Module 8

The English Civil War

(1603-1714)
and
The Restoration

http://handmademaps.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/145_English-CivilWar.jpg
A single monarch
Elizabeth I, the last of the Tudor monarchs, died in 1603 and the thrones of
England and Ireland passed to her cousin, James Stuart.
Thus James VI of Scotland also became James I of England. The three
separate kingdoms were united under a single ruler for the first time, and
James I and VI, as he now became, entered upon his unique inheritance.

http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/james/jamesvansomer.jpg
England, Scotland and Ireland were very different countries, and
the memories of past conflict ran deep.
James had awaited Elizabeth's death with eager anticipation, because of
the wealth and prestige the English crown would bring him. But, as this
canny monarch must have known all too well, the balancing act he would
henceforth be required to perform was not an easy one.
England, Scotland and Ireland were very different countries, with very
different histories, and the memories of past conflict between those
countries - and indeed, of past conflict between different ethnic groups
within those countries - ran deep.
To make matters trickier still, each kingdom favoured a different form of
religion. Most Scots were Calvinists, most English favoured a more
moderate form of Protestantism and most Irish remained stoutly
Catholic. Yet each kingdom also contained strong religious minorities.

http://faithsurvey.co.uk/images/ukpoll2011.png

In England, the chief such group were the Catholics, who initially believed
that James would prove less severe to them than Elizabeth had been.
When these expectations were disappointed, Catholic conspirators
hatched a plot to blow both the new king and his parliament sky-high.
The discovery of the Gunpowder Plot served as a warning to James, if
any were needed, of the very grave dangers religious divisions could pose,
both to his own person and to the stability of his triple crown.
James I was resolved to keep his kingdoms out of foreign entanglements
if he could.
However - following the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth to Frederick V,
elector of the Rhineland Palatinate; Frederick's crowning as king of
Bohemia; and the forcible ejection of the young couple from their new
kingdom by Catholic forces soon afterwards - James found himself being
dragged into the continental Thirty Years' War.

Many of Charles's subjects became alienated by his religious

policies.
His health failing, the old king died in 1625 and was succeeded by his son
Charles, who initially threw himself into the fight against the Catholic
powers, but eventually withdrew from the European conflict in 1630.
Charles I (1600-1649)

http://www.philipmould.com/admin/resources/van-dyck-studio-charles-imn551-em.jpg

Charles I was a conscientious and principled ruler, but he was also

stubborn, reserved and politically maladroit. From the moment that he first

assumed the crown, uneasy murmurs about his style of government began
to be heard.
Over the next 15 years, many of Charles's English subjects became
alienated by his religious policies and by his apparent determination to
rule without parliaments.
Some, especially the more zealous Protestants, or 'puritans', came to
believe in the existence of a sinister royal plot - one which aimed at the
restoration of the Catholic faith in England and the destruction of the
people's liberties.
Similar fears were abroad in Scotland, and when Charles attempted to
introduce a new prayer book to that country in 1637 he provoked furious
resistance.
Charles's subsequent attempts to crush the Scots by force went
disastrously wrong, forcing him to summon an English parliament in
October 1640. Once this assembly had begun to sit, Charles was assailed
by angry complaints about his policies.
At first, the king seemed to have practically no supporters. But as puritan
members of parliament began to push for wholesale reform of the church
and religious traditionalists became alarmed, Charles found himself at the
head of a swelling political constituency.
Then, in 1641, the Catholics of Ireland rose up in arms, killing many
hundreds of the English and Scottish Protestants who had settled in
their country.
The rebellion caused panic in England, and made it harder than ever for a
political compromise to be reached. Charles I and parliament could not
agree and England began to divide into two armed camps.
Civil war
Visual support. English Civil War
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hHLaRKrwfk

Questions
1. Who were the main opponents in the English Civil War?
2. What did Charles I need money for?

3. How was the Parliament supposed to get money?

4. What did the King do in response to the Parliaments refusal to obey
his orders?
5. What was Charles Is attitude to Puritans?
6. What was the Petition of Right?
7. Why did the Parliament feel betrayed by Charles I?
8. Who were the Cavaliers and Roundheads?
9. Who took the power after Charles Is death?
10.

What restrictions did Cromwell impose?

The civil war which broke out in 1642 saw a broadly Royalist north and
west ranged against a broadly Parliamentarian south and east.
Charles derived particular advantage from the support of the Welsh and
the Cornish, who supplied him with many of his foot soldiers, while
parliament derived still more advantage from its possession of London.
In mid-1643, it looked as if the king might be about to defeat his
opponents, but later that year the Parliamentarians concluded a military
alliance with the Scots.
Charles was tried, found guilty, and beheaded in January 1649.
Following the intervention of a powerful Scottish army and the defeat of
the king's forces at Marston Moor in 1644, Charles lost control of the north
of Britain.
The following year, Charles was defeated by parliament's New Model Army
at Naseby and it became clear that the Royalist cause was lost.
Unwilling to surrender to the Parliamentarians, the king gave himself up to
the Scots instead, but when they finally left England, the Scots handed
Charles over to their parliamentary allies.
Still determined not to compromise with his enemies, the captive king
managed to stir up a new bout of violence known as the Second Civil War.
Realising that the kingdom could never be settled in peace while Charles I
remained alive, a number of radical MPs and officers in the New Model

Army eventually decided that the king had to be charged with high
treason. Charles was accordingly tried, found guilty, and beheaded in
January 1649.
In the wake of the king's execution, a republican regime was established
in England, a regime which was chiefly underpinned by the stark military
power of the New Model Army.
Oliver Cromwell The Protectorate
Protectorate, in English history, name given to the English government
from 1653 to 1659. Following the English civil war and the execution of
Charles I, England was declared (1649) a commonwealth under the rule of
the Rump Parliament. In 1653, however, Oliver Cromwell dissolved the
Rump, replacing it with the Nominated, or Barebone's, Parliament (see
Barebone, Praise-God), and when the latter proved ineffectual, he
accepted (Dec., 1653) the constitutional document entitled the Instrument
of Government, which had been drawn up by a group of army officers. By
its terms, Cromwell assumed the title lord protector of the commonwealth
of England, Scotland, and Ireland and agreed to share his power with a
council of state and a Parliament of one house. However, although
Parliament met regularly, Cromwell's protectorate was a virtual
dictatorship resting on the power of the army. After a royalist uprising, he
divided (1655) the country into 11 military districts, each under the
administration of a major general who enforced the rigidly puritanical laws
and collected taxes. Toleration was extended to Jews and all non-Anglican
Protestants, but not to Roman Catholics. In 1654, the first of the Dutch
Wars was brought to a close and English sea power turned against Spain.
In the Humble Petition and Advice of 1657, Parliament offered Cromwell
the throne (which he refused), allowed him to name a successor, and set
up an upper house to be chosen by him; but this attempt at constitutional
revision had little practical effect on the government. Richard Cromwell
succeeded as lord protector on the death of his father in 1658, but he was
unable to control the army and resigned in May, 1659. The Rump was
recalled and the Commonwealth resumed, and after a period of chaos
Gen. George Monck recalled the Long Parliament and brought about the
Restoration of Charles II.

Oliver Cromwell was born on 25 April 1599 in Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire

into a family of minor gentry and studied at Cambridge University. He
became member of parliament for Huntingdon in the parliament of 1628 1629. In the 1630s Cromwell experienced a religious crisis and became
convinced that he would be guided to carry out God's purpose. He began

to make his name as a radical Puritan when, in 1640, he was elected to

represent Cambridge, first in the Short Parliament and then in the Long
Parliament.
Civil war broke out between Charles I and parliament in 1642. Although
Cromwell lacked military experience, he created and led a superb force of
cavalry, the 'Ironsides', and rose from the rank of captain to that of
lieutenant-general in three years. He convinced parliament to establish a
professional army - the New Model Army - which won the decisive victory
over the king's forces at Naseby (1645). The king's alliance with the
Scots and his subsequent defeat in the Second Civil War convinced
Cromwell that the king must be brought to justice. He was a prime mover
in the trial and execution of Charles I in 1649 and subsequently sought to
win conservative support for the new republic by suppressing radial
elements in the army. Cromwell became army commander and lord
lieutenant of Ireland, where he crushed resistance with the massacres of
the garrisons at Drogheda and Wexford (1649).
Cromwell then defeated the supporters of the king's son Charles II at
Dunbar (1650) and Worcester (1651), effectively ending the civil war. In
1653, frustrated with lack of progress, he dissolved the rump of the Long
Parliament and, after the failure of his Puritan convention (popularly known
as Barebones Parliament) made himself lord protector. In 1657, he
refused the offer of the crown. At home Lord Protector Cromwell
reorganised the national church, established Puritanism, readmitted
Jews into Britain and presided over a certain degree of religious tolerance.
Abroad, he ended the war with Portugal (1653) and Holland (1654) and
allied with France against Spain, defeating the Spanish at the Battle of the
Dunes (1658). Cromwell died on 3 September 1658 in London. After the
Restoration his body was dug up and hanged.
Cromwell's son Richard was named as his successor and was lord
protector of England from September 1658 to May 1659. He could not
reconcile various political, military and religious factions and soon lost the
support of the army on which his power depended. He was forced to
abdicate and after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 he fled to
Paris. He returned to England in 1680 and lived quietly under an assumed
name until his death in 1712.
Visual support- Oliver Cromwell - Timelines.tv History of Britain
B09
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bqi0Wd68Mio

1. Who had the right to vote in the 17th century England?

2. What institution was fit to govern England according to Cromwell?

3. What was special about the reign of Charles II?
Visual support. Oliver Cromwell
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewTBVosN_XU

1. What were the religious conflicts in Charles Is time?

2. What was the name of the republic after the death of Charles I?
3. What was Cromwells position towards Catholics?
4. What was Cromwells position towars the Jews?

Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)

England's new rulers were determined to re-establish England's traditional
dominance over Ireland, and in 1649 they sent a force under Oliver
Cromwell to undertake the reconquest of Ireland, a task that was
effectively completed by 1652.
Meanwhile, Charles I's eldest son had come to an agreement with the
Scots and in January 1651 had been crowned as Charles II of Scotland.

Later that year, Charles invaded England with a Scottish army, but was
defeated by Cromwell at Worcester.
Cromwell strove to establish broad-based support for godly
republican government - with scant success.
The young king just managed to avoid capture, and later escaped to
France. His Scottish subjects were left in a sorry plight, and soon the
Parliamentarians had conquered the whole of Scotland.
In 1653, Cromwell was installed as 'lord protector' of the new
Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. Over the next five years,
he strove to establish broad-based support for godly republican
government with scant success.
Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded as protector by his son,
Richard, but Richard had little aptitude for the part he was now called
upon to play and abdicated eight months later.
After Richard Cromwell's resignation, the republic slowly fell apart and
Charles II was eventually invited to resume his father's throne. In May
1660, Charles II entered London in triumph. The monarchy had been
restored.

The English Restoration

The Restoration of the monarchy began in 1660 when the English,

Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II. The term
Restoration may apply both to the actual event by which the monarchy
was restored, and to the period immediately following the event. It is very
often used to cover the whole reign of Charles II (16601685) and often
the brief reign of his younger brother James II (1685-1688). In certain
contexts it may be used to cover the whole period of the later Stuart
monarchs as far as the death of Queen Anne and the accession of the
Hanoverian George I in 1714;
Charles II was an intelligent but deeply cynical man, more interested in
his own pleasures than in points of political or religious principle. His
lifelong preoccupation with his many mistresses did nothing to improve his
public image.

Charles II
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Charles_II_of_England
_409151.jpg
The early years of the new king's reign were scarcely glorious ones. In
1665 London was devastated by the plague, while a year later much of
the capital was destroyed in the Great Fire of London.
The Dutch raid on Chatham in 1667 was one the most humiliating military
reverses England had ever suffered.
Nevertheless, the king was a cunning political operator and when he died
in 1685 the position of the Stuart monarchy seemed secure. But things
swiftly changed following the accession of his brother, James, who was
openly Catholic.
Catholic succession
James II at once made it plain that he was determined to improve the lot
of his Catholic subjects, and many began to suspect that his ultimate aim
was to restore England to the Catholic fold.

James II
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/King_James_II_from_
NPG.jpg
The birth of James's son in 1688 made matters even worse since it forced
anxious Protestants to confront the fact that their Catholic king now had a
male heir.
Soon afterwards, a group of English Protestants begged the Dutch
Stadholder William of Orange - who had married James II's eldest
daughter, Mary, in 1677 - to come to their aid.
Many suspected that James II wanted to bring back Catholicism.
William, who had long been anticipating such a call, accordingly set sail
with an army for England. James II fled to France a few weeks later and
William and Mary were crowned as joint monarchs the following year. This
is known as The Glorious Revolution.

