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(5.1)
in one dimension. An eigenmode is sinusoidal in time, so that the wave equation becomes
2
+ k 2 = 0,
x2
(5.2)
where c |k| is the angular frequency (usually called ). The solutions are plane waves
exp(ikx), with positive and negative k.
5.1
Convergence
If the waves are confined to a ring of length L, the eigenfunctions are simply plane waves
with k taking the special values (eigenvalues)
kn = 2n/L,
The expansion
f (x) =
with
Cn =
X
n=
L/2
L/2
n integer.
Cn exp(ikn x),
32
(5.3)
(5.4)
(5.5)
is the basic Fourier expansion. It converges uniformly for any continuous periodic function
of period L. If f (x) is discontinuous or not periodic (i.e. if f (0) 6= f (L)), or worse if it is
singular, the convergence is slow, not uniform, and likely to cause problems in numerical
evaluations. At a simple jump of f from 0 to 1, for instance, any partial sum S(x) of
the Fourier series will overshoot up to 1.179 and show some wiggles. The overshoot and
wiggles occur over a narrower range as more terms are included in S, but never die outthis
is known as the Gibbs phenomenon. One should be wary when using Fourier expansions
near jumps and even near cusps. On the other hand for any square-integrable f there is
convergence in the mean, i.e. the mean square error
Z
M=
L/2
L/2
|f (x) S(x)|2 dx
(5.6)
can be made arbitrarily small. In practice, this means that most integrals involving f can
also be evaluated with arbitrarily small error.
5.2
Normalization
L/2
L/2
L/2
L/2
(5.7)
This is not a problem, it simply entails that we must use dx/L in integrals such as (5.5). On
the other hand, we may prefer to introduce normalized eigenfunctions
1
un (x) = exp(ikn x)
L
(5.8)
and obtain, in place of (5.4) and (5.5), the more symmetric pair
f (x) =
Z
an =
X
n=
L/2
L/2
an un (x),
(5.9)
(5.10)
Often one deals with functions defined over all space, i.e. with the limit a .
The limit can be tricky and sometimes it is better to keep a finite until the very end of the
calculation. But usually one can simply make the replacements kn k and
L Z
dk.
2
n=
33
(5.11)
The most usual way to write the resulting Fourier-integral transform pair is
Z
f (x) =
Z
F (k) =
dk
,
2
(5.12)
(5.13)
F (k) eikx
5.3
In place of the basis functions exp(ikn x) one can use cos(kn x) and sin(kn x) with kn 0.
This serves only to produce messier formulas.
On the other hand, there are cases where the functions of interest are required to
vanish at the boundaries (L/2, L/2) or (0, L). The relevant normalized eigenfunctions in
(0, L) are
s
2
Un (x) =
(5.14)
sin(qn x),
L
with
qn = n/L, n positive integer.
(5.15)
The transform pair (5.9), (5.10) is still valid in this case and is in fact entirely general
for expansions in orthonormal eigenfunctions, with appropriate modifications. One obvious
modification is that for fixed boundary conditions the sum over n runs from 1 to , while
for periodic boundary conditions it runs from to . The comments about convergence
apply to the general case as well.
5.4
Higher dimensions
(5.16)
which has plane wave solutions exp(ik x). Periodic boundary conditions on a box of sides
Lx , Ly , Lz are not physically attainable in this case, but they are mathematically convenient.
They lead to the set of orthogonal functions exp(ik x), with the j Cartesian component of
k given by
(5.17)
(k)j = 2nj /Lj , nj integer.
The expansion of a function f (x) is
f (x) =
nx = ny = nz =
34
(5.18)
with
Lx /2
Lx /2
dx Z Ly /2 dy Z Lz /2 dz
exp(ik x)f (x).
Lx Ly /2 Ly Lz /2 Lz
(5.19)
f (x) =
Z
F (k) =
by the replacements
d3 k
,
(2)3
(5.20)
f (x) eikx d3 x,
(5.21)
F (k) eikx
V Z 3
d k,
(2)3
nz =
nx = ny =
V Cn f (k),
(5.22)
(5.23)
where V = Lx Ly Lz is the volume of the quantization box and the integrals are over all
space. Similar formulae apply in two dimensions.
5.5
This is a particularly important singular function. In one dimension, it has the general
expression
X
un (x0 )un (x)
(5.24)
(x x0 ) =
n
for any complete set of eigenfunctions Un . For the plane waves exp(ikn x) this becomes
1 X
(x x ) =
exp [ikn (x x0 )] ,
L n=
0
(5.25)
dk
.
(5.26)
2
The three-dimensional generalization is the usual (x) = (x)(y)(z), so that, for instance
0
(x x ) =
(x x0 ) =
eik(xx )
eik(xx )
d3 k
.
