ZENTRUM FR SD-NORDBILDUNGSKOOPERATION

CENTRE FOR SOUTH-NORTH

COOPERATION IN EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Telefon: +49 (0)441 798 3131
www.uni-oldenburg.de/zsn

DRAMA-IN-EDUCATION AND ITS

EFFECTIVENESS IN ENGLISH
SECOND/FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSES

Dr. L. Athiemoolam
The First International Language Learning Conference (ILLC) 2004
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Evergreen Laurel Hotel (Penang)
(16th 18th December 2004)
Conference Theme: Issues, Practices and Challenges in Establishing a
Language Learning Culture

Drama can lead the inquirer to moments of direct experience, transcending mere
knowledge, enriching the imagination, possibly touching the heart and soul
Brian Way (Development Through Drama)

ABSTRACT
Learning a second or foreign language can be incredibly disconcerting to learners
especially if they are not exposed to the target language on a regular basis and are not
able to practice the language in authentic situations. The teacher in the English second
or foreign language class, however, encounters major challenges in his/her class
especially since many of his/her learners lack the confidence to communicate in the
target language or to respond to questions in class. Consequently, on numerous
occasions, one finds that the learners sit passively in the classes expecting the teacher
to do most of the talking. If the teacher does not make a concerted effort to enable
his/her learners to be active participants rather than passive recipients, his/her learners
will be reluctant to use the target language which in this case is English. As a result,
learners become disinterested, apathetic and sometimes create disciplinary problems in
the class due to communication problems.

The teacher who is prepared to experiment with other innovative and novel methods of
teaching, however, will be able to make a meaningful contribution to the development of
communicative competence amongst the learners in his class. In this regard, drama-ineducation has a constructive role to play in English second/foreign language classes.

It is with this background in mind that the paper intends to focus on the principles of
drama-in-education and its application to the English second language classroom. The
paper aims to highlight the use of improvisation, role play and frozen images
(szenisches spiel) as techniques to foster greater learner involvement among learners
studying a second or foreign language. Although the techniques will be outlined with
reference to English second/foreign language teaching they could be used to teach any
language as a second or foreign language.

This paper thus proposes to provide insights into the use of drama-in-education in
second/foreign language classes and then on the basis of examples and personal
experiences with this method of teaching, at both; school and university level, to
highlight its effectiveness in the development of communication skills amongst English
second/foreign language learners.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The teaching of any language as a second or foreign language constitutes major

challenges for the teacher of that language as he/she has to provide the building blocks
for the learners so that they will eventually become confident speakers in the target
language. Furthermore, since L2 learners conceptualise in their mother tongue, they
encounter problems when having to use the target language. The learner may also feel
inhibited to use the target language for fear of making mistakes and becoming a
proverbial laughing stock.
Ultimately, however, the success of English second and foreign language teaching
depends on the methodological approach, which the teacher adopts in the execution of
his lessons. In the past and even presently, at many institutions where English is taught
as a second or foreign language, the focus is on the grammar approach to teaching,
since it is believed by traditionalists that a sound knowledge of the rules of grammar,
sentence structure and analysis is the best result of language teaching. In many
respects this approach is flawed since learners are not afforded the opportunity to study
the language in authentic situations, thereby limiting their interaction with mother tongue
speakers of the language being studied.
It is with this background in mind that this paper intends to highlight the invaluable
contribution that drama-in-education can make to the development of oral
communication competence of learners studying English as a second or foreign
language. The use and application of role play, improvisation and frozen image building
or szenisches spiel which form an integral part of drama-in-education will be outlined
and explained in detail and practical examples will be provided in order to illustrate how
they could be applied to the classroom situation.

2.