James II still had many supporters in Ireland, and in March 1689 he

landed there with a French army.
William now assembled an army of his own to meet this challenge, and in
1690 he decisively defeated James at the Battle of the Boyne. James
promptly returned to France, leaving William free to consolidate his hold
on power.
The death of Mary in 1694 left William as sole ruler of the three kingdoms,
and by 1700 all eyes were turning to the problem of the succession.
Because neither William nor James II's surviving daughter, Anne, had any
children, Protestants were terrified that the throne would eventually
revert to James II, to his son, or to one of the many other Catholic
claimants.
To avert this danger, the Act of Settlement was passed in 1701,
directing that after the deaths of William and Anne the throne would return
to the descendants of James I's daughter, Elizabeth.
Sophia, electress of Hanover, and her heirs thus became next in line to
the English throne.
In 1702, William died and was succeeded by Anne. Five years after this, a
formal union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland was contrived, in
order to ensure that there would be a Protestant succession in Scotland
too.
Henceforth England and Scotland officially became one country, and when
Queen Anne, the last of the Stuart monarchs, died in 1714, it was to the
throne of the United Kingdom of Great Britain that George I, the first of
the Hanoverians, succeeded.
Cultural Aspects of the Restoration
During this time, a premium was placed on the importance of human
reason and on an empirical philosophy that held that knowledge
about the world was through the senses and by applying reason to
what we take in through our senses. Reason was an unchanging, uniquely
human characteristic that served as a guide for man. Thus this time is
often also called the Age of Reason or Enlightenment. Characteristics
of this period included observing human nature and nature itself
which
were
considered
unchanging
and
constant.
The age is also known as the Neoclassical period. Writers of the time
placed great emphasis on the original writings produced by classical Greek

and Roman literature. The literature of this period imitated that of the age
of Caesar Augustus, writers such as Horace and Virgil, with classical
influences appearing prevalent in poetry with the use of rhyming, and in
prose with its satirical form. The Augustans deemed classical literature as
natural, that these works were the idealized models for writing. The
Neoclassical "ideals of order, logic, restraint, accuracy, 'correctness,'
decorum,. . . would enable the practitioners of various arts to imitate or
reproduce
the
structures
or
themes
of
Greek
or
Roman
originals". Alexander Pope furthers this idea as he says "Learn hence for
ancient rules a just esteem; To copy Nature is to copy them" (Essay on
Criticism). The way to study nature is to study the ancients; the styles
and rules of classical literature. Closely allied with the emphasis placed on
the classics and the unchanging rules of nature was the belief that reason
was an unchanging and unique human quality that served as a guide for
man.
An Age of Satire
Literature during this period was often considered a tool for the
advancement of knowledge. Writers were often found observing nature in
their attempts to express their beliefs. Human nature was considered a
constant that observation and reason could be applied to for the
advancement of knowledge.
Within these circumstances, the Age of Satire was born. Satire was the
most popular literary tool that was utilized by writers of the time. With the
help of satire, writers were better able to educate the public through
literature. Its function was to acknowledge a problem in society and
attempt to reform the problem in a comical manner while still educating
the public. Its effectiveness can be seen in literary pieces by Jonathan
Swift such as A Modest Proposal where he addresses and criticizes the
problem of a growing famine in Ireland. Playwrights of the time were also
known to incorporate satire in their plays. Through the use of satire, they
were able to expose and critique social injustices. "Over the thirty
years of its triumphs, Restoration comedy, in an astounding fugue of
excesses and depravities, laid bare the turbulence and toxins of this
culture" (Longman).
Satire was a highly successful literary tool that worked to promote social
awareness through literature, the theater and periodicals of the time.
Visual support, Mr. Osborne - British Literature Unit Preview 3 - The
Restoration & , 10:22
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F4Jzp4Ywuek

1. What happened to the English theaters during the Protectorate?

2. What was a major change in the theater during Charles II?
3. What literary genre is Swifts Gullivers Travels?
Restoration and the 18th Century
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLpeUJt7aVE
The Metaphysical Poets

The term metaphysical poetry refers to a specific period of time and a

specific set of poets. In 17th-century England, there was a group of poets
who, while they did form a formal group, have been considered the
metaphysical poets. There are, in most lists, nine poets that belong, and
they are as follows: John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan,
Edward Herbert, Thomas Carew, Richard Crashaw, Andrew Marvel,
Richard Lovelace and Sir John Suckling. There are an additional seven
poets that are sometimes also considered to be part of this small group of
17th century metaphysical poets, and they are George Chapman,
Abraham Cowley, Richard Leigh, Katherine Philips, Edward Taylor, Anne
Bradstreet and John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester.
Donne is, and this is almost undisputed, the quintessential metaphysical
poet. If none other is read, Donne is generally recommended for a reader
to get a good idea of what metaphysical poetry is all about.
So, what is metaphysical poetry? The answer lies in the composition of
these pieces. The common thread is that they contain metaphors that
are highly conceptual in nature. These metaphors are often tenuous,
at best, in their comparisons of one thing to another, but they can leave
the reader feeling enlightened.
This type of metaphor is known as a metaphysical conceit. The way to tell
a metaphysical conceit from a regular metaphor is that they often exhibit
an analytical tone, contain double meanings, show logical reasoning, and
have paradoxes, symbolism, and wit. While one or two of these elements
might be missing from any given piece, there should be the majority of
them present.
One of the prime examples of metaphysical poetry is John Donnes A
Valediction: Forbidding Mourning. In this piece, Donne paints a picture of
a drawing compass that helps an artist or architect create circles. One arm
is one of the lovers and is constantly moving, but even so, the other
person, or arm, leans toward the movement. The circles that the compass
draws are symbols of perfection and eternity, two things people strive

for when in love. Most wouldnt have drawn a correlation between love and
lovers and a compass used for making precise circles. This was the genius
of the metaphysical poet drawing similarities between the
unlikeliest of similar ideas and objects.
One of the most apparent contrasts between metaphysical poetry and
other poems of the 17th century is that while the metaphysical poets were
comparing love to compasses (Donne) and the human soul to drops of
morning dew (Marvel) the rest were relying heavily on classical mythology
and nature for their symbolism and allusions.
Another characteristic that separates the poetry of the metaphysical poets
and their contemporaries is that even when writing on a romantic subject,
the word and metaphor choices were most often decidedly unromantic.
They have both been praised and criticized for this, but despite the mixed
reviews, they remain interesting and engaging reads.
Visual support Metaphysical poetry 6:34
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gM6xTfq-zxo
1.
2.
3.
4.

What was the target audience of metaphysical poets?

Who is considered the Father of metaphysical poetry?
What is the purpose of metaphysical poetry?
Why did the metaphysical poets compared apparently unrelated
objects?
5. What are the main themes approached by Donne?
6. What are metaphysical conceits?
7. What famous metaphor created by Donne is mentioned in the film?

8. A VALEDICTION FORBIDDING MOURNING.

by John Donne

AS virtuous men pass mildly away,

And whisper to their souls to go,
Whilst some of their sad friends do say,
"Now his breath goes," and some say, "No."
So let us melt, and make no noise,
No tear-floods, nor sigh-tempests move ;
'Twere profanation of our joys
To tell the laity our love.

[1]

Moving of th' earth brings harms and fears ;

Men reckon what it did, and meant ;
But trepidation of the spheres,
Though greater far, is innocent.
Dull sublunary lovers' love
Whose soul is sensecannot admit
Of absence, 'cause it doth remove
The thing which elemented it.
But we by a love so much refined,
That ourselves know not what it is,
Inter-assurd of the mind,
Care less, eyes, lips and hands to miss.
Our two souls therefore, which are one,
Though I must go, endure not yet
A breach, but an expansion,
Like gold to aery thinness beat.
If they be two, they are two so
As stiff twin compasses are two ;
Thy soul, the fix'd foot, makes no show
To move, but doth, if th' other do.
And though it in the centre sit,
Yet, when the other far doth roam,
It leans, and hearkens after it,
And grows erect, as that comes home.
Such wilt thou be to me, who must,
Like th' other foot, obliquely run ;
Thy firmness makes my circle just,
And makes me end where I begun.

10

15

20

25

30

35

9. [AJ Notes:
Sources
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/protectorate-englishhistory.html
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cromwell_oliver.shtml
https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/English_Restorat
ion.html
https://britlitwiki.wikispaces.com/The+Restoration+and+the+18th+Centur
y

Module 9
Britain in the 18th century

http://www.medievalists.net/wpcontent/uploads/2011/10/1747_La_Feuille_Map_of_England__Geographicus_-_England-ratelband-1747.jpeg

Eighteenth-Century Culture in Europe

The eighteenth century created a lavish and costly aristocratic culture.

One of the most enduring results of this affluent culture was patronage of
music. Noble patrons hired musicians and conductors, who were expected
to cater to the whims of their aristocratic benefactors. When musicians
proved too independent, as did Mozart, they failed to prosper. The literary
and philosophical counterpart of musical patronage was the creation of
urban salons, where influential thinkers exposed their ideas to an
aristocratic audience and other members of the intellectual elite.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment reflected a set of attitudes critical of traditional
European customs and morals. Those who adopted Enlightenment
techniques of criticism were called philosophes. Although the
Enlightenment began in France, its methods rapidly spread to the rest of
Europe.
The Spirit of the Enlightenment
Three of the most important Enlightenment philosophes were FrancoisMarie Arouet (called Voltaire) of France, David Hume of Scotland, and
Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron Montesquieu. In 1734 Voltaire, a
French intellectual active in the salons of Paris, issued a laudatory editorial
on English society entitled Philosophical Letters Concerning the English
Nation. Its criticism of French society and the Roman Catholic Church
stimulated an intellectual and philosophical revival that rapidly
spread beyond the borders of France. In his early career, Voltaire was
essentially a satirist of all traditional European cultureincluding the
royalty. Exiled from France for his audacity, Voltaire traveled to
England and remained there for two years. His praise of England in
comparison to France caused thephilosophe to retreat from Paris to the
countryside. Following the death of his mistress, Voltaire traveled in
Prussia and Switzerlandwearing out his welcome in both places. The end
of his life was devoted to tireless assaults on Roman Catholicism in
particular and religion in general. A university scholar, Hume spent most of
his life as an author of philosophical treatises (largely unread during his
lifetime) and histories (broadly popular). Hume was the ultimate skeptic
who refused to accept the Cartesian synthesis and relegated all natural
laws to the relativism of mental perception. He was, even during his
own lifetime, renowned as an enemy of Christianity. Like Hume, Baron
Montesquieu received university training. His most popular early work
was Persian Letters, a satire of traditional European social
organization and culture. Following a visit to Britain, Montesquieu
undertook a comparative study of forms of government, The Spirit of Laws.
In his work, Montesquieu advocated balanced constitutions as those most
likely to maximize the pleasure of the governed. Enlightenment thinkers
believed that the world could be reshaped by the proper application of
scientific principles. Jean Jacques Rousseau and John Locke developed
theories of education based on sense experience rather than moral
indoctrination. Enlightenment thinkers such as Cesare Beccaria advocated

social reform based on the concept of securing the greatest pleasure

and the promotion of happiness.
Some Enlightenment philosophes began to advocate the concept of
progress based on reform and social evolution. Man was seen as a
raw form capable of molding his society according to his personal
experience. Mankind responded principally to pleasure and painone
acted to maximize pleasure and reduce pain. According to
the philosophes, the object of all governments should be the greatest
happiness of the greatest number. The Enlightenment world could not
only be controlled, it could be managed for improvement. For
the philosophes, progress was an identifiable goal.
The Impact of the Enlightenment
Intended for public consumption, it was inevitable that the Enlightenment
would have some influence on European society. Curiously, political reform
was embraced more willingly in eastern Europe than in the west. The three
aspects of government most immediately affected were law, education,
and the spread of religious toleration. In Austria, Prussia, and Russia,
legal codification was undertaken, though not necessarily completed. As
the Enlightenment thinkers commonly attacked the Jesuits, the religious
order most associated with education in eastern Europe, the states had to
create new educational institutions. Throughout the east, compulsory
educationprograms were initiated. Religious toleration was readily
granted in Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The strict regulation of minority
sects was somewhat alleviated in western Europe, although general
toleration did not exist in England, Spain, or France.
Also influential were Enlightenment theories of economics. In France the
physiocrats developed the theory that al wealth came from land, either
directly or indirectly. State wealth should be based on taxation on the
land. Physiocrats also proposed that the state should intervene as little as
possible in private economic endeavorthe doctrine of laissez-faire.
The ideas of the physiocrats and the Scottish intellectual Adam Smith
provided the foundations for economic reform in the nineteenth century.
18th century Britain: general features
The 18th century saw revolutionary changes in Britain -- it was the
beginning of the Agrarian and Industrial Revolution which took place
in Europe and America.
Within Britain the early 18th century was much the same as the second
half of the 17th century. Major changes began to occur in the middle
and second half of the 18th century. Britain was now beginning to be
wealthy and powerful. Scotland had been conquered and joined with
England in 1701, forming Great Britain. The British navy was the

strongest in the world. The slave trade and the Atlantic coast colonies
were thriving. The "Navigation Act" of Britain in 1651 which mandated
that all goods flowing to or coming from British colonies must be carried
on British ships added to Britain's wealth.
The American colonists propensity to use smuggled goods from the West
Indies and thus avoid paying duties to the British government was a thorn
in the side of the British government, The squabble over duties went to
the very heart of the British system of colonial financing, and was
therefore not a minor matter.
Britain's government revenue was made up in large part by excise
taxes and stamp duties from transshipment of colonial goods. English
companies and individuals made their profits principally on the three way
trade between Britain, North America and Africa. England became
dependent on the profits from the slave trade.
As a result of the slave trade and the massive profits for individual
Englishmen from the West Indies and India, the mercantile class in
England experienced a sharp increase in wealth and began investing in
land and peerages. They rapidly became part of the landed gentry
of England and formed a powerful lobby. Most of the peerages purchased
at this time were from merchants from the West Indies and later from
India.
These nouveau riche nabobs were able to initiate and pass powerful
Enclosure laws which enclosed large areas of the common land of
England creating a large class of newly poor landless peasants.
The English countryside was transformed between 1760 and 1830 as the
open-field system of cultivation gave way to compact farms and
enclosed fields. Despite massive increases in agricultural output, British
per capita income fell in the period 1770-1820. The rich got much
richer and the poor became penniless.

Society in 18th Century Britain

In the late 18th century the industrial revolution began to transform life in
Britain. Until then most people lived in the countryside and made their
living from farming. By the mid 19th century most people in Britain lived in
towns and made their living from mining or manufacturing industries.
Coal was the fuel which kick-started the Industrial Revolution - and Britain
was very fortunate to have plenty that could be easily mined.

