Fluid Dynamics of A Very Light Aircraft: 6.0.18 Description of The Case

OPENFOAM GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS
6.
Fluid dynamics of a Very

Light Aircraft
6.0.18
Description of the case
The last chapter of the guide describes a completely different case to be solved.
While up to now only two-dimensional fluid mechanics problems have been solved,
the current chapter encompasses the simulation of a real 3D body in a free stream.
More specifically, this body is a very light aircraft flying at sea level conditions.
Unlike previous chapters, the mesh of the current case is going to be created using an
external surface generated with a 3D CAD design software. Nevertheless, the user
can follow the tutorial using a geometry created by himself. As the main steps are
common for generic geometries, it will only be necessary to take into consideration
particular instructions which may depend on the specifications of each case. It
implies that standard bodies in a free stream (a sphere, an automobile, etc.) will
be suitable to be simulated according to the instructions and methods shown in
Chapter 6.
6.0.19
Hypotheses
Incompressible flow
Turbulent flow
Newtonian flow
Negligible gravitatory effects
Sea level conditions
RAS turbulence modelling with wall functions
Non-static components of the aircraft are not included (as for instance the
propeller), as well as the landing gear
Jordi Casacuberta Puig
145
6. Fluid dynamics of a Very Light Aircraft
Aircraft flying at = 0
6.0.20
Physics of the problem
The problem encompasses a very light aircraft flying at a speed of V = 45 m/s at

sea level. As the medium is air ( = 1.5 105 m2 /s), the Reynolds number is
Re =
45 1.276
Vc
=
= 38.28 105
1.5 105
where c is the mean aerodynamic chord of the wings and is equal to 1.276 m. The
mean aerodynamic chord is the chord of a rectangular wing which has the same area,
aerodynamic force and position of the pressure center for a given angle of attack as
the original. The very light aircraft that it is going to be used for the simulation
does not belong to any real aeronautics company; it was designed by the author of
the guide during a course taught at the university (and thus it might contain flaws).
The aircraft is shown at Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Aircraft used in the simulation of the Very Light Aircraft case
The aircraft measures and geometrical properties are:

146
Figure 6.2: Measures of the aircraft used in the simulation of the Very Light Aircraft
case
The problem statement is shown at Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Very light aircraft flying at 45 m/s and ambient pressure
In the current chapter there is no easy analytical solution to describe the behaviour
of the fluid. However, it is necessary to keep in mind the main equations involved
in the problem:
147
The continuity equation,

U=0
(6.1)
U
+ U U = p + 2 U
t
(6.2)
The momentum equation,
As it can be seen at Figure 6.2, the aircraft presents a length of 8.3 m. Unlike
previous cases, it cannot be directly meshed and treated because of its large size
(it would be necessary to create an enormous number of cells). This is the reason
why the geometry will be rescaled 100 times. It can be understood as if the analysis
would be done to a prototype introduced into a wind tunnel.
Consequently, it is necessary to do a dimensional analysis to find out the dimensionless numbers involved in the problem. It ensures that the flow conditions are
consistent to guarantee that the results of the 100 times rescaled aircraft are the
same as if the real aircraft would be flying in the sky.
The dimensionless variables of Equations 6.1 and 6.2 are:
x
c
=U
U
V
p
p =
V 2
=
x
t =
t
c/V
By introducing them, the dimensionless equations of mass and momentum are:

=0
U
(6.3)
U

=
U
p+
2U
+U
cV
t
which can be rewritten as:
U

=
U
p+ 1
2U
+U
Re
t
(6.4)
It can be seen that the only dimensionless number involved in the problem is the
148
Reynolds number. Therefore, maintaining Re (comparing the real aircraft flying

in the sky with the prototype analysed in the wind tunnel), the behaviour of the
flow around them may be comparable and the case preserves its coherence. As
a consequence, if the mean aerodynamic chord has been reduced 100 times, the
kinematic viscosity will be also reduced this quantity:
Re =
6.0.21
45 0.01276
Vc
=
= 38.28 105
1.5 107
Pre-processing
The following codes contain the information to simulate the case with Re = 38.28
105 using simpleFoam and the SST k-w turbulence model. The main differences
with previous cases come from the fact that the constant and system directories will
include new features. Therein it will be contained the dictionaries and files required
to treat and mesh the geometry.
It is highly recommendable to follow the current tutorial bearing in mind the structure of directories that the case is going to contain (shown at the end of Section
6.0.21.6), as the case setting changes significantly. The scheme of directories is simR
ilar as the one used in the official OpenF OAM
motorBike case (located within
incompressible/simpleFoam). It may help the user to figure up the case resolution,
before and whilst running it.
The case directory is named aircraft and will be located within FoamCases.
6.0.21.1
Mesh generation
Handling surface meshes

First of all, create empty constant and system directories within aircraft. In constant,
there will be two new directories, polyMesh and triSurface, this second containing
the case geometry saved with the .stl extension. In the current tutorial, the file with
the geometry is going to be named aircraft.stl.
STL (STereoLithography) is a file format native to the stereolithography CAD software created by 3D Systems. This file format is supported by many other software
packages; it is widely used for rapid prototyping and computer-aided manufacturing.
STL files describe only the surface geometry of a three-dimensional object without
any representation of color, texture or other common CAD model attributes.
Next, as it was done in Chapter 5, a dummy controlDict file is needed to be included.
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Caution:
For coherence with further explanations, set deltaT and writeInterval
within controlDict equal to 1
Now the user has to include a new file: surfaceFeatureExtractDict. It is contained
within system and is used to extract feature edges from tri-surfaces. The file includes:
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/ C++ \
| =========
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/ F ield
| OpenFOAM: The Open S o u r c e CFD Toolbox
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O peration
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A nd
| Web :
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M anipulation
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\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
surfaceFeatureExtractDict ;
}
// //
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aircraft . stl
{
// How t o o b t a i n raw f e a t u r e s ( e x t r a c t F r o m F i l e | | e x t r a c t F r o m S u r f a c e )
extractionMethod
extractFromSurface ;
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extractFromSurfaceCoeffs
{
// Mark e d g e s whose a d j a c e n t s u r f a c e n or ma ls a r e a t an a n g l e l e s s
// than i n c l u d e d A n g l e a s f e a t u r e s
// 0 : s e l e c t s no e d g e s
// 1 8 0 : s e l e c t s a l l e d g e s
includedAngle
120;
}
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// Write o p t i o n s
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// Write f e a t u r e s t o o b j f o r m a t f o r p o s t p r o c e s s i n g
writeObj
yes ;
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}
// //
Advice:
At line 17 the name has to match the one used for the file located within
constant/triSurface
Next, the user has to execute the dictionary to extract the features. Type within
the case:
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surfaceFeatureExtract
Note that a new directory and a new file have been generated within constant and
constant/triSurface respectively.
At this moment the user can launch ParaView to view the aircraft shape, opening
the .stl file contained in constant/triSurface.
Figure 6.4: Aircraft STL surface used in the simulation of the Very Light Aircraft
case
Generating a background mesh

