Hydrostatic Pressure

The pressure exerted by a column of fluid, it is a result of unit weight and vertical height of fluid column,
independent of size and shape exerted equally in all direction

V. Height

H.P gradient = psi/ft

The pressure which
result from mud fluid
per each foot.

The H.P is the same because have the same height of fluids
H.P(psi)= 0.052* TVD(ft)* MWT(ppg)
H.P(kbar)= 0.098* TVD(m)* MWT(kg/cm3)
H.P(psi)= 1.4237* TVD(m)* MWT(gm/cc)

PSI

Gradient

Note: to calculate H.P you must take it every interval not by taking average ppg for all section. But in case of same
ppg for all section you can calculate H.P for all section.

PORE PRESSURE
The aim of detection
Drilling the well very fast and save with minimum cost (by the might detection for P.pressur and recommended the
suitable MWT)
Normal pore pressure range from 8.33 ppg
(0.433 g/cc) to 9.0 ppg (0.468 g/cc)
When water table for any formation is
continue connected to the surface, here we
can say this formation has normal pore
pressure, if it restricted for any reason we
can say this may be over pressure zone.

Pore Pressure Gradient is PPG

overburden
Pore Pressure
Matrix stress

Factors affecting Pore Pressure.

1. Connection to surface
3. Gas Contents
5. Overburden Magnitude

2. Concentration of dissolved solids

4. Thermal Magnitude
6. Pore Space Percentage

1. Connection to Surface
If there is connection to surface it will be Normal Pore Pressure.
If there is no connection to surface (Seal zone, fault, fold.etc) it will be over pressure

2. Concentration of Solids
More Salinity, More Pore Pressure. Low Salinity, Low Pore Pressure.

3. Gas Contents.
In normal pore pressure: pore pressure decreasing with low density. At abnormal pore pressure: no expansion,
So increasing pore pressure.

4. Thermal Gradient.
In case of normal pore pressure: increase Temperature, decrease Density and decreasing pore pressure.
In case of abnormal pore pressure: increase Temperature, decrease Density, increase value in fixed area and
increasing pore pressure

5. Overburden Magnitude.
No effect in case of normal pore pressure (like sponge)
Increase pore pressure in case of abnormal pore pressure.

6. Pore Space percentage.

No effect in case of normal pore pressure because the fluids adjust itself according to the porosity.
In case of abnormal pore pressure: if there is fixed volume of fluids, more space gives high pressure.
But low space gives very high pressure.
Note: Normal pore pressure in certain area may be abnormal in another area and the reverse is true, depending on
density of water.
Pore pressure calculation takes place underneath water table but over the water table there is no pore pressure and
will be subnormal.
There are two types of pore pressure:
1. Chemical pressure: Represented by the relationship between the various substances in an adjacent to the well
above.
2. Mechanical Pressure: Represented by the physical state of well bore
A. pore pressure
B. Overburden
C. Hydrodynamics (ECD, surge, swab)
D. Hydrostatic pressure
E. Fracture Gradient

OVERBURDEN
Is the pressure exerted by the total weight of the overlying formation. It is the combined weight of the Matrix
stress plus pore pressure, this combined weight is known as Bulk Density.

Matrix Stress.
Is the amount of the overburden that is supported by the rock frame itself.

Pore pressure.
Is the amount of the overburden that is supported by the fluid pressure in the pore space of the rock

S = P
S : Overburden (psi or ppg)
atrix stress (psi or ppg)

P: Pore pressure (psi or ppg)

S = 0.433 * b
Psi/ft

g/cc

S = 0.433 [ (1- matrix + ( f ) ]

Psi/ft
S: Overburden Gradient

Porosity of formation
matrix: Density of rock matrix.
b: Bulk Density

P.P1

g/cc
g/cc
0.433: Constant to convert g/cc to psi/ft

f:

Density of fluids (g/cc) equal used MWT in NPP

The used density table for cutting

P.P2

S1 = P1

S2 = P2

Normal Pore Pressure

Abnormal Pore Pressure

Note: The Overburden at certain point is constant but the PORE pressure and Matrix Stress can be varied.

Factors Affecting Overburden:

1. Lithology Density
3. Porosity

2. Fluid Density
4. Depth

Methods of determination the Overburden (from Bulk density)

1. Bulk Density Log
3. Shale Density Column
5. Sigma Log

2. Sonic Logs
4. Cutting Bulk Density
6. Overburden Table

1. Bulk Density Log:

After drilling well, we can get density log from this log we can get the bulk density directly in g/cc.
**Limitation: after drilling, not from surface, poor quality in unwashed hole and hydro philic Clay.

2. Sonic Logs:
Form transit time we can calculate the porosity and from porosity we can get the bulk density.

T =

K * 1000
H ft

K: number of blips

TTma

Tf Tma

T
: transit time on sonic ( sec/ft)
Tf: transit time of fluid in pores (180-200 sec/ft)

Tma: transit time of matrix ( sec/ft)

b = (1 - matx + ( f )
matx - b

matx - f

b for soft rock =

2.75 2.11 TTma

T + 200

b for cemented rock =

3.28 - ( T / 88.95 )

** The Limitation are: after drilling, not from surface and affected by washed hole.

3. Shale Density column:

-Clean the cylinder well
-Put Sol(A) max density to 220ml
-Put Sol(B) low density to 330ml
-Put calib beads in nood and insert slowly, move stirring nood (leave 1/3 from btm/top). Move in between
quickly (fast up) and low down.
-Put sol(B) to reach to 350ml and draw calib graph between beads density and its height in the column.
-Drop the cutting in the column, it will rest at the level corresponding to its density. By its height on the column
we can put this points on the calib graph to get the cutting density.
**The limitation: Toxicity, caved shale, some of cutting density is more than heaviest beads density 2.85 g/cc, oil
contamination and washed cutting give low value, possible hydration of Clay will give low value and operator
errors.

4. Cutting Bulk Density (by mud balance)

-Fill a mud balance cup with a volume of clean cutting equivelant to the density of drill water (8.33 ppg)
-Top up the cup with drill water and obtain the combined density of cutting and water (R)
-Calculate the density from mud balance reading with the following formula:

= 8.33 (2 * 8.33) R

**the limitation: caved cuttings, oil contamination and washed out cutting gives low value and hydration of Clay
gives low value.

4. Sigma Log
First calculate the porosity from Sigma log then from porosity we can calculate the Bulk density.
**The limitation: not practical.