Wood had been the main source of energy in Britain, used for fuel in
homes and small industries.
But as the population grew, so did the demand for timber. As forests were
cut down, wood had to be carried further to reach the towns. It was bulky
and difficult to transport and therefore expensive.
Coal was a much more potent form of power, providing up to three times
more energy than wood.
Britain had an advantage over other European countries because its
mines were near the sea, so ships could carry coal cheaply to the most
important market - London.
The demand for coal led to deeper and deeper mines and an increased
risk of flooding.
In order to keep exploiting this wonder fuel, it was necessary to find a way
to pump water out of the mines.
Horse-drawn pumps could only draw water from depths up to 90 feet,
limiting the amount of coal that could be mined.
The idea of making profits was driving the Industrial Revolution and
practical men were motivated to solve this problem.
The first commercially successful steam engine was the atmospheric
engine, invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. The new engine did
the work of 20 horses and pumped water from hundreds of feet below the
ground - making deeper mines economically viable.

http://www.egr.msu.edu/~
lira/supp/images/newcomen.gif

His machine burnt tons of coal so its location was limited to pitheads
where coal was virtually free. But Britain now had seemingly inexhaustible
quantities of cheap energy.
In 1769 James Watt (1736-1819) patented a more efficient steam
engine. In 1785 his engine was adapted to driving machinery in a cotton
factory. The use of steam engines to drive machines slowly transformed
industry.

James Watt (1736-1819)

www.cottontimes.co.uk, Watts steam engine

Meanwhile during the 1700s Britain built up a great overseas empire. The
North American colonies were lost after the War of Independence 17761783. On the other hand after the Seven Years War 1756-1763 Britain
captured Canada and India. Britain also took Dominica, Grenada, St
Vincent and Tobago in the West Indies. In 1707 the Act of Union was
passed. Scotland was united with England and Wales. England became
part of Great Britain.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Articles_of_Union.jpg

Owning land was the main form of wealth in the 18th century. Political
power and influence was in the hands of rich landowners. At the top
were the nobility. Below them were a class of nearly rich landowners
called the gentry. In the early 18th century there was another class of
landowners called yeomen between the rich and the poor. However
during the century this class became less and less numerous. However
other middle class people such as merchants and professional men
became richer and more numerous, especially in the towns.
Below them were the great mass of the population, craftsmen and
laborers. In the 18th century probably half the population lived as
subsistence or bare survival level.
In the early 18th century England suffered from gin drinking. It was
cheap and it was sold everywhere as you did not need a license to sell it.
Many people ruined their health by drinking gin. Yet for many poor people
drinking gin was their only comfort. The situation improved after 1751
when a tax was imposed on gin.
Population in 18th Century Britain
At the end of the 17th century it was estimated the population of England
and Wales was about 5 1/2 million. The population of Scotland was about 1
million. The population of London was about 600,000. In the mid 18th
century the population of Britain was about 6 1/2 million. In the late 18th
century it grew rapidly and by 1801 it was over 9 million. The population of
London was almost 1 million.
During the 18th century towns in Britain grew larger. Nevertheless most
towns still had populations of less than 10,000. However in the late 18th
century new industrial towns in the Midland and the North of England
mushroomed. Meanwhile the population of London grew to nearly 1
million by the end of the century.
Women in the 18th Century
In the 18th century girls from well off families went to school but it was
important for them to learn 'accomplishments' like embroidery and
music rather than academic subjects. Nevertheless there were some
famous women scholars in the 18th century. In 1792 a woman named
Mary Wollstonecraft published a book called A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman. In the late 18th century Caroline Herschel was a
famous astronomer. In France Madame Anne de Stael was a famous
writer.

Agriculture in 18th Century England

During the 18th century agriculture was gradually transformed by an
agricultural revolution. Until 1701 seed was sown by hand. In that year
Jethro Tull invented a seed drill, which sowed seed in straight lines. He
also invented a horse drawn hoe which hoed the land and destroyed
weed between rows of crops.

Seed drill

Horse drawn hoe

Food in the 18th Century
There was little change in food in the 18th century. Despite the
improvements in farming food for ordinary people remained plain and
monotonous. For them meat was a luxury. In England a poor person's
food was mainly bread and potatoes. In the 18th century drinking tea
became common even among ordinary people.
Houses in the 18th Century
In the 18th century a tiny minority of the population lived in luxury. The
rich built great country houses. A famous landscape gardener called
Lancelot Brown (1715-1783) created beautiful gardens. The leading
architect of the 18th century was Robert Adam (1728-1792). He created

a style called neo-classical and he designed many 18th century country

houses.
Visual support- Neoclassical style/British Gardens

Robert Adam, architect

In the 18th century the wealthy owned comfortable upholstered furniture.
They owned beautiful furniture, some of it veneered or inlaid. In the 18th
century much fine furniture was made by Thomas Chippendale (17181779), George Hepplewhite (?-1786) and Thomas Sheraton (17511806). The famous clock maker James Cox (1723-1800) made exquisite
clocks for the rich.
However the poor had none of these things. Craftsmen and laborers lived
in 2 or 3 rooms. The poorest people lived in just one room. Their furniture
was very simple and plain.
Clothes in the 1700s
In the 18th century men wore knee-length trouser like garments called
breeches and stockings. They also wore waistcoats and frock coats.
They wore linen shirts. Both men and women wore wigs and for men
three-cornered hats were popular. Men wore buckled shoes.
Women wore stays (a bodice with strips of whalebone) and hooped
petticoats under their dresses. Women in the 18th century did not
wear knickers. Fashionable women carried folding fans. Fashion was very
important for the rich in the 18th century but poor people's clothes hardly
changed at all.

Frock coats
http://www.coatpant.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Mens-Frock-CoatHistory.jpg

18th century breeches,www.osfcostumerentals.org

three - cornered hat

https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcR9uALd6dctRb5rHpm1dVI05JGyYJbAqEFxyMBtaRRCKMa__oV
6aA

Buckled shoes, www.mfa.org

stays=corset,

http://fc07.deviantart.net/fs70/i/2011/053/8/3/__lady_hamilton___stays_by_
rum_inspector-d3a5k5e.jpg

Hooped
petticoat=jupon
pe
cercuri,
http://www.ageofantiquity.com/graphics/18thCenturyLargePanniersSide.jpg
Leisure in the 18th Century
Traditional games remained popular in the 18th century. These included
games such as chess, drafts and backgammon. They also played
tennis and a rough version of football. It is believed dominoes was
invented in China. It reached Europe in the 18th century. Then in 1759 a
man named John Jeffries invented an entirely new board game called A
Journey Through Europe or The Play of Geography in which players race
across a map of Europe.
Horse racing was carried on for centuries before the 18th century but at
this time it became a professional sport. The Jockey Club was formed in
1727. The Derby began in 1780. For the well off card games and
gambling were popular. The theater was also popular. In the early 18th
century most towns did not have a purpose built theater and plays were
staged in buildings like inns. However in the late 18th century theaters
were built in most towns in England. Assembly rooms were also built in
most towns. In them people played cards and attended balls. In London
pleasure gardens were created. Moreover a kind of cricket was played
long before the 18th century but at that time it took on its modern form.
The first cricket club was formed at Hambledon in Hampshire about 1750.

Also in the 18th century rich people visited spas. They believed that
bathing in and/or drinking spa water could cure illness. Towns like Buxton,
Bath and Tunbridge prospered. At the end of the 18th century wealthy
people began to spend time at the seaside. (Again they believed that
bathing in seawater was good for your health). Seaside resorts like
Brighton and Bognor boomed.
Reading was also a popular pastime in the 18th century and the first
novels were published at this time. Books were still expensive but in many
towns you could pay to join a circulating library. The first daily newspaper
in England was printed in 1702. The Times began in 1785.
Many people enjoyed cruel 'sports' like cockfighting and bull baiting. (A
bull was chained to a post and dogs were trained to attack it). Rich people
liked fox hunting. Public executions were also popular and they drew
large crowds. Boxing without gloves was also popular (although some
boxers began to wear leather gloves in the 18th century). Puppet shows
like Punch and Judy also drew the crowds. Furthermore in the late 18th
century the circus became a popular form of entertainment.
Smoking clay pipes was popular in the 18th century. So was taking snuff.
Wealthy young men would go on a 'grand tour' of Europe lasting one or
two years.
Visual support
Education in the 18th Century
In the early 18th century charity schools were founded in many towns in
England. They were sometimes called Blue Coat Schools because of the
color of the children's uniforms. Boys from well off families went to
grammar schools. Girls from well off families also went to school but it
was felt important for them to learn 'accomplishments' like embroidery
and music rather than academic subjects.
However dissenters (Protestants who did not belong to the Church of
England) were not allowed to attend most public schools. Instead they
went to their own dissenting academies.
Medicine in the 18th Century
Knowledge of anatomy greatly improved in the 18th century. The famous
18th century surgeon John Hunter (1728-1793) is sometimes called the
Father of Modern Surgery. He invented new procedures such as
tracheotomy. Among other advances a Scottish surgeon named James

Lind discovered that fresh fruit or lemon juice could cure or prevent
scurvy. He published his findings in 1753.
A major scourge of the 18th century was smallpox. Even if it did not kill
you it could leave you scarred with pox marks. Then, in 1721 Lady Mary
Wortley Montague introduced inoculation from Turkey. You cut the
patient then introduced matter from a smallpox pustule into the wound.
The patient would (hopefully!) develop a mild case of the disease and be
immune in future. Then, in 1796 a doctor named Edward Jenner (17491823) realized that milkmaids who caught cowpox were immune to
smallpox. He invented vaccination. The patient was cut then matter
from a cowpox pustule was introduced. The patient gained immunity to
smallpox.
Art and Science in the 18th Century
During the 18th century England produced two great portrait painters,
Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) and Sir Joshua Reynolds (17231792). Meanwhile the artist William Hogarth (1697-1764) painted scenes
showing the harsh side of 18th century life. The Royal Academy of Arts
was founded in 1768. In theater the greatest actor of the 18th century
was David Garrick (1717-1779).

Thomas Gainsborough, Self-Portrait

Sophia Charlotte. Lady Sheffield, by Thomas Gainsborough

Study of a Rustic Figure, by Thomas Gainsborough

Sir Joshua Reynolds, Self-Portrait

Mrs Richard Bennett Lloyd by Sir Joshua Reynolds

Sir Joshua Reynolds, PRA, Portrait of King George III (1779) Royal
Academy of Arts, London; Ph. John Hammond

William Hogarth, Self-Portrait

In science Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) discovered oxygen. Henry

Cavendish (1731-1810) discovered hydrogen. He also calculated the
mass and density of the earth. William Herschel (1738-1822) discovered
Uranus. The Scottish engineer Thomas Telford (1757-1834) built roads,
canals and the Menai suspension bridge.
Religion in the 18th Century
The early 18th century was noted for its lack of religious enthusiasm
and the churches in England lacked vigor. However in the mid-18th
century things began to change. In 1739 the great evangelist George
Whitefield (1714-1770) began preaching. Also in 1739 John Wesley
(1703-1791) began preaching. He eventually created a new religious
movement called the Methodists. His brother Charles Wesley (17071788) was a famous hymn writer.
John Wesley traveled all over the country, often preaching in open spaces.
People jeered at his meetings and threw stones but Wesley persevered. He
never intended to form a movement separate from the Church of England.
However the Methodists did eventually break away. After 1760
Methodism spread to Scotland.
In Wales there was a great revival in the years 1738-1742. Howell Harris
(1714-1773) was a key figure. Scotland was also swept by revival in the

mid-18th century. William McCulloch and James Robe were the leading
figures.

Political life
After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the Whig party adhered, at least
in theory, to the following principles: they

advocated personal freedom

maintained that the king governed at the people's consent ("the

people" was itself, of course, an ambiguous term at this time, since
it did not include, for example, women)

said that sovereignty rested, ultimately, with the people

were strong supporters of William III and his wife Mary, and
maintained a virtual monopoly of political power during their
reign.

The Whigs, though their leadership was aristocratic, were also the party of
the new financial and mercantile interests. These interests profited in
the early eighteenth century from the wars against France.
The Whigs were adherents of the Hanoverians when that dynasty
succeeded to the throne, and in fact reigned supreme from 1714 until
1760. Between 1760 and 1800 the party, which had become increasingly
corrupt and dependent upon political patronage, disintegrated into a
number of smaller groups, and would not return to power until 1830.
The Tories (conservatives)
In a more general sense, the Tories represented the more conservative
royalist supporters of Charles II, who endorsed a strong monarchy as
a counterbalance to the power of Parliament, and who saw in the Whig
opponents of the Court a quasi-Republican tendencyto strip the
monarchy of its essential prerogative powers and leave the Crown as a
puppet entirely dependent upon Parliament.
Besides the support of a strong monarchy, the Tories also stood for the
Church of England, as established in Acts of Parliament following
the restoration of Charles II both as a body governed by bishops, using
the Book of Common Prayer, and subscribing to a specific doctrine, and

also as an exclusive body established by law, from which both Roman

Catholics and Nonconformists were excluded.
Visual support The Whigs vs. Tories - World History (Block E)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vx3I8QPqxs8 3:33 min
Whigs Tories World Hist, 3:37
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MomcDj7Jyp4
Task- Sum up the Whig and Tory ideologies
Political liberalism
Britain also had the right political background for free-market capitalism,
says Professor Black.
"The system of parliamentary government that followed the Glorious
Revolution of 1688-9 provided the background for stable investment and
for a basis of taxation favourable to economic expansion. "
By the 18th Century the British parliament had won much greater
independence from its monarch than any other European great power.
"Liberal practices and values developed accordingly, notably a modest role
for the state in economic activity that proved significant for growth."
Parliament passed the laws and controlled expenditure. This helped to
ensure political stability and that encouraged the pursuit of scientific
breakthroughs as people set up businesses and sought to make profit.
France, by contrast, was home to some of the finest scientific minds, but
had an absolute monarchy which wielded great control over economic and
political life.
In Britain people believed that through industrial production they could
create untold wealth - and the government believed that it was its
responsibility to make this happen.