DRAMA-IN-EDUCATION

2.1

Outline of drama-in-education

Drama-in-education (D.I.E) is the use of drama as a means of teaching across the

curriculum. It is used to expand learners awareness, to enable them to look at reality
through fantasy and to look below the surface of actions for meanings. According to
McCaslin (1990:10) the objective is understanding rather than playmaking, although a
play may be made in the process. Attitudes rather than characters are the chief concern
as the focus is on process rather than product.
Since drama becomes a natural means of learning in the developmental history of
human beings, it is evident that this technique could be used effectively in teaching and
learning. According to Landy (1982:5) its elements imitation, imagination, role-playing
and interpretation account for much of a childs learning of language, movement and
social behaviour. By acting out the roles of the father/mother the child learns what a
parent is and what is expected of him/her in his relationship with the parent.
Drama-in-education, also known as creative drama, is an improvisational, nonexhibitional, process-centred form of drama in which participants are guided by a leader
to imagine, enact and reflect upon human experiences. According to Landy (1982:5) it
requires both logical and intuitive thinking, personalizes knowledge and yields aesthetic
pleasure.

2.2

Advantages of drama-in-education

Katz (2000:2) contends that drama can aid in understanding personal and human
experiences, allowing students to enter into the reality of imaginery situations and
characters. This will enable them to explore emotions, attitudes, opinions and
relationships and accommodate these abstract concepts more readily by representing
them in a dramatic and therefore more concrete form.
Since drama makes constant demands on a persons imagination, it develops a
learners ability to think more effectively. According to Katz (2000) a learner involved in
a drama activity will be called upon to practice several thinking skills such as: inventing,
generating, speculating, assimilating, clarifying, inducing, deducing, analyzing,
accommodating, selecting, refining, sequencing and judging. It is thus apparent from
the list of skills identified that drama-in-education has a significant contribution to make
to the development of higher order thinking skills.

Dramatic activity also fosters the skills of group interaction since the learners have to
work in groups to discuss, negotiate and reach consensus. The advantages of such
group interactions are self evident and will contribute significantly to the process of
teaching and learning. It thus emerges from the viewpoints expressed by various writers
that drama in effect develops all aspects of the individuals personality which leads
him/her to greater self discovery and to the realisation that he is capable of achieving
success in the learning of a second or foreign language.

2.3

Misconceptions relating to drama-in-education

The mere mention of the word drama to teachers conjures up images of scriptwriting,
directing and producing plays for an audience. In most instances when teachers are
requested to use drama in the classroom they react negatively to the suggestion
proclaiming that they have no skills whatsoever in producing plays and that since they
need to complete the syllabus as set down by the Department of Education there is no
time to play games in the classroom. Their reasons for reacting in this way are
understandable as they lack the knowledge, skills and understanding of what drama-ineducation entails.
The crux of drama-in-education is the creation of opportunities for the learners to
exercise their creativity within given scenarios in the classroom situation. The focus is
on learning within a given context by drawing from the experiences of the learners and
by providing them with opportunities to use the second or target language in authentic
situations rather than by creating contrived situations which are divorced from their
experiences in the real world The creation of these scenarios enables them to use the
target language within authentic situations which will ultimately be beneficial to them
during their interactions with mother tongue speakers outside the confines of the
classroom.
The major focus of drama-in-education in the classroom is on the processes involved
rather than the product. However, the processes could lead to a product at a much later
stage which could be staged for an audience. The term theatre-in-education unlike
creative drama implies the development of a product, a script that is rehearsed and
performed to and audience. The essential ingredients are actors, script and audience.
The mission of theatre-in-education (TIE) is to effect change or to illuminate subject
matter through the medium of the theatre. The desired result is:

To change an attitude, thereby leading to a change in behaviour

To stimulate intellectual curiosity

5

To motivate the pursuit of a particular topic or issue

It is important to highlight the differences between drama-in-education and theatre-ineducation in order to illustrate that the former does not necessarily lead to the creation of
a production for an audience, whilst the focus of the latter is on a production which will
educate the audience on a particular issue affecting society at large.