5. Field Work
First we give the computer the density of every formation, if not, the computer will take default density from his
data and calculate the Overburden after drilling the hole we get the sonic log and from T for every meter or
every 5ft we can entering this reading to HP computer to make correction for the last calculation of overburden
and pore pressure.

6. Overburden table

Depth (ft)

Interval (ft)
500

Density avg
(g/cc)
1.5

Overburde
n (psi)
0.649

Overburde
n (psi/ft)
325

Cum. O.B
(psi)
325

Cum. O.B
(psi/ft)
0.649

500
700

200

2.3

0.999

200

525

0.75

750

50

2.7

1.170

59

584

0.78

890

140

2.5

1.08

151

735

0.82

The Overburden values (psi/ft) can decrease or increase according to the density of the intervals.
Cumulated Overburden (psi) and (psi/ft) should in gradual increasing with the depth.
In case of off shore jobs, must add or calculate the water depth to the interval and add to the total Overburden.

S = P
S = 0.433 [ (1- mtx +
(f ) ]
O.B will be more because the
section start from A at the water
table.

Water
table

P.P

S = P
S = 0.433 [ (1- mtx +
(f ) ]
O.B will be small because the
section start from B under the
water table.

A
Water
table

P.P

The Overburden gradient = 0.7 psi/ft (unconsolidated and young rock) in off shore job
The Overburden gradient = 1.0 psi/ft (consolidated and old rock) in on shore job

The origin of Abnormal Pore Pressure

1. Compaction and Burial:
Over pressure will be developed when the rate of sedimentation exceeds the rest of squeezing water
and migration of the water.
*Compaction Profile
it is the graphical representation showing the change of the shale density, porosity and permeability
with depth due to compaction.

Depth

Depth

Density

Depth

Porosity

For Shale and

Clastics

Permeability

With normal compaction: Density increases with depth & porosity and Permeability decrease with depth.

Depth

Depth

Density

Porosity

In case of reverse behavior Overpressure could be recognized the purpose of compaction profile is to
detect the Abnormal Pore Pressure.

2. Tectonic movement and deformation.

When tectonic activity occurs the zone of trapped formation fluids is squeezed by faulting, folding, so
that the volume of the reservoir in which the fluid lie to be reduced. If the fluids have no escape
mechanism, then the same amount fluid now occupies less volume. So the pressure in the fluid reservoir
is higher. The following some examples:

Uplifting
-Rising the formation converting the normal pressure formation to a position of abnormal formation
pressure.

-Shale has intruded into the sand lens as a result of tectonic activity. The shale forms an impermeable
barrier on the top, sides and bottom of the sand, so any fluid in the sand is trapped. Due to the intrusion of
the shale reduced the amount of sand but with same amount of fluid in intergranular spaces in the sand
zone. Then the pressure must be higher than it was before the tectonic activity. The result is, the pressure
in the sand was normal but with tectonic activity took place the pressure became Abnormal.

Faulting & Folding

Salt Diaprism:
Salt has two unusual properties: impermeable to fluids and
high mobile. It makes a trap to the formation fluids in dome
shape same manner of tectonic activity, this cause rising the
pressure in adjacent formation to abnormal value. The
salinity of the pore fluid will be increase so the density of
the pore increased and over pressure will take place. The
beds underneath
salt become
and abnormal
pressure.
Rising
the formation
causesealed
reduction
in the volume
of the reservoir so that the fluid Salt
willDome
reduced with no
escape mechanism then the pressure converted to Abnormal pressure . The sealed fault plane prevent the
migration of pore fluids and gets the reservoir up against an impermeable formation.
Thermal affect on gas especially in the down side and under rapid deposition, the heat will expand gas if it is sealed it
will cause over pressure.

Deformation of Sedimentary:
Compaction force decreases the volume of the fluid causes an over pressure zone.

3. Diagenesis:
Any physical or chemical changes that taking place with the rock after deposition. It depends on
-Time: immediate after deposition, post deposition and late deposition
the causes are: compaction loading, circulation solution and mineral relationship with the
temperature and pressure.

A. Shale Diagenesis:
Shale is composed of various types of clay. The most important type in shale is Montmorillonite,
which have potential to swell in presence of water. Under high temperature above 220f, Montmorillonite
chemically changes to Illite. So the water released from Montmorillonite, this changing called Shale
Diagenesis.
Below 6000 ft it expels 80% of the free pore water, when temperature increase from 180f to 220f, 2 layers
will be released from oriented water with associated cations. When temperature increases to 280f with
derivability of Potassium (K ions) the other two layers of water will be released and will form Illite.
The volume of water expelled from the mineral is greater than the volume reduced in the mineral due to
lattice closure. If this water released from Montmorillonite undergoing diagenesis becomes trapped and
can migrate no further, then abnormal pressure develop.

B. Osmosis:
Spontaneous flow of water from diluted solution to high concentrated solution when separated by
membrane.
While diagenesis water will be free escape leaving non-dissolved solids below the shale, so the pore
fluids above it will be more diluted. The water will be drain down and the pore spaces decreased due to
compaction and diagenesis, so the result is decreasing the pore spaces and over pressure will develop.

C. Dolomitization
Limestone (2.71ppg) composition is ca co3 and when Mg mineral replaced one of Ca mineral it will
convert to Dolomite (2.86ppg) CaMgCo3 at low temperature.
So we noticed, the change from 2.71ppg to 2.86ppg the volume of the mineral will decrease but porosity
and permeability will increase.

Increasing in porosity and permeability without any change of the volume of pore fluids is common
source of low pressure (sub or non-pressure). Overpressure could be developed when this type of
lithology can be resource from fluid influx through faulting or other mechanism.

D. Gypsum and Anhydrite relationship

At 42C
Gypsum CaSo4, H2o

Anhydrite CaSo4 40% volume increasing

NaCl

2.35ppg

2.98ppg

In this case if the water have no way to release or escape from the rock, so the Over pressure will develop.

E. Solution process
Over pressure will develop by one of the following:
1. Solution will dissolve the salt, increasing the salinity of the pore fluids so that density will increase
and over pressure will develop. b will equal to density of pore fluids.
2. Solution will precipitate minerals forming a seal for the fluid, so squeezing and migration will exist.

F. Thermal influence
Due to high water content in over pressure zone, it act as insulator. As temperature increased in closed
system, no way or space to fluids for expansion, so over pressure will develop.

G. Miscellaneous process
1. Reservoir structure

Sand lens was deposited and was surrounded

by impermeable shale on all sides. A permeable
reservoir, which is surrounded by impermeable
rock, will have same pore pressure anywhere its
boundaries as shown. If the sand doesnt lie
parallel to the surface, then different pressure
gradient exist, depending where the sand is
penetrated. The pore pressure of the sand is
identical at all points within that sand, but the
sand here is lying at different depths and this
mean the pressure gradient are different.