Sources
http://wps.ablongman.com/long_kishlansky_cw_6/35/9181/2350389.cw/ind
ex.html

Module 10

The British Romantic poets

Source: is.byu.edu
The Romantic era entails a movement in the literature and art of virtually
every country of Europe, the United States, and Latin America that lasted
from the late 18th century to the early 19th century. It is characterized by a
shift from the structured, intellectual, reasoned approach of the 1700s to
use of the imagination, freedom of thought and expression, and an
idealization of nature.
Certain themes and moods, often intertwined, became the concern of
almost all 19th-century writers. Those themes include libertarianism,
nature, exoticism, and supernaturalism.

Inspiration for the romantic approach initially came from two

great shapers of thought, French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau
and German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The preface to the
second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800), by English poets William
Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was also of great importance
as a manifesto of literary romanticism. The two poets reiterated the
importance of feeling and imagination to poetic creation and
disclaimed conventional literary forms and subjects. Thus, as
romantic literature everywhere developed, imagination was praised
over reason, emotions over logic, and intuition over sciencemaking way
for a vast body of literature of great sensibility and passion. This literature
emphasized a new flexibility of form adapted to varying content,
encouraged the development of complex and fast-moving plots, and
allowed mixed genres (tragicomedy and the mingling of the grotesque and
the sublime) and freer style.
Visual support: Introduction to the Romantic Movement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XV_q45Otdic
1. What is the significance of the term romantic in the context of the
Romantic movement?
2. What values of the Enlightenment were rejected by the Romantics?
3. What historical events triggered the Romantic movement?
4. What kind of literary art was preferred by the Romantics?
5. What British author was a source of inspiration for the Romantic
poets and why?
6. What are the characteristics of Gothic fiction and how did it inspire
the Romantics?
7. What was the Romantic conception of love?
8. What was the Romantics ideas about social roles?
9. What element was considered a great source of inspiration for the
Romantic poets?

The Lake District, Cumbria, North-West of England

exoticaplaces.blogspot.com

The Lake District,

http://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/00/1e/47/a0/ennerdalewater-on-a.jpg

Daffodils by William Wordsworth

I WANDER'D lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the Milky Way,
They stretch'd in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay:
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.
The waves beside them danced; but they
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company:
I gazedand gazedbut little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:
For oft, when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcQYjxLcPK6wqB3lE1-m9OeB2FRrE5gkwxgKG4rSfcmyQ-QL4e5TA

https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcTO1bFc8M9Yn036TlGdWbRem9bl60lIjGVuylMoZ6Xh_GMIU4
Mp

Libertarianism
Many of the libertarian and abolitionist movements of the late 18th and
early 19th centuries were given rise by the romantic philosophythe
desire to be free of convention and tyranny, and the new
emphasis on the rights and dignity of the individual. Just as the
insistence on rational, formal, and conventional subject matter that had
typified neoclassicism was reversed, the authoritarian regimes that had
encouraged and sustained neoclassicism in the arts were inevitably
subjected to popular revolutions. Political and social causes became
dominant themes in romantic poetry and prose throughout the Western
world, producing many vital human documents that are still pertinent. The
year 1848, in which Europe was wracked by political upheaval, marked the
flood tide of romanticism in Italy, Austria, Germany, and France.
Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, who for some most typify the
romantic poet in their personal lives as well as in their work, wrote against
social and political wrongs and in defense of the struggles for liberty in
Italy and Greece.

Lord Byron/George Gordon Byron ( 1788-1824)

https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRMtl-k3TX5Jy0c9_ZPK79QzFMVKx_dzPSC_KjL8_93JvMenA6bw

Percy B. Shelley ( 1792-1822)

https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcTfHRAV8DpWSO4wZQved6d_vm8aicEhYv23_0MFKbybZGXh
ddnH

The general romantic dissatisfaction with the organization of society was

often channeled into specific criticism of urban society. Rousseau had
written that people were born free but that everywhere civilization put
them in chains. This feeling of oppression was frequently expressed in
poetryfor example, in the work of English visionary William Blake,
writing in the poem Milton (about 1804-1808) of the dark Satanic mills
that were beginning to deface the English countryside; or in Wordsworth's
long poem The Prelude (1850), which speaks of ... the close and
overcrowded haunts/Of cities, where the human heart is sick.

William Blake (1757-1827), www.notable-quotes.com

A Divine Image by William Blake

Cruelty has a Human Heart,

And Jealousy a Human Face;
Terror the Human Form Divine,
And Secrecy the Human dress.
The Human Dress is forged Iron,
The Human Form a fiery Forge,
The Human Face a Furnace seal'd,
The Human Heart its hungry Gorge.

William Blake, Hecate of the Three Fates

http://www.dailyartfixx.com/wp-content/gallery/williamblake/blake_william_hecate_or_the_three_fates.jpg

William Blake, The Witch of Endor

http://www.dailyartfixx.com/wp-content/gallery/williamblake/the_witch_of_endor_william_blake_2.jpg

William Blake, The Grave Personified

http://www.dailyartfixx.com/wp-content/gallery/williamblake/william_blake_-_the_grave_personified.jpg
Nature
Basic to such sentiments was an interest central to the romantic
movement: the concern with nature and natural surroundings. Delight
in unspoiled scenery and in the innocent life of rural dwellers is perhaps
first recognizable as a literary theme in such a work as The Seasons
(1726-1730), by Scottish poet James Thomson. It was a formative
influence on later English romantic poetry and on the nature tradition
represented in English literature, most notably by Wordsworth. Often
combined with this feeling for rural life is a generalized romantic
melancholy, a sense that change is imminent and that a way of life is
being threatened. The melancholic strain later developed as a separate
theme, as in Ode on Melancholy (1820) by John Keats.

John Keats ( 1795-1821)

favimages.net
Ode on Melancholy
By John Keats
No, no, go not to Lethe, neither twist
Wolf's-bane, tight-rooted, for its poisonous wine;
Nor suffer thy pale forehead to be kiss'd
By nightshade, ruby grape of Proserpine;
Make not your rosary of yew-berries,
Nor let the beetle, nor the death-moth be
Your mournful Psyche, nor the downy owl
A partner in your sorrow's mysteries;
For shade to shade will come too drowsily,
And drown the wakeful anguish of the soul.

But when the melancholy fit shall fall

Sudden from heaven like a weeping cloud,
That fosters the droop-headed flowers all,
And hides the green hill in an April shroud;
Then glut thy sorrow on a morning rose,
Or on the rainbow of the salt sand-wave,

Or on the wealth of globed peonies;

Or if thy mistress some rich anger shows,
Emprison her soft hand, and let her rave,
And feed deep, deep upon her peerless eyes.

She dwells with BeautyBeauty that must die;

And Joy, whose hand is ever at his lips
Bidding adieu; and aching Pleasure nigh,
Turning to poison while the bee-mouth sips:
Ay, in the very temple of Delight
Veil'd Melancholy has her sovran shrine,
Though seen of none save him whose strenuous tongue
Can burst Joy's grape against his palate fine;
His soul shalt taste the sadness of her might,
And be among her cloudy trophies hung.

Exotic
In the spirit of their new freedom, romantic writers in all cultures expanded
their imaginary horizons spatially and chronologically. They turned back to
the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) for themes and settings and
chose locales as can be seen in the Asian setting of Xanadu evoked by
Samuel Taylor Coleridge in his unfinished lyric Kubla Khan.

creativegenius.hubpages.com, Samuel Taylor Coleridge (October 1772 July 1834 )

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Kubla Khan
IN Xanadu did Kubla Khan
A stately pleasure-dome decree:
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
Through caverns measureless to man
Down to a sunless sea.

So twice five miles of fertile ground

With walls and towers were girdled round:
And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills
Where blossom'd many an incense-bearing tree;
And here were forests ancient as the hills,

10

Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.

But O, that deep romantic chasm which slanted

Down the green hill athwart a cedarn cover!
A savage place! as holy and enchanted
As e'er beneath a waning moon was haunted

15

By woman wailing for her demon-lover!

And from this chasm, with ceaseless turmoil seething,
As if this earth in fast thick pants were breathing,
A mighty fountain momently was forced;
Amid whose swift half-intermitted burst

20

Huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hail,

Or chaffy grain beneath the thresher's flail:
And 'mid these dancing rocks at once and ever
It flung up momently the sacred river.
Five miles meandering with a mazy motion

25

Through wood and dale the sacred river ran,

Then reach'd the caverns measureless to man,
And sank in tumult to a lifeless ocean:
And 'mid this tumult Kubla heard from far
Ancestral voices prophesying war!

30

The shadow of the dome of pleasure

Floated midway on the waves;
Where was heard the mingled measure
From the fountain and the caves.
It was a miracle of rare device,

35

A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice!

A damsel with a dulcimer

In a vision once I saw:
It was an Abyssinian maid,
And on her dulcimer she play'd,

40

Singing of Mount Abora.

Could I revive within me,
Her symphony and song,
To such a deep delight 'twould win me,
That with music loud and long,

45

I would build that dome in air,

That sunny dome! those caves of ice!
And all who heard should see them there,
And all should cry, Beware! Beware!
His flashing eyes, his floating hair!
Weave a circle round him thrice,

50

And close your eyes with holy dread,

For he on honey-dew hath fed,
And drunk the milk of Paradise.

Supernatural
The trend toward the irrational and the supernatural was an important
component of English and German romantic literature. It was reinforced on
the one hand by disillusion with 18th-century rationalism and on the other
by the rediscovery of a body of folktales and ballads.
Some of the major British poets during the Romantic era include William
Blake, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, and Lord Byron.
Source: http://www.mariahecarter.com/
Optional, BBC Documentary, The Romantics, 59:01

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scck3YCiRxg

The history of the British empire

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrYJshOfkrE 44: 29 min

Module 11
The British Empire

To fully appreciate the significance of the Commonwealth, Britain's global

position, it is important to understand its origins from the British Empire.
Technically, there have been three empires, the first in France, lost by
1558; the second in North America, which became the United States of
America after 1776; and the third was global, which became the modern
Commonwealth of Nations after 1949. Each one being larger than the
one before.

The origins of the British Empire can be seen as going back to the Middle
Ages with the beginning of the conquest of Ireland (1172) and
conquest of much of France during the Hundred Years' War. However, the
modern British Empire can be considered having started in 1497 with
John Cabot's claim to Newfoundland. The British Empire was the largest
Empire in history; At it's zenith, it held sway over a population of nearly
500 million people - roughly a quarter of the world's population - and
covered about 14.3 million square miles (17.4 million including
Antarctic claims), almost a third of the world's total land area.

During the mid-19th century Britain was the sole developed hyper-power,
enjoying unparalleled prosperity. Britain was "the work-shop of the world,"
and even by 1870 she still was producing well over 30% of the global
industrial output, no other nation coming even close to her production
superiority. In 1885 America and Germany can be considered as having
become industrialised, but Britain was still the world's most developed
nation until around 1913 when she was surpassed by America. Due to
the supremacy of the Royal Navy, Britain truly did rule the waves for
centuries. With territories scattered across every continent and ocean and
in every time-zone, the "Empire Under Palm and Pine" was accurately
described as "the empire on which the sun never sets."
The Empire facilitated the spread of British technology, commerce,
language, and government around much of the globe through Pax
Britannica and British Imperial hegemony. The contributions the British
Empire made to the world, the technology, philosophy, literature,
medicine, investment, institutions, and plain advancements of mankind
have left a profound legacy.
Pax Britannica (Latin for "the British Peace", modelled after Pax Romana)
was the period of relative peace in Europe and the world (18151914)
during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted
the role of global policeman.
The British Empire consisted of various territories all over the world
conquered or colonized by Britain from about 1600. It was expanded by
commerce, trade, colonisation, and sometimes conquest. Over all the
Empire was built on commerce, not conquest. There were colonies
conquered, but they were done for a reason. For instance, France hired the
Mughal Empire to fight Britain. Britain then fought back and conquered the
Mughal Empire which made up the Northwest corner of present day India.
The 19th century saw the largest expansion of the Empire as the British
took many former French possessions in the West Indies and began to
settle in large numbers in Australia in the early part of the century and
later competed fiercely with other European powers for territory in Africa.
At the same time, there was serious expansion in Asia, notably the
acquisition of Singapore (1824), Hong Kong (1841), and Burma (1886), and
the South Pacific, particularly the settlement of New Zealand (1840). The
final big expansion of the empire was following World War I, when
former German and Turkish territories were mandated to Britain and the
Dominions. The only serious loss of territory was the loss of the 13
American colonies in the American Revolution of 1776 1783,
which became the United States of America. The British Empire was at its
largest territorial expansion after the First World War after 1918, until the

1940s, consisting of over 25% of the world's population and 30% of its
area.
Since 1949, the British Empire was replaced by the Commonwealth of
Nations. Most colonies are now independent;todays Commonwealth is
composed of former and remaining territories of the British Empire and a
few non former British Empire countries which once belonged to other
powers such as Portugal, France and Belgium. The Commonwealth is a
loose, voluntary organisation dedicated to preserving human
rights and democracy and is held together by a desire for
membership and the English language as well as history.

http://www.ispilledthebeans.com/images/commonwealthmap.jpg
The Empire and the Sea.The British Empire was largely a Maritime
Empire. For the most part, it was won by hardy British sailors, who pushed
their way into the uttermost corners of the world and brought country after
country under the sway of Britain. It was held largely by the power of the
British Royal Navy, which had long controlled the sea-ways of the world.
By far the greater part of its enormous commerce was carried in British
merchant vessels, which linked port to port and country to country,
enabling the wheat of Canada, the wool of Australia, the tea of

Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and the apples of New Zealand to reach the
markets of the United Kingdom. Without the free use of the sea, the
Empire could not live. So it was that, although railways and other land
communications played a great part, they were secondary in importance
to the sea communications of the Empire. The merchant fleet of Britain
herself was the largest and most efficient in the world, while that
belonging to the great colonies was far from small.These ships were the
most important material bond uniting the far-flung dominions of the KingEmperor. To enable both the navy and the merchant fleet to accomplish
their tasks, Britain had secured coaling-stations all over the world. As a
vessel could not steam much more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km) without
replenishing her bunkers, there had to be coaling-stations at intervals of
3,000 miles (4,800 km) or so along the great ocean trade-routes.
Government The countries of the Empire, aside from the United
Kingdom, were divided into five groups, as far as government was
concerned: (1) The Dominions, (2) The Indian Empire, (3) The Crown
Colonies, (4) The Protectorates, (5) The Mandated Territories.
After Acts of Union between England and Scotland as Great Britain in
1707 and between Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, the United
Kingdom was a unitary state of the British Isles. Until 1920, it was the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with only one parliament at
Westminster for the whole nation which then included all of Great Britain
and Ireland. In 1920, a separate parliament was set up in Northern
Ireland, overseen by a Governor, though it continued to be represented at
Westminster also. In 1921, the southern part of Ireland seceded from the
United Kingdom to become the Irish Free State a self-governing
Dominion. In 1927, the United Kingdom was restyled as the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to reflect these changes.
Great Britain continued to be governed under a single parliament at
Westminster while Northern Ireland had self-government. The Irish Free
State was renamed as Eire in 1937 as it had adopted a quasi-republican
constitution. In 1949, it became the Republic of Ireland and it severed
all links with the British Empire. In 1972, owing to an escalating violent
situation, self-government in Northern Ireland was suspended and
replaced with direct rule from Westminster. The United Kingdom had once
again become a single unitary state with only one parliament at
Westminster. This changed in 1999, in a response to growing nationalist
aspirations, as self-government was restored to Northern Ireland and given
to Scotland and Wales. For the first time since 1707, Scotland was given a
full parliament while Wales and Northern Ireland received less powerful
assemblies.

However, they all continued to be represented in the United Kingdom

parliament at Westminster also. The United Kingdom, though officially still
a unitary state, is now looking more like a federation, though England
still
does
not
have
its
own
self-government.
The Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, the
Dominion of New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and the
sovereign state of Eire (Irish Free State) were self-governing
Dominions under the Crown. Northern Ireland was also self-governing,
but it differed from its sister Dominions in that it sent elected
representatives to the Imperial Parliament at London. In the Dominions,
the government was modelled after that of the United Kingdom, the King
being represented by a Governor-General or a Governor. Each had a
Parliament consisting of two Houses. The Parliament of each Dominion was
supreme, but all owed allegiance to the King of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland. Newfoundland was a self-governing Dominion until 1933 when it
reverted back to being a colony for economic reasons. Malta and
Southern Rhodesia, though not having full Dominion status, were mostly
self-governing. The Kings title throughout the Empire was by the Grace
of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond
the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India.
Dominion status came to an end in 1948 as the Dominions were restyled
as Commonwealth Realms. By 1953, the Monarchs title was changed to
reflect this: by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland, and of Her other Realms and Territories, Queen,
Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith. Distinct variations of
this title were adopted in each of the overseas Realms. Even though the
Dominions were self-governing (fully self-governing after 1931), the
United Kingdom parliament still had the final control over their
constitutions. This ended in the Union of South Africa when it became a
republic in 1961 and in Canada, Australia and New Zealand in the 1980s.
Since then, they have become completely independent nations. In the
Indian Empire, the King of Great Britain was also Emperor of India. In the
Imperial Cabinet there was an official known as the Secretary of State for
India, who was assisted by an Advisory Council. The government was
known as the British Raj. While the Secretary and his Council had
control over all matters relating to India, they did not attempt, unless
under unusual circumstances, to interfere with the actions of the Indian
Government. The King was represented by the Viceroy, or GovernorGeneral, who was assisted by a Council of State and a Legislative
Assembly, the latter almost wholly elective after 1935. The actual work of

government in India was carried on by the Viceroy (Governor-General) and

an appointed Executive Council. The country was divided into fifteen
provinces, with a Governor or an Administrator in each. They were
assisted by a Legislature largely composed of native members after 1935.
In fact, the form of government after 1935 resembled in many ways that of
Canada. In response to the growing Indian Nationalist movement, the
endeavour after 1935 was to try to allow the natives of India the utmost
freedom possible, and to give them a large share in the conduct of
government. The relations of the Indian Government to the various native
states differed widely. Except in matters pertaining to war and to a
standing army, they were allowed largely to govern themselves, the British
Government being represented in each state by a Resident. The Indian
Empire came to an end with independence on August 15, 1947.
In general, Crown Colonies were those parts of the Empire which did not
have self-government. Owing to an unsuitable climate or to a large
native population, few Europeans made permanent homes in the Crown
Colonies, however, they developed and controlled the resources of them.
Some of the smaller Crown Colonies, however, were purely naval or
military posts, important for the protection of the trade-routes of the
Empire. In every Crown Colony was a Governor, representing the King. In
some cases, as in Gibraltar and St. Helena, the Governor had absolute
powers. In others, as in Ceylon and the Straits Settlements, he was
assisted by a Council nominated by the Crown. In a third group, which
included most of the British West Indies and Malta, the laws were
made by a Legislature wholly or partly elected by the people. By the
1930s, in every case, except in the naval and military colonies, the
tendency was to give the natives an ever-increasing share of power as
they showed increasing ability for self-government. Eventually, many of
the Crown Colonies gradually became self-governing as they moved
towards independence. Most of the Crown Colonies gained independence
in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Crown Colony status came to an end
in 1998 when the few remaining colonies were restyled as British

Overseas

Territories

(e.g.

Bermuda,

the

http://www.atlasofbritempire.com/images/7474624ca18055bd569af4d8b1
9ab4b1.gif

Falkland Islands, Gibraltar).

In the Protectorates, such as Somaliland, Bechuanaland, and Nyasaland

in Africa, the natives were ruled by their own chiefs under the supervision
of British officials. Protectorates tended, as they developed, to become
Crown Colonies, just as Crown Colonies, such as were formerly the states
of the Australian Commonwealth, became self-governing Dominions.
Most of the remaining Protectorates gained independence in the 1950s,
1960s and 1970s. The last British Protectorate gained independence in
1978
(British
Solomon
Islands).

At the conclusion of the First World War, certain territories captured from
the enemy were assigned by the League of Nations to the United Kingdom,
France, Japan, and others of the allied powers. In this way it had fallen to
the United Kingdom to be responsible for the government of large
territories in Africa, as well as in Asia and in the SouthSeas. Tanganyika,
Cameroon, and Togoland in Africa, and Palestine, Trans-Jordan and Iraq in
Asia were included in these Mandated Territories, as they were called.
For the most part, these new portions of the Empire were governed as
Crown Colonies. Further, under the League of Nations, mandates were
given to the British Dominions also. The Commonwealth of Australia had
control of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and other islands in the
South Pacific; the Dominion of New Zealand controlled former German
Samoa and other islands; the Union of South Africa had the mandate for
the government of Southwest Africa. In all cases of mandated territory, the
government had to be carried on in strict accordance with certain
regulations
laid
down
by
the
League
of
Nations.
In 1946, the League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations and
League of Nations Mandates became United Nations Trust Territories. They
continued to be governed by the administering powers as Crown Colonies,
but under the supervision of the United Nations Trusteeship Council. The
last Trust Territory gained independence in 1990 (Southwest Africa
Namibia).

http://www.atlasofbritempire.com/

Module 12
The Victorian Age
1837-1901

Source: http://www.strangehistory.net/blog/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/victoria.jpg
I.

General features of the age

Visual support The Victorian Age.wmv

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wtXLi5c7sP4
List the most important innovations of the Victorian age.
Queen Victoria (1819-1901) was the first English monarch to see her name
given to the period of her reign whilst still living. The Victorian Age was
characterised by rapid change and developments in nearly every sphere from advances in medical, scientific and technological knowledge
to changes in population growth and location. Over time, this rapid
transformation deeply affected the country's mood: an age that began
with a confidence and optimism leading to economic boom and prosperity
eventually gave way to uncertainty and doubt regarding Britain's place in
the world. Today we associate the nineteenth century with the Protestant

work ethic, family values, religious observation and institutional

faith.
For the most part, nineteenth century families were large and patriarchal.
They encouraged hard work, respectability, social deference and
religious conformity. While this view of nineteenth century life was
valid, it was frequently challenged by contemporaries. Women were often
portrayed as either Madonnas or whores, yet increasing educational and
employment opportunities gave many a role outside the family.
Politics were important to the Victorians; they believed in the perfection of
their evolved representative government, and in exporting it throughout
the British Empire. This age saw the birth and spread of political
movements, most notably socialism, liberalism and organised
feminism. British Victorians were excited by geographical exploration,
by the opening up of Africa and Asia to the West, yet were troubled by the
intractable Irish situation and humiliated by the failures of the Boer War. At
sea, British supremacy remained largely unchallenged throughout the
century.
During the Victorian heyday, work and play expanded dramatically. The
national railway network stimulated travel and leisure opportunities for
all, so that by the 1870s, visits to seaside resorts, race meetings and
football matches could be enjoyed by many of this now largely urban
society. Increasing literacy stimulated growth in popular journalism and the
ascendancy of the novel as the most powerful popular icon.
The progress of scientific thought led to significant changes in medicine
during the nineteenth century, with increased specialisation and
developments in surgery and hospital building. There were notable
medical breakthroughs in anaesthetics - famously publicised by Queen
Victoria taking chloroform for the birth of her son in 1853 - and in
antiseptics, pioneered by Joseph Lister (1827-1912). The public's faith in
institutions was evident not only in the growth of hospitals but was also
seen in the erection of specialised workhouses and asylums for the most
vulnerable members of society.
Source
http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Victorians/article.html
II.

Arts and Architecture in theVictorian Age

The Gothic Revival. In reaction to the classical style of the previous

century, the Victorian age saw a return to traditional British styles in

building, Tudor and mock-Gothic being the most popular. The Gothic
Revival, as it was termed, was part spiritual movement, part recoil from
the mass produced monotony of the Industrial Revolution. It was a
romantic yearning for the traditional, comforting past. The Gothic Revival
was led by John Ruskin, who, though not himself an architect, had huge
influence as a successful writer and philosopher.

https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcSmj5n7IcTLb6e6xxIEG6gU4da69ftf5HE34kt8aZCsI19LfdbR
Extravagant... Most popular architectural styles were throwbacks; Tudor,
medieval, Italianate. Houses were often large, and terribly inconvenient to
live in. The early Victorians had a predilection for overly elaborate details
and decoration. Some examples of large Victorian houses are Highclere
Castle
(Hampshire)
and
Kelham
Hall
(Nottinghamshire).

Highclere Castle
http://www.google.ro/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&docid=W
b8OHC5LtnPOmM&tbnid=i-

Kelham Hall, http://www.google.ro/url?

sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&docid=6
hMkRo52NNV19M&tbnid=LBLUCzroG-rYGM:&ved=0CAQQjB0&url=http
%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki
%2FKelham&ei=skaDU8bJL4P_OezngbgE&bvm=bv.67720277,d.bGE&psig
=AFQjCNGIDct-OLLrlHCQRduFzRjDYkKiOg&ust=1401198450423762

... and simple. In late Victorian times the pendulum, predictably, swung to
the other extreme and the style was simpler, using traditional vernacular
(folk) models such as the English farmhouse. This period is typified by the
work of Norman Shaw at 'Wispers' Midhurst, (Sussex).
The Arts and Crafts movement. Another name that has to be mentioned in
the context of Victorian art and architecture is that of William Morris.
Neither artist nor architect, he nevertheless had enormous influence in
both arenas. Morris and his artist friends Rossetti and Burne-Jones were at
the forefront of the movement known as 'Arts and Crafts'. Part political
manifesto, part social movement, with a large dollop of nostalgia thrown
in, the Arts and Crafters wanted a return to high quality materials and
hand-made excellence in all fields of art and decoration.

William Morris

Arts and Crafts, Wallpaper design

http://www.blog.designsquish.com/images/uploads/wallpaper-arts-andcrafts_thumb.jpg

Arts and Crafts, Wallpaper design,

http://c20thdesign.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/williammorrispimpernel.jpg
The cheap, mass-produced (and artistically inferior) building and
decorating materials then available horrified them. Morris himself, through
his Morris and Co., designed furniture, textiles, wallpaper, decorative glass,
and murals. Many of Morris' designs are still popular today.
Literature
Visual support , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YG7pi1Vmkno
The Novel
The Victorian era was the great age of the English novelrealistic,
thickly plotted, crowded with characters, and long. It was the ideal form to
describe contemporary life and to entertain the middle class. The novels of
Charles Dickens, full to overflowing with drama, humor, and an endless
variety of vivid characters and plot complications, nonetheless spare
nothing in their portrayal of what urban life was like for all classes.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

Source: www.notable-quotes.com
William Makepeace Thackeray is best known for Vanity Fair (1848),
which wickedly satirizes hypocrisy and greed.

William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863), izquotes.com

Emily Bront's single novel, Wuthering Heights (1847), is a unique
masterpiece propelled by a vision of elemental passions but controlled by
an uncompromising artistic sense. The fine novels of Emily's sister
Charlotte Bront, especially Jane Eyre (1847) and Villette (1853), are
more rooted in convention, but daring in their own ways.