Before meshing the aircraft itself, it is first necessary to create a background mesh.
It can be simply done using blockMesh and blockMeshDict. The aim is to create a
big rectangular prism encompassing the whole aircraft. This prism will become the
fluid domain of the case. The inside of the aircraft will be removed using further
instructions transforming the aircraft into a real obstacle for the flow.
Caution:
As it is necessary to analyze the flow downstream more than the flow
upstream, the distance from the inlet patch of the prism to the aircrafts
cabin will be shorter than the distance between the outlet patch and the
aircrafts tail
151
Advice:
Try to generate the cells of the background mesh with an aspect ratio
as close to 1 as possible
So, to create an adequate mesh for the aircraft, copy the following blockMeshDict
code within constant/polyMesh and type:
blockMesh
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/ C++ \
| =========
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/ F ield
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M anipulation
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\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
bl ock Me sh Dic t ;
}
// //
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convertToMeters 0 . 0 1 ;
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vertices
(
(30
( 10
( 10
(30
(30
( 10
( 10
(30
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
10)
10)
10)
10)
10)
10)
10)
10)
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);
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blocks
(
hex ( 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ) ( 3 2 13 1 6 ) s i m p l e G r a d i n g ( 1 1 1 )
);
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edges
(
);
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boundary
(
inlet
{
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t y p e patch ;
faces
(
(1 2 6 5)
);
}
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outlet
{
t y p e patch ;
faces
(
(0 4 7 3)
);
}
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bottom
{
type s l i p ;
faces
(
(0 3 2 1)
);
}
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top
{
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type s l i p ;
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faces
(
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(4 5 6 7)
75
);
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frontAndBack
{
type s l i p ;
faces
(
(0 1 5 4)
(2 3 7 6)
);
}
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);
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mergePatchPairs
(
);
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// //
Figure 6.5 shows the result of combining the mesh generated with the initial STL
surface:
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Figure 6.5: Aircraft STL surface contained within the mesh generated with
blockMesh in the Very Light Aircraft case
Advice:
To obtain the results shown in Figure 6.5 it is necessary to include dummy
files of fvScheme and fvSolution
Using snappyHexMesh
To mesh, the snappyHexMesh application is going to be used, being controlled by
the snappyHexMeshDict file located in system. The main parts of the dictionary are:
3 switches to control the individual meshing processes
A geometry subdictionary for the surface geometry used in the meshing
3 subdictionaries, one for each meshing process
A subdictionary for the control of the quality criteria
The snappyHexMeshDict file that it is going to be used for the meshing of the aircraft
is:
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/ C++ \
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/ F ield
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O peration
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M anipulation
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\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
snappyHexMeshDict ;
}
// //
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// Which o f t h e
castellatedMesh
snap
addLayers
s t e p s t o run
true ;
false ;
false ;
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// Geometry . D e f i n i t i o n o f a l l s u r f a c e s . A l l s u r f a c e s a r e o f c l a s s
// s e a r c h a b l e S u r f a c e .
// S u r f a c e s a r e used
// t o s p e c i f y r e f i n e m e n t f o r any mesh c e l l i n t e r s e c t i n g i t
// t o s p e c i f y r e f i n e m e n t f o r any mesh c e l l i n s i d e / o u t s i d e / n e a r
// t o snap t h e mesh boundary t o t h e s u r f a c e
geometry
{
a i r c r a f t . s t l //STL f i l e n a m e where a l l t h e r e g i o n s a r e added
{
type triSurfaceMesh ;
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regions
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pa tc h0
//Named r e g i o n i n t h e STL f i l e
{
name a i r c r a f t P a t c h ;
// Userd e f i n e d patch name . I f not p r o v i d e d w i l l be
<name> <r e g i o n >
}
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r e f i n e m e n t B o x // Geometry t o r e f i n e . E n t i t i e s : Box , C y l i n d e r , Sphere , Plane

{
type searchableBox ;
min ( 0.3 0.06 0.04) ;
max ( 0 0 . 0 6 0 . 0 4 ) ;
}
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};
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// S e t t i n g s f o r t h e c a s t e l l a t e d M e s h g e n e r a t i o n .
castellatedMeshControls
{
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// Refinement p a r a m e t e r s
//
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// I f l o c a l number o f c e l l s i s >= m a x L o c a l C e l l s on any p r o c e s s o r

// s w i t c h e s from from r e f i n e m e n t f o l l o w e d by b a l a n c i n g
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// ( c u r r e n t method ) t o ( w e i g h t e d ) b a l a n c i n g b e f o r e r e f i n e m e n t .
maxLocalCells 1500000;
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// O v e r a l l c e l l l i m i t ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y ) . Refinement w i l l s t o p i m m e d i a t e l y
// upon r e a c h i n g t h i s number s o a r e f i n e m e n t l e v e l might not c o m p l e t e .
// Note t h a t t h i s i s t h e number o f c e l l s b e f o r e removing t h e p a r t which
// i s not v i s i b l e from t h e k e e p P o i n t . The f i n a l number o f c e l l s might
// a c t u a l l y be a l o t l e s s .
maxGlobalCells 2000000;
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// The s u r f a c e r e f i n e m e n t l o o p might spend l o t s o f i t e r a t i o n s r e f i n i n g j u s t a