2.4

Using drama in English second language classes

Drama-in-education, also known as creative drama, could be implemented very

effectively in English second/ foreign language classes as well as across the curriculum
in all learning areas. The success of its implementation depends on the creativity of the
second/foreign language teacher and the value that he/she attaches to this method of
teaching.
Most teachers feel limited in using drama-in-education techniques as they have not
received training in this regard. Consequently they tend to shy away from using drama
in the classroom. Yet the very use of demonstration and show and tell are the building
blocks of drama in education. If teachers extend demonstration further to include
visualization and role play exercises they have actually started to adopt drama-ineducation principles.
Drama-in-education in the English second language class involves the use of
improvisation, role play and frozen image building also known as szenisches spiel,
amongst others. These techniques will not only make a constructive contribution to the
development of the learners oral communication skills, but will serve to develop all
aspects of their personality including empathy, confidence, concentration and
communication skills.
Before language teachers commence with the implementation of drama-in-education
techniques in their second language classes, it is imperative that they first focus on
initiating the learners into this method by commencing with warm up exercises. Second
language learners could be very disconcerted and frustrated if the teachers
expectations of them are unrealistic. Thus in order to obviate this scenario the learners
should first be exposed to warm up exercises so that they are able to remain focused on
their activities. The warm up exercises could include, amongst others, the following:

The participants go crisscross through the room and greet each other in a special
mode/ or according to their own culture of greeting: German (shake hands), Xhosa,
French (cheek to cheek), Japanese (bow with praying hands).
6

The group forms a circle. The facilitator makes eye contact with a person, claps
his/her hand, calls out his/her name, walks towards the person and goes behind
him/her. Then the person in front continues.

The group forms a circle. The facilitator calls out one of the participants names by
using a certain gesture and then moves into the centre of the circle. The whole
group copies the gesture and repeats the name at the same time. The next person
does the same thing, the whole group copies and so on.

Going into pictures: The facilitator gives a cue (eg shopping centre/ soccer field
..etc). The first participant who has an idea goes on stage and freezes in a posture
which relates to shopping centre. Then one after the other they follow with their
ideas until the whole group is on stage. They leave the stage in the same order as
they came on.

2.5

Techniques Involved in Drama-in-education

The major techniques on which drama-in-education is based include, amongst others,

improvisation, role play and frozen image building. These techniques create
opportunities for the English second language learner to use the language in a
stimulating learning environment which will ultimately have a positive effect on his/her
performance in the L2 class. In the ensuing discussion which follows each of these
techniques will be explained, their application in English L2 classes will be highlighted
and specific examples will be provided to illustrate how they could be applied in the
classroom in given situations.

2.5.1

Improvisation

2.5.1.1 Outline of improvisation

Landy (1982:6) defines improvisation as an unscripted, unrehearsed, spontaneous set of
actions in response to minimal directions from a leader, usually including statements of
whom one is, where one is and what one is doing there. The focus is thus on identifying
with characters, enacting roles and entering into the inner experience of imagination and
fantasy. It is in effect the creation of a situation where the players first achieve a sense
of security in movement before they are ready to add dialogue. The dialogue that
emerges from the situation is created spontaneously by the participants as the various
scenes unfold and develop.

According to McCaslin (1990) the focus of improvisation is on helping learners to

discover their own resources from which their most imaginative ideas and strongest
feelings flow. Participants gain freedom as self-discipline and the ability to work with
others develops.

It is important to note, however, that the purpose of improvisation in the L2 class is not to
entertain others but to provide the participants with a medium of self expression. The
facilitator, according to McCaslin (1990: 120), tries to stimulate the imagination, free the
individual to create, guide the group and build confidence.

2.5.1.2 Implementing improvisation in the English second language

classroom
Improvisation is an excellent technique to use in the L2 classroom as it motivates the
learners to be active participants in authentic situations thereby reducing their self
consciousness. Initially the learners will be rather hesitant and shy to participate in the
activities, but after a few sessions they will become more enthusiastic and there will be a
phenomenal improvement in their confidence levels. According to McCaslin (1990:100)
dialogue in improvisation is apt to be brief and scanty at first, but with practice words
begin to come and the players discover the possibilities of character development when
oral language is added.

The implementation of techniques that aim to improve the L2 learners confidence levels
will invariably lead to improvement in the use of the target language. Improvisation
provides learners with opportunities to not only improve their language communication
skills, but also to improve their confidence which will ultimately lead to the development
of positive self concepts.

The commencement of the improvisation session involves the establishment of a context

by the facilitator which serves to inform the participants where they are and what they
are expected to portray in their inter-relationships with other characters. Since this is an
unscripted, unrehearsed drama exercise, the participants are at liberty to make their own
spontaneous contributions as the play unfolds. This entails that they have the freedom
8

to add their own words and develop their characters in the ways which they would like
to. Thus one of the advantages of improvisation is the level of freedom that the
participants are able to exercise during the execution of the creative session.

