guilt

17. As i n s i g h t s
to

partners

j e a l o u s y and t h e a f f a i r

specificity

16. D i s t i n g u i s h

activities.

various aspects

some r i t u a l s

wants o r needs

c a n be w i t h

h o p e s , dreams, good

t o meet m u t u a l needs

i s often a

a committment t o

e a c h be e n c o u r a g e d

to g r i e v e together,
parallel

which

a therapist,

work, c a r e e r , s p o r t s o r o t h e r

them

issues.

P o i n t out t h a t a f f a i r s

partner, a friend,

process

s y s t e m by e n c o u r a g i n g

and t h e c o u p l e

i s s u e s and a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r

mutual

the j e a l o u s y process, demonstrate

of s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e

by....").

are i n c r e a s i n g l y

(e.g.,

Explore e f f e c t i v e

able

roles
higher

"I t r y t o c o n t r o l y o u

ways of s h a r i n g power

in

its

180

positive

sense

of b e i n g

"with

the other

person"

(May,

1972, p . 1 0 9 ) .
18.

G e n e r a l l y use and t e a c h a r e s e a r c h a p p r o a c h by f r e q u e n t l y
encouraging

p e r c e p t i o n checks;

curiousity;

s h a r i n g e v a l u a t i o n s o f what

and

what

i s not working

appreciations
about

promoting

so w e l l ;

of therapy.

i s working

with

e a c h o t h e r and

The t h e r a p i s t

what h e / s h e h a s l e a r n e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s
person
19.

and. from

the couple

Power".

ways o f s t r i v i n g

relationships.
previous

couples
and

section

considerations.
consideration

nature;

will

f o r b i b l i o t h e r a p y under

Groups

by t h i s

present

The s u g g e s t i o n s

things, publicity

should c l e a r l y

jealousy;

o f power a n d

author

(West, 1983)

o n l y a few m a j o r
assume

i n c l u s i o n or

of previous s e c t i o n s .

1. Among o t h e r
jealousy

Side

program' d e s i g n - f o r g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g o f

i s p r o v i d e d elsewhere

so t h i s

each

are a l s o a p p l i c a b l e here.

Counselling
A comprehensive

name

f o r power p a r i t y i n

The s u g g e s t i o n s

section

from

C. S t e i n e r ' s "The O t h e r

T h i s book d i s c u s s e s t h e n a t u r e

cooperative

should

a s a u n i t . .,.

For b i b l i o t h e r a p y , . suggest
of

well

a n d by s h a r i n g

and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s

the process

shared

emphasize

exemplify

state

about

the o b j e c t i v e s ;

i t suniversal

mutuality

g r o u p s t h a t work

with

define

and i n t e r a c t i o n a l

i n t h e j e a l o u s y p r o c e s s ; and

181

specify
2.

criteria

Pre-screening
reasons

applicants

liason

For

for participation;

the. d e v e l o p m e n t

example,

meeting

of group

the lead'er(s) can i n t r o d u c e

its

philosophies

and g o a l s

added p r e p a r a t i o n .

and m e e t i n g
itself

f e a r s about

need t o be

Reading m a t e r i a l s

some

c a n be made by
presented

d e s c r i p t i o n o f j e a l o u s y and

freedom, p r i v i l e g e

the t o p i c

Hence,

group experience

and

expectations;

introductory discussion

interviews

because

most p e o p l e .

in

and b r i e f

rights,

The p r e - s e s s i o n
important

interest

and a b r i e f ,

n e e d s , wants,

with

objectives

and i n t r o d u c t o r y c o n c e p t s c a n be

a definition

process

a b o u t c o u n s e l l i n g and a b o u t

and compared

statements about

about

and p o w e r ) .

are especially

implies c o n f l i c t to

what w i l l

happen

i n the

discussed.

and homework s h o u l d
Topics

be

themselves, the

l e a r n e r s ; members c a n g e t a c q u a i n t e d ;

participants;

a s a way of

development.

adult

be r e v i e w e d

an

of s e l e c t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s s h o u l d

and.their

(e.g.,

r e f e r r a l of

of t r u s t .

t o enhance t h e e a r l y s t a g e s

early

5.

s e l e c t i o n of

topic

can

4.

preparation

partners.

be. e s s e n t i a l f o r many

between members and t h e l e a d e r

A pre-session
held

will

of both

n o t s u i t a b l e f o r t h e g r o u p ; and t o p r o v i d e

facilitating
3.

interviews

i n c l u d i n g needs a s s e s s m e n t ;

participants;

early

f o r the involvement

might

be c o n s i d e r e d

include

those

as

mentioned

#3 above a s w e l l a s an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s
skills

o f n e g o t i a t i o n a s f o r example, T e s s i n a and

182

Smith's
6.

(1980) "How

G r o u p numbers w i l l
the t r i a n g u l a r
inclusion
members
need

an

important

nature

of

j e a l o u s y and

f o r m u l t i p l e s of
the

and

Still

be

Free".

c o n s i d e r a t i o n given
hence the

probable

three people.

suggested

t h r e e and

in order

Twelve

t o meet

to approximate

as

Corey

this
closely

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of g r o u p t h e o r i s t s

such

(1977).

B e c a u s e of t h e n a t u r e
structuring

and

be

(6 c o u p l e s ) a r e

as C o r e y

a Couple

of e x e r c i s e s i n v o l v i n g

as p o s s i b l e

7.

t o be

of t h e

of t h e g r o u p ,

a man/woman team) w i l l

topic

and

the

"couples"

c o - l e a d e r s h i p (e.g., o p t i m a l l y ,

best

facilitate

process

and

dynamics.
8.

I s s u e s of c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y ;
disclose;

and

s e s s i o n s and
is

topic.

much and

o t h e r g u i d e l i n e s s h o u l d be
reinforced

especially

how

important

Group p r o c e s s

i n an

ongoing

when t o
taught

way.

be

in early

Again,

b e c a u s e of the n a t u r e

should also

self-

taught

of

this

the

to

part ic ipants.
9.

E x e r c i s e s and
discussed

in t h i s

specifics,
10.

theory w i l l

please

For b i b l i o t h e r a p y
reade

and

generally involve

previous sections.

see West

For

analyze

sex

roles

in a closing

s e s s i o n , subgroups c o u l d

analysis,

i t i n t e r m s of h i s t o r i c a l

i n western

more

(1983).

p o r t i o n s of C o u r t i n ' s (1684) t r e a t i s e

and

concepts

society.

versus

Following

t h e whole g r o u p c o u l d be

on

jealousy

contemporary

subgroup

reassembled for

183

discussion

o f what

jealousy

meant

means v i s a v i s male and f e m a l e

Chapter
This
practice

chapter
that

on

jealousy

It

was d i v i d e d

discussed
sections

discussed

were d e r i v e d

four

some g e n e r a l
included

counselling

Summary

implications
from

main

i t now

roles.

the broad

and from t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s

into

t h e n v e r s u s what

base o f t h i s

clinical

sections.

considerations

for counselling

experience.

The f i r s t

and t h e n e x t

p r i n c i p l e s and s p e c i f i c

study

section
three

interventions for

i n d i v i d u a l s , c o u p l e s and g r o u p s .

184

THESIS
This

s t u d y was d e s i g n e d t o r e - e x p l o r e

conceptualization
phenomenological
objective

of j e a l o u s y .
approaches.

the phenomenological

on

the basis

in

o f major

phase

e a c h phase
phase

In the e m p i r i c a l

phase

descriptive

subjective

descriptors,

statistics.

d a t a were a n a l y z e d

elements

and themes i n

The

interpretations

were s u p p o r t e d by d a t a and f i n d i n g s

from t h e

and by t h e c o n c e p t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s g a i n e d

review of t h r e e t h e o r i e s

conventional
disciplines

and b r o a d e n t h e

e m p i r i c a l and

v e r b a t i m responses of p a r t i c i p a n t s .

other
a

I t used

d a t a were a n a l y z e d u s i n g

In

the

SUMMARY

and r e s e a r c h

of emotion
literature

and a c r i t i q u e
on j e a l o u s y

of a n t h r o p o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y ,

from

of the

from t h e

psychiatry,

and

psychology.
Three
housing
jealousy

hundred

adults

from a u n i v e r s i t y

student-family

complex were s u r v e y e d u s i n g an a d a p t e d v e r s i o n
i n s t r u m e n t by A r o n s o n

and P i n e s

(1982).

f e m a l e and 28 male r e s p o n d e n t s d e f i n e d

jealousy

words; d e s c r i b e d

most

and i n t e r p r e t e d

experiences with jealousy

their

and r e s p o n d e d

Forty-fivein their

own

extreme

(on a

one-to-seven

scale) to objective

item s u b t e s t s measuring

prevalence;

and e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s ; g e n e r a l

phyical

of a

jealousy

r e a c t i o n s and c o p i n g mechanisms.
Quantitative
preliminary

and q u a l i t a t i v e

findings.

analyses resulted

Among them were: a p p a r e n t

i n many

therapeutic

185

effects

of the instrument;

objective

subtests;

sex d i f f e r e n c e s

i n e a c h of t h e

and q u a l i t a t i v e s i m i l a r i t i e s and

differences

among i n d i v i d u a l s a n d between t h e s e x e s i n

participant

defintions,

in

their

interpretations.

descriptions
subjective
.variety

of l o s s e s

highest

The

subtest,

female

larger

t h a n d i d men.

and d e p r e s s i o n

i n four

research

appeared as

and s p e c i f i c

These

conceptualization

and b o t h p h a s e s

The f i r s t

and t h e n e x t

also

practice
section

f o r future
were

discussed

sections

presented

for counselling

c o u p l e s and f o r c o u n s e l l i n g
generally

promote a b r o a d e r

a n d more p o s i t i v e and g r o w t h f u l

experiences.

on

several

suggestions

three

interventions

implications

were

were e x p l a i n e d

t o generate

f o rcounselling

f o rcounselling

rankings

influences.

and s p e c i f i c

sections.

considerations

jealousy

f o r women t h e s e

p h a s e was u s e d

many g e n e r a l

individuals,

for

experiences

and c u l t u r a l

Implications

principles

groups.

while

f o r future

contributed

presented

subjective

emotions than

Many o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

empirical

hypotheses

general

in their

of s o c i a l

research.

male

and women named a much

f o r men, h u m i l i a t i o n

anger and rage.

basis

For instance,

o f ranked' mean response's t o t h e ' e m o t i o n a l

reactions'

the

e x p e r i e n t i a l a c c o u n t s and

named fewer e l e m e n t a l

descriptions

Objectively,
the

in their

outcomes

186

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for parents.

New

APPENDIX A
Jealousy

Inventory

195

Jealousy
Circle
you.
A.

the

number a d j a c e n t

Background

Inventory*

to the

response

that a p p l i e s to

Information

1.

Sex:

1 male

2.

Age:

years

3.

Education: Last

grade completed

4.

Other

5.

Occupation:

6.

Are

you

currently

7.

Country

of b i r t h :

Country

or c o u n t r i e s i n w h i c h you

training

female

in school

(please specify)

a student:

1 Yes

No

. "
were

raised

O t h e r c o u n t r i e s or c u l t u r e s i n w h i c h you l i v e d or
p a r t i c i p a t e d t o an e x t e n t w h i c h has s i g n i f i c a n t l y
e f f e c t e d your g r o w t h a n d / o r v a l u e s y s t e m s
8.

Race:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Caucasian
Negroid
Oriental
Canadian Indian
East Indian
Other (please* s p e c i f y )

9.

Religion:

1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.
8.
9.

None ( a t h e i s t )
Protestant
Catholic
Jewish
Moslem
Hindu
Sikh
Other ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

Siblings:
10.

Number of o l d e r

brothers

* A d a p t e d from t h e S e x u a l
and E l l i o t A r o n s o n .

Jealousy

Inventory

by

Ayala

Pines

196

11.
12.
13.
14.

Number
Number
Number
I am a

15.

Number o f p e o p l e

16.

P l e a s e s p e c i f y t h e i r a g e s a n d sex ( i . e . , 10 y e a r
15 y e a r f e m a l e , e t c . ) Do n o t i n c l u d e y o u r s e l f .

17.

Present

18.

My c u r r e n t f a m i l y ( i . e . ,
best d e s c r i b e d a s :
1.
2.
3.
4.

B.

Jealousy

of o l d e r s i s t e r s
of younger b r o t h e r s
o f younger s i s t e r s
twin:
1 Yes
living

2 No

i n household

including

yourself
male,

m a r i t a l / r e l a t i o n s h i p status;
1. S i n g l e
2. D i v o r c e d
3.
Separated
4. Widowed
5.
Partnered
6.
Cohabi t ing
7. R e m a r r i e d
8. M a r r i e d
9. O t h e r ( p l e a s e
not your

family

Two-parent f a m i l y
Single parent family
Blended family ( c h i l d r e n i n f a m i l y
more m a r r i a g e s )
Other (please s p e c i f y )

of o r i g i n ) i s

from two o r

Prevalence

19.

Do y o u c o n s i d e r

20.

How

jealous

1
not a t a l l
jealous

y o u r s e l f ' a.- j e a l o u s -person-?"

a r e you a t t h i s
2

time
4

i n your
5

How j e a l o u s were y o u i n p r e v i o u s p e r i o d s
( P l e a s e use t h e above s c a l e f o r a l l f o u r
21.

During

childhood:

22.

During

adolescence:

23.

During

young a d u l t h o o d :

1 Ye s -2 No
;

3i

life?
6

7
extremely
jealous

i n your l i f e ?
periods.)

1 97

24.

During

adulthood:

25.

Have any of y o u r i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
of y o u r j e a l o u s y ?
1
none

26.

Do most p e o p l e
person?
1
definitely
not

27.