Emily Bronte (1818-1848)

Source: http://www.notable-quotes.com/b/emily_bronte_quote.jpg

The novels of George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) appeared during the 1860s
and 70s. A woman of great erudition and moral fervor, Eliot was concerned
with ethical conflicts and social problems.

George Eliot (1819-1880)

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/pluKM46Vnt8/mqdefault.jpg
George Meredith produced comic novels noted for their psychological
perception. Another novelist of the late 19th cent. was the prolific
Anthony Trollope, famous for sequences of related novels that explore
social, ecclesiastical, and political life in England.
Thomas Hardy's profoundly pessimistic novels are all set in the harsh,
punishing midland county he called Wessex.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)

Source: people.stfx.ca
Samuel Butler produced novels satirizing the Victorian ethos, and
Robert Louis Stevenson, a master of his craft, wrote arresting
adventure fiction and children's verse.
The mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, writing under the name
Lewis Carroll, produced the complex and sophisticated children's classics
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking Glass
(1871).

Lewis Caroll (1832-1898)

Source: www.notable-quotes.com
By the end of the period, the novel was considered not only the premier
form of entertainment but also a primary means of analyzing and offering
solutions to social and political problems.
Nonfiction
Among the Victorian masters of nonfiction were the great Whig historian
Thomas Macaulay and Thomas Carlyle, the historian, social critic, and
prophet whose rhetoric thundered through the age. Influential thinkers
included John Stuart Mill, the great liberal scholar and philosopher;
Thomas Henry Huxley, a scientist and popularizer of Darwinian theory;
and John Henry, Cardinal Newman, who wrote earnestly of religion,
philosophy, and education. The founders of Communism, Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, researched and wrote their books in the free
environment of England. The great art historian and critic John Ruskin
also concerned himself with social and economic problems. Matthew
Arnold's theories of literature and culture laid the foundations for modern
literary criticism, and his poetry is also notable.
Poetry
The preeminent poet of the Victorian age was Alfred, Lord Tennyson.
Although romantic in subject matter, his poetry was tempered by personal
melancholy; in its mixture of social certitude and religious doubt it
reflected the age. The poetry of Robert Browning and his wife,

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, was immensely popular, though Elizabeth's

was more venerated during their lifetimes. Browning is best remembered
for his superb dramatic monologues. Rudyard Kipling, the poet of the
empire triumphant, captured the quality of the life of the soldiers of British
expansion. Some fine religious poetry was produced by Francis Thompson,
Alice Meynell, Christina Rossetti, and Lionel Johnson.
In the middle of the 19th cent. the so-called Pre-Raphaelites, led by the
painter-poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti, sought to revive what they judged
to be the simple, natural values and techniques of medieval life and
art. Their quest for a rich symbolic art led them away, however, from the
mainstream. William Morrisdesigner, inventor, printer, poet, and social
philosopherwas the most versatile of the group, which included the
poets Christina Rossetti and Coventry Patmore.
See below Pre-Raphaelite paintings

http://www.book530.com/paintingpic/0626/Hanging-the-Mistletoe-DanteGabriel-Rossetti.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Dante_Gabriel_Ros
setti_-_La_viuda_romana_(D%C3%AEs_Manibus).jpg
Algernon Charles Swinburne began as a Pre-Raphaelite but soon
developed his own classically influenced, sometimes florid style. A. E.
Housman and Thomas Hardy, Victorian figures who lived on into the 20th
cent., share a pessimistic view in their poetry, but Housman's wellconstructed verse is rather more superficial. The great innovator among
the late Victorian poets was the Jesuit priest Gerard Manley Hopkins. The
concentration and originality of his imagery, as well as his jolting meter
("sprung rhythm"), had a profound effect on 20th-century poetry.
During the 1890s the most conspicuous figures on the English literary
scene were the decadents. The principal figures in the group were Arthur
Symons, Ernest Dowson, and, first among them in both notoriety and
talent, Oscar Wilde. The Decadents' disgust with bourgeois complacency
led them to extremes of behavior and expression. However limited their
accomplishments, they pointed out the hypocrisies in Victorian values
and institutions. The sparkling, witty comedies of Oscar Wilde and the
comic operettas of W. S. Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan were perhaps the
brightest achievements of 19th-century British drama.

Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)

Source:
http://images.idiva.com/media/content/2013/Oct/most_inspiring_oscar_wild
e_quotes1.jpg
Source http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/englishliterature-the-victorian-age.html

Module 13
England in the 20th Century

britlitmsae.blogspot.com
Sursa text: http://www.britannia.com/history/nar20hist.html
Changes
in
Empire
and
at
Home
The popular,aged Victoria was succeeded by Edward VII, who reigned for
nine years (1901-10). The jovial, popular, avuncular Prince of Wales had
waited a long time to accede to the throne. Known as Edward the
Peacemaker for his diplomacy in Europe, he used his knowledge of French,
Spanish, Italian and German to good advantage. Matters seemed fine in
the island kingdom of Britain, feeling secure as the head of the largest
empire the world had ever known. Yet the image of splendid and carefree
easy living portrayed by the King was in direct contrast to the growing
forces of discontent and resentment felt by too many members of British
society.

Source: http://www.localhistories.org/20thcent.html
Edward VII (1901-1910)

There were two sides to the 20th century. On the one hand there were
severe recessions in the early 1930s and in the 1980s and 1990s.
There were also two terrible world wars. On the other hand there was a
vast improvement in the standard of living of ordinary people. Life
expectancy also rose. In 1900 in Britain it was about 47 for a man and 50
for a woman. By the end of the century it was about 75 and 80. Life was
also greatly improved by new inventions.
Even during the depression of the 1930s things improved for most of the
people who had a job. Real incomes rose significantly during the decade.
The same was true of the 1980s.
Society in the 20th Century

British society changed greatly during the 20th century. In 1914 only about
20% of the population was middle class. By 1939 the figure was about
30%. In the late 20th century the number of 'blue collar' or manual
workers declined rapidly but the number of 'white collar' workers in
offices and service industries increased rapidly.
In the 1950s large numbers of West Indians arrived in Britain. Also from
the 1950s many Asians came. In the late 20th century Britain became a
multi-cultural society.
Visual support Multicultural Britain
There was another change in British society. In the late 20th century
divorce and single parent families became much more common.
Also, in the 1950s young people had significant disposable income for the
first time. A distinct 'youth culture' emerged, first with teddy boys, then
in the 1960s with mods and rockers and in the late 1970s with punks
and also with rock music. A revolution in music was led by Elvis Presley
and Bill Hayley.
Visual support
Youth cultures in Britain
Women in the 20th Century
In 1918 in Britain women over 30 were allowed to vote. More occupations
were opened to women during the 20th century. In 1916 the first
policewoman (with full powers) was appointed in Britain. The 1919 Sex
Disqualification Removal Act allowed women to become lawyers, vets
and civil servants. (The first female solicitor was Carrie Morrison in 1922).
Also in 1922 Irene Barclay became the first female chartered surveyor.
Nevertheless in the early 20th century it was unusual for married women
to work (except in wartime). However in the 1950s and 1960s it became
common for them to do so - at least part-time. New technology in the
home made it easier for women to do paid work. Before the 20th century
housework was so time consuming married women did not have time to
work. Manufacturing became less important and service industries grew
creating more opportunities for women.
In 1970 the law was changed so women had to be paid the same wages
as men for doing work of equal value. In 1973 women were admitted to
the stock exchange. From 1975 it was made illegal to sack women for

becoming pregnant. Also in 1975 the Sex Discrimination Act made it illegal
to discriminate against women in employment, education and training. In
1984 a new law stated that equal pay must be given for work of equal
value.
Work and Industry in 20th Century Britain
In
the
years
1900-1914
the
British
economy
was
stable
and unemployment was quite low. However during the 1920s there was
mass unemployment. For most of the decade it hovered between 10%
and 12%. Then, in the early 1930s, the British economy was struck by
depression. By the start of 1933 unemployment among insured workers
was 22.8%. However unemployment fell substantially in 1933, 1934 and
1935. By January 1936 it stood at 13.9%. Unemployment continued to fall
and by 1938 it was around 10%.
However although a partial recovery took place in the mid and late 1930s
there were semi-permanent depression areas in the North of England,
Scotland and South Wales. On the other hand new industries such as
car and aircraft making and electronics prospered in the Midlands and
the South of England where unemployment was relatively low.
The problems of depression and high unemployment were only really
solved by the Second World War, which started industry booming
again. Unemployment remained very low in the late 1940s and the 1950s
and 1960s were a long period of prosperity.
However this ended in the mid-1970s. In 1973 there was still full
employment in Britain (it stood at 3%). However shortly afterwards a
period of high inflation and high unemployment began. In the late 1970s
unemployment stood at around 5.5%.
However in the years 1980-1982 Britain was gripped by recession and
unemployment grew much worse. It reached a peak in 1986 then it fell
to 1990. Unfortunately another recession began in 1990 and
unemployment rose again. However unemployment began to fall again in
1993 and it continued to fall till the end of the century.
Meanwhile in the late 20th century a change was coming over the British
economy, sometimes called de-industrialization. Traditional industries
such as coal mining, textiles and shipbuilding declined rapidly. On the
other hand service industries such as tourism, education, retail and
finance grew rapidly and this sector became the main source of
employment.

Poverty in 20th Century Britain

At the beginning of the 20th century surveys showed that 25% of the
population of Britain were living in poverty. They found that at least 15%
were living at subsistence level. They had just enough money for food,
rent, fuel and clothes. They could not afford 'luxuries' such as newspapers
or public transport. About 10% were living in below subsistence level and
could not afford an adequate diet.
The surveys found that the main cause of poverty was low wages. The
main cause of extreme poverty was the loss of the main breadwinner. If
dad was dead, ill or unemployed it was a disaster. Mum might get a job but
women were paid much lower wages than men.
A Liberal government was elected in 1906 and they made some reforms.
From that year poor children were given free school meals. In January
1909 the first old age pensions were paid. They were hardly generous only 5 shillings a week, which was a paltry sum even in those days and
they were only paid to people over 70. Nevertheless it was a start.
Also in 1909 the government formed wages councils. In those days some
people worked in the so-called 'sweated industries' such as making clothes
and they were very poorly paid and had to work extremely long hours just
to survive. The wages councils set minimum pay levels for certain
industries.
In 1910 the first labor exchanges where jobs were advertised were set up.
Things greatly improved in Britain after the First World War. A survey in
1924 showed that 4% of the population were living in extreme poverty. A
survey in 1936 found that just under 4% were living at bare survival level.
Poverty had by no means disappeared by the 1930s but it was much less
than ever before.
By 1950 absolute poverty had almost disappeared from Britain. Absolute
poverty can be defined as not having enough money to eat an adequate
diet or afford enough clothes.
However there is also such a thing as relative poverty, when you cannot
afford the things most people have. There was still relative poverty in the
late 20th century and it increased in the 1980s. That was partly due to
mass unemployment and partly due to a huge rise in the number of single
parent families, who often lived on benefits. During the 1980s the gap
between rich and poor increased as the well-off benefited from tax cuts.

Homes in 20th Century Britain

At the start of the 20th century working class homes had two rooms
downstairs. The front room and the back room. The front room was kept
for best and children were not allowed to play there. In the front room the
family kept their best furniture and ornaments. The back room was the
kitchen and it was where the family spent most of their time. Most families
cooked on a coal-fired stove called a range, which also heated the room.
This lifestyle changed in the early 20th century as gas cookers became
common. They did not heat the room so people began to spend most of
their time in the front room or living room, by the fire. Rising living
standards meant it was possible to furnish all rooms properly not just one.
During the 20th century ordinary people's furniture greatly improved in
quality and design.
In the 1920s and 1930s a new style of furniture and architecture was
introduced. It was called Art Deco and it used geometric shapes instead
of the flowing lines of the earlier Art Nouveau. The name art deco came
from an exhibition held in Paris in 1925 called the Exposition Internationale
des Arts Decoratifs.

Art Deco interior design

www.interiorholic.com
At the beginning of the 20th century only rich people could afford electric
light. Other people used gas. Ordinary people did not have electric light
until the 1920s and 1930s.
In the early 20th century vacuum cleaners and washing machines
were available but only rich people could afford them. They became more
common in the 1930s, though they were still expensive. By 1959 about

two thirds of British homes had a vacuum cleaner. However fridges and
washing machines did not become really common till the 1960s.
In the early 1950s many homes still did not have bathrooms and only had
outside lavatories. The situation greatly improved in the late 1950s and
1960s.
In the 1950s and 1960s large-scale slum clearance took place when whole
swathes of old terraced houses were demolished. High-rise flats replaced
some of them. However flats proved to be unpopular with many people.
Some people who lived in the new flats felt isolated. The old terraced
houses may have been grim but at least they often had a strong sense
of community, which was usually not true of the flats that replaced them.

Terraced houses
http://static.guim.co.uk/sysimages/Money/Pix/pictures/2013/4/5/1365151841771/Terraced-houses-inNottin-008.jpg
Furthermore in 1968 a gas explosion wrecked a block of flats at Ronan
Point in London and public opinion turned against them. In the 1970s the
emphasis turned to renovating old houses rather than replacing them.
20th Century Food
The diet of ordinary people in Britain greatly improved during the 20th
century. In 1900 some families sat down to tea of a plate of potatoes and
malnutrition was common among poor children. Food was also expensive.