It is a good idea to begin with simple situations so as to get accustomed to using

dialogue before attempting more ambitious material. It is imperative, however, that the
teacher does not expect too much and that he/she accepts whatever is offered, knowing
that more will be forthcoming the next time.

Improvisation exercises could involve an entire class of learners or smaller groups.

Once the context has been provided the learners will participate spontaneously in the
exercise. A whole class improvisation exercise could involve the participants at a
market where some are the buyers and others the sellers. The facilitator merely
provides the context and then the participants act out their roles spontaneously without
any planning. Improvisation for smaller groups is done in the same way, except that the
facilitator could provide the participants with more details such as : You are a group of
holidaymakers relaxing on the beach when someone spots a shark attacking one of your
friends.

It is important to bear in mind that much of the content for the improvisation activities
could come from the participants own backgrounds and experiences. Respect for the
participants backgrounds and acceptance of the ideas that emerge out of these
interactions, not only create a relaxing environment for the participants, but may bring
forth ideas that the teacher may not have thought of. According to McCaslin (1990)
children of foreign background have a wealth of material on which to draw, but too often
it remains an untapped source because they have been made to feel that it is unworthy
of consideration.

Such exercises will invariably reduce the tension considerably in the L2 class and serve
as preparation for role play exercises, since at a later stage they could refine their
characters more carefully and discuss the roles of the other characters who are part of
the scene.
9

2.5.1.3 Examples of improvisation

The following improvisations may be done with various age levels, although the
backgrounds of the players will determine the appropriateness. In some cases the
situations are better for older players.

You are a group of people at a party/ disco having a good time. Decide who you are
and what you are doing (initial stages)

You are a group of people at a political rally being addressed by an anti-government

speaker, when the security forces storm into the hall

You are a group of teachers on strike for higher pay

You are a group of parents attending a parent meeting who are complaining about
the poor facilities and teaching at your school

You are a group of people stuck in a lift (elevator) on the 12th floor of a building.
Decide on who you are going to be a secretary, an actress, a businessman, a
cleaner, a teenager, a pregnant lady etc. Then let us know about you through your
conversation with other members in the lift.

2.5.2

Role Play

2.5.2.1 Brief outline of role play

According to Blatner (2002:1) role play is a method for exploring the issues involved in
complex social situations. McCaslin (1990:7) concurs with this viewpoint by contending
that the focus is on the value that the assumption of the role has for the participant
rather than for the development of an art. In role play the participants are assigned roles
which they act out in a given scenario.

According to Kodotchigova (2001) role play prepares L2 learners for L2 communication

in a different social and cultural context. The purpose of role play is educative rather
than therapeutic and the situations examined are common to all. Family scenes, school
situations and playground incidents provide opportunities for interaction and group
10

discussion. Exchanging roles is a good way to put oneself in the shoes of another in
order to understand that person.

Role play enables participants to deepen prior experience and to translate it into
characters for the plot. In this way, according to Wrentschur and Altman (2002), the
participants are able to adopt roles hitherto alien to them, and to try what it feels like to
be on the other side for once. The advantages of the role play exercises are that they
enable participants to project themselves into, and critically examine, specific situations
emotionally and cognitively.

2.5.2.2 Implementing role play in the English second language classroom

Role playing experiences usually have three phases: a warm-up phase, an action phase
and a closure. During the warm up phase the teacher could ask each learner to verbally
express how he/she is feeling at the moment or to assume a body posture that
represents a present feeling. From there the teacher can move into the role-playing or
acting-out phase, choosing learners to assume roles and carefully organizing rolereversals. Finally through group discussion, sharing of feelings and summing up the
teacher can bring the group to a point of equilibrium.

The starting point for role play activities is to, first and foremost, take into account the
learners needs and interests. It is imperative for teachers to select role plays that will
afford learners the opportunity to practice what they have learnt or discussed in class,
whilst simultaneously stimulating their interest so as to ensure maximum participation.
One way of ensuring that the learners are interested in the activities is to provide them
with opportunities to choose the situations themselves, suggest themes that intrigue
them or select a topic from a list of given situations.