13,000 _
14,000 _
15,000 _

Pore pressure in sand = 6,975 psi

Well (A) Pore pressure gradient = 0.537 psi/ft
Well (B) Pore pressure gradient = 0.498 psi/ft
Well (C) Pore pressure gradient = 0.465 psi/ft

2. Paleo Pressure
Paleo pressure occurs when a formation
surrounded by impermeable barriers is uplifting
intact to a shallower depth. This causes the
pressure gradient in the uplifted formation to rise
because the formation is now at a shallower
depth relative to the surface.
4,000 psi pore pressure, at depth 8,000 ft
4,000 psi
Pore pressure gradient =
8,000 ft
Sand uplifted intact to 6,000 ft
Pore pressures = 4,000 psi

= 0.5 psi/ft

Impermeable shale

4,000 psi

Pore pressure gradient =

= 0.667 psi/ft
6,000 ft
The same sand after uplifting would require a higher mud weight to drill because of its increased pressure
gradient.

3. Different in Altitude
The same effect can be observed as a result of
surface erosion. Consider massive sand, which
extends over a large area. If the surface above
the sand is not level, wells will encountered the
sand at different depths. Since the sand is
permeable, the pore pressure in psi is the same at
all points in the sand. The different depths at
which the sand is being means that the pressure
gradients are different in each distance.
The pressure gradient in Well (A) may be normal,
but the pressure gradient in Well (B) is higher
because of the sands position relative to the
surface.

3. Piezometric Fluid change

4. Production and charging

Water injection to repressuring the reservoir.

A
B

Massive sand

5 Repressuring of shallow reservoir

A shallow formation may develop communication with a deeper formation through faulting or as a
result of some previous drilling operation. The deeper formation may have normal pressure for its
depth, but the communication developed between it and the shallower formation causes the pressure
of the deeper formation to be distributed between the two formations. If the communications between
the two formations are good, the higher pressured formation (deeper) pressurizes the shallower
formation until the two pressures are equalized. The shallower formation will now a higher pore
pressure than it does as a result of natural causes. So it affected by fault, eroded casing and bad
cement bound.

6. Mud Diaprism
The type of volcano causes increasing in temperature and cut formation, which will cause a seal.

SUBNORMAL PRESSURE
A possible cause of subnormal pressure is that the granite wash formation being produced corps at an
elevation of about 1,000 ft above sea level. Similar conditions might occur where the water table is very
low, in such areas normal pressure gradients start at the water table only, which could be many thousands
of feet below the surface.
Abnormally low formation pressure occur in sand lenses closely associated with shale in area which have
undergone erosion, the possible explanation is that erosion causes a reduction in fluid pressure in pore
spaces of shale. This reduction transmitted to closely associated reservoir rocks. Pressure reduction in
shale may be due to the increase in pore volume and absorption of water in clay minerals as the
overburden pressure decreasing. The absorption of water during mineral transformations also occurs
because of decrease in temperature. Subnormal pressure may result from reduction in pressure due to
production well reservoirs, increasing porosity and permeability due to dolomitization, different altitude,
down thrown fault or very hugh syncline.

ABNORMAL PRESSURE DETECTION

The theory of abnormal pressure detection hinges on fluid content and degree of undercompaction. As the
depth of burial increases, rocks usually become denser because they are subjected to more overburden
pressing down. The increased overburden stress tends to squeeze fluid out of the rock pore spaces and
thus compress the rock. This causes the rock density to increase.
Different types of rocks have different grain densities, compressive strengths, and compaction trends.
Evaluation formation pressures in sand-shale sequences is done by evaluating only shale points. Sand is a
permeable medium so no pressure increases are possible as drilling progresses through the sand. Shale
has the fluid trapping potential necessary for increasing pressure. This is not to say that sand cannot be

abnormally pressured. It can be, and often is, abnormally pressured. We merely state that pressure
increases within one sand body are not possible.
The primary concern is to detect abnormal pressure by evaluating drilling parameters by the following:

1. Pre-spud data :
-Seismic data (Velocity survey)
-Geophysical data (Magnetic gravity)
-Offset wells (logging, E-logs, well test data, L.O.T, lithology and any problems)

2. While drilling:
Instantaneous data: ROP, Dc-ex, Sigma, Drag, Torque, MWD (Gamma & Resistivity), Fill and
pit gain

Lagged:

Gases (trip, connection or background), Temp, Flow line density, shale slope,
Shale density, shale factor, presence of Gypsum or oil-water ratio.

3. Post drilling:
-Seismic
-Test, RFT, Kick
-Resistivity - Gamma

OVER PRESSURE DETECTION TECHNIQUE

PRESSURE
INDICATOR

CHANGE
IN VALUE

REASON OF CHANGE

LIMITATION

ROP m/hr
Ft/hr

INCREASE

P = HP PP
P: Differential pressure
HP: Pore pressure
PP: Hydrostatic pressure
The rate at which a formation will drill
has been related to the amount of
differential pressure that exists between
the hydrostatic head of the mud and the
formation pore pressure.
P at bit close to balance, so chips hold
down effect is minimized.

Should fix WOB & RPM to

use ROP as a tool to detect
over pressure. ROP affected
by:
WOB, RPM, Bit type and
size, Rock type and porosity,
Mud solids and flow
properties, differential
pressure, hydraulics

TORQUE

INCREASE

As the depth of a well increases, the

contact between the drill pipe and the side
of the hole increases. This cause torque
increases with the depth
Increasing torque can also result from
bearing seizing in the bit, formation
change, change in pore pressure, increase
in ROP, and changing in mud properties.
As the amount of overbalance is reduced
the ROP increases result greater number
of cuttings in the annulus, which increase
torque on the drill strings. No enough
MWT to hold back formation, so hole will
heave around D/C and STAB.

May due to full gage STAB

-Bit under gage
-Poor hole cleaning
-Hanging STAB in deviated
hole
-High water loss
-Formation change
-Bit dulling

OVERPULL

INCREASE

Same in torque

DRAG

INCREASE

Is the condition that exist when the

surface indicated drill string weight while
pulling the pipe upward is greater than its
actual weight. As an abnormally pressured
formation is penetrated and the amount of
overbalance decrease, formation
sloughing increase. This causes Drag.