Do p e o p l e
jealous?

who

4
several
know you

you

1
definitely
not'

because

7
a l l of them

w e l l c o n s i d e r you

4
moderately
jealous

have b e e n i n t i m a t e
2

ended

4
moderately
jealous

a jealous
7
definitely
yes

with consider
5

7
definitely
yes

28.

P l e a s e d e s c r i b e the s i t u a t i o n t h a t produced
e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y .

29.

What p o s i t i v e a n d / o r n e g a t i v e
e x p e r i e n c e have on you and on
r e l a t i o n s h i p involved?

30.

D e s c r i b e - - a s i t u a t i o n t h a t w o u l d ( f o r you a n d - a t
t i m e i n y o u r l i f e ) r e s u l t i n a s i m i l a r or more
e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y .

C.

Reactions

to

effects did
the primary

you

your

most

this

this

Jealousy

R e c a l l i n g y o u r most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y , t o what
e x t e n t d i d you e x p e r i e n c e e a c h one of t h e f o l l o w i n g p h y s i c a l
and e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s . P l e a s e use t h e f o l l o w i n g s c a l e t o
describe a l l items.
not

1
at a l l

3
to a

4
"moderate"
degree

7
very
intensely

1 98

Physical
31 .
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41 .
42.
43.

89.

74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81 .
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.

qr i e f
helplessness
v u l n e r a b i 1 i ty
blame
resentment
self-riqhteous
excluded
passion
hopelessness
annoyance
emotional exhaustion
excitement
entrapment
low s e l f - i m a q e
self-knowledge

Reactions

rage
humiliation
self-pity
confusion
pain
possessiveness
inferiority
f r u s t r a t ion
f e a r of l o s s
envy
anger
aqqression
anxiety
depression
gui I t

General

54.
55.
56.
57.
58.

sexually aroused
dizzy
appetite loss
t r e m b l i n g hands
fast heartbeat
insomnia
blood rushinq
sweaty
exhausted
t u n n e l (or t e l e s c o p e d )
vi sion
blurred vision
double v i s i o n
sounds seem i n t e n s i f i e d
sounds seem d u l l e r
sounds a r e d i s t o r t e d

44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51 .
52.
53.

hot
headachy
shakey
stomach empty
breath short
insomnia
energized
cold
faintness
nausea
stomach cramps
niqhtmares
a b o u t t o have a
nervous
breakdown

Emotional
59.
60.
61 .
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71 .
72.
73.

Reactions

Reactions

R e c a l l i n g your most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e
l o n g d i d the e x p e r i e n c e l a s t ?
1
seconds

2
minutes

3
hours

4
days

5
weeks

of

jealousy,

6
months

7
years

how

199

90.

How

often

never
91.

once

1
poorly

1
at a l l
not

95.

3
your

How

often

occas.

often

usually

with

being

do you e x p e r i e n c e

7
very

mild

7
a very
s e r i o u s one

7
definitely
yes

jealous?

jealousy?

never

once

rarely

occas.

often

usually

Do y o u c o n s i d e r y o u r
t o be an a p p r o p r i a t e
1
definitely
not

i s a normal

4
somewhat
own j e a l o u s y
reaction?

well

Do y o u t h i n k t h a t j e a l o u s y
certain situations?

always

a problem?

4
moderately
so
stop

the extreme s i t u a t i o n

3
4
5
to a c e r t a i n
degree

1
2
definitely
not
96.

jealousy
3

jealousy?

4
average

Can y o u make y o u r s e l f
1
definitely
not

94.

rarely

Do y o u c o n s i d e r
not

93.

extreme

Do y o u t h i n k you c o p e d w e l l
you
described?
very

92.

do you e x p e r i e n c e

4
somewhat

7
always

response i n
6

7
definitely
yes

i n extreme s i t u a t i o n s
5

7
definitely
yes

200

Coping with

Jealousy

How do you cope w i t h j e a l o u s y ?

s c a l e for a l l items:

Please

use

the

following

never

once

rarely

occas.

often

usually

97. r a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n
98. a c c e p t a n c e
99. s t o n y s i l e n c e
100. s a r c a s m
101. a v o i d i n g t h e i s s u e
102. s u f f e r s i l e n t l y but v i s i b l y
103. c r y i n g
104. f i n d i n g t h e funny s i d e
105. c l i n g i n g __.
106. b e s e e c h i n g
"
107. i s o l a t i o n
_____
108. s c r e a m i n g
.
109. t h r o w i n g t h i n g s
1 TO. d e n i a l
112. r e t a l i a t i n g - making p a r t n e r j e a l o u s
113. l e a v i n g p a r t n e r
114. s u f f e r s i l e n t l y and c o v e r t l y
115. p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e
116. ' making a j o k e of i t
117. n e g o t i a t i o n
118. a r g u i n g
119. w i t h d r a w a l
120. u s i n g t h e o c c a s i o n f o r t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h my r o l e
s i t u a t i o n and what i t i s I s t a n d / f e a r t o l o s e
Other

(please

specify)

121.

How

would you

define

122.

Using
not

123.

your

own

1
at a l l

in

the

jealousy?

definition,
3

always

how

4
moderately

jealous are
5

you?
7
extremely

O t h e r i n s i g h t s / t h o u g h t s / e x p e r i e n c e s I have had
w i t h / a b o u t j e a l o u s y and w i t h t o s h a r e a t t h i s t i m e .
D i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s , l i n g u i s t i c or any o t h e r
c o n t r i b u t i o n s w i l l be g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
I f , for
example, you a r e aware of a few or s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
words f o r j e a l o u s y i n o t h e r l a n g u a g e s p l e a s e p r e s e n t
them and e x p l a i n t h e i r d i s t i n c t i o n .

APPENDIX B
Request

for Participation

i n Study

202

Participation

needed i n j e a l o u s y s t u d y by M a s t e r s
Counselling
Psychology

student

in

We a l l have e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h j e a l o u s y d u r i n g our
lives.
T h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s can have b o t h p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e
e f f e c t s f o r o u r s e l v e s and our r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
A l t h o u g h none
of us a r e exempt from t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s , s e e m i n g l y few
p e o p l e d i s c u s s them o p e n l y .
The p u r p o s e of t h i s s t u d y i s t o
e n l a r g e upon t h e t h e o r y a b o u t j e a l o u s y and t o p r o v i d e
c o u n s e l l o r s w i t h ways i n w h i c h t h e y w i l l be a b l e t o a s s i s t
i n d i v i d u a l s , c o u p l e s and f a m i l i e s t o use t h e i r j e a l o u s y
e x p e r i e n c e s i n m e a n i n g f u l , c o n s t r u c t i v e ways.
To p a r t i c i p a t e you must be between t h e a g e s of 20-60
years.
D u r i n g t h e coming week a l a r g e brown u n s e a l e d
e n v e l o p e c o n t a i n i n g t h e j e a l o u s y q u e s t i o n n a i r e and
i n s t r u c t i o n s h e e t w i l l be d i s t r i b u t e d v i a y o u r m a i l s l o t .
I f you c h o o s e t o c o m p l e t e t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t w i l l be
assumed t h a t y o u r c o n s e n t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i s g i v e n .
The
q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i l l r e q u i r e a maximum of 30 m i n u t e s of your
t i m e and most p e o p l e w i l l be a b l e t o answer i t much more .
quickly.
You a r e r e q u e s t e d t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n
p r i v a c y and w i t h o u t d i s c u s s i o n or c o n s u l t a t i o n . You a r e , of
c o u r s e , f r e e t o withdraw a t any t i m e or r e f u s e t o answer any
questions without p r e j u d i c e .
S h o u l d you c h o o s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e p l e a s e p l a c e t h e
c o m p l e t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e back i n t h e e n v e l o p e , s e a l i t and
r e t u r n i t t o t h e MELFA COURT a d d r e s s on t h e o u t s i d e of t h e
e n v e l o p e , or i f you l i v e i n t h e HIGHRISE, p l e a s e p l a c e t h e
s e a l e d e n v e l o p e t h r o u g h t h e i n s i d e m a i l s l o t on t h e main
floor.
P e o p l e who w i s h t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e but not
d e l i v e r i t may c a l l t h e number below and i t w i l l be p i c k e d
up.
R e t u r n of unanswered q u e s t i o n n a i r e s by t h e same
p r o c e d u r e ( e x c e p t t h e y s h o u l d r e m a i n u n s e a l e d ) would be
g r e a t l y appreciated?.
The r e s e a r c h e r w i l l c o l l e c t
l a r g e numbers of t h e
e n v e l o p e s and s h u f f l e them p r i o r t o o p e n i n g .
Your i d e n t i t y
w i l l r e m a i n a b s o l u t e l y anonymous.
P l e a s e do not p l a c e y o u r
name or a d d r e s s anywhere on t h e e n v e l o p e or q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
A l l i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d must r e m a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l .
Return
d e a d l i n e i s J u l y 5,
1983.
At t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e s t u d y a f r e e w o r k s h o p w i l l be
g i v e n , w i t h d a t e , t i m e and l o c a t i o n t o be a n n o u n c e d i n t h e
newsletter.
The s t u d y f i n d i n g s w i l l be s h a r e d and q u e s t i o n s
w i l l be a n s w e r e d .
For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , p l e a s e
224-7015.

call

M a r i e t t e West a t

203

APPENDIX C
Cover L e t t e r

for

Inventory

204

Dear

Occupant,

E n c l o s e d p l e a s e f i n d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h a t i s p a r t of a
study about j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e s .
The s t u d y i s f o r my
MA
t h e s i s in Counselling Psychology.
The p u r p o s e of the s t u d y
i s t o e n l a r g e upon the t h e o r y a b o u t j e a l o u s y and t o p r o v i d e
c o u n s e l l o r s w i t h ways i n w h i c h t h e y w i l l be a b l e t o a s s i s t
p e o p l e t o use t h e i r j e a l o u s y e x p e r i e n c e s i n more
c o n s t r u c t i v e ways.
We a l l have e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h j e a l o u s y d u r i n g our
lives.
These e x p e r i e n c e s can have b o t h p o s i t i v e and
negative
e f f e c t s f o r o u r s e l v e s and our r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A l t h o u g h none
of us a r e exempt from t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s s e e m i n g l y few p e o p l e
c l a i m . o r d i s c u s s them o p e n l y .
To

p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s
1. You must be
years.

study:

between

the

ages' of" 20

and

60

2.

I f you c h o o s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e , y o u r c o n s e n t
be assumed by c o m p l e t i o n and r e t u r n of t h e
questionnaire.

will

3.

You a r e r e q u e s t e d t o answer the q u e s t i o n n a i r e

i n p r i v a c y and w i t h o u t c o n s u l t a t i o n o r
d i s c u s s i o n . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m i n u t e s o f y o u r
t i m e w i l l be r e q u i r e d , a l t h o u g h some w i l l be
a b l e t o c o m p l e t e i t much more q u i c k l y .

4.

Your i d e n t i t y w i l l r e m a i n a b s o l u t e l y anonymous
and a l l i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l r e m a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w i l l be number c o d e d f o r
p u r p o s e s of d a t a h a n d l i n g and a n a l y s i s .
Please
do not put your' name- or a d d r e s s anywhere on' the
e n v e l o p e or q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

5.

The c o m p l e t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s h o u l d be p l a c e d
back i n t h e e n v e l o p e , s e a l e d and r e t u r n e d t o
t h e M e l f a C o u r t a d d r e s s on the o u t s i d e , or t o
t h e i n s i d e m a i l s l o t of t h e f a m i l y h o u s i n g
o f f i c e on t h e main f l o o r of the h i g h r i s e .
H o u s e h o l d s who w i s h t o r e t u r n unanswered
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , or who would l i k e e x t r a
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f o r o t h e r members or who would,
p r e f e r p i c k - u p r a t h e r t h a n d e l i v e r y of a n s w e r e d
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s may c a l l t h e number b e l o w .

6.

You a r e , of c o u r s e , f r e e t o w i t h d r a w a t any
t i m e or t o r e f u s e t o answer any
questions
without p r e j u d i c e .

206

APPENDIX D
Responses

t o Items

28,

29,

30

207

The
28,

following are subjects'

29, and 30:

responses

t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e items

28.

Please d e s c r i b e the s i t u a t i o n that produced

most e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y .

your

29.

What p o s i t i v e a n d / o r n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s d i d t h i s
e x p e r i e n c e have on y o u and on t h e p r i m a r y
relationship involved?

30.

D e s c r i b e a s i t u a t i o n t h a t would ( f o r y o u a n d a t
t h i s time i n your l i f e ) r e s u l t i n a s i m i l a r or
more e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e o f j e a l o u s y .

S u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s a r e v e r b a t i m s t a t e m e n t s a n d hence may

c o n t a i n grammar, s p e l l i n g , and p u n c t u a t i o n i r r e g u l a r i t i e s .
Subject
01

Female S u b j e c t ' s R e s p o n s e s
28.
29.

30.

02

28.

29.

30.
03

28.
29.