// few c e l l s . This s e t t i n g w i l l c a u s e r e f i n e m e n t t o s t o p i f <= minimumRefine
// a r e s e l e c t e d f o r r e f i n e m e n t . Note : i t w i l l a t l e a s t do one i t e r a t i o n
// ( u n l e s s t h e number o f c e l l s t o r e f i n e i s 0 )
minRefinementCells 0 ;
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// Allow a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f i m b a l a n c e d u r i n g r e f i n i n g
// ( s i n c e b a l a n c i n g i s q u i t e e x p e n s i v e )
// E x p r e s s e d a s f r a c t i o n o f p e r f e c t b a l a n c e (= o v e r a l l number o f c e l l s /
// nProcs ) . 0=b a l a n c e a l w a y s .
maxLoadUnbalance 0 . 1 ;
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// Number o f b u f f e r l a y e r s between d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s .
// 1 means normal 2 : 1 r e f i n e m e n t r e s t r i c t i o n , l a r g e r means s l o w e r
// r e f i n e m e n t .
nCellsBetweenLevels 3;
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// E x p l i c i t f e a t u r e edge r e f i n e m e n t
//
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//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
S p e c i f i e s a l e v e l f o r any c e l l i n t e r s e c t e d by e x p l i c i t l y p r o v i d e d
edges .
This i s a featureEdgeMesh , r e a d from c o n s t a n t / t r i S u r f a c e f o r now .
S p e c i f y l e v e l s i n t h e same way a s t h e d i s t a n c e mode i n t h e
r e f i n e m e n t R e g i o n s ( s e e below ) . The o l d s p e c i f i c a t i o n
level
2;
i s e q u i v a l e n t to
levels
((0 2) ) ;
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f e a t u r e s // D i s a b l e d b e c a u s e t h e r e f i n e m e n t w i l l be s u r f a c e based ( a s i n t e r a l
a i r c r a f t c e l l s a r e removed )
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(
// {
//
//
// }
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f i l e a i r c r a f t . eMesh ;
l e v e l s ((4 4) ) ;
);
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// S u r f a c e based r e f i n e m e n t
//
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//
//
//
//
S p e c i f i e s two l e v e l s f o r e v e r y s u r f a c e . The f i r s t i s t h e minimum l e v e l ,

e v e r y c e l l i n t e r s e c t i n g a s u r f a c e g e t s r e f i n e d up t o t h e minimum l e v e l .
The s e c o n d l e v e l i s t h e maximum l e v e l . C e l l s t h a t s e e m u l t i p l e
i n t e r s e c t i o n s where t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s make an
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// a n g l e > r e s o l v e F e a t u r e A n g l e g e t r e f i n e d up t o t h e maximum l e v e l .
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refinementSurfaces
{
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aircraft . stl
//STL f i l e n a m e where a l l t h e r e g i o n s a r e added
{
l e v e l (6 6) ;
regions
{
/ zone0 //Named r e g i o n i n t h e STL f i l e
{
// S u r f a c e w i s e min and max r e f i n e m e n t l e v e l
l e v e l (2 2) ;
// O p t i o n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f patch t y p e ( d e f a u l t i s w a l l ) . No
// c o n s t r a i n t t y p e s ( c y c l i c , symmetry ) e t c . a r e a l l o w e d .
patchInfo
{
t y p e patch ;
inGroups ( meshedPatches ) ;
}
} /
}
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}
}
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// F e a t u r e a n g l e :
// used i f min and max r e f i n e m e n t l e v e l o f a s u r f a c e d i f f e r
// used i f f e a t u r e s n a p p i n g ( s e e s n a p C o n t r o l s below ) i s used
resolveFeatureAngle 30;
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// Regionw i s e r e f i n e m e n t
//
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//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
S p e c i f i e s r e f i n e m e n t l e v e l f o r c e l l s i n r e l a t i o n t o a s u r f a c e . One o f
t h r e e modes
d i s t a n c e . l e v e l s s p e c i f i e s per d i s t a n c e to the s u r f a c e the
wanted r e f i n e m e n t l e v e l . The d i s t a n c e s need t o be s p e c i f i e d i n
increasing order .
i n s i d e . l e v e l s i s o n l y one e n t r y and o n l y t h e l e v e l i s used . A l l
c e l l s i n s i d e t h e s u r f a c e g e t r e f i n e d up t o t h e l e v e l . The s u r f a c e
n e e d s t o be c l o s e d f o r t h i s t o be p o s s i b l e .
o u t s i d e . Same but c e l l s o u t s i d e .
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refinementRegions
{
refinementBox
{
mode i n s i d e ;
l e v e l s ( ( 1 E15 3 ) ) ; // ( 1 E15 ) not r e l e v a n t .
}
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// a i r c r a f t . s t l
// {
//
mode d i s t a n c e ;
//
l e v e l s (0.008 5) ;
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// }
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// Mesh s e l e c t i o n
//
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// A f t e r r e f i n e m e n t p a t c h e s g e t added f o r a l l r e f i n e m e n t S u r f a c e s and
// a l l c e l l s i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e s u r f a c e s g e t put i n t o t h e s e p a t c h e s . The
// s e c t i o n r e a c h a b l e from t h e l o c a t i o n I n M e s h i s k e p t .
// NOTE: This p o i n t s h o u l d n e v e r be on a f a c e , a l w a y s i n s i d e a c e l l , even
// a f t e r r e f i n e m e n t .
l o c a t i o n I n M e s h ( 0.051 0.04 0.008) ;
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// Whether any f a c e Z o n e s ( a s s p e c i f i e d i n t h e r e f i n e m e n t S u r f a c e s )
// a r e o n l y on t h e boundary o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g c e l l Z o n e s o r a l s o a l l o w
// f r e e s t a n d i n g zone f a c e s . Not used i f t h e r e a r e no f a c e Z o n e s .
allowFreeStandingZoneFaces true ;
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// S e t t i n g s f o r t h e s n a p p i n g .
snapControls
{
// Number o f patch smoothing i t e r a t i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
// t o s u r f a c e
nSmoothPatch 3 ;
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// Maximum r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e f o r p o i n t s t o be a t t r a c t e d by s u r f a c e .
// True d i s t a n c e i s t h i s f a c t o r t i m e s l o c a l maximum edge l e n g t h .
// Note : changed ( c o r r e c t e d ) w . r . t 17 x ! ( 1 7 x used 2 t o l e r a n c e )
tolerance 1.0;
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// Number o f mesh d i s p l a c e m e n t r e l a x a t i o n i t e r a t i o n s .
nSolveIter 30;
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// Maximum number o f s n a p p i n g r e l a x a t i o n i t e r a t i o n s . Should s t o p

