Aeronautics Executive MBA Econonics of Transport

Aeronautics Executive MBA
Economia de Transporte
ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008
Slides adaptados de:

Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2006 Vitor Caldeirinha
Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY vitorcaldeirinha@netvisao.pt
A. Economia, Comércio e Transporte

B. Modos de Transporte
C. Custos de Transporte
D. Logística e Terminais
F. Rodovia e Intermodalidade
G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente
L. Transporte Urbano

C. Logística e Terminais
F. Rodovia, Ferrovia e Intermodalidade
G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades

Global GDP, 2002
32,3%
34,2%
United States
Japan
Germany
Other G7
Rest of the world
12,3%
15,1%
6,1%
Share of Global GDP Growth, 1995-2002
25
20
15
10
0
China US Other Asia EU Japan Rest of the
World
World GDP per Capita, 2000 ($US)
Not Available
Less than $2,000
$2,000 to $5,000
$5,000 to $12,000
$12,000 to $20,000
More than $20,000
Share of Asia in World Trade, 1980-2003
28
26 Exports
Imports
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
19
50 Value (Trillions of Current $US)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
19
53
1950
19 1952
56
1954
19
59 1956
1958
Value
Share
World GDP
19
62 1960
19 1962
65
1964
19 1966
68
1968
Total Merchandise Trade

19
71 1970
1972
World Merchandise Production

World Exports of Merchandise, 1950-2005
19 1974
74
1976
19
77 1978
1980
19
80 1982
19 1984
83
1986
19 1988
86
1990
19 1992
89
1994
19
92 1996
1998
19
Changes in the Value World’s Merchandise Trade, Production and GDP, 1950-2004 (in %)
95 2000
19 2002
98
2004
20
0
2
4
6
8
01
10
12
14
16
20 Share of World GDP (%)

04
World’s 10 Largest Exporters and Importers, 2004
Belgium Imports
Canada Exports
United Kingdom
Italy
Netherlands
France
Japan
China
United States
Germany
0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600

Billions of $US
Share of World Goods Exports, Selected Countries, 1950-2004
20,0%
United States
18,0% Japan
Germany
16,0% China
Saudi Arabia
14,0%
12,0%
10,0%
8,0%
6,0%
4,0%
2,0%
0,0%
50
53
56
59
62
65
68
71
74
77
80
83
86
89
92
95
98
01
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Value of Chinese Exports and Received FDI, 1983-2004 (Billions of $US)
600 70
Exports
500 FDI 60
50
400
40
Exports
FDI
300
30
200
20
100 10
0 0
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
01
03
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Trade by Ocean, 1995
1995
Pacific
Atlantic
Other
1990
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Core / Periphery Division of the World
Periphery
Semi-Periphery
Core
Poles of the Global Economy
Western Europe
North America
East Asia
Economies
Underdeveloped
Developing
Newly Industrializing
Advanced
Oil Export / Rent
“Platform” Corporation
Distribution
R&D Marketing / Retail
Platform
Manufacturers
Share of Containerized Cargo in Global Trade, 1980-2000
800
Containerized Cargo
700 Other General Cargo
600
Million tons
500
400
300
200
100
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
International Trade and Transportation Chains
International Trade
A B
Origin Trade barrier Destination
Assembly Disassembly
Transport Chain
A Rail Maritime Road B

Transshipment Customs
Modal Profile of Freight Transportation, United States
Mode Value Volume Service Distance

Truck Moderate to high Loads of less than 50,000 lbs. On-time performance above Driver can go 500 miles per
90%. day. 2/3 of tonnage carried
over less than 100 miles.
Rail Moderate to low Multiple car loads. No weight 4 to 7 days delivery time. 60 to Average haul length between
restrictions. 85% on-time performance. 600 and 800 miles.
Intermodal Moderate to high No weight restrictions. 3 days for cross country. On- Average haul between 700
time performance between and 1,500 miles.
truck and rail.
Air High Small. Most loads less than Normally overnight or second More than 1,300 miles.
100 lbs. day.
Inland Water Moderate to low Bulk shipments. Varies according to segment. Between 250 and 1,600 miles.
Competitive with rail.
Coastal Water Moderate to low Containers, general freight Function of distance. Between Between 500 and 2,000 miles.
and bulk shipments. 2 to 5 days.
International High to low Mainly containers and bulk 7 to 10 days trans-Atlantic and More than 2,600 miles.
Water shipments. trans-Pacific routes.
Pipeline Low Bulk shipment of liquids and According to demand. 0 to 20 825 miles average distance for
gazes. mph. crude oil.
Economic Benefits of Efficient Transportation
Direct Transport Direct Transport Indirect Indirect