F i n d i n g o u t t h a t my husband l o v e d a n o t h e r
woman.
I l o s t c o n f i d e n c e i n m y s e l f a s a woman f o r a
time.
I r e a l i z e d that the depth of the
r e l a t i o n s h i p on h i s p a r t had n e v e r been what I
had hoped i t t o be t h e r e f o r e b r o u g h t p a s t
happenings i n t o f o c u s .
R e l a t i o n s h i p ended.
I f I h a d u n r e a l i s t i c hopes f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o d e v e l o p , then r e a l i z e d I had
l o s t , i . e . t h a t i t would n e v e r be, b e c a u s e o f
a n o t h e r woman.
My h u s b a n d l o v e d a n o t h e r woman ( t h e c o u p l e were
c l o s e f r i e n d s of o u r s ) and I f e l t t e r r i b l e .
I
was m a r r i e d 2 y e a r s w i t h a s m a l l baby a n d
d e f i n i t e l y f e l t the victim.
I moved on ( p o s i t i v e ) .
I am a l s o a b l e t o s e e
how e a c h j e a l o u s s i t u a t i o n i s a r e a c t i v a t i o n o f
this e a r l i e r experience.
I b r o k e up my
marriage (negative).
My f i a n c e e w a n t i n g t o be w i t h a n o t h e r woman
besides myself.
D u r i n g m a r r i a g e breakdown, b e f o r e s e p a r a t i o n ,
a t a p a r t y , I became v e r y j e a l o u s o f a woman
f l i r t i n g w i t h my e x - h u s b a n d .
P o s i t i v e : I e x p r e s s e d my f e e l i n g s a n d f e l t a
l i t t l e b e t t e r b u t I r e a l i z e d i t was i n s e c u r i t y

208

30.

04

28.

29.

30.
05

28.

29.
30.

06

28.

29.

30.

about t h e m a r r i a g e , ( a n d t h e man) n o t t h e
woman, t h a t c a u s e d t h e j e a l o u s y . I t d i s g u s t e d
my e x - h u s b a n d , b u t did, n o t a f f e c t t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p ' s already d i s i n t e g r a t i n g path.
I t h i n k I am e n v i o u s now o f s o l i d man/woman
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , but I c a n ' t imagine r e a l l y
f e e l i n g j e a l o u s y l i k e I u s e d t o , a s I am more
s e c u r e about m y s e l f .
D u r i n g c h i l d h o o d , s i s t e r 2 y e a r s younger than
me r e c e i v e d "more" t h i n g s ( c l o t h e s , p e t s , e t c . )
t h e way I saw i t . I a l s o saw h e r a s c u t e r and
more e a s y g o i n g w i t h more f r i e n d s .
I am t o l d
t h a t I was " r e s e n t f u l " o f h e r from t h e moment
she was b o r n (I threw numerous t a n t r u m s ) .
Up
u n t i l a d o l e s c e n c e I was e x t r e m e l y j e a l o u s t o
t h e p o i n t o f f i g h t s and t e a r s b e c a u s e I t h o u g h t
m y . p a r e n t s l a v i s h e d "more" on h e r . I n f a c t , I .
t e n d e d t o r e f u s e " t h i n g s " whereas* she a c c e p t e d
e v e r y t h i n g handed to' h e r - a s i f I wanted t o be
j e a l o u s of h e r . ( s e l f - i n f l i c t e d j e a l o u s y )
D u r i n g c h i l d h o o d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s
s i s t e r and I was e x t r e m e l y t e n s e .
I t seems we
h a t e d e a c h o t h e r t h e whole t i m e .
But now I
t h i n k t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s even s t r o n g e r t h a n i t
would have been o t h e r w i s e .
I f e e l i n c a p a b l e o f t h i s k i n d o f j e a l o u s y now.
The t i m e was when a man I was l i v i n g w i t h
c o n f e s s e d he was i n l o v e ( a n d s e e i n g ) someone
else.
I s p l i t up w i t h h i m and d i d n ' t e a t f o r 8
days.
We s p l i t up. I c a n n o t a c c e p t i n f i d e l i t y ,
(yet,
I am c a p a b l e o f " s t r a y i n g " m y s e l f ) .
My b o y f r i e n d f l i r t s w i t h h i s n e i g h b o r a l o t .
I f he- f l i r t e d w i t h h e r at'^'party*,,-- i n - f r o n t - o-fime - t h e n " l e f t " w i t h h e r - I would be v e r y
jealous.
Grade 12, h i g h s c h o o l , my b o y f r i e n d s t a r t e d
dating another g i r l .
I t was e x t r e m e l y p a i n f u l .
I would go t o any l e n g t h t o t r y t o win back h i s
affections.
P o s : i t was a g r o w i n g e x p e r i e n c e a s I
e v e n t u a l l y got over i t . I l e a r n e d t o d i s l i k e
myself f o r f e e l i n g j e a l o u s .
Neg: I l o s t a l l
sense of p r i d e .
I was p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h
j e a l o u s y a n d i t a f f e c t e d my mood.
I became
q u i t e n a s t y and h a t e f u l .
H o p e f u l l y n o t h i n g w i l l e v e r be a s bad a s t h a t
was.
B u t , i f I d e e p l y l o v e d someone a n d f e l t
h i s a f f e c t i o n s s l i p p i n g away f o r a n o t h e r woman

209

that
07

28.

29.

30.

08

28.

29.

30.

09

28.

29.

may r e s u l t

in a similar

experience.

I had a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a man t h a t was

s t r o n g l y a t t a c h e d t o a n o t h e r woman. She moved
out a few months a f t e r we met b u t he c o u l d n o t
l e t h e r go b e c a u s e he was s t i l l so e m o t i o n a l l y
attached to her.
I l o v e d t h i s man v e r y much and would have l i k e d
to m a r r y him b u t r e a l i z e d he was e i t h e r n o t i n
l o v e w i t h me o r s t i l l t o o a t t a c h e d t o t h i s
woman t o even c o n s i d e r a n o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p .
The p o s i t i v e a s p e c t i s y o u grow from
experience.
The n e g a t i v e a s p e c t i s y o u s u f f e r
a l o t of p a i n .
I f I saw h i m a g a i n w i t h t h i s l a d y I would
e x p e r i e n c e j e a l o u s y I'm s u r e .
As w e l l a s h u r t
and r e s e n t m e n t .
A l o v e r who h a d an i n t i m a t e a f f a i r w i t h someone
else while t r a v e l l i n g .
( I t was a l s o s e x u a l ,
but i t was t h e e m o t i o n a l i n t i m a c y t h a t was most
t h r e a t e n i n g t o me.)
I f e l t h o r r i b l y i n s e c u r e and my t r u s t l e v e l was
e r o d e d , b u t h a v i n g t o d e a l w i t h t h e i s s u e and
our f e e l i n g s a r o u n d i t was I t h i n k u l t i m a t e l y
growth p r o d u c i n g f o r both of u s .
I c a n ' t t h i n k o f one - a s i m i l a r one would come
c l o s e s t , b u t I t h i n k I ' v e r e s o l v e d some o f t h e
issues.
I have a s t r o n g e r s e n s e o f s e l f now
and am more w i l l i n g t o e x p e r i e n c e and
a c k n o w l e d g e my v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n s t e a d o f
f o c u s i n g on t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w h i c h I t h i n k i s
what j e a l o u s y i s .
I saw t h e man, w i t h whom I h a d been l i v i n g w i t h
for
2 y e a r s b u t who had c a l l e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
off
f o r no r e a s o n I c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d ,
walking
i n t o a r e s t a u r a n t w i t h a woman I knew a n d ,
s u s p e c t b u t d o n ' t know, he h a d h a d an a f f a i r
with.
I was w a l k i n g down t h e s t r e e t - y e l l e d a
bit,
threw my s w e a t e r a t him a n d c r i e d
c o n t i n u a l l y f o r about a y e a r .
F o r t h e man I was j e a l o u s o f , t h e i n c i d e n t was
"water o f f a d u c k ' s b a c k " .
F o r t h e man I was
w i t h i t p r o b a b l y added some u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s t o
my f l u c t u a t i n g b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s h i m . F o r
m y s e l f , i t f u r t h e r e n t r e n c h e d me i n t h e none x i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p , I became even more
d e p e n d e n t on i t a n d soon ended t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h my new f r i e n d .
T h i s happened a b o u t 5
y e a r s ago, I am s t i l l c a u g h t i n t h i s nonexistent relationship.
I even b o r e one o f h i s

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10

28.

29.

30.
11

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29.

30.

12

28.

29.

30.

13

28.

c h i l d r e n and am p r e g n a n t w i t h a s e c o n d .
I f I were t o meet a man whom I l o v e d , r e s p e c t e d
and c o m m i t t e d m y s e l f t o and had f u n w i t h and a
g r e a t d e a l of i n t i m a c y and he l e f t out of t h e
b l u e or s i m p l y c u t me o f f - I d o n ' t know but I
c e r t a i n l y f e a r I w o u l d go t h r o u g h t h e same
jealous routine.
My most extreme e x p e r i e n c e of j e a l o u s y t h a t I
can r e c a l l p r o b a b l y had t o do w i t h t h e f a c t
t h a t I grew up w i t h a t w i n s i s t e r .
She
was
more " p o p u l a r " t h a n I and had many more f r i e n d s
and i n v i t a t i o n s t o p a r t i e s .
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t was p r o b a b l y t h a t of f e e l i n g
i n f e r i o r to her.
P o s i t i v e e f f e c t was t h a t i t
p r o b a b l y h e l p e d me t o p u r s u e my own
identity
and i n d i v i d u a l i t y .
I s t r i v e d to excel i n
d i f f e r e n t areas than her.
S i m i l a r perhaps' would be b e i n g ' e x c l u d e d from, a
"social circle".
:

B o y f r i e n d - g i r l f r i e n d s i t u a t i o n where b o y f r i e n d
appeared i n t e r e s t e d i n other g i r l .
T h i s was
late teens.
D i s c o v e r e d he had s e v e r a l o t h e r
girlfriends.
Subsequent r e l a t i o n s h i p s s u f f e r e d
b e c a u s e of a l a c k i n t r u s t as a r e s u l t of o t h e r
relationship.
(+)opened up more w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e
feelings.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n between us i n c r e a s e d .
(-) an i n c r e a s e i n a r g u m e n t s , d e c r e a s e i n my
t r u s t i n him.
F r u s t r a t i o n on b o t h s i d e s ,
studies suffered.
Husband i n t e r e s t e d i n a n o t h e r g i r l but i n a
more d e f i n i t e way i . e . not coming home.
In
o t h e r words, now I f e e l more s e c u r e i n our
relationship.
A d o l e s c e n c e - I was 16 w i t h a b o y f r i e n d and
moved t o J a p a n .
W h i l e I was l i v i n g t h e r e he
began d a t i n g a n o t h e r g i r l , d r o p p e d me q u i c k l y
upon my r e t u r n .
Made me somewhat c o l d i n o r d e r t o e r a d i c a t e t h e
p a i n c a u s e d by j e a l o u s y , I'm much q u i c k e r t o
s t e p out of a r e l a t i o n s h i p i f I f e e l
I'm
unwanted, d o n ' t commit m y s e l f a s e a s i l y on an
emotional l e v e l .
My s e c o n d h u s b a n d r e m a r r y i n g and g e t t i n g
c u s t o d y of one or more of t h e c h i l d r e n .
(Pain
too!)
In t h e a t r e s c h o o l , I had a g r e a t d e a l of
r e s p e c t f o r my a c t i n g t e a c h e r .
T h e r e was

21 1

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30.

14

28.
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30.

15

28.
29.
30.

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woman i n t h e c l a s s w i t h whom I made f r i e n d s on

t h e f i r s t day.
T h i s t e a c h e r was h i g h l y
c r i t i c a l of me and seemed t o f a v o u r my f r i e n d .
T h i s a g i t a t e d me u n t i l I was f u r i o u s w i t h b o t h
of them most of t h e t i m e .
After graduation t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t e a c h e r h i r e d me,
i n shows she
was d i r e c t i n g , i n p r e f e r e n c e t o my
"friend".
Now we a r e " f r i e n d s " a g a i n ( o r a t l e a s t on
pleasant terms).
P o s i t i v e : I was c o n v i n c e d I was a b e t t e r
a c t r e s s t h a n t h e woman b e i n g f a v o u r e d but
worked v e r y h a r d t o g e t t h e a p p r o v a l of t h i s
teacher.
H a r d e r t h a n I would have w i t h someone
who a l r e a d y t h o u g h t I was g r e a t .
Negative: I
was v e r y a n g r y and t e n s e a l o t of t h e t i m e and
f o u n d i t h a r d ( i f not i m p o s s i b l e ) t o d e a l w i t h
e i t h e r of them i n a r a t i o n a l way.
I l e t the
e x p e r i e n c e c h i p away a t my a l r e a d y shakey s e l f image.
This i s a d i f f i c u l t question.. I think
I've
m e l l o w e d a b i t and I'm more c o n f i d e n t a b o u t my
work.
I'm more j e a l o u s how when my man
raves
on a b o u t a n o t h e r woman. But t h a t d o e s n ' t
r e a l l y make me h a t e h e r - j u s t watch c l o s e l y .
I'm i n a s i t u a t i o n now where I'm d o i n g a show
and one of t h e a c t r e s s e s i s d o i n g a b r i l l i a n t
j o b - but I'm j u s t e n j o y i n g h e r .
I t ' s smug
v e r y s e l f - c o n f i d e n t p e o p l e t h a t t h r e a t e n me.
As an a d o l e s c e n t I was v e r y j e a l o u s of one
my b o y f r i e n d was c o n c u r r e n t l y s e e i n g .
I t consumed a l o t of e n e r g y and t h e
relationship deteriorated.
None.

girl

A l o n g term general', l o w - l e v e l f e a r of l o s i n g
my h u s b a n d t o a n o t h e r woman, w h i c h i n t e n s i f i e d
when he had an a f f a i r .
I learned to l i k e myself.
In t e r m s of t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o v e r a p e r i o d of y e a r s , my h u s b a n d
and I made a c o n s c i o u s c h o i c e t o be monogomous.
I f my husband had an a f f a i r now, p a r t of my
r e a c t i o n would be j e a l o u s y but I would d e a l
w i t h i t more s a n e l y and i t would be f o r a
shorter time.
In c h i l d h o o d - t h e t h o u g h t t h a t my t w i n would
g e t s o m e t h i n g or be a b l e t o do s o m e t h i n g I
couldn't.
We had a l w a y s done e v e r y t h i n g
t o g e t h e r , wore t h e same c l o t h e s (we're b o t h
f e m a l e ) e t c . u n t i l we were 16.
Various
g r a n d p a r e n t s ( n e v e r our p a r e n t s ) would s i n g l e

212

29.