// b e f o r e upon r e a c h i n g a c o r r e c t mesh .
nRelaxIter 5;
207
208
209
210
// F e a t u r e s n a p p i n g
211
212
// Number o f f e a t u r e edge s n a p p i n g i t e r a t i o n s .
// Leave out a l t o g e t h e r t o d i s a b l e .
nFeatureSnapIter 10;
213
214
215
216
// D e t e c t ( g e o m e t r i c o n l y ) f e a t u r e s by s a m p l i n g t h e s u r f a c e
// ( d e f a u l t=f a l s e ) .
implicitFeatureSnap f a l s e ;
217
218
219
220
// Use c a s t e l l a t e d M e s h C o n t r o l s : : f e a t u r e s ( d e f a u l t = t r u e )
explicitFeatureSnap true ;
221
222
223
// D e t e c t f e a t u r e s between m u l t i p l e s u r f a c e s
// ( o n l y f o r e x p l i c i t F e a t u r e S n a p , d e f a u l t = f a l s e )
multiRegionFeatureSnap f a l s e ;
224
225
226
227
228
229
// S e t t i n g s f o r t h e l a y e r a d d i t i o n .
158
230
231
232
233
234
addLayersControls
{
// Are t h e t h i c k n e s s p a r a m e t e r s below r e l a t i v e t o t h e u n d i s t o r t e d
// s i z e o f t h e r e f i n e d c e l l o u t s i d e l a y e r ( t r u e ) o r a b s o l u t e s i z e s ( f a l s e ) .
r e l a t i v e S i z e s true ;
235
236
237
238
239
240
//
//
//
//
//
Layer t h i c k n e s s s p e c i f i c a t i o n . This can be s p e c i f i e d i n one o f f o u r ways

e x p a n s i o n R a t i o and f i n a l L a y e r T h i c k n e s s ( c e l l n e a r e s t i n t e r n a l mesh )
e x p a n s i o n R a t i o and f i r s t L a y e r T h i c k n e s s ( c e l l on s u r f a c e )
o v e r a l l t h i c k n e s s and f i r s t L a y e r T h i c k n e s s
o v e r a l l t h i c k n e s s and f i n a l L a y e r T h i c k n e s s
241
242
243
// Expansion f a c t o r f o r l a y e r mesh
expansionRatio 2;
244
245
246
247
248
// Wanted t h i c k n e s s o f t h e l a y e r f u r t h e s t away from t h e w a l l .

// I f r e l a t i v e S i z e s t h i s i s r e l a t i v e t o u n d i s t o r t e d s i z e o f c e l l
// o u t s i d e l a y e r .
finalLayerThickness 0.4;
249
250
251
252
253
// Wanted t h i c k n e s s o f t h e l a y e r n e x t t o t h e w a l l .
// f i r s t L a y e r T h i c k n e s s 0 . 3 ;
254
255
256
257
258
// Wanted o v e r a l l t h i c k n e s s o f l a y e r s .
// t h i c k n e s s 0 . 5
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
// Minimum o v e r a l l t h i c k n e s s o f t o t a l l a y e r s . I f f o r any r e a s o n l a y e r
// ca nn ot be above mi nT hi ckn es s do not add l a y e r .
// o u t s i d e l a y e r . .
mi nT hi ck ne ss 0 . 2 ;
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
// Per f i n a l patch ( s o not geometry ! ) t h e l a y e r i n f o r m a t i o n

// Note : This b e h a v i o u r changed a f t e r 21 x . Any nonmentioned p a t c h e s
//
now s l i d e u n l e s s :
//
n S u r f a c e L a y e r s i s e x p l i c i t l y mentioned t o be 0 .
//
a n g l e t o n e a r e s t s u r f a c e < s l i p F e a t u r e A n g l e ( s e e below )
layers
{
aircraftPatch
{
nSurfaceLayers 2;
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
}
maxY
{
nSurfaceLayers 2;
// Per patch l a y e r data
expansionRatio
2;
finalLayerThickness 0.4;
mi nT hi ck nes s
0.2;
159
287
288
// D i s a b l e any mesh s h r i n k i n g and l a y e r a d d i t i o n on any p o i n t o f

// a patch by s e t t i n g n S u r f a c e L a y e r s t o 0
frozenPatches
{
nSurfaceLayers 0;
}
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
// I f p o i n t s g e t not e x t r u d e d do nGrow l a y e r s o f c o n n e c t e d f a c e s t h a t a r e
// a l s o not grown . This h e l p s c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e l a y e r a d d i t i o n p r o c e s s
// c l o s e t o f e a t u r e s .
// Note : changed ( c o r r e c t e d ) w . r . t 17 x ! ( didn t do a n y t h i n g i n 17 x )
nGrow 0 ;
302
303
// Advanced s e t t i n g s
304
305
306
307
// When not t o e x t r u d e s u r f a c e . 0 i s
// a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r
featureAngle 60;
f l a t s u r f a c e , 90 i s when two f a c e s
308
309
310
311
// At nonp a t c h e d s i d e s a l l o w mesh t o s l i p
// a n g l e l a r g e r than s l i p F e a t u r e A n g l e .
slipFeatureAngle 30;
if
e x t r u s i o n d i r e c t i o n makes
312
313
314
315
// Maximum number o f s n a p p i n g r e l a x a t i o n i t e r a t i o n s . Should s t o p

// b e f o r e upon r e a c h i n g a c o r r e c t mesh .
nRelaxIter 5;
316
317
318
// Number o f smoothing i t e r a t i o n s o f s u r f a c e no rm al s
nSmoothSurfaceNormals 1 ;
319
320
321
// Number o f smoothing i t e r a t i o n s o f i n t e r i o r mesh movement d i r e c t i o n

nSmoothNormals 3 ;
322
323
324
// Smooth l a y e r t h i c k n e s s o v e r s u r f a c e p a t c h e s
nSmoothThickness 1 0 ;
325
326
327
// Stop l a y e r growth on h i g h l y warped c e l l s

maxFaceThicknessRatio 0 . 5 ;
328
329
330
331
// Reduce l a y e r growth where r a t i o t h i c k n e s s t o m e d i a l