Poor hole cleaning

-Under gauge bit & full
gauge STAB
-Ledging
-Dogleg
-Thick filter cake
-Hanging stabilizing
deviated hole

PRESSURE
INDICATOR

CHANGE
IN VALUE

REASON OF CHANGE

LIMITATION

FILL

INCREASE

Same like Torque and over pull

-Poor suspending properties

of mud like YP
-Unstable formation
(fracture)
-Bad hole cleaning.

FLOW LINE
DENSITY

DECREASE

As overbalance in lost, the formation

fluids contaminate mud.

-Dilution mud

CUTTING
SHAPE &
SIZE

INCREASE

-Certain types of mud

systems influence the
amount of heaving shale
because of shale hydration,
which tend to soften the
shale on the side of the
wellbore and make it easier
to knock loose.

SHALE
DENSITY

DECREASE

Under conditions of overbalance, the high

differential pressure tends to hold a chip
underneath the bit, with the result a chip
may be cracked several times by the bit
tooth before hydraulic action tends to
wash the cutting away. This condition
called (chips hold down effect). As the
amount of overbalance decrease, the
effects of chip hold down become less
resulting in a drilling rate increase. The
increased ROP under near-balance
condition causes the number of drilling
cuttings to increase and becomes angular
and larger because more hole is being cut
and because of diminished chip hold
down.
Shale becomes unstable and heaves into
the wellbore when the fluid in the pore
spaces of the shale is nearly equal to or
greater than the hydrostatic pressure
imposed by the mud column. The
formation pressure tends to counteract the
force of the mud column tending to hold
the hole open. Shale cuttings from the
side of well are forced into returning
mudstream by the pressure of the pore
fluid. The hole will be washed out in a
transition zone as a result of the heaving
shale, this condition accounts in great
measure for hole fill on connections and
trips or increased torque and drag.
Traps must be present in order for
abnormal pressure to form. The formation
which effects the trapping necessary to
cause abnormal pressures is called
pressure cap or pressure seal. The
pressure seal must be impermeable to trap
fluids below it. The pressure seal may
drill more slowly than normal as a result
of its low porosity. The pressure cap may
having a higher density than normal for
that particular depth. Once the pressure
cap has been drilled, the increasing

-Heaving shale formation

from the side of wellbore
causes density measure error
or incorrect density so that
error in estimated pore
pressure.
-the formation which need to
know its density should be
pure and clean, but using
silty shale rather than a clean
shale for density
measurements will cause

pressures below the cap will be indicated

by the decreasing rock density.

SHALE
FACTOR

INCREASE

Presence of Montmorillonite.

GYPSUM

INCREASE

Anhydrite re-hydrates to Gypsum in

presence of water being both a cause and
result of over pressure.

error.
-Lithologicla changes must
known because of
compaction rates of different
rocks
-Caved shale which has
many reason: high P.P (the
shale will be concave and
fibrous shape because the
cutting release itself from the
formation due to H.P.P),
high angel of bedding plane,
and friction of pipes with
shale formation

TYPES OF GAS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Background gas (formation)

Circulating gas
Connection gas (very important in over pressure detection)
Trip gas (if there is progress increasing from trip to other)
Carbide gas (while make a lag check)
Kelly gas (due to air in connection joint, appear after complete cycle of circulation.)

FACTORS AFFECTING FORMATION GAS:

Gases increasing with increasing the following: Hydrocarbon distribution, Porosity, Permeability,
Hole size, Circulating rate, and ROP.
But it has a reverse relationship with Mud density.
The only exception in case of pulling out the string (stabilizer) because of swab while it will be in front of
sand porous layer.

FLOW LINE TEMPERATURE:

TRANSITION ZONE

D
E
P
T
H

NORMAL
CAP ROCK
O.PRESS
NORMAL
TEMP

TEMP
GRADIENT

Flow line temperature is accepted as being one of the first signs of impending pore pressure increases.
Heat emanation from the center of the earth is transmitted to the surface. As the well depth increases, the
formation temperature increases because of closer proximity to the source of heat.

Formation fluids tend to act as thermal barriers or insulators, which impede the normal flow of heat from
earths core to the surface. In a normal pressure environment, the rocks undergo normal compaction and
contain a normal amount of formation fluid.
As the formation pore pressure increases above the normal value, the formations are assumed to contain
greater than normal amount of fluid. The excess fluid acts as a thermal barrier, which traps some of the
heat being radiated from the earths core. This causes a decrease in formation temperature gradient
directly above the zone of increasing pressure and an increase in temperature gradient once the pressure
seal has been drilled. The higher-pressure zone has trapped more than its share of heat, so the temperature
gradient in the higher pressured zone shows an increase.
Some variables affected in formation temperature: circulating rate, drilling mud properties, hole
geometry, amount of shutdown time for trips or rig repairs and surface ambient temperature changes.
**Type of temperature plots:
1. Temperature out
2. which is the difference between temperature in and out.
3. Temperature gradient/100 feet
4. End to end plot of flowline temperature vs. depth.

Limitation: Adding mud or chemicals, pump off time, high torque, ROP, and flow rate.

PORE PRESSURE CALCULATION

1. DEPTH OF SEAL
Theory is: shale with same density has the same matrix stress. If rock density doesnt increased as the
depth increased, it is assumed that there is a greater than normal of fluid in the pore spaces, it assumed
that if there are two formation and the density are the same. So both formations have the same matrix
stress, but they support different overburden.
Form example: assume that we have shale at 6000 ft has 2.15 g/cc density, with drilling MWT 9ppg with
no problem. Drilled ahead to 7000ft with 2.15 g/cc. We need to know the mud weight would now be
necessary?
Assume that shale is the same at both depths, the pore pressure at 6000ft will be normal as MWT so the
normal gradient of matrix stress is 0.535 psi/ft by applying in this equation S = P
Since the pore pressure is normal at 6000ft, the matrix stress at same depth is normal
S = P
P = 0.468 psi/ft of 9ppg

= 1 psi/ft - 0.468 psi/ft = 0.535 psi/ft = 3210psi at 6000ft

Since the two shale samples with the same types and densities then both rocks have 3210 psi M.stress so
the M.stress at 6000 to same at 7000 = 3210 psi
By applied the equation above:
P = S - at 7000 ft
The pore pressure gradient at 7000 is:
= 3790 / 7000 = 0.541 psi/ft
so the mud weight must be high enough to exert a 0.541 psi/ft hydrostatic pressure gradient to balance the
formation pressure.
MWT = 0.541 / 0.052 = 10.4 ppg
Therefor at 7000, 10.4 ppg mud weight is required to balance the formation pressure.