30.

17

28.
29.
30.

18

28.

19

28.

When I f o u n d out my husband was

a n o t h e r woman a l s o .
Ended i t t h a t m i n u t e .
Near r e p e a t of i t I g u e s s .

married

to

I had a l o v e r and our r e l a t i o n s h i p had t o be

kept dead s e c r e t .
An o l d e r woman f o n d l e d my
l o v e r i n my p r e s e n c e ( a g a i n s t h i s w i s h e s ) and I
c o u l d n ' t d e c l a r e t h a t we had s o m e t h i n g g o i n g .
(We were b o t h s i n g l e so i t wasn't an " i l l i c i t "
affair).
29.
No p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s .
Heightened f r u s t r a t i o n at
not b e i n g a b l e t o be open a b o u t our a f f a i r .
30.
I would o n l y be as j e a l o u s as t h a t now i f my
husband f l i r t e d w i t h a n o t h e r woman.
Actually,
I'd be a s t o u n d e d r a t h e r than j e a l o u s b e c a u s e
he' s- the- l e a s t f 1 i r t a t i o u s - man' P k-nowv W-ith"
any o t h e r man,
I would p r o b a b l y answer
d i f f e r e n t l y t o t h e above q u e s t i o n s .
At t h i s
t i m e i n my l i f e I f e e l v e r y s e c u r e and have no
r e a s o n t o be j e a l o u s .

29.
30.
20

one out f o r p r e f e r m e n t and t h i s would t u r n one

of us i n t o s o m e t h i n g v e r y n a s t y .
I t has c a u s e d a c e r t a i n amount of c o m p e t i t i o n not as f a r as we o u r s e l v e s a r e c o n c e r n e d but
our s p o u s e s i . e . x has got a Ph.D., but y owns
2 h o u s e s and 2 c a r s .
This i s very subliminal we n e v e r a c t u a l l y e x p r e s s i t i n w o r d s .
N e i t h e r of us can see what t h e o t h e r saw i n
t h e i r h u s b a n d (mine of 11 y e a r s , h e r s of 2 ) .
I f s o m e t h i n g happened t o one of our
spouses,
d e a t h , d i v o r c e e t c . and a n o t h e r man came on t h e
scene who we b o t h a g r e e d f u l f i l l e d t h o s e
q u a l i t i e s we a d m i r e d most i n a man compassion, e t c .
- t h e o t h e r t w i n would f e e l
very j e a l o u s .
I t has happened t h a t we f o u n d a
man l i k e t h i s - f o r t u n a t e l y f o r our
r e l a t i o n s h i p - he was a l r e a d y m a r r i e d t o a
cousin.

28.

W a t c h i n g t h e man I was s e x u a l l y i n v o l v e d w i t h
t a l k i n g i n t i m a t e l y for s e v e r a l hours with
a n o t h e r woman.
I t made me more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e man
and
w i l l i n g t o make more of a committment t o t h e
relationship.
I f a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n r e o c c u r e d I t h i n k my
j e a l o u s y would be g r e a t e r
now.
S e e i n g my s e r i o u s b o y f r i e n d t a l k i n g
g i r l f r i e n d t h a t I d i d not l i k e .

t o an

ex-

213

21

29.
30.

E x a s p e r a t i o n on my b o y f r i e n d ' s p a r t .
An o l d g i r l f r i e n d o f my h u s b a n d ' s r e - a p p e a r i n g
on t h e scene and my h u s b a n d b e i n g f r i e n d l y w i t h
h e r , even i f he was o n l y b e i n g f r i e n d l y .

28.

When I was 19 I became i n v o l v e d w i t h a boy, who

unknown t o me, h a d a g i r l f r i e n d t h a t l i v e d i n
another c i t y .
He m a r r i e d h e r a y e a r o r so
later.
I l e a r n e d t o be c a u t i o u s o f p e o p l e who a v o i d
t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h - n o t t h o s e who l i e , b u t
t h o s e who s a y n o t h i n g i n an a t t e m p t t o p r o t e c t
t h e m s e l v e s from e x p l a i n i n g .
Now t h a t I am m a r r i e d I would become j e a l o u s i f
my h u s b a n d began t o s e e a n o t h e r woman o r even
i f i t was j u s t a o n e - n i g h t e x p e r i e n c e t h a t
r e s u l t e d from p e e r p r e s s u r e / d r i n k i n g / p a r t y i n g
with the boys.

29.

30.

22

2.8.

29.

30.

23

28.
29.
30.

24

28.

29.

A f t e r b e i n g s e p a r a t e d o n l y 2 months my h u s b a n d "
s t a r t e d d a t i n g a good f r i e n d o f mine.
She h a d
a good j o b , n i c e f i g u r e , and g o r g e o u s c l o t h e s .
I had a l l t h i s b e f o r e I m a r r i e d .
The p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s were g r e a t e s t .
I had t o
d e a l w i t h h i m d a t i n g o t h e r women.
I t h e l p e d me
t o r e a l i z e "I am who I am". The o n l y n e g a t i v e
e f f e c t was t h a t I no l o n g e r s e e h e r i n t h e same
l i g h t a s when we were f r i e n d s .
P r o b a b l y i f my c h i l d r e n were a l w a y s r a n t i n g a n d
r a v i n g a b o u t how g r e a t daddy's new g i r l f r i e n d
is.
I t h i n k I m i g h t f e e l somewhat t h r e a t e n e d .
S i b l i n g r i v a l r y - y o u n g e r s i s t e r was a t t r a c t i v e
- clever etc.
S t i l l a l i t t l e j e a l o u s - but d i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s
this--.
Seeing other f a m i l i e s enjoying family a c t i v i t y
without the s t r e s s a t t a c h e d t o those i n our
own.
Combination
j e a l o u s y / a n g e r - a f t e r 4 years of
mates' i n f i d e l i t y we s e p a r a t e d a n d c o n t i n u e d
r e l a t i o n s h i p l i v i n g i n separate dwellings.
Mate s t o o d me up t o go t o a g a t h e r i n g a t a
f r i e n d ' s house so I went a l o n e .
He a r r i v e d
l a t e r w i t h woman he h a d been s e e i n g w h i l e we
l i v e d t o g e t h e r a n d h a d p r e v i o u s l y s a i d he
wasn't s e e i n g h e r any more.
I t ended t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
"Last straw"
concept.
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t s - f i r s t time I
r e a l l y f e l t h a t r e d a n d I r e a c t e d b a d l y - threw
g l a s s a t h i m a s he l e f t h o u s e .
Felt horrible

214

30.

25

28.

29.

30.
26

28.

29.
30.
27

28.

29.

30.
28

28.

29.

30.

for not being able t o c o n t r o l myself.

To have c u r r e n t companion do a s i m i l a r a c t .
Have someone abandon me a t a s o c i a l e v e n t t o
f l i r t with others.
Went t o b o y f r i e n d ' s house t o p i c k h i m up f o r
prearranged date.
E n c o u n t e r e d him l e a v i n g w i t h
a woman w i t h whom h e ' d had a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n
the p a s t .
C l a i m e d he f o r g o t t h e d a t e , l e f t
w i t h o t h e r woman.
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t s - am now c o n t i n u a l l y
s u s p i c i o u s , i n s e c u r e , have v e r y a n x i o u s
f e e l i n g s whenever I go o v e r t o h i s house
unexpectedly, always expect the worst.
E n c o u n t e r i n g him w i t h someone e l s e a t h i s
h o u s e , i n an o b v i o u s l y s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .
F i r s t h u s b a n d l e f t me w i t h my o l d e s t , l o n g e s t
f r i e n d (14 y e a r s ) . A f t e r s e v e r a l e p i s o d e s o f
i n f i d e l i t y w i t h o t h e r s and e v e n t u a l l y t h i s
friend.
6 y e a r s l a t e r ( t o p r e s e n t ) . I c a n n o t speak i n a
c i v i l , c a l m f a s h i o n t o e i t h e r o f them.
F o r my new p a r t n e r t o commit t h e same t h i n g .
W h i l e p r e g n a n t , a f o r m e r one n i g h t s t a n d was
w r i t i n g l e t t e r s a n d making phone c a l l s t r y i n g
to c o n t a c t him. I phoned him w h i l e he was i n
.... t o l d h i m a b o u t t h i s .
Then went t o where
she was a n d t o l d h e r t o s t a y c l e a r .
P o s i t i v e - have n o t h a d any p r o b l e m s w i t h h e r
since.
I f e l t more s e c u r e .
When I t o l d him
a b o u t what I d i d , he s u p p o r t e d me by n o t
g e t t i n g mad a b o u t i t . Our r e l a t i o n s h i p was
rocky a t t h i s p o i n t .
T h i s seemed t o cement my
s e c u r i t y t h a t * he was'- w i t h me' and o n l y me;.
I t h i n k I would have t o f i n d him i n bed w i t h
someone o t h e r t h a n me.
My husband was t r a v e l l i n g - i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h
h i s work and s t a y i n g a t a h o t e l - when I c a l l e d
to w i s h h i m a happy a n n i v e r s a r y I d i s c o v e r e d he
was r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e same room w i t h h i s work
a s s o c i a t e - a woman!
P o s i t i v e : I took a h o l i d a y and s p e n t f o u r d a y s
w i t h a b e a u t i f u l young man. Our m a r r i a g e
r e a d j u s t e d t o a f r i e n d s h i p and a l t h o u g h we a r e
now d i v o r c e d we a r e s t i l l f r i e n d s who c a n t a l k
to e a c h o t h e r a s we c o u l d n o t do b e f o r e t h a t
incident.
I do n o t b e l i e v e t h e r e c o u l d be any i n c i d e n t
now t h a t c o u l d p r o v o k e t h e same r e a c t i o n .

215

29

28.
29.
30.

30

28.
29.

30.
31

28.
29.
30.

32

28.
29.
30.

33

28.

29.

30.

- a d e s i r e t o want b e t t e r l i v i n g s i t u a t i o n o r
material things.
- a d e s i r e t o want more
attention.
- i t b r o u g h t us c l o s e r t o g e t h e r , t a l k i n g a b o u t
it.
I f my h u s b a n d gave a t t e n t i o n t o someone w i t h a
better l i v i n g s i t u a t i o n .
I was on v a c a t i o n .
B o y f r i e n d (I t h o u g h t ) t o o k
up w i t h a n o t h e r woman.
P o s i t i v e - I have l e a r n e d n o t t o be q u i t e so
d e p e n d e n t on someone.
Negative - d i s t r u s t of
people.
S t i l l f i n d i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o speak
t o woman i n v o l v e d , o r even be i n t h e same room
with h e r .
F o r a f r i e n d t o win a m i l l i o n - d o l l a r l o t t e r y .
Meet i n g p a s t g i r l f r i e n d o f my h u s b a n d ' s who I .
knew he had once been s e r i o u s a b o u t .
Had a. p o s i t i v e e f f e c t i n t h a t i t t a u g h t me t h a t
the p a s t had no s i g n i f i c a n c e on t h e p r i m a r y
relationship.
I f I f e l t my h u s b a n d was i n t e r e s t e d a n d
a t t r a c t e d t o a n o t h e r woman.
When my h u s b a n d d a n c e s w i t h a n o t h e r g i r l
y o u n g e r t h a n me and b e t t e r d a n c e r .
Very negative - negative d i s c u s s i o n - negative
view o f m y s e l f s a d n e s s o f my h u s b a n d who e n j o y s
dancing.
Same e x p e r i e n c e .
When I was a b o u t 20, t h e r e was a f e e l i n g o f
extreme j e a l o u s y t o w a r d s a c o - w o r k e r .
She was
c o n s i d e r a b l y o l d e r t h a n !, but- my - husband
admired her, and I f e l t I j u s t c o u l d n ' t
compete.
The d i f f i c u l t t h i n g was t h a t I a l s o
a d m i r e d h e r and l i k e d h e r .
I t was h a r d t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e f e e l i n g s I h a d when my h u s b a n d
praised her.
From t h i s I r e a l i z e d t h a t i t was "O.K." f o r my
husband t o a d m i r e somebody e l s e f o r t h e i r good
q u a l i t i e s , a s l o n g a s t h e r e was no i l l
r e f l e c t i o n on me.
I have l e a r n e d t h a t a l t h o u g h
some p e o p l e " o u t s h i n e " me, I am s t i l l an
O.K. p e r s o n .
I f my h u s b a n d were t o a d m i r e a c l o s e f r i e n d and i t seemed t o be more t h a n a d m i r a t i o n !
If I
f e l t t h a t he was p l a c i n g me i n a p o s i t i o n where
i t was n e c e s s a r y t o compete f o r h i s a f f e c t i o n .
;

216

34

28.
29.

30.
35

28.
29.
30.

36

28.

29.

30.

37

28.
29.

30.

38

39

28.
29.
30.
28.