Ideas for role play could be obtained from situations that teachers and learners
experience in their own lives, from books, television programmes and movies or from
their daily interactions with other people at school or in the workplace. After choosing a
context for a role play, the next step is to provide ideas on how this situation may
develop. It is important to consider the learners level of language proficiency when
implementing role play activities in the L2 classroom. Once you have selected a suitable
role play, predict the language needed for it. In this regard it is important to ensure that
11

the learners are exposed to new vocabulary before commencing with the role play.
Kdotchigova (2001) for example contends that it is imperative to provide learners with
concrete information and clear role descriptions so that they could play their roles with
confidence. For example, in the situation of a railway station, the person giving the
information should have relevant information: the times, destination of the trains, prices
of tickets etc.

Discussion is the most important aspect of role play, as it is during these periods that
various points of view are presented and attitudes clarified. The teacher must accept all
ideas, giving all learners an opportunity to express themselves without fear of
disapproval.

Initially during the execution of the role play, the teacher/ facilitator could take one of the
roles and act it out as a model. Thereafter the learners could present their role play
exercises after talking about them first in their respective groups. The facilitator should
try to remain as unobtrusive as possible and avoid intervening during a role play with
error corrections as this could discourage the participants. Instead he/she should make
a note of the mistakes and discuss them at a later stage as they will provide him/her with
feedback for further practice and revision. The follow up sessions should involve
feedback from both the participants and the other learners on the role plays which they
have observed. The aim is to discuss what has happened in the role play and what they
have learned. In addition to group discussion, an evaluation questionnaire could also be
used to gauge learners responses to the role play exercises.

2.5.2.3 Examples of role play exercises

The use of role play in the English second language class depends on the learners level
of competence in the language.

In exploring feelings of anger towards teachers, learners may be asked to assume a

teachers role and answer questions put to them by other learners. Through the
processes of role-playing, several learners could get the chance to take on the role of
teacher and angry learner. This could later lead to role reversal, where for example
a girl in the role of angry learner is asked to switch roles with a boy in the role of
12

teacher. In this way a volatile situation could be explored dramatically. Following the
demonstration learners could be asked to discuss their feelings and insights.

The scene is a courtroom. A woman has been apprehended for selling what is
suspected of being stolen jewelry on a street corner. Two witnesses are called up
and are questioned about what they have seen or know. Then the suspect is
questioned by the lawyer. The judge then announces his verdict.

You are falsely accused of cheating on an examination. You are angry and upset.
The three persons involved are your teacher, the principal of the school and you (for
Three)

2.5.3

Frozen Image Building (Living Statues)

2.5.3.1 Brief Outline of frozen image building

Frozen image building, also known as szenisches spiel is a technique in drama-ineducation where participants initially create frozen pictures which are later developed
into animated situations involving a series of interviews with the characters incorporated
in the respective images. This technique was popularized by Ingo Scheller in his book
Handbuch fur die Padagogische Praxcis in which he outlines the guiding principles for
the implementation of this method of teaching. According to Wrentschur and Altmann
(2002:3) this approach provides an excellent peg for the exploration of the subject,
expanding angles while helping to identify a diversity of connecting links.

The facilitator commences the session by providing the groups with a scenario which
they have to present in the form of a still image. Initially no words are used, but later the
characters, who form part of the still image have to create their own biographies and are
interviewed by the facilitator as well as by members of other groups, while they are still
in their roles as part of the frozen image. Wrentschur and Altman (2002) contend further
that frozen image building (statue theatre) provides room for a scenic exploration of, and
a process of coming to terms with, various everyday issues and problems that are
difficult to put into words

2.5.3.2 Implementing frozen image building in the English second language

classroom
This technique could be implemented very effectively in the English second language
class as it enables the participants to work with other members as a team to create their
images. Second language learners definitely gain more confidence when they are
13

encouraged to share ideas and to work in groups. During the process of creating their
frozen images they will have to communicate with each other to decide how the image
will be constructed and who the characters in the image represent. At a later stage each
member of the group will have to write out their biographies with the assistance of the
facilitator and assume their positions in the frozen image. Each character has to be able
to answer the following questions while still in role: Who are you? How old are you?
What are you doing here? Why are you here? Later as the participants become more
confident and their English language proficiency improves they could be required to
respond to more in depth questions relating to the characters which they have assumed
in the frozen image. These questions could include: What do you think you will do after
you leave this place? What are you relationships with the other characters?