(2)3
(5.27)
It is worth noting that the partial sum SN of (5.25) has a central peak that becomes higher
and narrower for larger N , but also a lot of side wiggles that never go away:
1 ei2N x/L ei2N x/L
sin [(2N + 1)x/L]
SN (x) =
.
=
i2x/L
a
1e
L sin(x/L)
35
(5.28)
5.6
Application to electrostatics
How do we use all this math in electrostatics, where in the simplest case we need solutions
of Laplaces equation, corresponding to k = 0 in the Helmholtz equation, with appropriate
boundary conditions?
5.6.1
Rectangular box
Suppose the potential is assigned on the sides of an empty conducting rectangular box of
sides Lx , Ly , Lz . It is enough to consider the case where is not zero on one face only:
the general case can be built by superposition. Suppose then that = V (x, y) on the face
z = Lz , and vanishes on the other faces. We Fourier-expand in the dimensions x and y,
cleverly picking eigenfunctions that vanish on the lateral faces:
(x, y, z) =
X
nx ny
(5.29)
nx
Lx
2
ny
Ly
!2
2
+ 2 Anx ny (z) = 0,
z
(5.30)
v
u
u nx 2
t
Lx
ny
+
Ly
!2
(5.31)
(5.32)
(5.33)
Z Lx
Z Ly
4
dx
dy V (x, y) sin(nx x/Lx ) sin (ny y/Ly ) .
Lx Ly sinh(nx ny Lz ) 0
0
(5.34)
36
5.6.2
Rectangular trough
(x, y) =
n=1
An sin(nx/L) exp(ny/L),
(5.35)
with
2ZL
V (x) sin(nx/L) dx.
L 0
For instance, if V (x) is constant, we have
An =
An =
4V
n
for odd n,
(5.36)
(5.37)
and 0 otherwise. In simple cases like this the series can be summed. As in most twodimensional problems, it is convenient to work with the complex variable
z = x + iy
(5.38)
X 1
4V
Im
exp(inz/a).
n odd n
37
(5.39)
X
1
(1)n+1 Z n ,
n
n=1
X
1 n
ln(1 Z) =
Z ,
n=1 n
ln(1 + Z) =
so that by subtracting,
ln
Then
(5.40)
X 1
1+Z
=2
Z n.
1Z
n
n odd
2V
1+Z
=
Im ln
1Z
(5.41)
!
2V
2 Im Z
=
.
arctan
1 |Z|2
(5.42)
2V
sin(x/L)
.
=
arctan
sinh(y/L)
(5.43)
Plots of the equipotentials and field lines are shown in the figure.
=0
=0
x=0
= V
x=L
In the corner near the origin, ' V (1 2/), where = arctan(y/x) as usual.
The field is azimuthal, E = 2V /. The energy density diverges as 1/2 and the total
energy for > 0 also diverges as 0 0, although only logarithmically. More generally, it
costs infinite energy to join two plates at any angle when there is a potential difference V
between them. In practice, a small gap must be left and the energy of the adjoining plates
38
goes like (V /)2 ln w per unit length of the common edge, where w the width of the gap.
This logarithmic divergence also occurs for adjoining edges that are not straight.
Jackson has many problems and examples of adjoining plates and shells at different
potentials. Such problems are not very realistic, for the reason discussed above.
5.6.3
Polar coordinates
Some problems in electrostatics are best solved in polar coordinates (, ). Laplaces equation
in polar coordinates is
!
1
1 2
2
=
+ 2 2 = 0.
(5.44)
Lets assume that the solution is separable in these coordinates, so that (, ) = R()Q().
Substituting this into Laplaces equation, and multiplying by 2 /RQ, we obtain
!
dR
1 d2 Q
d
+
= 0.
R d
d
Q d2
(5.45)
The first term is only a function of and the second term is only a function of , so they
must both be equal to a constant which we will call 2 . Therefore,
1 d2 Q
= 2 ,
2
Q d
(5.46)
(5.47)
d
dR
2 = 0.
R d
d
(5.48)
To solve this, seek solutions of the form R() = a . Substituting into Eq. (5.6.3), we find
solutions for = . We must treat = 0 separately; in this case Q() = A0 + B0 , and
R() = a0 + b0 ln(/R), with R some scale factor. Therefore, our general solution is
(, ) = [a0 + b0 ln(/R)](A0 + B0 ) + (a + b )(A cos + B sin ).
(5.49)
This result is quite general. Suppose that we now permit the full range of , so that (, +
2) = (, ); in this case B0 = 0, and = n, with n a non-negative integer:
(, ) = a0 + b0 ln(/R) +
X
n=1
(5.50)
X
n=1
39
(5.51)
(, ) = E0
a2
cos ,
40
(5.52)