The man I l i v e d w i t h s t a y e d out a l l n i g h t w i t h

a n o t h e r woman.
N e g a t i v e - d i d n ' t t r u s t t h e man
(men?).
P o s i t i v e - made me l o o k c l o s e l y a t m y s e l f t o
f i n d out why t h i s h a p p e n e d .
E f f e c t - l e d to
eventual s p l i t ^ u p .
I f I f o u n d my h u s b a n d s l e e p i n g w i t h a n o t h e r
woman.
My h u s b a n d ' s i n t e r e s t i n a n o t h e r woman who
was
y o u n g e r , a t t r a c t i v e and i n t e l l i g e n t .
M a i n l y n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n toward m y s e l f .
Nonc o m p r e h e n s i o n by my h u s b a n d : i . e . what's a l l
the f u s s about?
My c h i l d r e n ' s p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e i r f a t h e r ' s
attention.
A f r i e n d of mine whom I have been s p e n d i n g a
l o t of t i m e w i t h s t a r t e d t a l k i n g a b o u t a n o t h e r
woman he was making f r i e n d s w i t h - s i n g l e
parent, a r t i s t , e t c .
I f e l t v e r y i n s e c u r e and
f e l t he was c o m p a r i n g me t o h e r even t h o u g h we
a r e not h a v i n g an i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p I
d i d n ' t want him t o have one w i t h her e i t h e r .
I t r e a l l y " g r i p p e d " me f o r a w h i l e - I became
d i s t a n t w i t h my f r i e n d when he t a l k e d of h e r
and made s u b t l e s n i d e r e m a r k s .
I r e a l l y tried,
t o work i t out w i t h o u t him - I met h e r f i n a l l y
and f e l t much b e t t e r - I d i d n ' t c a r e f o r her
much and f e l t l e s s t h r e a t e n e d .
I would f e e l b a d l y i f my f r i e n d got i n v o l v e d i n
a r e l a t i o n s h i p and c o n s t a n t l y t a l k e d about how
w o n d e r f u l she was and i f I a t t h e same t i m e was
not i n v o l v e d i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p .
I cannot' remember a s p e c i f i c
exper-ience-'-which
s t a n d s out i n a memorable way.
In e a r l i e r y e a r s i t made me c l i n g y and
possessive.
Now
i t l e a d s me t o d e t a c h m y s e l f
from my f e e l i n g s and t h e r e b y g i v e s me g r e a t e r
freedom to l o v e both p e o p l e .
The g r e a t e s t j e a l o u s y comes when my c h i l d r e n
p r e f e r a f r i e n d ' s company a t a t i m e w h i c h had
been a s p e c i a l i n t i m a t e t i m e f o r us i n t h e
past.
My l o v e r p l a n n i n g a t r i p out of t h e
C o n t r i b u t e d to break-up.
A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n - where p a r t n e r
t o t r a v e l and I am n o t .
Sexual

j e a l o u s y i n an

insecure

country.
is

"free"

relationship.

217

29.
30.
40

28.
29.
30.

41

28.
29.

30.

42

28.
29.
30.

43

28.

29.
30.

44

28.

H e l p e d t o end an u n s t a b l e and h a r m f u l
relationship.
I f my husband was a t t r a c t e d t o someone e l s e .
C o n t a c t ( d o n ' t know t o what d e g r e e o f i n t i m a c y )
between my husband a n d a f o r m e r g i r l f r i e n d ( t o
whom he was t o be m a r r i e d ) .
Taught me t h a t t r u s t o f someone c l o s e t o y o u ,
came from w i t h i n y o u r s e l f .
I d o n ' t t h i n k i t would happen.
I believe I
have p r e t t y w e l l e l i m i n a t e d j e a l o u s y - a s an
u n p r o d u c t i v e emotion!
A y o u n g e r p h y s i c a l l y more v o l u p t u o u s woman w i t h
d e f i n i t e i n t e n t t o make i m p r e s s i o n on my
h u s b a n d i n my v e r y p r e s e n c e .
I f e l t h e l p l e s s and became more k e e n l y aware o f
my p h y s i c a l s h o r t c o m i n g s .
I pouted a b i t but
. s i n c e husband d i d not d i s p l a y l a s t i n g i n t e r e s t
i n o t h e r woman t h e e p i s o d e was soon f o r g o t t e n .
I would be much more j e a l o u s i f my husband
r e s p o n d e d more v i g o r o u s l y t o a come-on o r
i n i t i a t e d one h i m s e l f .
F o r me t o become
e x t r e m e l y j e a l o u s t h e woman i n v o l v e d would have
t o be d e f i n i t e l y much b e t t e r l o o k i n g t h a n
myself.
I f my husband showed i n t e r e s t i n a
woman who was more p l a i n t h a n m y s e l f I would
p i t y him a n d would t e n d n o t t o t a k e h i m
seriously.
T h i n k i n g t h a t I was
the one I l o v e .
Negative - r e s u l t e d
us.
P o s i t i v e - got
out t h e p r o b l e m .
F i n d i n g o u t t h a t my

not appreciated

o r l o v e d by

i n a n g r y words between 2 o f
us t a l k i n g and s t r a i g h t e n e d
husband was f o o l i n g a r o u n d :

A f t e r becoming p r e g n a n t by my b o y f r i e n d (now my
husband) we s e p a r a t e d f o r a y e a r .
During that
y e a r a c l o s e g i r l f r i e n d became v e r y f r i e n d l y
with him.
Between my husband and m y s e l f t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s
no l o n g e r a n e g a t i v e o n e . I s t i l l c a n n o t .
a s s o c i a t e o r even s e e t h i s f o r m e r g i r l f r i e n d .
I f my h u s b a n d were t o become f r i e n d l y w i t h t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r g i r l again.
Even a f r i e n d s h i p would
cause j e a l o u s y .
Husband p r e f e r r e d t o spend h i s t i m e more and
more w i t h a g r o u p o f f r i e n d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h
a certain g i r l .
T o l d me one day t h a t he had
f a l l e n i n love with h e r .

218

29.

30.

45

28.

29.

30.

I t d e s t r o y e d my c o m p l e t e t r u s t I had i n him and

made o u r m a r r i a g e a f a r c e .
The p o s i t i v e : I
have s t a r t e d t o f o c u s on m y s e l f a g a i n , I l i v e
by m y s e l f a n d f o r m y s e l f .
None, b e c a u s e I have n o t been a b l e t o t r u s t
anyone enough s i n c e , t o w a r r a n t j e a l o u s y .
An a d m i r e d p e r s o n x o v e r t l y i g n o r e d me; d i d n ' t
a t t e n d my p e r f o r m a n c e s a l t h o u g h I had r e h e a r s e d
w i t h him e t c . . .
But t u r n e d up a t a n o t h e r
student's performance.
P o s i t i v e e f f e c t s : I t r i e d t o improve t h o s e
s k i l l s which the person v a l u e d very h i g h l y .
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t s : an u n d e r c u r r e n t f e e l i n g t h a t
a f f e c t e d o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t i n d e e d he was
not f a i r and a f e e l i n g t h a t I was n o t w o r t h a s
much as I t h o u g h t I was.
Any s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h I would f e e l t h a t I am
l o s i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f someone I r e g a r d e d v e r y
highly.

Male S u b j e c t s '
46

28.
29.

30.
47

28.
29.
30.

Responses

My g i r l f r i e n d l e f t me, a n d r e t u r n e d t o h e r e x lover.
N e g a t i v e - l o n e l i n e s s , s e l f - p i t y , s a p p e d my
m o t i v a t i o n t o work, s o I q u i t .
Positive a f t e r 3 weeks, f o u n d I c o u l d e a s i l y c r e a t e new
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b o l s t e r e d my c o n f i d e n c e t o w a r d
defeating jealousy.
Same - g i r l f r i e n d l e a v e s me f o r a n o t h e r .
When a g i r l I had t a k e n t o a p a r t y l e f t w i t h
someone- e l s e w i t h o u t s a y i n g a n y t h i n g i
A p r i m a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p was n o t i n v o l v e d , i t was
casual.
I f my w i f e l e f t a s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g w i t h someone
e l s e w i t h o u t f i r s t f i l l i n g me i n on t h e
p o s i t i o n I was l e f t i n .

48
28.

29.

In a d u l t h o o d , an o c c a s i o n where my l o v e r t o l d
me t h a t she h a d been i n t i m a t e w i t h a n o t h e r man
she met a t a c o n f e r e n c e .
I t was a p r o f o u n d
f e e l i n g of h u m i l i a t i o n , d i s l o y a l t y ( a t t r i b u t e d
to h e r ) , r i v a l r y .
I t was t h e " l a s t s t r a w " i n a f a l t e r i n g
relationship.
We were n e v e r i n t i m a t e a f t e r
t h a t , a l t h o u g h we have met on c o r d i a l , f r i e n d l y
terms s i n c e .
F o r m y s e l f i t was a " w a t e r s h e d "

219

30.

49

28.
29.
30.

p e r i o d i n which I e v e n t u a l l y matured out of the

b o y - g e t s - g i r l syndrome.
I decided to abstain
from s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s u n t i l I was c a p a b l e o f
g r e a t e r e m o t i o n a l i n t i m a c y and s e l f - k n o w l e d g e ,
w i t h one e x c e p t i o n ( t h a t e c h o e d t h e s i t u a t i o n
a b o v e ) I was c e l i b a t e f o r j u s t o v e r a y e a r ,
e n t e r e d g r o u p t h e r a p y , became more s o c i a l and
less possessive.
I doubt t h a t any s i t u a t i o n c o u l d evoke a
s i m i l a r o r more e x t r e m e j e a l o u s r e a c t i o n .
I n f i d e l i t y on t h e p a r t o f my w i f e , f o r example,
would s u r e l y evoke j e a l o u s y , b u t I b e l i e v e t h a t
extreme j e a l o u s y ( i n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r
e l s e w h e r e ) stems from p e r s o n a l i n s e c u r i t y , and
I now f e e l more aware o f my i n s e c u r i t i e s .
My w i f e had an e x t e n d e d (8 months) a f f a i r .
Broke us up f o r a y e a r and u n s e t t l e d us f o r
f o u r more.
The same s i t u a t i o n .

50

28.
29.
30.

W i f e and b e s t f r i e n d s l e e p i n g t o g e t h e r .
Ended m a r r i a g e and began a c o u r t s h i p .
A n o t h e r man b e i n g (becoming) t h e f a t h e r r o l e o f
my c h i l d r e n .

51

28.

29.
30.

Don't r e c a l l any e x t r e m e e x p e r i e n c e o f
jealousy.
Only f e e l i n g of j e a l o u s y i s i n a
v e r y g e n e r a l s e n s e w i t h r e g a r d t o p e o p l e who
l i v e a more d e s i r a b l e l i f e s t y l e , b e t t e r sex
l i f e , w e l l behaved k i d s , e t c .
Not a p p l i c a b l e .
(no r e p s o n s e )

52

28.
29.
30.

(No r e s p o n s e )
(No r e s p o n s e )
(No r e s p o n s e )

53

28.
29.

1) A p p e a r a n c e s 2) Work r e l a t i o n s h i p s
1) Lack o f s e l f c o n f i d e n c e and few f r i e n d s 2)
C r e a t e d a tremendous need f o r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t over a c h i e v e r .
Someone who I f e e l i s l e s s c a p a b l e t h a n I , y e t
i s more s u c c e s s f u l .

30.
54

28.
29.
30.

When my s t e p m o t h e r would o f f e r s p e c i a l f o o d
b e h i n d my back t o my s t e p s i s t e r s e t c .
Hate t h a t l a s t s t o t h i s day, o r s h o u l d p e r h a p s
I c a l l i t v e r y bad moments t o remember.
Well I c o n s i d e r myself self-made,
financially
and f a m i l y - w i s e .
P e r h a p s , i f I w o u l d n ' t have a
f i n a n c i a l l y s e c u r e f e e l i n g I would f e e l j e a l o u s

220

t o w a r d s some of my
55

28.
29.

30.
56

28.

29.

30.

57

28.
29.
30.

friends

or

f e l l o w workers.

O n l y 1 e x p e r i e n c e - a t age 17 - t h e g i r l I t o o k
t o a h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t i o n d a n c e d e s e r t e d me
for another
guy.
We were f r i e n d s b e f o r e and a r e s t i l l f r i e n d s
now - I was u p s e t a t t h e t i m e , but g o t o v e r i t .
I had n e a r l y f o r g o t t e n t h e i n c i d e n t u n t i l t h i s
survey.
(No
response)
As i t happens so i n f r e q u e n t l y , I have no memory
of 'the most extreme e x p e r i e n c e ' of j e a l o u s y .
One t h i n g I remember: b e i n g i n a back s e a t
w h i l e a f r i e n d 'made o u t ' w i t h a g i r l I
desired.
I t made me a n g r y and d e p r e s s e d , s u l l e n and
distant.
I wanted t o be a l o n e and d i d n ' t f e e l
much l i k e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n g r o u p a c t i v i t i e s
w i t h t h e f r i e n d ( s ) I was t h e n w i t h - f o r a day
or s o .
L o s i n g a j o b t o a f r i e n d whom I knew t o be l e s s
q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e p o s i t i o n - b e i n g r e j e c t e d by
a p u b l i s h i n g house t h a t a c c e p t e d a work of a
f r i e n d I t h o u g h t t o be of l e s s e r s i g n i f i c a n c e
t h a n mine.
A c t u a l l y , t h i s would p r o b a b l y make
me a n g r y , r e s e n t f u l - maybe more e n v i o u s t h a n
jealous.
When I saw a f r i e n d of mine go a f t e r a
g i r l f r i e n d t h a t I had my eye on.
I became f r i e n d s w i t h t h e g i r l and the boy and
I became d i s t a n t .
I f my w i f e b r o u g h t up our c h i l d r e n w i t h h e r
s i d e up of t h e f a m i l y i n f l u e n c e .
T h i s would
make^me- a n g r y - t h r n M ng that- my f a m i l y isn-'t
good enough.

58

28.
29.
30.

Sexual deception - i n f i d e l i t y .
Ended i t .
D i f f i c u l t t o say - j e a l o u s y t e n d e n c y
now
s u p p l a n t e d t o d i s s a p p o i n t e d r e c o g n i t i o n and
a c c e p t a n c e of r e a l i t y .

59

28.