Supply Demand Microeconomic Macroeconomic
• Income from • Improved • Rent income • Formation of

transport accessibility • Lower price of distribution
operations (fares • Time and cost commodities networks
and salaries) savings • Higher supply of • Attraction and
• Access to wider • Productivity gains commodities accumulation of
distribution • Division of labor economic
markets and • Access to a wider activities
niches range of suppliers • Increased
and consumers competitiveness
• Economies of • Growth of
scale consumption
• Fulfilling mobility
needs
The Share of Transportation in the GDP, United States 2000
24,3% 24,2%
Housing
Health Care
Food
Transportation-related
6,9% Education
14,6%
Recreation
Other
7,0%
10,8% 12,2%
Employment in Transportation Occupations, United States, 1985-2001
5.000
4.500
4.000 Public transportation
attendants
3.500 Air transportation
3.000
Thousands
Water transportation
2.500
2.000 Rail transportation
1.500
Motor vehicle operators
1.000
500
0
1985 1990 1995 2001
Transport Impacts on Economic Growth
Transport
Improvements
Commodity
Labor Market
Market
Expansion New Activities
Growth
Transportation and the Economy
Transport Infrastructure Investment
Additional Transport Capacity, Efficiency, Reliability

and Level of Service
Lower Transport
Shorter Transit Times Business Expansion
Costs
Increased Productivity
Increased Competitiveness
Economic Growth
Economic
Region A Region B
Production and
Specialization
Self Reliance
Regional Trade
Trade and
Transport
Trade and
International Transport
Trade
Product A
Product B
Product C
Product D
Product E
Gateway
G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente

G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades


Ton-Miles of Freight Transported within the United States, 1975-2000 (millions)
4.000.000
3.500.000
3.000.000
Air
2.500.000 Water
2.000.000 Pilelines
1.500.000
Truck
Rail
1.000.000
500.000
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
30
Market Share by Freight Transport Mode, Western Europe, 1980-2002 (in ton-km)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60% Inland Waterways
50% Road
40% Rail
30%
20%
10%
0%
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002
Market Share by Freight Transport Mode, United States, 1980-2000 (in ton-miles)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60% Water
50% Truck
40% Rail
30%
20%
10%
0%
1980 1985 1990 1995 1999
Growth Factors in Transport Demand
Passengers
Quantity of Passengers or Freight
s
Freight
n-km
rto
o
Growth in g er
en
production and ss
Pa
consumption
Income growth
Industrial relocation
Economic specialization KM
Suburbanization
Average Distance
Share of Total Domestic Freight Activity by Mode, G7 Countries, 1996
100%
% of total domestic metric ton-km
80%
Road
60% Rail
Oil Pipeline
40% Water
Air
20%
0%
Canada France Germany Italy Japan United United
Kingdom States
Share of Total Domestic Passenger Activity by Mode, G7 Countries, 1996
100%
% of total domestic passenger-km
80%
60%
Rail
Road
40% Air
20%
0%
Canada France Germany Italy Japan United United
Kingdom States
Transportation Modes
Road Rail Air Maritime

•Local •International •Global •Global
•Speed •Capacity •Speed •Capacity
•Price •Price •Value •Price
Modal Shares of U.S.-NAFTA-Partner Merchandise Trade by Value and Weight, 2004
70
Value
60
Weight
50
40
30
20
10
0
Truck Rail Pipeline Air Water Other and
unknown
Classic Transport Demand / Supply Function
Cost
Demand T 2 − T1 Supply
Elasticity =
C 2 − C1
D
S1
S2
Equilibrium
C1
C2
T1 T2 Traffic
Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes

Vehicle Capacity Truck Equivalency
1500 Tons 57.7
52,500 Bushels (865.4 for 15 barges in tow)
Barge 453,600 Gallons
100 Tons
3,500 Bushels 3.8
Hopper car 30,240 Gallons
10,000 Tons
350,000 Bushels 384.6
100 car train unit 3,024,000 Gallons
26 Tons; 910 Bushels