// d i s t a n c e i s l a r g e
maxThicknessToMedialRatio 0 . 3 ;
332
333
334
335
// Angle used t o p i c k up m e d i a l a x i s p o i n t s
// Note : changed ( c o r r e c t e d ) w . r . t 17 x ! 90 d e g r e e s c o r r e s p o n d s t o 130 i n 17 x .
minMedianAxisAngle 9 0 ;
336
337
338
// C r e a t e b u f f e r r e g i o n f o r new l a y e r t e r m i n a t i o n s
nBufferCellsNoExtrude 0;
339
340
341
342
343
// O v e r a l l max number o f l a y e r a d d i t i o n i t e r a t i o n s . The mesher w i l l e x i t

// i f i t r e a c h e s t h i s number o f i t e r a t i o n s ; p o s s i b l y with an i l l e g a l
// mesh .
nLayerIter 50;
160
344
// Max number o f i t e r a t i o n s a f t e r which r e l a x e d meshQuality c o n t r o l s

// g e t used . Up t o n R e l a x I t e r i t u s e s t h e s e t t i n g s i n m e s h Q u a l i t y C o n t r o l s ,
// a f t e r n R e l a x I t e r i t u s e s t h e v a l u e s i n m e s h Q u a l i t y C o n t r o l s : : r e l a x e d .
nRelaxedIter 20;
345
346
347
348
349
// A d d i t i o n a l r e p o r t i n g : i f t h e r e a r e j u s t a few f a c e s where t h e r e
// a r e mesh e r r o r s ( a f t e r a dd in g t h e l a y e r s ) p r i n t t h e i r f a c e c e n t r e s .
// This h e l p s i n t r a c k i n g down p r o b l e m a t i c mesh a r e a s .
// a d d i t i o n a l R e p o r t i n g t r u e ;
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
// G e n e r i c mesh q u a l i t y s e t t i n g s . At any u n d o a b l e phase t h e s e d e t e r m i n e

// where t o undo .
meshQualityControls
{
// Maximum nono r t h o g o n a l i t y a l l o w e d . S e t t o 180 t o d i s a b l e .
maxNonOrtho 4 5 ;
362
363
364
365
// Max s k e w n e s s a l l o w e d . S e t t o <0 t o d i s a b l e .
maxBoundarySkewness 2 0 ;
maxInternalSkewness 4 ;
366
367
368
369
370
// Max c o n c a v e n e s s a l l o w e d . I s a n g l e ( i n d e g r e e s ) below which c o n c a v i t y

// i s a l l o w e d . 0 i s s t r a i g h t f a c e , <0 would be convex f a c e .
// S e t t o 180 t o d i s a b l e .
maxConcave 8 0 ;
371
372
373
374
375
// Minimum pyramid volume . I s a b s o l u t e volume o f c e l l pyramid .

// S e t t o a s e n s i b l e f r a c t i o n o f t h e s m a l l e s t c e l l volume e x p e c t e d .
// S e t t o v e r y n e g a t i v e number ( e . g . 1E30 ) t o d i s a b l e .
minVol 1 e 13;
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
// Minimum q u a l i t y o f t h e t e t formed by t h e f a c e c e n t r e
// and v a r i a b l e b a s e p o i n t minimum d e c o m p o s i t i o n t r i a n g l e s and
// t h e c e l l c e n t r e . This has t o be a p o s i t i v e number f o r t r a c k i n g
// t o work . S e t t o v e r y n e g a t i v e number ( e . g . 1E30 ) t o
// d i s a b l e .
//
<0 = i n s i d e out t e t ,
//
0 = flat tet
//
1 = regular tet
minTetQuality 1 e 9;
386
387
388
// Minimum f a c e a r e a . S e t t o <0 t o d i s a b l e .
minArea 1;
389
390
391
392
// Minimum f a c e t w i s t . S e t t o <1 t o d i s a b l e . dot p r o d u c t o f f a c e normal

// and f a c e c e n t r e t r i a n g l e s normal
minTwist 0 . 0 5 ;
393
394
395
396
// minimum n o r m a l i s e d c e l l d e t e r m i n a n t
// 1 = hex , <= 0 = f o l d e d o r f l a t t e n e d i l l e g a l
minDeterminant 0 . 0 0 1 ;
cell
397
398
399
// minFaceWeight ( 0 > 0 . 5 )
minFaceWeight 0 . 0 5 ;
400
161
// minVolRatio ( 0 > 1 )
minVolRatio 0 . 0 1 ;
401
402
403
// must be >0 f o r F l u e n t c o m p a t i b i l i t y
m i n T r i a n g l e T w i s t 1;
404
405
406
// i f >0 : p r e s e r v e s i n g l e c e l l s with a l l p o i n t s on t h e s u r f a c e i f t h e
//
r e s u l t i n g volume a f t e r s n a p p i n g ( by a p p r o x i m a t i o n ) i s l a r g e r than
// m i n V o l C o l l a p s e R a t i o t i m e s o l d volume ( i . e . not c o l l a p s e d t o f l a t c e l l ) .
//
I f <0 : d e l e t e a l w a y s .
// m i n V o l C o l l a p s e R a t i o 0 . 5 ;
407
408
409
410
411
412
// Advanced
413
414
// Number o f e r r o r d i s t r i b u t i o n i t e r a t i o n s
nSmoothScale 4 ;
// amount t o s c a l e back d i s p l a c e m e n t a t e r r o r p o i n t s
errorReduction 0. 75;
415
416
417
418
419
// O p t i o n a l : some meshing p h a s e s a l l o w u s a g e o f r e l a x e d r u l e s .
// See e . g . a d d L a y e r s C o n t r o l s : : n R e l a x e d I t e r .
relaxed
{
// Maximum nono r t h o g o n a l i t y a l l o w e d . S e t t o 180 t o d i s a b l e .
maxNonOrtho 4 5 ;
}
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
// Advanced
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
// F l a g s f o r o p t i o n a l o ut pu t
// 0 : o n l y w r i t e f i n a l meshes
// 1 : w r i t e i n t e r m e d i a t e meshes
// 2 : w r i t e v o l S c a l a r F i e l d with c e l l L e v e l f o r p o s t p r o c e s s i n g
// 4 : w r i t e c u r r e n t i n t e r s e c t i o n s a s . o b j f i l e s
debug 0 ;
437
438
439
440
// Merge t o l e r a n c e . I s f r a c t i o n o f o v e r a l l bounding box o f i n i t i a l mesh .