As a young t e e n ( 1 2 - 1 3 ) , a n e i g h b o u r boy
was
endowed w i t h e v e r y m a t e r i a l i s t l u x u r y money
c o u l d buy - I was not so endowed and he made
s u r e I remembered t h a t .
Even i f t h e p e r s o n i n q u e s t i o n ' s l i f e had n o t
become as d i r e c t i o n l e s s as i t d i d , I would have
s t i l l l e a r n e d t h e p o i n t l e s s n e s s of s i m p l y
acquiring "possessions."

29.

221

60

30.

I f a p e r s o n were t o e x h i b i t a g r e a t d e a l o f
s k i l l at a musical instrument without p r a c t i c e ,
but s i m p l y by p u r e i n n a t e t a l e n t (which I do
not have much of')' I o f t e n become e n v i o u s and
self-critical.

28.

My g i r l f r i e n d had a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r
male.
P o s i t i v e - t o t a l l y c u r t a i l e d any o t h e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p s I may have had o r t h i n k i n g o f
having.
N e g a t i v e - t h e f e e l i n g o f t r u s t was
somewhat r u p t u r e d .
I f I was h a v i n g a c o n t i n u e d i n t i m a t e
r e l a t i o n s h i p and my p a r t n e r was c a r r y i n g on an
a f f a i r w i t h someone e l s e .

29.

30.

61

28.
29.

30.
62

28.

29.
30.

When someone t o o k my g i r l f r i e n d and a t t h e same

t i m e g o t a p a r t I had been p r o m i s e d i n a p l a y .
I saw, e v e n t u a l l y , t h a t he was b e t t e r f o r b o t h
(the
p a r t and t h e g i r l ) s o u l t i m a t e l y t h e y had
my b l e s s i n g and I am now q u i t e f r i e n d l y w i t h
b o t h (him and h e r ) . .
I f someone was c h o s e n f o r s o m e t h i n g t h a t I f e l t
more q u a l i f i e d t o do.
A woman I know bought a new j a c k - k n i f e f o r h e r
son w h i c h was n i c e r t h a n t h e one I owned.
I
t o l d him I was j e a l o u s o f him h a v i n g s u c h a
nice knife.
I t made him a p p r e c i a t e t h e g i f t even more.
I c a n n o t i m a g i n e j e a l o u s y b e i n g an a c t i v e
f a c t o r i n my l i f e .

63

28.
29.
30.

My f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d l i k e d someone e l s e .
(No r e s p o n s e )
My- spouse- t o fa-fee^a-"l/o-veu'-o.s*'leaver

64

28.

My f i r s t l o v e r , was an e x t r e m e l y j e a l o u s p e r s o n
and was a l w a y s c h e c k i n g up on me, she was v e r y
suspicious.
I r o n i c a l l y she made i t w i t h a
trumpet p l a y e r from a v e r y good r o c k g r o u p , I
was s i c k w i t h b e t r a y a l , a n g e r and j e a l o u s y .
P o s i t i v e l y i t ended t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a s we knew
i t and s h a t t e r e d a l l t h e i n a n e i l l u s i o n s I had
been s a d d l e d w i t h from my l e a r n i n g up u n t i l
that p o i n t ( i e . love) i n i t s narrowest
senses.
P e r h a p s i f someone were t o show e x t r e m e
i n t e r e s t i n my p a r t n e r and t h e r e was some
r e c i p r o c a t i o n my i d l e t h o u g h t s c o u l d be
aroused.

29.

30.

65

28.

My

girlfriend

(now my w i f e )

w r o t e a l e t t e r (I

222

29.

30.
66

28.
29.
30.

67

28.
29.

30.

68

28.

was g o i n g t o s c h o o l i n ..., she was g o i n g t o

s c h o o l i n ...) a n d t o l d me she h a d gone on a
" c a s u a l " date with another f e l l o w .
Neg - I became somewhat i l l a n d l i s t l e s s f o r
s e v e r a l days.
Pos - we d i s c u s s e d t h e m a t t e r .
My j e a l o u s y i n d i c a t e d t o h e r t h a t I was s e r i o u s
about h e r .
I f I f o u n d o u t t h a t my w i f e c a r e d more a b o u t
a n o t h e r male t h a n m y s e l f .
G i r l f r i e n d d i s c o v e r e d d a t i n g a n o t h e r guy.
P o s i t i v e - made me aware t h a t I was n o t a s
i n d i s p e n s i b l e as I thought.
N e g a t i v e - made me
not t r u s t women anymore.
F i n d i n g my p r e s e n t g i r l f r i e n d i n t i m a t e w i t h
someone e l s e .
S e p a r a t e d w i f e g o i n g o u t w i t h an o l d b o y f r i e n d
( v e r y . m i n o r j e a l o u s r e s p o n s e , b u t I was aware
of i t ) .
May h a v e i n t r o d u c e d a v e r y m i n o r b i t o f s t r a i n
i n t o an o t h e r w i s e e x t r e m e l y a m i c a b l e
s e p a r a t i o n . . I emphasize the "minor": i t i s
h a r d l y w o r t h y o f comment.
Cannot v i s u a l i z e any s i t u a t i o n a t t h e moment,
s i n c e I have no c l o s e c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
anyone.
I t r y n o t t o d w e l l on any p a r t i c u l a r e v e n t o r
i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t makes me f e e l j e a l o u s ,
however, i n g e n e r a l , s i t u a t i o n s where a n o t h e r
i n d i v i d u a l i s i n my e y e s more s u c c e s s f u l ; be i t
in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s with other people or i n
what t h e y do w e l l c o u l d c a u s e j e a l o u s y . No
e v e n t , o t h e r t h a n t h e immediate one c a u s i n g
j e a l o u s y , has been' more ' extreme' 'than t h e l a s t ' .
A l l s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s make me s t r i v e h a r d e r t o
a c h i e v e something t h a t o t h e r s can a t t a i n but I
feel I can't.
(No r e s p o n s e )
1

29.
30.
69

28.

29.

30.

An e x t r e m e l y i n t e n s e , p r o l o n g e d , y e t t e n u o u s
r e l a t i o n s h i p ; i n which p a r t n e r c a s u a l l y
e x p r e s s e s a t t r a c t i o n f o r a n o t h e r male p e r c e i v e d
by me t o be a more a c c o m p l i s h e d , dynamic a n d
c a p a b l e i n d i v i d u a l than m y s e l f .
P o s : s h a r i n g f e e l i n g s w i t h p a r t n e r . Neg: a f t e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p h a d ended t h e e v e n t c o n t r i b u t e d t o
t h e f e e l i n g s t h a t t h e p a r t n e r h a d been
i n s i n c e r e and ( d i s ) h o n e s t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
( w i t h h e r s e l f a n d me).
P r e s e n t p a r t n e r c h a n g i n g and s u b s e q u e n t l y

223

finding.the relationship didn't

whereas someone e l s e c o u l d .
70

28.
29.
30.

71

28.
29.
30.

72

28..
29.
30.

73

28.
29.

30.

meet h e r

needs

F i n d i n g my g i r l f r i e n d i n t i m a t e l y d a n c i n g w i t h
another person.
N e g a t i v e e f f e c t : break r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h
friends.
P o s i t i v e e f f e c t : t r y t o be l e s s
possessive.
At t h i s t i m e i n l i f e I do not have any f e e l i n g
of j e a l o u s y .
A f t e r s e e i n g my f i r s t and most i m p o r t a n t p e r s o n
i n l i f e , i n an i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p r o v o k e
my s e n s e s .
As a s i d e e f f e c t h e l p e d me t o g e t m y s e l f more
together.
N e g a t i v e p a r t was t h e t r u s t w h i c h I
c o u l d not s h a r e 100% w i t h h e r anymore.
Unknown a t t h e moment.
P e r c e p t i o n t h a t my h i g h s c h o o l s w e e t h e a r t
was
i n t e r e s t e d i n another f e l l o w .
L i t t l e e f f e c t as j e a l o u s y d i d n o t m a n i f e s t
i t s e l f to person involved.
J e a l o u s y proved
unfounded.
S i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n as d e s c r i b e d i n 28 a b o v e .
My w i f e s p e n d i n g an e v e n i n g j u s t t a l k i n g w i t h a
m u t u a l man f r i e n d who was f o n d o f h e r .
R e a l i z e d t h a t my j e a l o u s y was a r e s u l t of n o t
t r u s t i n g my s p o u s e - l e a r n e d t o be more
t r u s t i n g and r e s p e c t f u l of her c o n t a c t w i t h
other
men.
My w i f e becoming i n v o l v e d i n a l o n g - t e r m
emotional r e l a t i o n s h i p with another
man.

224

APPENDIX E
R e s p o n s e s t o Item

120

225

The f o l l o w i n g
questionnaire
120.

How

are subjects' verbatim

i t e m 120:

responses

to

would you d e f i n e j e a l o u s y ?

Subject

Female S u b j e c t s ' R e s p o n s e s

01

( j e a l o u s y i s ) f e a r of not h a v i n g the r e q u i r e d
p r o p o r t i o n of a l o v e d - o n e ' s a f f e c t i o n s - i n s e c u r i t y .

02

an a u t o m a t i c
st imulus.

03

an e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h one
c a n n o t c o n t r o l by l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s .

04

d e s p e r a t e l y w a n t i n g t o be l i k e someone e l s e ( w h i c h
i n c l u d e s h a v i n g " t h i n g s " h e / s h e has o r h a v i n g
p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , e t c . ) which i s i n h e r e n t l y a
futile desire.

05

an" e m o t i o n

06

t h e most h o r r i b l e p r e - o c c u p y i n g e m o t i o n t o
experience.
T h e r e i s no c u r e o r way o u t .

07

a p h y s i c a l or emotional r e a c t i o n i n response to a
f e a r o f l o s i n g your l o v e r ( e t c . ) t o someone e l s e .
You c a n a l s o be e n v i o u s o r ( i . e . ) j e a l o u s of
m a t e r i a l t h i n g s someone e l s e h a s .

08

f e e l i n g i n s e c u r e o r t h r e a t e n e d by t h e l o s s o f
someone o r s o m e t h i n g , hence p o s s e s s i v e and w a n t i n g
t o hang on, have a l l to-- one's- s e l f .

09

an i r r a t i o n a l , p a i n f u l , c r i p p l i n g e m o t i o n w h i c h
c r e a t e s i n me deep f e e l i n g s o f d e s p a i r and
powerlessness.
I t only e x i s t s in r e l a t i o n s h i p to a
man I have d e c i d e d t o l o v e , s u r r e n d e r e d t o , and t h e n
been b e t r a y e d o r a b a n d o n e d .

10

a n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n t o someone o r some
s i t u a t i o n i n which you f e e l d e p r i v e d .

11

an e m o t i o n t h a t b r i n g s on f r u s t r a t i o n , a n g e r , and
retaliation.
The e m o t i o n i s c a u s e d by b a s i c
d i s t r u s t i n my c a s e a c t u a t e d by a more s u c c e s s f u l
r ival.

12

the f e e l i n g

response

based

f o l l o w e d by a

on p a r a n o i a and

aroused

particular

insecurity.

when one t h i n k s one i s l o s i n g

226

s o m e t h i n g d e a r t o one's s e l f
anything to regain i t .
13

i s wanting
else.

affection

14

the d e s i r e

t o be

15

the

16

17

18

reaction

that

of

is helpless

to

do

i s b e i n g g i v e n t o someone

something

to loss

and

you

are

not.

affection.

-a s e v e r e amount of i n d i g n a t i o n a r i s i n g
r i v a l r y w i t h someone c l o s e t o m y s e l f .
f e l t j e a l o u s o f p e o p l e I d o n ' t know.)

through
(I have

never

e m o t i o n s t h a t a r e b r o u g h t t o s u r f a c e by i n n e r m o s t
t h o u g h t s and i d e a l s of what i s r i g h t a n d / o r
a c c e p t a b l e t o one's s e l f .
. i n a n s w e r i n g , I have c o n c e n t r a t e d ~ o n t h e s e x u a l
a s p e c t of j e a l o u s y , not on n o n - s e x u a l r i v a l r y o r
coveting.
T h e r e f o r e , my d e f i n i t i o n of s p e c i f i c
j e a l o u s y i s f e a r of c o m p e t i t i o n f o r someone's
a f f e c t i o n , sexual a t t e n t i o n .

19

an e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e u s u a l l y i n t e n s e and p a i n f u l
an i m a g i n e d o r r e a l s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g y o u r
m a t e / s e x u a l p a r t n e r and a n o t h e r p e r s o n .

20

a horrid

21

d o u b t / c o n c e r n / c o n f u s i o n a b o u t one's own p o s i t i o n
h e l d i n r e s p e c t t o t h a t of a n o t h e r w h e t h e r i t be
concerning material/maternal matters.

22

a f e e l i n g you g e t when someone e l s e

always" wanted' to- be o r were.

23

envious

24

a f e e l i n g of b e i n g l e f t
w i t h someone you l o v e .

25

a r e a c t i o n of h u r t and b e t r a y a l t o an
i n s e n s i t i v i t y on t h e p a r t o f a p e r s o n
d e a l about.

awful

feeling.

of a n o t h e r ' s

i s what

you

person.
out

of a p l e a s a n t

insecurity.

27

fear

28

n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n t o b e i n g e x c l u d e d from an
p a r t of a p e r s o n ' s l i f e whom you had t r i e d

someone you

situation

a c t i o n of
I care a great

26

of l o s i n g

to

l o v e t o someone

else.
intimate
to share

227

a l l w i t h - a f e a r of not b e i n g " g i v i n g " enough

p r o v i d e t h a t p e r s o n w i t h enough.
for better

29

a desire

30

envy of a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s s i t u a t i o n s , r e l a t i o n s , o r
p o s s e s s i o n s ; but whereas envy i s not u s u a l l y
n e g a t i v e , j e a l o u s y d e f i n i t e l y i s n e g a t i v e , and o f t e n
c a n become a p r o b l e m f o r a l l c o n c e r n e d .