After the characters have been interviewed by the facilitator and members of other
groups they could return to their original groups and develop the frozen image into an
animated scene where the characters have speaking roles, thereby giving life to the
picture.

The advantage of this approach is self-evident in that there is a progression from action
to action and words. L2 learners who lack the confidence to communicate in the target
language could be gradually initiated into using the language by first enabling them to
create their still images and later to add words to their presentations.

2.5.3.3 Examples of frozen image exercises

Sculptures of emotions
In pairs: One of the partners of each pair receives a slip of paper showing a
secret emotion (eg anger/joy etc). He/she then has to build a still image that
illustrates the given word by shaping the body of the partner. Once all the stillimages are built, the builders move through the exhibition interpreting the
sculptures from an external perspective. Each builder can then explain later what
emotion he was required to build.
Next: The pairs change roles
14

Teamwork with photos

The photos are exhibited in the class for everyone to view. Then the class is
divided into groups and each group selects a photo from those on display. The
groups shape an image of the chosen photo by using their bodies. The images
are presented to the class and are then interpreted by the other participants from
an external perspective.
An extension exercise could be a short in-role interview with the performers of the
sculpture while they are still holding their postures: What do you see? What do
you think about this situation? What has happened? How do you feel?

Using an article
Read the article in your groups. Then build five still-images which show what
happened. Select a narrator to explain what has happened by using the still
images as slides.

ARTICLE:

15TH January 2004

Yesterday at 5.00 in the evening a 65 year old shopkeeper was robbed and knocked
down.
A few hours later the police arrested an unemployed 18 year old man. The loot,
consisting of R1000 in cash and a gold watch was seized and returned to the owner.

15

( Furhman, Morgen, Sleur & Scmidt, 2003:36)

Conclusion
In the final analysis it is evident that drama-in-education has a meaningful and relevant
role to play in second and foreign language teaching. The obvious advantages of this
method of teaching lie not only in its ability to improve oral communication skills
effectively, but also in terms of its ability to improve the learners confidence which will
ultimately lead to the development of positive self concepts. Since many of the L2
learners may be grappling with the target language, using creative drama in the
classroom will stimulate them to use the language in authentic situations thereby leading
to their overall improvement in the use of the language.

Instead of colluding with our learners in their invention of themselves as failures and
incompetents who are unnecessary to society, we can help them to reinvent themselves
through drama so that they are able to discover their possible powers, skills and
competencies.

Pantomime, improvisation, role play and frozen image building are invaluable techniques
for self-expression as they serve to assist learners to assume responsibility, accept
group decisions, work together co-operatively, develop new interests and seek new
information.
Drama is the most completely personal as well as the most highly
socialized art form we have. (McCaslin, 1990:18)

16

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blatner,
A.
2002.
Role
www.blatner.com/adam/pdntbk/rlplayedu.htm.

playing

in

education.

Accessed on [10/09/2004]
Fuhrmann, K., Morgan, G., Sleur, M & Schmidt. 2003. Szenisches spiel handbook. Port
Elizabeth: Vista University
Katz, S. 2000. Drama and therapy in education: The double mirror. Unpublished PHD
thesis. University of Toronto.
Kodotchigova, M.A. 2001. Role play in teaching culture: Six quick steps for classroom
implementation. http://iteslj.org/Technidques/Kodotchigova-RolePlay.html. Accessed
on [30/08/2004]
Landy, R.J. 1982. Handbook of educational drama and theatre. London: Greenwood
Press
McCaslin, N. 1990. Creative drama in the classroom. 5th ed. Studio City: Players
Press Inc.
ONeill, C & Lambert, A. 1982. Drama structures: A practical handbook for teachers.
London: Heinemann
Scheller, I. 1998. Szenisches Spiel: Handbuch fur die padagogische praxis. Berlin
17

Wretschur, M & Altmann, P. 2002. Enhancing cultural awareness through cultural

production theatre. http://www.akatemia.org/eca/articles/oppressed.html. Accessed on
[14/09/2004]

18