Moreover sweets were a luxury in 1914. They became much more

common in the 1920s and 1930s.
Food was rationed during World War II. In January 1940 butter, sugar,
bacon and ham were rationed. Tea was also rationed from 1940.
Rationing became more severe in 1942. From July 1942 sweets were
rationed. Instead of real eggs many people had to make do with 'dried
eggs' imported from the USA.
Rationing lasted for several years after the war. Tea rationing lasted until
1952. Sweet rationing ended in 1953. Meat and cheese remained until
1954.
In the late 20th century convenience foods became far more common.
That was partly because fridges, freezers and later microwave ovens
became common. (Microwave ovens first became common in the 1980s).
The British diet also became more varied. Chinese and Indian
takeaways and restaurants became common. So, in the 1980s, did
hamburger and pizza chains.
Several new foods were invented in the 20th century. Sliced bread was
invented in the USA in 1928 and it went on sale in Britain in 1930. Spam
was invented in 1936.
Fish fingers went on sale in 1955. Meanwhile in 1954 Marc Gregoire
developed the non-stick frying pan.
Many new kinds of sweets were introduced in the 20th century. They
included Milky Way (1923), Crunchie (1929), Snickers (1930), Mars Bar
(1932), Aero and Kit Kat (1935), Maltesers and Blue Riband (1936) and
Smarties and Rolos (1937). Later came Polo mints (1948), Bounty (1951),
Yorkie and Lion Bar (1976) and Twix (1979). Also in the 20th century new
biscuits were introduced including the custard cream (1908) bourbon
(1910) and HobNobs (1986). Furthermore the ice lolly was invented in
1924.
At the end of the 20th century the first genetically modified foods were
introduced. Today scientists are developing soya beans that can help
prevent heart attacks and tomatoes that can help to prevent cancer as
well as rice that can resist drought and needs fewer nutrients.
The way people shopped also changed. In the early 20th century people
usually went to small local shops such as a baker or butcher. Shops

usually did deliveries. If you went to the butcher you paid for meat and a
butchers boy on a bicycle delivered it. The first supermarket in Britain
opened in 1951. In the 1950s and 1960s supermarkets replaced many
small shops.
Credit cards became available in 1966 and at the end of the 20th century
shopping on the internet became popular.
20th Century Clothes
At the beginning of the 20th century fashionable men wore trousers,
waistcoat and coat. They wore top hats or homburgs.
In 1900 women wore long dresses. It was not acceptable for women to
show their legs. From 1910 women wore hobble skirts. They were so
narrow women could only 'hobble' along while wearing them. However
during World War I women's clothes became more practical.

Hobble skirt,

http://mrmooreismyteacher.com/CHC/Decades/10s/10s_Images/fashionhobble-skirt.gif
Meanwhile in 1913 Mary Phelps Jacob invented the modern bra. She
used two handkerchiefs joined by ribbon. In 1915 lipstick was sold in
tubes for the first time.
In the early 1920s women still wore knickers that ended below the knee.
However during the 1920s knickers became much shorter. By the late
1920s they ended well above the knee. During the 1940s and 1950s
younger women wore briefs.

A revolution in women's clothes occurred in 1925. At that time women

began wearing knee length skirts. In the mid and late 1920s it was
fashionable for women to look boyish. However in the 1930s women's
dress became more conservative.
During World War II it was necessary to save material so skirts were
shorter. Clothes were rationed until 1949.
Meanwhile the bikini was invented in 1946. In 1947 Christian Dior
introduced the New Look, with long skirts and narrow waists giving an
'hour glass' figure.
During the 1950s women's clothes were full and feminine. However in
1965 Mary Quant invented the mini skirt and clothes became even more
informal.
After the First World War men's clothes became less informal and more
casual. In the 1920s wide trousers called 'Oxford bags' were fashionable.
Men also often wore pullovers instead of waistcoats.
In the 19th century men's underwear covered almost the whole body,
stretching from the ankles to the neck and the wrists. However in the
1920s they began to wear shorts that ended above the knee and
sleeveless vests. The first y-fronts went on sale in the mid-1930s.
In the second half of the 20th century fashions for both sexes became so
varied and changed so rapidly it would take too long to list them all. One
of the biggest changes was the availability of artificial fibers. Nylon was
first made in 1935 by Wallace Carothers and polyester was invented in
1941. It became common in the 1950s. Vinyl (a substitute for leather) was
invented in 1924. Trainers were designed in 1949 by Adolf Dasler.
The history of clothes
20th Century Transport and Communications
The first cars appeared at the end of the 19th century. After the First World
War they became cheaper and more common. However in 1940 only about
one in 10 families in Britain owned a car. They increased in number after
World War II. By 1959 32% of households owned a car. Yet cars only
became really common in the 1960s. By the 1970s the majority of families
owned one.
In 1903 a speed limit of 20 MPH was introduced. It was abolished in 1930.
However in 1934 a speed limit of 30 MPH in built-up areas was introduced.

Meanwhile in 1926 the first electric traffic lights were installed in London.
A driving test was introduced in 1934. Also in 1934 Percy Shaw invented
the cat's eye.
The parking meter was invented by Carlton Magee. The first one was
installed in the USA in 1935. In 1983 wearing a seat belt was made
compulsory.
Meanwhile in 1936 Belisha Beacons were introduced to make road crossing
safer. The first zebra crossing was introduced in 1949.
In 1931 an American called Rolla N. Harger invented the first breathalyzer.
It was first used in Indianapolis USA in 1939.
A Swede named Nils Bohlin developed the three-point seat belt in 1959.
Meanwhile in the late 19th century horse drawn trams ran in many towns.
At the beginning of the 20th century they were electrified. However in
most towns trams were phased out in the 1930s. They gave way to buses,
either motor buses or trolley buses, which ran on overhead wires. The
trolleybuses, in turn were phased out in the 1950s. Ironically at the end of
the 20th century some cities re-introduced light railways.
In the mid-20th century there was a large network of branch railways.
However in 1963 a minister called Dr. Beeching closed many of them.
In the early 20th century only a small minority of people had a telephone.
They did not become common till the 1960s. Even so, in 1979 31% of
households did not have a phone.
Martin Cooper made the first cell phone call in the USA in 1973. The first
mobile phone call in Britain was made in 1985. Mobile phones became
common in the 1990s. Emails also became common at that time.
In 1919 planes began carrying passengers between London and Paris. Jet
passenger aircraft were introduced in 1949.
However in the early 20th century flight was a luxury few people could
afford. Furthermore only a small minority could afford foreign travel.
Foreign holidays only became common in the 1960s.
The Boeing 747, the first 'Jumbo jet' was introduced in 1970 and the
Channel Tunnel opened in 1994.
The history of transport

20th Century Leisure

During the 20th century people had more and more leisure time. In 1900
the average working week in Britain was 54 hours. By the 1980s it was 39
hours. Furthermore in 1900 most people had no paid holidays except bank
holidays. In 1939 a new law said that everyone must have one weeks
annual paid holiday. By the 1950s two weeks were common and by the
1980s most people had at least 4 weeks annual holiday.
In 1900 Frank Hornby invented a toy called meccano. In 1907 Robert
Baden-Powell formed the boy scouts. In 1910 the girl guides were formed.
The first crossword was devised in 1913 by Arthur Wynne.
In the early 20th century films were often shown in theaters but an
increasing number of purpose built cinemas appeared. The great age of
cinema going was the 1930s when most people went at least once and
sometimes twice a week. At first the films were silent but the first 'talkie',
The Jazz Singer, was made in 1927. Early films were also black and white
but in the 1930s the first color films were made. (Although it was decades
before all films were made in color).
Radio broadcasting began in 1922 when the BBC was formed. By 1933 half
the households in Britain had a radio.
Television began in Britain in 1936 when the BBC began broadcasting. TV
was suspended during World War II but it began again in 1946. TV first
became common in the 1950s. A lot of people bought a TV set to watch
the coronation of Elizabeth II and a survey at the end of the that year
showed that about one quarter of households had one. By 1959 about two
thirds of homes had a TV. By 1964 the figure had reached 90% and TV had
become the main form of entertainment - at the expense of cinema, which
declined in popularity.
At first there was only one TV channel but between 1955 and 1957 the ITV
companies began broadcasting. BBC2 began in 1964 and Channel 4 began
in 1982.
In Britain BBC 2 began broadcasting in color in 1967, BBC 1 and ITV
followed in 1969.
Video recorders became common in the early 1980s. Many video hire
shops opened at the that time. At the end of the century videos were
replaced by DVDs.

Portable TVs became common in the 1980s and satellite broadcasting

began in 1989. Satellite or cable TV became common in the 1990s.
Personal computers became common in the 1980s. The internet became
common in the 1990s.
Furthermore in the late 20th century gardening became a very popular
pastime. So did DIY.
The history of games and leisure
Education in 20th Century Britain
In 1900 children in Britain sometimes left school when they were only 12
years old. However in 1918 the minimum school leaving age was raised to
14. Between the wars working class children went to elementary schools.
Middle class children went to grammar schools and upper class children
went to public schools.
In 1947 the school leaving age was raised to 15 and in 1972 it was raised
to 16.
Following the 1944 Education Act all children had to sit an exam called the
11 plus. Those who passed went to grammar schools while those who
failed went to secondary modern schools. However in the late 1950s public
opinion began to turn against the system and in the 1960s and early
1970s most schools became comprehensives.
Until the late 20th century teachers were allowed to hit children. Corporal
punishment was phased out in most primary schools in the 1970s. The
cane was abolished in state secondary schools in 1987. It was finally
abolished in private schools in 1999.
The history of corporal punishment
There was a huge expansion of higher education in Britain in the 1960s
and many new universities were founded. In 1992 polytechnics were
changed to universities. Meanwhile the Open University began in 1969. In
the late 20th century people had far more opportunities for education and
training than ever before.
The history of education
Medicine in The 20th Century

Medicine made huge advances in the 20th century. In 1900 Freud founded
psychoanalysis when he published The Interpretation of Dreams. In 1920
Hermann Rorschach invented the Rorschach test (patients are asked to
look at ink blots and say what they see).
Vitamins were discovered in 1912. Insulin was first used to treat a patient
in 1922.
The iron lung was invented in 1928. In 1943 Willem Kolf built the first
artificial kidney machine.
In the years 1935-1940 a group of drugs called the sulphonamides were
discovered. They were used to treat bacterial infections such as
gonorrhea.
Antibiotics were discovered too. Penicillin was discovered in 1928
by Alexander Fleming but it was not widely used till after 1940. Another
antibiotic, streptomycin was isolated in 1944. It was used to treat
tuberculosis. They were followed by many others.
A vaccine for measles was discovered in 1963.
In Britain the health of ordinary people greatly improved when the National
Health Service was founded in 1948.
In the 1950s Dr Jonas Salk invented a vaccine for poliomyelitis.
Meanwhile surgery made great advances. The most difficult surgery was
on the brain and the heart. Both of these developed rapidly in the 20th
century. The first pacemaker was made in 1958. The first heart transplant
was performed in 1967.
The first test tube baby was born in 1978.
In 1980 the World Health Organisation announced that smallpox had been
eradicated. However in 1981 a terrible new disease called AIDS was
isolated.
The history of medicine
20th Century Warfare
When the First World War began in 1914 it was impossible for infantry to
advance without terrible losses because firearms were now so powerful.

The result was a deadlock. By the end of 1914 both armies had dug lines
of trenches with barbed wire and machine guns.
In 1915 the Germans used gas on the western front. At first they used
chlorine, the phosgene. However troops were supplied with gas masks.
Finally in 1917 the Germans used mustard gas. Yet gas failed to break the
stalemate. Meanwhile in 1915 the Germans used the first flamethrowers.
Both sides tried to destroy the enemy trenches with mines. They dug
tunnels under the enemies trenches then detonated mines to obliterate
them. However both sides used listening devices to warn them if the
enemy was trying to do that. If they detected sounds of digging they
would dig their own counter-tunnels into the tunnels the enemy was
making. A fight would then take place underground.
Meanwhile in September 1916 the British introduced the tank. They were
used in the Battle of the Somme in September 1916. Unfortunately they
were too few in number and too likely to break down to prove decisive.
Tanks were first used in large numbers at Cambrai in November 1917. In
1918 British and French tanks proved decisive in winning the war.
Meanwhile the first sub machine guns were developed in 1918.
One new weapon in the First World War was the U-boat. People had
experimented with submarines since the early 17th century but it was the
invention of the diesel engine that really made submarines feasible. The
British launched their first submarine in 1901 but during the First and
Second World Wars German U-boats sank hundreds of allied merchant
ships.
During the First World War the allies introduced weapons to counter the Uboat menace. Some U-boats were destroyed by mines and from the end of
1915 by depth charges. The allies also used Q-ships (merchant ships with
disguised guns). Furthermore from April 1917 allied ships traveled in
convoys with escorts. By 1918 aircraft technology had improved so much
planes could escort convoys. Despite all these measures submarines
continued to play an important part in naval warfare.
Meanwhile in 1915 the Germans began using Zeppelin airships to bomb
British cities. However Zeppelins proved very vulnerable to fire from
planes and anti-aircraft guns.
At the beginning of the First World War aircraft were used to observe the
enemy. During the war aircraft technology changed rapidly. However the
war ended before aircraft could play a decisive part.

During the Second World War aircraft realised their full potential. Dive
bombers were used to support the army while other planes were used to
bomb cities and destroy the enemies industries.
In July 1918 aircraft took off from HMS Furious and bombed Zeppelin
sheds. It was a portent of things to come. Although aircraft carriers came
too late to play a significant part in the First World War they played a
decisive part in naval warfare in the Second World War. In 1944 jet engines
were introduced and planes became still faster. In 1947 a plane flew faster
than sound for the first time.
During the Second World War tanks continued to play a dominant role
despite the development of anti-tank guns. However during World War II
there were two new developments. The Germans began using rockets. On
13 June 1944 they launched the first V-1 flying bomb. More dangerous was
the V-2 rocket. It had a range of 200-220 miles. It rose to a height of 50
miles and traveled at over 2,000 mph.
In 1954 the Soviet Union made the first ICBM (intercontinental ballistic
missile). The other development was the atomic bomb. On 6 August 1945
one exploded over Hiroshima. On 9 august another exploded over
Nagasaki. Each killed tens of thousands of people. The Soviet Union
exploded an atomic bomb in 1949.
In 1952 American scientists invented the much more powerful hydrogen
bomb. The USSR exploded a hydrogen bomb in 1954. The first nuclear
powered submarine, the Nautilus was launched in 1955.
During the Vietnam War the Americans experimented with laser guided
missiles. However they were not used on a large scale until the Gulf War of
1991.