2. D-EXPONENT

A number of different attempts have been made to normalize the variables so that the rate of
penetration can be related directly to differential pressure. Over a relatively short time interval, most
of the drilling rate variables are held essentially constant. Those variables which would remain
essentially constant in short time frames are the hydraulics at the bit, MWT, and mud flow properties.
Although this variables changes during the drilling of the well, they would be held within close
values over short drilling intervals (100, 2hr. etc.) the WOB and RPM are factors which constantly
change. If the effect of these two variables can be neutralized, and all the other rig-induced drilling
parameters held constant, then an absolute drill rate should theoretically be obtainable. The absolute
or normalized rate of penetration is one which is obtained for which the effect of bit weight and rotary
changes are compensated. The d-ex accounts only for changes in ROP, RPM, WOB, and the bit
diameter and normalizes any effects that changing one or more of these variables would have.
The formula for d-ex is:

Log

R / 60N

log

12W/106 D

d =
R: Drilling rate ft/hr
D: bit diameter, inches

N: Rotary speed rpm

W: wob, lb.

The formula was devised in such a way that d increases numerically with increasing differential
pressure. The d-exponent may also decrease numerically as a result of going from shale to a sand, because
the sand often drills more rapidly than shale. A sand is unable to create abnormal pressures even it may be
abnormally pressured, so the decrease is a result of changing formation characteristics, not for changing
formation pressure. Abnormal pressures are built up in impermeable formation. This means that shale
must be used in evaluating d-ex plots.
More over shale used for that for the following reasons: - Response for compaction
More homogenous than sand
No cement affecting in ROP
Most over pressure source
At the beginning any well, shale not compacted and the clay which is softer, so the value not accurate.
Clay is not pressurized because of no compaction.
The method used to determine pore pressure directly involves a modification made to the original d-ex
formula. As MWT increased, the rate of penetration decreases as a result of the number of solids in
drilling mud. This causes the d-ex to increase with increasing depth. Trend reversals which show
increasing or decreasing pore pressures may be evident, but the d-ex itself is not suitable for use with an
overlay because the normal compaction cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy to perform any
calculation.
The modified d-ex was developed to take mud weight variables into account. The mod. d-ex has proven
very useful in determining pore pressure with high accuracy. The formula is

dex

* N

dc =
MWT
N: normal pore pressure for area
MWT: mud weight in use, ppg
dc < dex because always the normal pore pressure in the well is lower than used mud weight.
There are a number of limitation which may affect d-ex and the modified d-ex are:
1. Bit wear
2. Sand or wet shale can cause large changes in the d-ex
3. Sharp changes in bit type, bit weight or rotary speed
4. Condition of severe overbalance
5. Insert and diamond bits do not provide good d values.

A continuous plot of d values is made and a normal compaction trend which shows the rate of
formation compaction in normal pore pressure is established. A transparent overlay, with parallel lines
labeled in mud weight equivalents, is placed over the plot and the 9 ppg line is adjusted unit it
coincides with the normal compaction rate line.
Modified d-ex cannot measure sub-normal pressure zone.
A mathematical procedure is also available which uses changes in the modified d to determine pore
pressure. In this method Etons equation the actual observed do value is compared to what a
normal dn would have been at the same depth.

P = S ( S Pn ) ( do / dcn)
P: pore pressure gradient
dn: normal d for depth of interest
For limestone only we use

1.2

do: observed d
Pn: normal pore pressure

P = Pn ( dn / do )

There are three variables very important:

1. Slop:
Good indication for compaction and the slop must be
Fixed from the beginning and fixed in all area and rarely
Changed. We can start well with same slop of the previous
one. Good evidence for the geological age from compaction
The slop of the trend line in most wells must be vertical.
When we will do any shift must be with same slop
In this figure, slop1 equal to slop2 but with different intercept
due to different drilling parameters.

1
D
E
P
T
H

d-ex
Slop

2. Intercept:
Coming from and depending in the factors used in the equation. So it is fixed in case of same
trend line value with no shifting. But while shifting, the slop must be the same but with
different intercept.
Steps for establishing the trend line:
-Choosing normal pore pressure
-Choose a pure shale (not clay, silty, calc, etc) but if there is no pure shale, we can work on
any kind of shale but with care.
ROP is direct proportional with pore pressure but reverse with d-exponent.
-The slop of the trend line is a function of geological age with relation of depth. The more
ages in the formation gives high slop due to different geological ages
-Slop of the normal trend in all well (nearly vertical and vary from area to another)
-Trend line could be shifted depend on the edition present, but with the same slop.
To calculate pore pressure manually from the trend line we use the next equation:
P = Pn ( dn / do )
dn: normal d for depth of interest from the normal trend line.
do: observed d
OVERLAY: If we have drilled area and we have the slop and d-ex values, and we start drill in
new area and we find same slop and same d-ex then the pore pressure will be same.

3. Shifting:
-Mechanical parameters:
log ( R / 60 N )
d-ex =
log ( W / 106 D )
-Any big change in this parameters, and this changes is continuous while drilling. We must
shift the trend line. After casing, the shift will be right or left de[end on the new parameters
well use while drilling.
-Other mechanical parameters:
Bit wear (bit dulling), Bit type (rock to diamond or insert to teeth), Bottom hole assembly
(change from under gauge stabilizer to full gauge one or mud motor in consideration), Hole
angle (due to effective WOB decrease with inclination of angle, ROP has reverse relation
with angle), Junk in the hole, Mud motor (the trend line for shale while rotation different
from shale while sliding), and control drilling (different trend line when drilling rotation in
shale from drilling in sand).
-Formation parameter
*Unconformity and fault: there is a sudden change in d-ex (increase or decrease) in case of
the fault plane or unconformity surface will cracked. The d-ex increased when the down
layers under fault raised.
*Lithology variation: composition or structure.
-Drilling fluid parameter not in modification
-Bit hydraulics
-Differential pressure: when the differential pressure up to 500psi the ROP will reduce to
50%.
After a while from drilling and the trend line was put with certain slop from the well spud,
this trend line can corrected if is not right because if this old one still running we will face a
lot of problem at the end. Like d-ex accepted high pressure and the pressure is normal!
In case of bit dulling: if the bit had long time drilling in the hole and decided to pull out to
change bit, the new bit well drill with it will give more ROP than the previous one, so we
have to shift the trend line with new figure. But if same case and we have gradual increasing
in pore pressure before pulling out (we cannot know this increase will continue or not
because of bit dulling), so we can calculate the increasing of pore pressure in the last interval
(before dulling) and get the gradient of it. When running the new bit well calculate the
gradient, and get the difference to shift to the new trend line.
In case of d-ex is fixed all the time with depth, this reflect a regular increasing of pore
pressure because d-ex decrease with depth.
There is equation to calculate normal d-ex after any change:
dco / dcn (before) = dco / dcn (after)
To calculate the over pressure we can use the following EATON equations
1.
2.
3.
4.