31

an

32

33

a f e e l i n g of r e s e n t m e n t
f e e l they pose a t h r e a t

34

c o n d i t i o n e d emotion
self-esteem.

35

i n a b i l i t y to t r u l y accept
situations/relationships.

36

a deep i n s e c u r i t y about another p e r s o n

a c t i v i t i e s t h a t d o n ' t i n c l u d e you.

37

t h e f e e l i n g I have.when I see someone e l s e r e c e i v i n g

t h e a t t e n t i o n of a l o v e d one w h i c h I t h o u g h t was
the
k i n d of a t t e n t i o n o n l y g i v e n t o
me.

38

anger

39

(no

40

b e i n g t o o p r o t e c t i v e of t h e
ca-re for- has' w.ith^ others*.

41

f e a r of
envy of

42

a f e e l i n g t h a t r e s u l t s when you a r e c o v e t i n g some

s i t u a t i o n or b e i n g u n a b l e t o make someone the
way
you want them t o be.

43

a very
helped

44

t h e f e a r of (and
something h i g h l y

45

a f e e l i n g of
held in high

envy of

another

f e e l i n g of

at

things/

to

situations etc.

p e r s o n ' s p o s i t i o n or a t t r i b u t e s .

inadequacy.

injustice

towards another p e r s o n .
t o you i n some
way.

b a s e d on

of

not

i n s e c u r i t y and

You

low

certain

being

loved

and

their

enough.

response)
contacts

someone

you

l o s i n g my h u s b a n d t o a more b e a u t i f u l woman;
a n o t h e r g i r l ' s good l o o k s .

i n t e n s e e m o t i o n a l h u r t w h i c h can u s u a l l y
by d i s c u s s i n g i t w i t h a c l o s e p e r s o n .
reaction
valued.

having
regard

to)

l o s i n g someone

l o s t the a t t e n t i o n
or e s t e e m .

of

be

or

someone

228

Male S u b j e c t s '

Responses

46

p o s s e s s i v e n e s s , and a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t . o n e ' s
p o s s e s s o r y i n t e r e s t i s c h a l l e n g e d ; or a d e s i r e t o
a q u i r e s o m e t h i n g or someone i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n of
another.

47

f e a r i n g complete l o s s
very p o s i t i v e about.

48

r i v a l r y , s e n s e of ( p o s s i b l e ) l o s s ,
b e i n g a l o n e or i n f e r i o r .

49

f e a r of l o s s
one
(wife).

50

s e p a r a t i o n a n x i e t y based
my c a s e .

51

f e e l i n g e n v i o u s of o t h e r p e r s o n s b e i n g
s i t u a t i o n I would l i k e t o be i n . .

52

(no

53

a h o s t i l e e m o t i o n t o w a r d one who I,
at the
f e e l t o have an a d v a n t a g e o v e r me.
I. have
e x p e r i e n c e d j e a l o u s y i n an i n t r a - p e r s o n a l
experience.

54

built-in

55

an i r r a t i o n a l
person.

56

r e s e n t f u l and e n v i o u s f e e l i n g s a n d / o r b e h a v i o r ; a
f e a r f u l n e s s of l o s i n g a f f e c t i o n ; c o v e t o u s n e s s or
g u a r d e d a t t i t u d e t o w a r d someone's a t t a i n m e n t s / some
p e r s o n , w i t h p o s s i b l e c o r o l l a r y of p e r c e i v e d
rivalry.

57

feeling

58

e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o an u n f a i r d e c e p t i o n or
i n t e r f e r e n c e - being forced to play with h a l f
deck.

of a c o n t a c t

(to another

person

was

envy,

feeling
fear

of

or p u r s u i t ) of

loved

on m o t h e r ' s a f f e c t i o n s

in

in a

response)

possessive

59

somewhat
envy.

60

sickness.

instinct.

feeling

t h a t you're

irrational

time,
never

of p o s s e s s i v e n e s s

not

good

- f o r me

of

another

enough.

a real

gut

feeling

of

229

61

t h e f e e l i n g y o u g e t when someone e l s e
p o s i t i o n ( s ) you p r i z e .

62

envy w i t h

63

n a t u r a l r e s u l t when one who i s t r u s t e d w i t h o n e ' s

innermost f e e l i n g s b e t r a y s the r e l a t i o n s h i p .

64

emotional
emotional

65

an e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n ( o f t e n m a n i f e s t e d p h y s i c a l l y
(e.g.) s t r e s s response) t o the r e a l or p e r c e i v e d
f e a r of l o s s of a f f e c t i o n .

66

a manifestation

67

t h e f e e l i n g " o f i n s e c u r i t y and" p a i n i n d u c e d by t h e
t h o u g h t t h a t someone e l s e has a g r e a t e r a t t r a c t i o n
t o one's p a r t n e r t h a n o n e s e l f , even when r a t i o n a l l y ,
t h a t a t t r a c t i o n c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d .

68

an e m o t i o n a l s t a t e i n i t i a t e d by a f e e l i n g o f
i n a d e q u a c y o r h o p e l e s s n e s s c o u p l e d w i t h someone
e l s e ' s a b i l i t y t o cope e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e
situation.

69

f e e l i n g of i n s e c u r i t y a r i s i n g from s i t u a t i o n s where
an i m p e n d i n g l o s s o f an i n t i m a t e p a r t n e r i s
p e r c e i v e d (be i t r e a l o r i m a g i n a r y ) and t h e
a g g r e s s i v e r e a c t i o n s w h i c h stem from t h e f e e l i n g s o f
insecurity.

70

feeling

71

t h e e x t r e m e o f l o v e o r c a r e f o r somebody o r
something i s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of j e a l o u s y .

72

f e a r o f d i m i n u t i o n o r l o s s o f someone o r s o m e t h i n g ' s
r e l a t i o n s h i p r e l a t i v e t o me.

73

a lack

regard

to another's

i s i n the

affection.

d i s e a s e common i n p e o p l e w i t h narrow
e x p e r i e n c e and f e e l i n g s o f i n s e c u r i t y .

o f one's own

self

esteem.

of p o s s e s s i v e n e s s .

of t r u s t

i n your

partner.

230

APPENDIX "F
R e s p o n s e s t o Item

123

231

The f o l l o w i n g a r e s u b j e c t s ' v e r b a t i m
q u e s t i o n n a i r e item
123:

responses

to

O t h e r i n s i g h t s / t h o u g h t s / e x p e r i e n c e s I have had w i t h / a b o u t
j e a l o u s y and w i s h t o s h a r e a t t h i s t i m e . D i f f e r e n t
c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s , l i n g u i s t i c or any o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s
w i l l be g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
I f , f o r example, you a r e aware
of a few or s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t words f o r j e a l o u s y i n o t h e r
l a n g u a g e s p l e a s e p r e s e n t them and e x p l a i n t h e i r d i s t i n c t i o n .

Subject

Female S u b j e c t s '

Responses

02

I d i d t h e "EST t r a i n i n g " and f o u n d i t t o be the

i n c r e d i b l e i n s i g h t i n t o my j e a l o u s y e v e r .
I am
f i n e w i t h my j e a l o u s y .

most
now

03

I have known more o v e r t l y j e a l o u s / p o s s e s s i v e males,

than females.
I t seems s i m i l a r t o me t o a n g e r or
g r i e f or s e n t i m e n t a l i t y -- an e m o t i o n not e a s i l y .
disciplined.
-

04

I f e e l I have "overcome" j e a l o u s y b e c a u s e I have

come t o s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e t h a t e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l i s
u n i q u e and has h i s own p l a c e i n t h e scheme of t h i n g s
and I c o u l d n ' t p o s s i b l y s t r i v e / w a n t t o be l i k e
anyone e l s e .

05

J e a l o u s y i s b a s e d on an i n s e c u r e c l i n g i n g a t t i t u d e .
I t p l a c e s a q u a n t i t a t i v e q u a l i t y on l o v e i . e . " i f
you l o v e him t h e n you must t h e r e f o r e l o v e me l e s s " .
T h i s i s f a u l t y t h i n k i n g , but common!
When I l o o k t o
my mate f o r a p p r o v a l , I i n t e r p r e t h i s " a p r o v a l " of
a n o t h e r woman ( e s p e c i a l l y one t h a t I am a t t r a c t e d
t o ) as a r e j e c t i o n of me.
Result?
-- r a g e ,
i n d i g n a t i o n , f e e l i n g s of i n f e r i o r i t y and
humiliation.
I can a c c e p t h i s f l i r t a t i o n s i f I f e e l
s t r o n g , a t t r a c t i v e and " n o t i c e d " .
If I feel ugly,
weak and i n s e c u r e , I c a n n o t t o l e r a t e even m i l d
f l i r t a t i o n s on h i s p a r t .

06

To l o v e someone d e e p l y i s t h e most w o n d e r f u l human

experience.
F e a r of l o s i n g t h a t l o v e t o someone
e l s e b r i n g s upon j e a l o u s y .
N a t u r a l l y the p h y s i c a l
and e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s a r e g o i n g t o be i n t e n s e , and
t h e f r u s t r a t i n g t h i n g a b o u t i t i s t h a t you have no
c o n t r o l of y o u r e m o t i o n s or y o u r s i t u a t i o n .
Great
questionnaire!
I enjoyed p a r t i c i p a t i n g .
P.S.
Even
t o f i l l out a q u e s t i o n n a i r e a b o u t the most i n t e n s e
e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h o c c u r r e d some 13 y e a r s ago, I s t i l l
can f e e l t h e p a i n a t t h e t h o u g h t of what I went

232

through at

the

time.

08

When I was a c h i l d , my mother, whose E n g l i s h was

not
v e r y good, t a l k e d o f j e a l o u s y when she meant e n v y .
I t was y e a r s b e f o r e I c l a r i f i e d t h e c o n f u s i o n -i n t e r e s t i n g example of how l a n g u a g e c a n shape
c o n c e p t s and hence f e e l i n g s .

09

I r e a l i z e now t h a t I d o n ' t f e e l j e a l o u s b e c a u s e I
a v o i d , a t g r e a t c o s t s , t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s which would
b r i n g j e a l o u s y (by my d e f i n i t i o n ) a b o u t .
I have y e t
t o d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h the f e e l i n g .
This i s ,
a c t u a l l y , a thought provoking
questionnaire.

12

My f i r s t h u s b a n d had a f f a i r s c o n s t a n t l y d u r i n g t h e 6
y e a r s we were l i v i n g t o g e t h e r .
I came t o e x p e c t
t h i s as commonplace i n our r e l a t i o n s h i p , and
j e a l o u s y became a v e r y s e c o n d a r y i s s u e .to me n e x t t o
h o n e s t y ( w h i c h I f e l t was t o t a l l y l a c k i n g ) .
I find
i t d i f f i c u l t t o get j e a l o u s when; I f e e l t h e r e i s
l o v e b e i n g m a n i f e s t e d between two p e o p l e
my
j e a l o u s y i s u s u a l l y a r o u s e d when I p e r c i e v e ( w r o n g l y
or r i g h t l y ) a l o t of s e c o n d a r y m o t i v e s
e.g.
revenge, wanting to i n f l i c t p a i n , f l i g h t , avoidance,
e t c . and I f e e l c a u g h t up i n t h e c e n t r e of i t .

13

I u s u a l l y t r y t o a v o i d s i t u a t i o n s where j e a l o u s y
could occur.
I t h i n k I u s u a l l y t r y to turn i t
a r o u n d so I d o n ' t f e e l j e a l o u s .
I t ' s j u s t too
frustrating.

16

B r i t i s h upper m i d d l e c l a s s -- j e a l o u s y i s d e f i n i t e l y
a no-no.
One must not g i v e way t o a l l t h o s e
feelings
and so I t e n d e d t o make up a more
a c c e p t a b l e e m o t i o n t o a c c o u n t f o r my b e h a v i o u r -l i k e tiredness-.

19

J e a l o u s y o f t e n seems t o be " p r o j e c t i o n " .

I have
a l s o n o t i c e d t h a t t h e h u s b a n d s who a r e p r o m i s c u o u s
o f t e n t e n d t o be v e r y j e a l o u s and p o s s e s s i v e of
t h e i r wives.

21

My e x p e r i e n c e s of b e i n g j e a l o u s have g e n e r a l l y been
very mild.
Most o c c a s i o n s t h a t I have been j e a l o u s
have been t h o s e i n w h i c h I m i s u n d e r s t o o d my
b o y f r i e n d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r g i r l -he f a i l e d t o e x p l a i n t h e s i t u a t i o n t h o r o u g h l y .

22

I f e e l j e a l o u s y i s a p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n and
i f d e a l t w i t h p r o p e r l y , i t can h e l p you u n d e r s t a n d
y o u r s e l f a whole l o t b e t t e r .

233

24

My p r e s e n t companion communicates h i s f e e l i n g s
w i t h i n a day or two of t h e i r a r r i v a l .
I t h e l p s me
t o u n d e r s t a n d h i s i n s e c u r i t i e s and g i v e s me
c o n f i d e n c e t h a t he w i l l a l s o u n d e r s t a n d my f e e l i n g s
of j e a l o u s y when t h e y s u r f a c e .

26

In my o p i n i o n , j e a l u o s y i s j u s t a symptom of
insecurity.
At t h i s t i m e i n my l i f e , I do not f e e l
j e a l o u s y b e c a u s e I am i n a v e r y s e c u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p
and f e e l v e r y c o n f i d e n t re my own l i f e
(education,
self-esteem, e t c . ) .

27

I f e e l i n my y o u n g e r d a y s t h a t
j e a l o u s when w i t h someone, but
to my i n s e c u r i t y .
I no l o n g e r
s e c u r e w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p I

31

I t c o u l d be t h a t I'm not v e r y j e a l o u s as I've n e v e r

been c o n f r o n t e d w i t h v e r y many s i t u a t i o n s where
j e a l o u s y would a r i s e .