// Note : t h e w r i t e t o l e r a n c e n e e d s t o be h i g h e r than t h i s .
m e r g e T o l e r a n c e 1 e 6;
441
442
// //
To start meshing, make sure that the first switch is set to true while the others are
set to false (lines 18 through 20). Then, within the case directory, type:
snappyHexMesh
The first switch, controlling the castellatedMeshControls uses the cells of the background mesh to divide the domain in small cubes according to the instructions
specified in the dictionary. A new directory has appeared (named 1 if deltaT and
162
writeInterval have been previously set to 1). It contains the information of the first
meshing process of snappyHexMesh.
The results are shown in the following figure:
Figure 6.6: Shape of the aircraft at the first step of the meshing process of snappyHexMesh
To obtain the results shown in Figure 6.6, launch ParaView, go to time interval 1
and select aircraftPatch located in Mesh Parts.
As it was previously said, the internal cells of the aircraft are removed. This characteristic, as well as the cell refinement distribution along the domain can be observed
in the following figures:
163
Figure 6.7: Mesh of the domain at the first step of the meshing process of snappyHexMesh
Figure 6.8: Detail of the mesh at the first step of the meshing process of snappyHexMesh
164
Figure 6.9: Detail of the mesh with a representation of the cell refinement at the
first step of the meshing process of snappyHexMesh
For the representation of the previous Figures, internalMesh has to be selected

instead of aircraftPatch. Moreover, as the aircraft shape is internal, a cut using
the Clip icon has to be used. To show the cell refinement as a field, click the Volume
Fields box located within Properties. Then, select the cellLevel option in the first
drop-down menu at the top of ParaViews screen.
As it can be seen in previous figures, the surface of the aircraft is irregular and cubebased. The second switch of snappyHexMesh controls the snapControls, involving the
displacement of boundary vertices to conform to surface. All vertex displacements
are reversible to ensure mesh quality.
To proceed to the next step, set the first switch to false, the second to true and type:
snappyHexMesh
Once it has been run, the user can observe the 2 directory within the case containing
the information generated. During this second process, castellated mesh boundary
and internal mesh have been smoothed. Furthermore, mesh boundary is snapped to
geometry surface.
Now, in ParaView, the user can use the time control buttons to view the background
mesh (t = 0), the castellated mesh (t = 1) and the mesh generated in the second
step of snappyHexMesh (t = 2). In the following figures it is possible to observe the
165
differences between directories 1 and 2 :

t=1
t=2
Now, the mesh of the Very Light Aircraft case is ready.