Module 14
Britain during and after the World Wars

Source: www.telegraph.co.uk

Visual support, The Making Of Modern Britain The Great War (BBC)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88OiGypD8s4
59:15 min
Why did war break out in
1914?
The Great War of 1914-18 began in August 1914.
The war was fought between rival alliances of European powers:
In 1879, Germany and Austria-Hungary formed an alliance (the
Dual Alliance) that gave them great strength in the centre of Europe.
In 1892, the French and the Russians formed their own strong
alliance (the Dual Entente) that meant Germany now had an
unfriendly power on each side.
By the early 1900s, the alliances had developed. The Dual Alliance
had become the Triple Alliance with Italy (although Italy stayed out
of the war in 1914). (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy)
In 1907, Britain joined Russia and France to form the Triple
Entente. Britain was much less committed to this alliance than
Russia or France.
The advantage of these alliances was that it gave the great powers a
sense of security. The downside was that if the powers stuck blindly

to their alliances, then a small-scale local dispute involving one

power might drag the other powers in and turn into a major war.
The experience of the early 1900s seemed to suggest this would not
happen. For example:
In 1905 and 1911, there were disputes between the powers over
colonies in North Africa.
In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the province of Bosnia, which
contained many Serbs. Serbia and her ally Russia were furious, but
there was no war as a result.
In 1912-13, there were a series of wars in the Balkans. Serbia
emerged from these wars as the main victor and appeared to be a
possible threat to Austria-Hungary. Even so, there was no major
war.
Unfortunately, this changed in 1914. The assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the trigger that set off the
Great War. Franz Ferdinand was the heir to the throne of AustriaHungary. He was assassinated on 28 June 1914 by terrorists from one
of Austria-Hungary's rival powers, Serbia. Austria-Hungary blamed
Serbia, even though the terrorists were not connected to the Serbian
government.
On 31 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
At this point, the alliances came into play. Russia mobilised its army
ready to help the Serbs against Austria-Hungary. Everyone knew that
if Russia attacked Austria-Hungary, then the alliance system meant
that Germany and France could be pulled into the war as well.
The alliance system did not mean that a European war had to
happen. Some say that it could still have been avoided - especially if
Britain could have made Germany hold back from helping AustriaHungary. Germany decided to help Austria-Hungary and declared war
on Russia (1 August) and France (3 August). The German army
prepared to attack France through Belgium, just as General Schlieffen
had planned.
How
did
Britain
become involved in
the war?
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Britain was often described as
being in 'Splendid Isolation' from the rest of Europe. Britain had a

huge empire and ruling this empire was its priority. The key to
Britain's power was India with its vast resources of manpower.
Britain relied heavily on Indian troops to control the empire. The
highest priority for Britain was protecting the trade routes between
Britain and India. Britain's large navy protected trade links with
India and with the rest of the world.
Despite this focus on the empire, Britain was interested in events in
Europe. To start with, other European countries had rival empires.
Belgium and France both had large empires in Africa. There was
strong rivalry between Britain and France over possessions in North
Africa. By the early 1900s, Germany also had colonies in Africa and
was beginning to show an interest in North Africa.
Another concern was Russia. For much of the 19th century, Russia
wanted to take control of the Dardanelles, the area where the Black
Sea opened out into the Mediterranean Sea. This would allow Russian
warships and trading ships to sail easily around Europe. Russia had
other ports in the north, but these tended to freeze over in winter.
The problem was that the Dardanelles were owned by Turkey. Turkey
and Russia had long been enemies. Britain supported Turkey
against Russia. This was because Britain did not want Russian ships
in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean was part of Britain's most
important trade route to India.
Until the early 1900s, Britain was more concerned about Russia and
France than Germany. Relations between Britain and Germany were
very good. This began to change, however. When Kaiser Wilhelm II
took control of Germany, he was anxious for Germany to be a great
power. He felt that Russia to the east and France to the west were
encircling Germany. As a result, he built up his armed forces. France
and Russia feared Germany and did the same. During the 1900s, all
of the great powers in Europe began to build up their armies and
navies.
British policy in Europe intended that no country in Europe should
become completely dominant. If Russia, France, Germany and
Austria-Hungary worried about each other, then they would be less of
a threat to Britain. By about 1907 it was becoming clear to Britain
that the greatest potential threat to Britain was going to be Germany.
The strong economy, large population and powerful armed forces of
Germany seemed to be capable of dominating Europe. As a result,
Britain began to support Russia and France. Britain joined the
Triple Entente.

Despite being part of the Triple Entente, Britain was not committed to
going to war in 1914. The Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, spent
much of the summer of 1914 furiously trying to reassure Russia and
Germany and prevent a war happening. Even when German troops
invaded France and Belgium as part of the Schlieffen Plan, Britain did
not have to go to war.
Germany hoped Britain would stay out of the war altogether.
However, the Germans knew that Britain had promised to defend
Belgium under the Treaty of London of 1839. The Germans wanted
the British government to ignore the Treaty of London and let the
German army pass through Belgium. The British government made
much of their duty to protect Belgium. Belgium's ports were close to
the British coast and German control of Belgium would have been
seen as a serious threat to Britain. In the end, Britain refused to
ignore the events of 4 August 1914, when Germany attacked
France through Belgium. Within hours, Britain declared war on
Germany. The Kaiser said how foolish he thought the British were.
He said that Britain had gone to war for the sake of a "scrap of
paper".
Within a few more days, Britain, France and Russia (the Allies)
were all officially at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary (the
Central Powers). What had started as a small, local problem in the
Balkans was turning into the biggest and most brutal war the world
had ever seen.
The war approached a resolution after the Russian governmentcollapsed in
March, 1917, and a subsequent revolution in November brought the
Russians to terms with the Central Powers. On 4 November 1918, the
Austro-Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice. After a 1918 German
offensive along the western front, the Allies drove back the Germans in a
series of successful offensives and began entering the trenches. Germany,
which had its own trouble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice
on 11 November 1918, ending the war in victory for the Allies.
By the end of the war, four major imperial powersthe
German,Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empiresceased
to exist. The successor states of the former two lost substantial territory,
while the latter two were dismantled. The map of Europe was redrawn,
with several independent nations restored or created. TheLeague of
Nations formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such an

appalling conflict. This aim failed, with weakened states, renewed

European nationalism and the German feeling of humiliation contributing
to the rise of fascism and the conditions for World War II.
World War Two
Visual support: Great Britain in World War 2 - Know Your Ally: Britain | US
Documentary on the British People in WW2
https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/#inbox 41: 51 minutes
In the summer and fall of 1940, German and British air forces clashed in
the skies over the United Kingdom, locked in the largest sustained
bombing campaign to that date. A significant turning point of World War II,
the Battle of Britain ended when Germanys Luftwaffe failed to gain air
superiority over the Royal Air Force despite months of targeting Britains
air bases, military posts and, ultimately, its civilian population. Britains
decisive victory saved the country from a ground invasion and possible
occupation by German forces while proving that air power alone could be
used to win a major battle.

On June 17, 1940, the defeated French signed an armistice and quit World
War II. Britain now stood alone against the power of Germanys military
forces, which had conquered most of Western Europe in less than two
months. But Prime Minister Winston Churchill rallied his stubborn people
and outmaneuvered those politicians who wanted to negotiate with Adolf
Hitler. But Britains success in continuing the war would very much
depend on the RAF Fighter Commands ability to thwart the Luftwaffes
efforts to gain air superiority. This then would be the first all-air battle in
history.
In fact, Britains situation was more favorable than most of the world
recognized at the time. Britain possessed an effective air defense
system, first-rate fighter pilots, and a great military leader in Air
Marshal Hugh Dowding. On the other hand, the Germans had major
problems: they had no navy left after the costly conquest of Norway, their
army was unprepared for any form of amphibious operations, and the
Luftwaffe had suffered heavy losses in the west (the first two factors made
a seaborne attack on the British Isles impossible from the first).

Even more serious, the Germans had poor intelligence and little idea of
British vulnerabilities. They wasted most of July in waiting for a British

surrender and attacked only in August. Although air strikes did substantial
damage to radar sites, on August 1315 the Luftwaffe soon abandoned
that avenue and turned to attacks on RAF air bases. A battle of attrition
ensued in which both sides suffered heavy losses (an average loss of 21
percent of the RAFs fighter pilots and 16 percent of the Luftwaffes fighter
pilots each month during July, August, and September).

For a time the advantage seemed to swing slightly in favor of the

Germans, but a combination of bad intelligence and British attacks on
Berlin led the Luftwaffe to change its operational approach to massive
attacks on London. The first attack on London on September 7 was quite
successful; the second, on September 15, failed not only with heavy
losses, but also with a collapse of morale among German bomber crews
when British fighters appeared in large numbers and shot down many of
the Germans. As a result, Hitler permanently postponed a landing on the
British Isles and suspended the Battle of Britain

The Post-War Years

The great social-leveling influence of the War meant that Britains were
anxious for change. Countless thousands of returning soldiers and sailors
wanted a turn-around in the status quo. Members of British armed forces
were considerably better educated than they had been in World War I. The
soldier returning from the war was no longer in awe of his leaders; he had
mixed loyalties. He was resentful of unemployment, wishing for a
greater share in the nation's post-war restructuring, and he did not trust a
Conservative government to tackle the enormous social economic and
political problems, that they had done very little to solve between the
wars.
He
wished
for
a
change.
As a consequence, Winston Churchill, who led Britain to victory during
the war, found himself as a member of the opposition when the election of
1945 returned the Labour Party to power with a huge majority.

Source: anakalianwhims.wordpress.com

Under the Parliament of Clement Attlee, the new government began some
of the greatest changes in Britain's long history---nothing less than a
reconstruction
of
the
nation.
The Labour Government struggled heroically to deal with the problems: to
improve standards of living, move to a "mixed economy." close the trade
gap, maintain its armed forces in sufficient strength to meet a new threat
from Communist Russia, and to keep of its overseas bases. It succeeded in
these aims remarkably well.

During the dark early days of the War, economist William Beveridge had
put forward proposals for postwar "cradle-to-grave" social security.
The Government had taken on an emergency welfare responsibility; it
provided milk for babies; orange juice and cod-liver oil for children.
It was now time for Labour to put the Beverage Plan into full operation.
Family allowances had already been introduced before the War's end. A
National School Lunch Act was passed in June, 1946. In 1948, the
government introduced the National Health Service to proved free
medical treatment for all, from the spectacles and false teeth, to maternity

and child welfare services. Nationalization of the hospitals made

nationwide care available for the injured and seriously ill. The "Welfare
State"
had
begun.
The second major change brought about by the Labour Government,
under Attlee, was to take control of industry and public utilities, and a
two-year period beginning in 1946, saw the nationalization of the Bank of
England; the coal industry; electricity and gas; air transport, along with
road, rail and waterways. A total of 20 percent of all British industry had
been taken into public ownership by 1950. (In August, 1947, the
government operated its first atomic pile, at Harwell). Central control of
the economy, which had proved so successful in wartime, was now a major
undertaking in peacetime. It was achieved under terribly adverse
economic
conditions.
Another
crisis
occurred
in
1947.
Stringent financial measures, imposed to meet the enormous war debt,
caused undue hardship that was only made worse by one of the worst
winters on record, monstrous gales and floods wiped out farms and
destroyed agricultural products. A fuel shortage severely curtailed exports,
food was still severely rationed, and in 1948 even bread and potatoes
were rationed (both had been exempt during the War). The author
remembers well the little ditty "It had to B.U." that parodied a popular
song
of
the
time
by
referring
to
the
Bread
Unit.
In 1947, relief appeared in the form of the Marshall Plan, introduced by
the US to help the European Economy recover. Along with the devaluation
of the pound and an expansion of world markets, there was a revival of the
spirit that had united the country during the War. The introduction of the
Land-Rover to world markets in 1948 was a godsend for British exports.

Land Rover, 1948 series, www.boldride.com

Britain was even able to join with the US in ferrying supplies to Berlin in
the famous "Airlift" that began in July of that year. By 1950, rationing
began to be phased out, though not until 1954 was meat rationing
abolished.
Though the Labour Government did very little to develop the private
sector, it can take credit for the building of giant hydro-electric schemes in
the later 1940's, especially in the undeveloped areas of Scotland and
Wales. In 1951, the Conservatives resumed control of the
government. Under its slogan "You've Never Had It So Good," led by the
aging Winston Churchill, economic prospects seemed to be on the upturn.
In less than one year, the balance of payments deficit had become a
surplus.
Compared to those of the developing nations of Southeast Asia and the
rebuilt economies of Japan and Germany, however, Britain's pre-war
industrial strength was severely weakened. The much-heralded
Festival of Britain, held in London in 1951 has been seen by many in
retrospect, not as a demonstration of the nation's strength, but as a
product of British postwar weakness and a signal pointing to further
decline. A fashionable joke at the time was that, like the Festival's Skylon,
the country had no visible means of support. The Nation and the
Commonwealth mourned the death of King George VI, who along with his
queen Elizabeth, had done much to bring back dignity and honor to the
monarchy. Yet there was a mood of optimism that received an another
upturn with the coronation of the young queen Elizabeth, the first such
ceremony to be televised.

Queen Elizabeth II, gildaandtheroyals.com

Source
The Readers Companion to Military History. Edited by Robert Cowley and
Geoffrey Parker. Copyright 1996 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing
Company. All rights reserved.

Source:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/greatwar/g2/backgroundcs1.
htm