P = S (S Pn) ( do / dn)
P = S - ( S Pn ) ( Ro / Rn )
P = S - ( S Pn ) ( Condn / Condo )
P = S - ( S - Pn ) ( Tn / To )
1.2

1.2

1.2

All the result must be with four decimal points (0.xxxx)

4. SIGMA LOG:
Sigma started and created by AGIP, it calculates the over pressure of the clastic rocks from
computed drilling lithology. Integrated into overburden gradient as an alternative on
replacement to sonic data.
The basic theory of sigma, is instantaneous drilling rate pore pressure prediction model. It
depends on the relation between ROP and drilling parameters, rock strength, and pseudo
differential pressure at bit.
Sigma log is represented the rock strength but d-ex is the normalization for drilling rate.
While using sigma, the drilling parameters must be recorded as averages.
Calculation procedures for Sigma
1. Raw Sigma

is the total rock strength and calculated from normalized drilling parameters
W0.5 N0.25

D R0.25
2. Modified Raw Sigma for compaction effect
The aim is to calculate t from t and after modification (correct for the effect of compaction
for determining pore pressure at shallow depth

t =

0.028 ( 7 - ( H / 1000 )

Depth (meter)

Reference Sigma:
In the sigma log we find that all point plotted at the left indicate porous or fracture
formation, the point on the right indicate impermeable formation like shale & marl. But the
points which represent the normal pressure will be in straight line called reference trend line or
normal trend line. We use the next equation for that:

r = a ( H / 1000) + B

r: sigma reference
H: height or depth (meter)
a: the slop of the trend line in the first approximation, it is constant equal 0.088
B: intercept of the trend line at surface.

Pore pressure calculation:

To calculate sigma, porosity and lithology must be fixed and no changes on both. So we
found the porosity equal the time taken to equalized the differential pressure through the cuttings
and it depends on the lithology type.

t > 1

If

t ) )

n = 1 / 640 ( 4 - ( 0.75 /

n = 3.25 /
( 640
t )
For f lithology function represent the effect of the lithology and porosity on the differential
pressure at bit. Also the effect of type and volume of porosity on the chip hold down effect is
shown in the next equation:

< 1

f = 1 + [ (
+ n P ) / n P ]
P = ( df - Gp ) ( H / 10 )
*

P: differential pressure
df: MWT (atm/10m)
Gp: pore pressure gradient (atm/10m) at start put it 1.03
H: height or depth (meter)
n: porosity
To calculate pore pressure gradient (atm/10m) at any point we must get first f*

f =
*

P g = df

[{

t
20 ( 1 - f* ) }

/{n H f

( 2 - f* ) }

Pore pressure calculation running by the computer, so we have to get B (intercept) by measure it
by parallel ruler to make the trend line and the equation is:
B =
r - a ( H / 1000 )
By B value, the computer can draw both of sigma observed and sigma reference with
calculated pore pressure and MWT on the paper, also draw lithology interpretation.
4. True Sigma:
calculate true sigma from the result of normalization of the modified raw sigma to the
lithology function.
o
= f*
t
This true sigma is related to modified raw sigma to establish the porosity of the formation which
it used to calculate the bulk density and we can calculate the overburden to get the pore pressure.

Sigma log behavior and shifting:

With depth progress the true sigma increase especially in shale and this is normal for the
normal pore pressure.
In some cases we found a dramatically shift to the curve which lead to the curve will be divided
to many segments to compensate the reference trend line. To avoid the factors affecting which
make some errors in pore pressure calculation and the factors affecting in shift.
-All factors affecting in drill model and the big changes in drilling parameters, hole size, caving,
and bit type.
-All factors that cannot control on it as new bit, unconformity, fault, lithology change, and
hydraulic effects
The shifting to trend line can be done by two ways:
Mathematically:
Use the ratio method, by dividing the last value of sigma before shifting on the first value of
sigma after shifting. The result multiply by the last value of the trend line before shifting:

r new =

r old (

new o

old

Graphically
Due to the linear scale of the sigma log. So it can be easy to measure the distance between
old and new sigma value by using ruler. We can make shift to the trend line by same value as the
way before.
MESCELANEOUS:
-Sigma can used for different rocks but the best results in shale.
-Sigma has three types and all the units must be metric.
-Sigma use the depth to reflect the compaction instead of slop, so the slop here is constant 0.088
-Sigma and d-ex calculate the pore pressure in shale because sand makes some problems like
kick and not from the shale. But shale can make fill and caving and high torque.
-Sigma and d-ex not applied while coring, and give wrong pore pressure value. The other reason
that the core normally in sand and there is no pore pressure calculation in sand.
-Sigma is linear draw graph not logarithmic as in d-ex.
-Sigma draws as curve in front of any type of rock and not as points in front of shale only as dex.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ROP

BIT SELECTION
We should choose a right bit for right formation and this occurs by knowing the followings:
-Geology of the area
-Offset wells
-Bit economics (cost)
-Bit dulling evaluation
-Offset well logs
-Seismic data
-Computer programs
-Mud properties

WOB
ROB is directly proportional with WOB to limit.
Quartzite: WOB is apply without increasing in ROP until MARBLE
R
WOB overcomes the share stress for quartzite, after that
O
ROP will increase with increasing of WOB
P
Bad hole cleaning causes re-grinding cutting several times,
So ROP will decrease.

GOOD HOLE CLEANING

BAD HOLE CLEANING

V.BAD HOLE CLEANING
WOB

RPM
In case of soft formation, ROP is directly
Proportional with RPM (linear).
In case of medium and hard formation, ROP is not directly
Proportional with RPM due to the requirement for some
times to fracture the hard formation.
With poor hole cleaning, we have low ROP in case of all
type of formation.

QURTIZITE

SOFT FORMATION

R
O
P

MEDIUME FORMATION

HARDFORMATION

RPM

HYDRAULICS:
The aim of hydraulics is:
1. Clean bottom of the hole
2. Clean the bit teeth
3. Prevent the re-grinding of the cutting.
This factors depending on circulation rate, system pressure loss, and hydrostatic pressure
extended at the bit (by selection to the suitable jets)

FORMATION PROPERTIES:
ROP is directly proportional with porosity, permeability, and silty-sandy formation.
But ROP reversibly proportional with: compressive strength, abrasive rocks, bit dulling tendency,
hardness, and calcareous & dolometic formation.