It exists a third switch in snappyHexMesh which introduces cell layers at the patches
of the case. When doing it, surface points are identified and are not displaced. In
the current tutorial, this third process of snappyHexMesh is not going to be used.
Finally, it is important to mention that the snappyHexMeshDict file is complex to
fully understand; it includes a lot of instructions and only with time and experience it
is possible to reach a broad domain of its contents. Nevertheless, the user can identify
some basic instructions that are relevant when preparing the meshing process:
Name of the geometry used for the meshing process: line 30
Definition of cell refinement level at the patches of the domain: lines
118 through 140
Specification of a point contained in the volume which will be meshed:
line 184
Regarding the last sentence, as in the current case the point specified is located
outside the aircraft, its internal cells have been removed while the background mesh
has become the fluid domain.
Advice:
If the user wants to remesh the case (changing or not the instructions of
snappyHexMeshDict) it is first necessary to remove 1 and 2 directories.
Then, after setting the switches properly, snappyHexMesh can be run
again
166
6.0.21.2
Boundary and initial conditions
Besides the p and U files, as the case is set turbulent, three new files are necessary
to be created. Their names are k, nut and omega. These dictionaries contain the
boundary conditions of the parameters used to implement the SST k-w turbulence
model. Before discussing their calculation, the boundary conditions for p and U
are:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
|
\\
/
O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
|
|
\\ /
A nd
| Web :
www.OpenFOAM. o r g
|
|
\\/
M anipulation
|
|
\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
volScalarField ;
object
p;
}
// //
16
17
dimensions
[ 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 ] ;
internalField
uniform 0 ;
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
boundaryField
{
inlet
{
type
}
freestreamPressure ;
27
28
29
30
31
outlet
{
type
}
freestreamPressure ;
32
33
34
35
36
aircraftPatch
{
type
}
zeroGradient ;
37
38
39
top
{
type
40
41
slip ;
42
43
44
45
46
bottom
{
type
}
slip ;
47
167
frontAndBack
{
type
}
48
49
50
51
slip ;
52
53
54
55
// //
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
|
\\
/
O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
|
|
\\ /
A nd
| Web :
www.OpenFOAM. o r g
|
|
\\/
M anipulation
|
|
\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
volVectorField ;
object
U;
}
// //
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
dimensions
[ 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 ] ;
internalField
u n i f o r m (45 0 0 ) ;
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
boundaryField
{
inlet
{
type
freestream ;
f r e e s t r e a m V a l u e u n i f o r m (45 0 0 ) ;
}
28
29
30
31
32
33
outlet
{
type
freestream ;
f r e e s t r e a m V a l u e u n i f o r m (45 0 0 ) ;
}
34
35
36
37
38
39
aircraftPatch
{
type
value
}
fixedValue ;
uniform (0 0 0) ;
40
41
42
top
{
type
43
44
slip ;
45
46
47
bottom
{
168
type
48
slip ;
49
50
frontAndBack
{
type
}
51
52
53
54
55
slip ;
56
57
// //
Caution:
As in the current case there is not 0 directory, the dictionaries of p, U,
k, nut and omega are included within the last directory generated with
snappyHexMesh
The dictionaries of k, nut and omega are:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
|
\\
/
O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
|
|
\\ /
A nd
| Web :
www.OpenFOAM. o r g
|
|
\\/
M anipulation
|
|
\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
binary ;
class
volScalarField ;
location
2 ;
object
k;
}
// //
17
18
dimensions
[ 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 ] ;
internalField
uniform 1 . 2 1 5 ;
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
boundaryField
{
inlet
{
type
value
}
fixedValue ;
uniform 1 . 2 1 5 ;
29
30
31
32
33
34
outlet
{
type
inletValue
value
inletOutlet ;
uniform 1 . 2 1 5 ;
uniform 1 . 2 1 5 ;
169
35
36
aircraftPatch
{
type
value
}
37
38
39
40
41
kqRWallFunction ;
uniform 1 . 2 1 5 ;
42
top
{
43
44
type
45
slip ;
46
47
bottom
{
type
}
48
49
50
51
slip ;
52
frontAndBack
{
type
}
53
54
55
56
57
slip ;
58
59
// //
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
|
\\
/
O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
|
|
\\ /
A nd
| Web :
www.OpenFOAM. o r g
|
|
\\/
M anipulation
|
|
\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
binary ;
class
volScalarField ;
location
2 ;
object
nut ;
}
// //
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
dimensions
[ 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 ] ;
internalField
uniform 0 ;
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
boundaryField
{
inlet
{
type
value
}
calculated ;
uniform 0 ;
29
30
outlet
170
31
type
value
32
33
calculated ;
uniform 0 ;
34
35
aircraftPatch
{
type
value
}
36
37
38
39
40
nutkWallFunction ;
uniform 0 ;
41
top
{
42
43
type
value
44
45
calculated ;
uniform 0 ;
46
47
bottom
{
type
value
}
48
49
50
51
52
calculated ;
uniform 0 ;
53
frontAndBack
{
type
value
}
54
55
56
57
58
59
calculated ;
uniform 0 ;
60
61
// //
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
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/
O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
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| Web :
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|
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M anipulation
|
|
\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
binary ;
class
volScalarField ;
location
2 ;
object
omega ;
}
// //
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
dimensions
[ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ] ;
internalField
uniform 2 1 4 7 . 7 4 5 ;
19
20
21
22
23
24
boundaryField
{
inlet
171
25
type
value
26
27
fixedValue ;
uniform 2 1 4 7 . 7 4 5 ;
28
29
outlet
{
type
inletValue
value
}
30
31
32
33
34
35
inletOutlet ;
uniform 2 1 4 7 . 7 4 5 ;
uniform 2 1 4 7 . 7 4 5 ;
36
aircraftPatch
{
type
value
}
37
38
39
40
41
omegaWallFunction ;
uniform 2 1 4 7 . 7 4 5 ;
42
top
{
43
44
type
45
slip ;
46
47
bottom
{
type
}
48
49
50
51
slip ;
52
frontAndBack
{
type
}
53
54
55
56
57
slip ;
58
59
// //
k, t and are parameters required to simulate the case with a turbulence model.
Mathematically, they are determined as:
3
k = (|U|I)2
2
(6.5)
C0.25 k 0.5
l
(6.6)
C = 0.09k
(6.7)
Where |U| is the mean flow velocity, I is the turbulence intensity and l the turbulent
length scale. They can be computed as:
172
I 2%
l 0.07 c
With these assumptions, k = 1.215, C = 0.109 and = 2147.745.
6.0.21.3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Physical properties
/ C++ \
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| Version :
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M anipulation
|
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\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
transportProperties ;
}
// //
16
17
transportModel
Newtonian ;
nu
nu [ 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 ] 1 . 5 e 07;
18
19
20
21
// //
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
|
\\
/
O peration
| Version :
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|
|
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| Web :
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M anipulation
|
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\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
RASProperties ;
}
// //
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
RASModel
kOmegaSST ;
turbulence
on ;
18
19
20
173
21
printCoeffs
on ;
22
23
// //
Remember that although the medium is air, = 1.5107 to maintain the Reynolds
number as the dimensional analysis showed.
6.0.21.4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Control
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
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| Version :
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M anipulation
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\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
controlDict ;
}
// //
16
17
application
simpleFoam ;
startFrom
latestTime ;
startTime
0;
stopAt
endTime ;
endTime
300;
deltaT
1;
writeControl
timeStep ;
writeInterval
1;
pur geWri te
0;
writeFormat
binary ;
writePrecision
6;
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
w r i t e C o m p r e s s i o n uncompressed ;
40
41
timeFormat
general ;
timePrecision
6;
42
43
44
45
runTimeModifiable true ;
174
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
functions
{
#i n c l u d e r e a d F i e l d s
#i n c l u d e c u t t i n g P l a n e
#i n c l u d e f o r c e C o e f f s
}
53
54
// //
As it can be seen, at lines 47 through 52 the program is using external functions to