33

J e a l o u s y seems t o be a r e s u l t of a f e e l i n g of
inadequacy i n one's s e l f .
I t h i n k p e o p l e who
are
s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r own s e l f , t e n d t o be l e s s
jealous.
T h i s i n c l u d e s knowing what you a r e , and
e i t h e r a c c e p t i n g what you a r e , or making an e f f o r t
to improve y o u r s e l f .
T h e r e i s no need t o be j e a l o u s
of o t h e r s , i f t h e q u a l i t i e s t h e y p o s s e s a r e not what
you d e s i r e anyway.

34

J e a l o u s y can be removed by a l l o w i n g one's t r u e l o v e

to emerge
l o v e b a s e d i n t r u t h as o p p o s e d t o
a n t i c i p a t e d r e w a r d s -- I have e x p e r i e n c e d p e r i o d s of
no j e a l o u s y .

35

As I g e t - o l d e r , j e a l o u s y a f f e c t s me' f a r less-,
the c a u s e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y
different.

36

I t h i n k the more d e f i n e d and s e c u r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p

or f r i e n d s h i p i s , the l e s s need I f e e l t o be
jealous.
T h a t h o l d s even t r u e r f o r how s e c u r e and
c o n f i d e n t one i s w i t h o n e s e l f .
T h a t i s what I
a n a l y s e when I f e e l j e a l o u s .

37

I f i n d j e a l o u s y t o be the o p p o s i t e of l o v e .
When I
f e e l one I c a n n o t f e e l the o t h e r a t t h e same t i m e .
H a t e and l o v e can l i v e t o g e t h e r t h o u g h .
Therefore,
i f I am f e e l i n g j e a l o u s , I am not l o v i n g t h e o t h e r
p e r s o n and t h a t i s m_ p r o b l e m and I can a c t on t h a t .
I t may be t h a t when I f i n d my l o v e f e e l i n g s a g a i n I
f i n d t h a t I m i g h t a l s o need t o do s o m e t h i n g o t h e r
t h a n what I wanted -- l i k e get busy d o i n g s o m e t h i n g

I was e x t r e m e l y
I f e e l t h i s was
due
f e e l t h i s as I f e e l
have.

and

234

on my own i n s t e a d o f s h a r i n g an e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h a t
other person.
Often I fear l o s i n g the shared
e x p e r i e n c e and i n d e e d t h e f e a r i s r e a l and w e l l
f o u n d e d and what I must a c c e p t i s l o s i n g an i m a g i n e d
or a n t i c i p a t e d e x p e r i e n c e .
39

When p e o p l e a r e j e a l o u s t h e y u s u a l l y have good

rea.son t o be; s u c h f e e l i n g s p o i n t t o d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
w i t h one's s e l f , one's r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e t c . , t h a t a r e
healthy to r e a l i z e .

40

In Mombasa (Kenya) b o t h men and women a c c e p t t h e

f a c t t h a t d u r i n g t h e i r l i v e s , t h e y w i l l be a t t r a c t e d
( s e x u a l l y ) t o p e o p l e o t h e r t h a n t h e i r permanent
partner.
I f t h i s a t t r a c t i o n r e s u l t s i n sexual
i n t i m a c y w i t h p e o p l e , o t h e r t h a n t h e permanent
p a r t n e r (a c a u s e o f j e a l o u s y i n C a n a d i a n s ) , i t i s
u s u a l l y viewed as p a r t o f . l i f e .
B e c a u s e o f my
c o n t a c t w i t h p e o p l e from Mombasa, and from l i v i n g
t h e r e , I now f e e l t h a t s e x u a l c o n t a c t i s o n l y one
a s p e c t of a r e l a t i o n s h i p .
I t h i n k t h a t i n Canada,
t h e r e i s t o o much e m p h a s i s p l a c e d on t h e s e x u a l p a r t
of a r e l a t i o n s h i p -- what a b o u t f r i e n d s h i p , c o o p e r a t i o n , m u t u a l g o a l s , t o name o n l y a few o t h e r
important things?
By becoming j e a l o u s when y o u r
p a r t n e r has s e x u a l c o n t a c t w i t h a n o t h e r , b u t n o t
b e i n g j e a l o u s when t h e r e i s a warm f r i e n d s h i p means
t h a t your f r i e n d s h i p w i t h your p a r t n e r i s not as
important as your s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .

41

I am c o n v i n c e d t h a t I v a l u e p h y s i c a l b e a u t y a s much
a I do b e c a u s e my mother was c o n s i d e r e d t o be v e r y
good-looking i n her c u l t u r e (Yugoslavs l i k e sturdy
d a r k women w i t h a l a r g e bosom).
She had a n i c e
f i g u r e , a p r e t t y f a c e , b e a u t i f u l s t r a i g h t white
t e e t h , l o v e l y legs-.
A l t h o u g h she g o t f a t a f t e r I
was b o r n , h e r image a s b e i n g b e a u t i f u l ( s e l f - i m a g e
and view of p e o p l e a r o u n d h e r ) p e r s i s t e d .
I was a
s i c k l y c h i l d and n o t h i n g was done t o d i s p e l l my
s e l f - i m a g e o f b e i n g a r u n t who u n f o r t u n a t e l y grew up
t o be f l a t - c h e s t e d a s w e l l , w i t h c r o o k e d t e e t h and
an u n f l a t t e r i n g n o s e .
A l t h o u g h I have s i n c e come t o
t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t I'm p r o b a b l y n o t much w o r s e l o o k i n g t h a n my mom ( s t i l l s l i m a f t e r two c h i l d r e n ,
with l e g s l i k e hers, n i c e h a i r , impressive eyes)
what has been p l a n t e d i n my c h i l d h o o d s t i l l p a i n s me
when I f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by a t r u l y b e a u t i f u l " w e l l d e v e l o p e d " woman. U n l e s s a mother c a n p a s s on t o
her daughter t h a t the p h y s i c a l appearance of her
c h i l d i s d e f i n i t e l y a t t r a c t i v e but not r e a l l y t h a t
i m p o r t a n t t h a t c h i l d may have p r o b l e m s i n t h e
jealousy area.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y I f i n d t h a t I am

235

a l r e a d y r e p e a t i n g some of my m o t h e r ' s m i s t a k e s .
My
own d a u g h t e r i s an a t t r a c t i v e c h i l d b u t I w o u l d n ' t
c a l l her gorgeous.
I c a t c h myself saying " l i t t l e
f a t t y " and r e f e r r i n g t o t h e w i d t h o f h e r n o s e .
This
q u e s t i o n n a i r e h a s made me more aware o f t h e f a c t
t h a t I have t o watch what I'm s a y i n g t o and a b o u t
her.
I do t e l l h e r she has b e a u t i f u l h a i r and
b e a u t i f u l eyes.
E i f e r s u c h t (German f o r j e a l o u s y )
d e f i n e d i n t h e German B r o c k h a u s d i c t i o n a r y a s "a
passionate s t r i v i n g f o r s o l e possession with a fear
of e v e r y
competitor".
L j u b o s u m n o s t S l o v e n i a n ( Y u g o s l a v i a n ) -- l i t e r a l l y
" s u s p i c i o n o f l o v e " ( i . e . , a s u s p e c t i n g of y o u r
l o v e r ' s l o v e f o r someone e l s e ) .
44

I t i s n o t good t o deny one's own f e e l i n g s and be t h e

martyr of the f a m i l y .
They w i l l n o t a p p r e c i a t e i t
b u t . w i l l walk a l l o v e r y o u .

45

J e a l o u s y i s v e r y c o n t e x t u a l and t h e q u e s t i o n s
a d d r e s s t h e v a r y i n g c o n t e x t s -- ( e . g . , i n a
mentoring c o n t e x t ) .
Male S u b j e c t s '

do n o t

Responses

48

Re #28 -- w h i l e t h e e v e n t d e s c r i b e d was a p r o f o u n d
i n s t a n c e of j e a l o u s y i n adulthood, t h e r e i s another
a n e c d o t e t h a t comes t o mind.
When I was i n g r a d e 8
(aged 13) I t o o k a g i r l t o t h e s c h o o l prom.
When
another f e l l o w " c u t i n " d u r i n g a dance, I walked
o u t s i d e w i t h a few f r i e n d s a n d a f t e r
complaining
about t h i s " r i v a l " , I p l a c e d a k i c k a g a i n s t t h e
s c h o o l w a l l , a s o r t o f r i t u a l / m o c k d i s p l a y of
a g g r e s s i o n a n d p o s s e s s i o n a g a i n s t my r i v a l
dancing
'inside.
K i c k i n g , y o u s e e , was a l a r g e p a r t o f the--" h a r d r o c k " o r i e n t a t i o n ... where I was r a i s e d .
And so was t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a d v e r t i s i n g y o u r r i g h t s
o v e r "your g i r l " a g a i n s t c o m p e t i t o r s .
Generally, I
do b e l i e v e t h a t j e a l o u s y i s e l e m e n t a l and t h e r e f o r e
not u n n a t u r a l .
I hope y o u r s t u d y t a p s i n t o t h e
c u l t u r a l e x p e c t a t i o n s o f j e a l o u s y a s w e l l a s ways i n
w h i c h e x t r a o r d i n a r y j e a l o u s y c a n be a l t e r e d .
F i n a l l y , a l t h o u g h I've responded i n terms of s e x u a l
j e a l o u s y ( r e a l or imagined) i t i s important t o
r e a l i z e t h a t j e a l o u s y emerges i n a h o s t o f o t h e r
situations (intelligence, drive, nurturing
a b i l i t i e s , w i t , ad i n f i n i t u m ) .

50

To t h e e x t e n t one g i v e s power away i n one's l i f e -one t h e n becomes o b s e s s e d w i t h how t h a t power i s

being used.

236

54

German t r a n s l a t i o n :
jealousy?

55

I t h i n k : j e a l o u s y i s "bad" b u t " n o r m a l " .

but u s u a l .

56

J e a l o u s y i s s o m e t h i n g I d e f i n i t e l y know I e x p e r i e n c e
l e s s t h a n most p e o p l e .
I've oten caught p a r t i c u l a r
h e l l f o r n o t f e e l i n g j e a l o u s about o t h e r m a l e s '
a d v a n c e s toward t h e women i n my l i f e , f o r e x a m p l e .
I'm t o o s e l f - a b s o r b e d and f i e r c e l y
independent.
Competition i s u s u a l l y with myself.
I ' v e thrown
away o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t would be more m a t e r i a l l y
l u c r a t i v e t h a n my o b s e s s i o n w i t h w r i t i n g a n d ,
consequently, the c l o s e s t I u s u a l l y get to jealousy
i s envy o f m a t e r i a l g a i n w h i c h I t h e n pooh pooh w i t h
some t h o u g h t o f fame o r o t h e r e g o - b l a s t .
T h a t ' s my
game.
I j u s t d o n ' t g i v e a goddamn a b o u t most o f t h e
t h i n g s most p e o p l e g e t j e a l o u s a b o u t f o r t h e s i m p l e
r e a s o n t h a t I'm a l r e a d y p r e p a r e d t o l o s e most o f
them c h a s i n g my w i l l - o - t h e - w i s p .
Self-imposed
m a r t y r d o m I s u p p o s e y o u ' d have t o c a l l i t . I a l w a y s
j o k e a b o u t t h a t . . I'm a s u r v i v o r .
I g e t angry and
self-righteous frequently; rarely jealous.
I'm t o o
pompous f o r t h a t .

58

I b e l i e v e a v a r i e d l i f e w i t h a m o d e r a t e number of
d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a s a l l o w e d me t o out-grow a
y o u t h f u l tendency t o j e a l o u s y .

63

Urayamashii

64

J e a l o u s y seems t o be a c o m p o s i t e o f many d i f f e r e n t
(emotions) (responses) anger, p a i n , a l l the p h y s i c a l
and e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s l i s t e d .
T h r u e x p e r i e n c e one
l e a r n s t h e i r way o u t o f s u c h an u n h e r o i c e m o t i o n .
We a r e g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s , d e f i n i t i o n s and p r i n c i p l e s
whereby we a r e e x p e c t e d t o l i v e o u r l i f e a n d a c h i e v e
happiness.
T h r u e x p e r i e n c e we l e a r n t h a t t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n we have been g i v e n i s t o o n a r r o w , i s
e r r o n e o u s , does n o t a p p l y t o u s , i s s i l l y a n d we c a n
b e g i n t o form a t r u e r more p e r s o n a l a n d more
i n t u i t i v e p i c t u r e of the u n i v e r s e .
I think that
j e a l o u s y i s j u s t a symptom of a g r e a t e r p r o b l e m .
Insecurity.
Which i s j u s t a symptom o f h u m a n i t y ' s
g r e a t e s t enemy -- f e a r .
We must come t o t e r m s w i t h
f e a r and assume t h a t h a p p i n e s s a n d h e a l t h i s o u r s .

68

I d o n ' t become j e a l o u s i n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r
r o m a n t i c r e a s o n s , i f t h e woman I am s e e i n g c h o o s e s
t o be w i t h someone e l s e t h e n I a c c e p t t h a t a n d end

-- envy,

eifersuchtig

jealousy

f o r envy o r
Undesirable

Japanese.

237

the

relationship,

I do n o t a c c e p t
this

feeling,

compromise.

70

T r y t o overcome

i t is a

killer.

71

J e a l o u s y a t a v e r y h i g h l e v e l i s a l m o s t a must o f a
man's mind c h a r a c t e r i n t h e m i d d l e e a s t c o u n t r i e s ,
and i s known and p r a c t i c e d
i n the t r a d i t i o n a l
culture.