FLUID PROPERTIES:
Differential pressure
Overbalance around 500 psi decreases 50% of ROP,
This is due to chip hold down effect (cuttings re-grinding
Several time by bit before mud take cuttings out)
Viscosity: less mud viscosity gives fast drilling
Filtration effect: more filtration gives fast drilling

D
E
P
T
H
H.P

Solid contents: increasing solid content, decrease ROP

PERSONAL OF RIG EFFECINCY

DEPTH: With depth, ROP decrease due to increase compaction and increase differential pressure.
FRACTURE PRESSURE
This is the pressure at which the formation well fracture and lost mud.
There are two types of fracture:
-Initiation fracture: rock have not any fracture.
-propagation fracture: the rock have already minor fracture and by increasing MWT the
fracture increase.
The reason of knowing the fracture pressure to prevent formation breaking and avoid losing
mud.
The deformation of any rock depending on applied force and matrix stress. The types of
deformation are:
Elastic: the rock body can return to its original shape and size once the force is removed.
Plastic: the rock shape and size not return to the original, but the force was removed.
Repture: at the forces cause fracture.
POISONS RATIO:

FORCE

Lo

do
d / do

Poison ratio =

L / Lo

It is the ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain

Actual, the rock undergoes three parallel forces ( and ). The normal case of the
homogeneous rock is that is the biggest force. So the vertical force more than the other two

horizontal forces > in this case is equal to the overburden.

If the fault taking place in this homogeneous area. We found the fracture plane occur between the
biggest force and the smallest force with 30 degree angle from the biggest force.
But in case of reverse fault, so the fracture plane taking place with 30 degree from the smallest
force. So in this case equal to the overburden.
To break the formation, the pressure in the well if is hydrostatic pressure (ECD) or hydrostatic
pressure imposed in case of leak off test and in case of shut in, must be more than the pore
pressure and part of matrix stress which is the horizontal force or

Fp = horizontal (matrix stress) + Pp

Fp = Pp + K
K =
K = Pp +

D
E
P
T
H

MATRIX STRESS

Fp: fracture pressure

K: matrix stress coefficient or poison ratio.

Pp: pore pressure

PRESSURE GRADIENT

Factors affecting the Fracture pressure:

1. The depth of the formation of interest
2. Pore pressure of this formation
3. Type of rock of this formation and its strength

Fracture pressure calculation

1. HUBBERT AND WILLS METHOD

Fg = ( S P ) ( V / 1 V ) + P
V: poison ratio = 0.25 so V/1-V = 1/3
S: Overburden = 1 psi/ft

Fg = 1/3 ( S P ) + P
Limitation:
-constant poison ratio
-Constant overburden = 1 psi/ft
-Assumed that the fracture pressure is not affected by depth but affected by pore pressure.
Note: Minimum Fg = 0.64 psi/ft

& Maximum Fg = 0.73 psi/ft

2. MATHUS AND KELLY

Fg = Ki Ms + P
Ki: poison ratio (needs leak off test to know it)
Ms: matrix stress
To calculate the fracture gradient:
1- Obtain the matrix stress gradient
Pg = 0.052 * MWT
2- Determine the matrix stress
Ms = 1.0 - P
( = S - P )
3. Determine Di
Di = Depth ( / 1 Pn )
4. Using Di to determine Ki from the graph
5. Calculate Fg
Fg = Ki ( Ms ) + Pp
Ms: is the matrix stress equal
Limitation:

-Assuming constant overburden 1.0 psi/ft

-Used for local area.

3. EATON LAW:

Fg = ( S P ) ( V / 1 V ) + P
Limitation: difficult to use since to obtain local fracture pressure data.
4. AGIP:

Fg = ( 2V / 1 V ) + P
Fg = 2V + P

For elastic formation

5. BIOT:

Fg = P () ( 1 3V / 1 V ) + 5 ( 2V / 1 V )
Cr / Cb ) Cr: Compressibility of solid rock
Cb: Compressibility of porous rock.
In case of zero porosity so the equation will be Fg = S ( 2V / 1 V )
Assume that the poison ratio value between 0.3 0.5
If applied in the equation so
2 = 1 / 0.5 = 2*0.5 / 1 0.5 = 2V / 1 V
Fg = 2 S
And this is not logic that the formation pressure equal twice overburden. But in fact the
overburden is greater than formation pressure.

LEAK OFF TEST

It takes place after set casing and the aim is to calculate the fracture pressure to know the
maximum MWT we can drill with in the next hole.
Circulate until hole clean, shut in the well, draw graph between pressure and mud pump stroke or
volume, until the pressure is stabilize.
Pumping mud and shut off, and take the pressure value to plot it on the graph, this procedure
repeated until the point of pressure decrease or stable and then stop pumping
Fp = H.P + imposed pressure
Fp = Pp + Ki ( )
So we need to get Ki or the poison ratio to use it in the new hole will drill after casing.
We must do leak off test in porous rock because it is weaker, but if in shale sometimes balloon
effect happen and doesnt give right value. Also anhydrite will give big value and while drilling
we will meet a rock porous or weaker than anhydrite.

FORMATION INTEGRITY TEST

This test same like leak off test but by pumping mud until we get a certain pressure or mud
weight equivalent and no need to know the value of fracture pressure.

ELECTRIC LOGS
The reason of using this E-logs:
1. Identification of reservoir (porosity, permeability, structure)
2. Estimation of hydrocarbon in place
3. Estimation of hydrocarbon and recovery factor
E-logs types: Gamma, Porosity tools, and Resistivity tools ( SP and Induction )
Porosity tools:
1. SONIC TOOLS
Acoustic wave emitted to the formation from
Two transmitter and record by 4 receiver
T = T2 - T1
T = R4 - R2 = X
T = R1 - R2 = Y

R2

R3

R4
R3
R2
R1
R4

R1

T = ( X + Y ) / 2

T: Transmitter
R: Receiver

T: interval transit time

T2

T1

The great value of T in air, but in oil will be (230 /sec) in Gypsum (52 /sec),
In anhydrite (50 /sec). T decrease with depth and increase in over pressure zone
Compaction increase, Velocity increase, T decrease
-The advantage of this tool: can used in any type of mud, doesnt affected with fluids or gases in
formation, can used in cased hole to check cement (CBL), and used to determine the vertical
formation boundaries.
-The limitation: affected by porosity & compaction & shaliness, and the wash out doesnt exceed
50% to record.
2. LITHO-DENSITY LOG (LDL)
Gamma rays emitted to the formation collide with electrons lost
His energy and received gamma related to the bulk density of
Formation. The part of this energy absorbed and reflected and returned
To the well to received by the detector to get formation density.
-The advantages: detection of formation porosity and density
Detection of gases and hydrocarbon density
Evaluation of shale and sand
Used in all type of mud and in cased hole

Long distance detector

Short distance detector
Gamma source (cobalt)

-The limitation: Affected by wash out

Affected by gas reading and thick filter cake.