develop specific tasks. While the case is running, these external functions are called
using its dictionaries located within system. It facilitates the treatment of the code.
For instance, it is not necessary to include all the instructions to calculate the force
coefficients directly in controlDict. The dictionaries are shown in Section 6.0.21.6.
6.0.21.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Discretization and linear-solver settings
/ C++ \
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|
|
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/ F ield
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M anipulation
|
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\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
fvSchemes ;
}
// //
16
17
18
19
20
ddtSchemes
{
default
}
steadyState ;
21
22
23
24
25
26
gradSchemes
{
default
grad (U)
}
Gauss l i n e a r ;
c e l l L i m i t e d Gauss l i n e a r 1 ;
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
divSchemes
{
default
none ;
d i v ( phi ,U)
bounded Gauss linearUpwindV grad (U) ;
d i v ( phi , k )
bounded Gauss upwind ;
d i v ( phi , omega ) bounded Gauss upwind ;
d i v ( ( n u E f f dev (T( grad (U) ) ) ) ) Gauss l i n e a r ;
}
175
36
37
38
39
40
laplacianSchemes
{
default
}
Gauss l i n e a r c o r r e c t e d ;
41
42
43
44
45
interpolationSchemes
{
default
linear ;
}
46
47
48
49
50
snGradSchemes
{
default
}
corrected ;
51
52
53
54
55
56
fluxRequired
{
default
p;
}
no ;
57
58
// //
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
|
\\
/
O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
|
|
\\ /
A nd
| Web :
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|
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M anipulation
|
|
\/
FoamFile
{
version
2.0;
format
ascii ;
class
dictionary ;
object
fvSolution ;
}
// //
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
solvers
{
p
{
solver
GAMG;
tolerance
1 e 7;
relTol
0.01;
smoother
GaussSeidel ;
nPreSweeps
0;
nPostSweeps
2;
c a c h e A g g l o m e r a t i o n on ;
agglomerator
faceAreaPair ;
nCellsInCoarsestLevel 10;
mergeLevels
1;
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
176
U
{
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
solver
smoother
tolerance
relTol
nSweeps
smoothSolver ;
GaussSeidel ;
1 e 8;
0.1;
1;
solver
smoother
tolerance
relTol
nSweeps
smoothSolver ;
GaussSeidel ;
1 e 8;
0.1;
1;
40
41
k
{
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
omega
{
solver
smoother
tolerance
relTol
nSweeps
}
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
smoothSolver ;
GaussSeidel ;
1 e 8;
0.1;
1;
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
SIMPLE
{
nCorrectors
nNonOrthogonalCorrectors
pRefCell
pRefValue
}
1;
2;
0;
0;
68
69
70
71
72
potentialFlow
{
nNonOrthogonalCorrectors 10;
}
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
relaxationFactors
{
fields
{
p
}
equations
{
U
k
omega
}
}
0.3;
0.5;
0.5;
0.5;
87
88
89
cache
{
177
grad (U) ;
90
91
92
93
// //
6.0.21.6
External functions
This section contains the dictionaries used by the functions of controlDict. They
must be copied into files named readFiles, forceCoeffs and cuttingPlane respectively.
They are located within system.
readFields
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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| =========
|
|
| \\
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|
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| Version :
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|
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M anipulation
|
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8
9
10
11
12
13
14
// Make s u r e a l l f i e l d s f o r f u n c t i o n O b j e c t s a r e l o a d e d . P r e v e n t s any
// p r o b l e m s r u n n i n g with e x e c F l o w F u n c t i o n O b j e c t s .
readFields
{
// Where t o l o a d i t from ( i f not a l r e a d y i n s o l v e r )
functionObjectLibs ( l i b f i e l d F u n c t i o n O b j e c t s . so ) ;
15
type
fields
16
17
18
readFields ;
(p U k) ;
19
20
21
// //
forceCoeffs
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
|
\\
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O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
|
|
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| Web :
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|
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M anipulation
|
|
\/
8
9
10
11
12
forces
{
type
functionObjectLibs
forces ;
( l i b f o r c e s . s o ) ; // Lib t o l o a d
178
outputControl
outputInterval
patches
calculated
pName
UName
rhoName
log
rhoInf
CofR
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
timeStep ;
1;
( a i r c r a f t P a t c h ) ; // Patch name o v e r f o r c e s w i l l be
p;
U;
r h o I n f ; // R e f e r e n c e d e n s i t y
true ;
1 . 2 2 5 ; // A i r d e n s i t y
( 0 0 0 ) ; // O r i g i n f o r moment c a l c u l a t i o n s
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
forceCoeffs
{
type f o r c e C o e f f s ;
functionObjectLibs ( l i b f o r c e s . so ) ;
patches ( aircraftPatch ) ;
// pName p ;
// UName U;
rhoName r h o I n f ;
rhoInf 1.225;
CofR ( 0 0 0 ) ;
l i f t D i r (0 1 0) ;
d r a g D i r (1 0 0 ) ;
pitchAxis (0 0 1) ;
magUInf 4 5 ; // F re e stream v e l o c i t y
l R e f 0 . 0 1 2 7 6 ; // Mean Chord
A r e f 0 . 0 0 1 2 1 8 ; // Ref . Area
outputControl timeStep ;
outputInterval 1;
}
43
44
// //
cuttingPlane
The cuttingPlane function generates a VTK plane cutting the fluid domain in a
specified direction. It can be easily open from the postProcessing directory once the
case has been run and allows a practial and rapid view of the p and U fields.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
/ C++ \
| =========
|
|
| \\
/ F ield
|
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\\
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O peration
| Version :
2.2.1
|
|
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| Web :
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M anipulation
|
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\/
8
9
10
11
12
13
cuttingPlane
{
type
surfaces ;
functionObjectLibs ( l i b s a m p l i n g . so ) ;
outputControl
outputTime ;
14
179
surfaceFormat
fields
15
16
vtk ;
( p U );
17
interpolationScheme cellPoint ;
18
19
surfaces
(
yNormal
{
type
cuttingPlane ;
planeType
pointAndNormal ;
pointAndNormalDict
{
basePoint
(0 0 0) ;
normalVector
(0 1 0) ;
}
interpolate
true ;
}
);
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
// //
At the end of the pre-processing, the structure of directories, subdirectories and files
within aircraft should be as follows:
180
0
k
nut
omega
polyMesh
triSurface
constant
extendedFeatureEdgeMesh
transportProperties
aircraft
RASProperties
controlDict
fvSchemes
fvSolutions
surfaceFeatureExtractDict
system
snappyHexMeshDict
readFields
cuttingPlane
forceCoeffs
6.0.22
Post-processing
6.0.22.1
Results of the simulation
The pressure field around the aircraft:
181
Figure 6.10: Pressure field around the aircraft (m2 /s2 )
The velocity field in the whole domain:
Figure 6.11: Velocity field in the domain of the aircraft case (m/s)
The velocity field around the aircraft:
182
Figure 6.12: Velocity field around the aircraft (m/s)
At the end of the simulation, the values of drag coefficient and lift coefficient stabilized at:
CD = 0.0276
CL = 0.005
Although the value of the drag coefficient matches with other real very light aircrafts
(as for instance the Cessna 172), the lift coefficient is very low, and therefore the
aerodynamic efficiency (E = L/D) is far from the current commercial aircrafts.
As it was explained, the aircraft geometry used in this chapter was not designed
according to a realistic aerodynamic study (as it would have been CFD or wind
tunnel experiments).
Another consideration that must be done is the fact that although the case is set
turbulent, the wake of the aircraft shows a continuous appearance. It is because a
RAS turbulence model has been used, based on average flow conditions. If other
turbulence models had been used (as for instance LES or DNS), it would have been
possible to observe turbulence in the wake.
For Figures 6.11 and 6.12, the VTK plane obtained from the postProcessing directory
has been used.
183

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