3. COMPENSATED (CALIBRATED) NEUTRON LOGS (CNL)

Neutron emitted to the formation coiled with H2 ions, recorded from two detectors. When
neutron going through water, gas, or oil, it absorbs by H2 ions and reflect rays with records, we
can detect H2 in formation and detect the pore spaces.
In case of fixed volume, the oil and water have same number of H2 ions. But in case of gas, the
H2 ions less than in water & oil.
Oil & water gives low readings. Gases give high readings.
-The advantages: Used in all mud
Run in cased hole with good cement.
Good determination of porosity and formation fluid type.
-The limitation: Affected by wash out.
4. SP (RESISTIVITY TOOLS) SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
It is the difference between the potential of movable electrode in the hole and fixed potential of
surface electrode. With depth, salinity increases, due to the salinity contrast between the
permeable formation and the mud. Neutral electric current pass from the formation to the mud
through shale membrane. In over pressure zone salinity decreases. The current pass from high
salinity to low salinity.
-The advantages: Detect permeable beds and boundaries
-The limitation: -Used only in water base mud
-Cant used in cased hole
-need permeability contrast (shale/sand ratio)
-Affected by salinity contrast between mud and formation water
-Affected by formation thickness (not good for thinner than 30)
5. DUAL INDUCTION LOG (DIL)
High frequent alternating current of constant intensity, emitted from a transmitter coil, this
current creates circular ground-loop current within the formation, which in turn creates magnetic
field which induce signals are proportional to the conductivity of the formation.
So low current received indicate a high Resistivity.
Advantages: -Run in oil and water base mud
Limitation: -Cant run in very high resistive formation (max reading = 100 ohm)
-Needs thick layers

-Affected by wash out and cant run in cased hole

-Affected by the changes in salinity

6. DUAL LATERAL LOG (DLL)

It measured Resistivity of formation and fluids. It has three types:
1. LDL: in deep non invaded zone
2. LLS: read area after invaded zone (intermediate zone)
3. LL (MSFL): in invaded zone.
When LLD > LLS > MSFL
When MSFL > LLS > LLD
When LLD > MSFL > LLS

It reflect typical oil zone

It reflect 100% water zone
it reflect non-permeable zone (no fluids)

Advantages: Detect thin beds, detect high formation resistivity (more than 100 ohm)
Limitation: Cant use in Oil base mud, and not used in cased hole.
6. GAMMA RAY (GR)
With depth, compaction increases, and shale density increased, then K+ ions increase which
found in shale. It reads natural formation radioactive minerals.
In over pressure zone, the gamma intensity decreases. The other tools called Spectrum Gamma
ray, measures Thorium and Uranium which done by subtracting Gamma ray values from the
Spectrum gamma ray, the different will be K+ only (Thorium and Uranium)
Advantages:
Detect formation boundaries
Detect shale bodies, and feldspasic sand because it contains clay ions.
Detect abnormal pressure zone.
Determine the density compaction curve.
Limitation:
Affected by other radioactive formation source like Thorium and Uranium
With (K Cl mud) gives high value due to presence of K+

HYDRAULIC
Main function of drilling fluids:
1. Control formation pressure by the action of hydrostatic head
2. Carrying the cuttings to the surface. (clean bottom hole assembly)
3. Cooling and preventing corrosion of bit and string (lubrication)
4. Form a wall cake, (minimize dehydration of drilling fluids, minimize gas invation to hole and
prevent caving)
Properties and boundaries of fluids:
1. Density
It is the weight per unit volume of drilling fluids used to determine the hydrostatic pressure
exerted by that fluid. It is measured by (ppg, pcf, psi, g/cc)
2. Viscosity
Determined by the number and size of particles.
Apparent Viscosity: this is the viscosity of drilling fluids as measured by Marsh funnel
(measure rate of flow in second s)
Plastic Viscosity: It is the viscosity that is measured based on the plastic proportional fluid.
It measured the fluid resistance to flow, PV is the difference between the shear stress volume
measured at 600rpm and 300rpm shear rate.
PV = 600 - 300
It depends on concentration of solids, shape and size of solid particles.
3. Yield Point
It is a measure of the attractive force which exist between particles and fluids.
YP = 300 - PV
4. Gel Strength
it is measuring of attractive force in a fluid, this measured according to time.
5. Water Loss
Is a measure of the amount and rate at which a drilling fluid losses its liquid to the formation,
measure in a standard filter pressure at 100psi, the losses expressed in ml/30min.
the higher the filter loss, the thicker the filter cake and greater dehydration of the drilling fluid.
Which means high density and high viscosity.
5. The Clay Behavior
Dispersim: Clay platelets separate from each other, Na+ going to solution leaving negative
charge on the face of platelets.

Agregation: When the clay platelets remain or become stack together.

Flocculation: An edge to edge or edge to face clumping of platelets
De-flocculation: Result when attractive forces between edge to edge and edge to face are
neutralized.
Hydraulics depend on: Rheological properties of fluids, well geometry, and pump rate.
The aim of hydraulics:
- Hole cleaning
- Hydraulic efficiency
- Calculation of circulating pressure loss.
- Control of pore pressure.
- Maintain or achieve specific requirments
RHEOLOGY:
Is the determination of materials, known as the behavior of fluid in motion.
Rheology behavior depends on: phsical properties of fluids (density and viscosity), and nonphysical properties (plastic viscosity, YP, Power law index n, Consistency index k.
While mud movement, it affects by, break ponds, molecular changes, colloid particles and
friction with each other and with strings.
Physical properties:
Density and viscosity are the main properties effect the fluid rheology
1. Shear Stress
Is the force needed to move the fluid.
The layer in the middle moves faster than the outer one
there are friction between layers, and increase to outside, the maximum
friction near to pipe wall.
2. Shear Rate
Is the relative speed between layers to each other,
Shear rate = Relative velocity / separation distance between layer
Viscosity = Shear Stress / Shear Rate = Pump pres. / fluid vel.
= Centipoise = (lb / 100 cf) / sec-1

(ft/sec) / ft = sec-1