7,865 Gallons 1
Semi-trailer truck 9,000 for a tanker truck
5,000 TEU 2,116

Post-panamax containership
300,000 tons
2 million barrels of oil 9,330
VLCC
124 tons 5
747-400F
Passenger Transport by Mode, Japan, 1950-1999
1400
Airline
1200 Railway
Billions of Passenger Kilometers
Bus
1000
Auto
800
600
400
200
0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999
Evolution of Chinese Freight Traffic, 1990-2000 (in million tons)
12.000
10.000
8.000
1990
6.000
2000
4.000
2.000
0
Highways Rail Waterways Pipelines &
other
World Automobile Production and Fleet, 1965-2004
600
44
550 42
40
500
38
Production (millions)
450 36
Fleet (millions)
400 34
32
350 30
300 28
26
250
24
200 22
Fleet
20
150 Production 18
100 16
65
67
69
71
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
01
03
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Transportation and the Supply and Distribution Chain
Supplier Customer
Supply Activity Distribution
Transport Transport
Components of Transport Cost
Transaction Costs
Friction of Distance
A B
Shipment
Fixed and Operating Transport Costs
Mode Fixed/Capital Costs Operating Costs
Rail or Highway Land, Construction, Rolling Stock Maintenance, Labor, Fuel
Pipeline Land, Construction Maintenance, Energy
Air Land, Field & Terminal Maintenance, Fuel, Labor

Construction, Aircraft
Maritime Land for Port Terminals, Maintenance, Labor, Fuel
Cargo Handling Equipment, Ships
Different Friction of Distance Functions
1 2
Zone Change
Costs
Fixed Costs
Distance
3 4
Transshipment Costs
Different Components of Transport Time

Time Transport Time Timing
Distance
Punctuality Frequency
Freight Transportation Service Spectrum
High Low
Air Cargo Truck Rail Intermodal Rail Carload Rail Unit Water
$1.5 / lbs 5 - 10¢ / lbs 3¢ / lbs 1¢ / lbs 0.5 - 1¢ / lbs 0.5¢ / lbs
Fastest, most reliable Fast, reliable and visible. Slower, less reliable and
and most visible. Range of weight and less visible.
Lowest weight, highest value. Highest weight, lowest
value and most time- Rail intermodal value and lest time-
sensitive cargo. competitive with truck sensitive cargo.
over longer distances.

G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente

Network Structures
Centralized Decentralized Distributed

G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades


Network Strategies to Service a Set of Locations
A B C
D E F
Absolute and Relative Distance in a Network
10 km 30 minutes
Evolution of Logistical Integration, 1960-2000
Demand Forecasting 1980s
Purchasing
Materials
Requirements Planning
Management
Production Planning
1990s
Manufacturing Inventory
2000s
Warehousing
Supply Chain
Materials Handling Logistics
Management
Packaging
Inventory
Distribution Planning
Physical Information Technology
Order Processing Distribution
Transportation Marketing
Customer Service Strategic Planning
Commodity Chain
Market
Stage
Parts and raw Manufacturing

materials and assembly Distribution
Bulk shipping Unit shipping LTL shipping

Flows
Market
Transport Chain
High volumes Average volumes Low volumes
Low frequency High frequency High frequency
Product Life Cycle
Monopoly Competition
s
or
e tit
p
C om
Inno
vati
Sales
ng f
irm
Decline of
Idea Promotion First competitors Mass production production
Research and
Growth Maturity Decline
development
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Producer-Driven and Buyer-Driven Global Commodity Chains
Producer-Driven Commodity Buyer-Driven Commodity

Chains Chains
Drivers of Global Industrial Capital Commercial Capital
Commodity Chains
Core Competencies Research & Development; Design; Marketing
Production
Barriers to Entry Economies of Scale Economies of Scope
Economic Sectors Consumer Durables; Intermediate Consumer Nondurables
Goods; Capital Goods
Typical Industries Automobiles; Computers; Aircraft Apparel; Footwear; Toys
Ownership of Transnational Firms Local Firms, predominantly in

Manufacturing developing countries
Firms
Main Network Links Investment-based Trade-based
Predominant Network Vertical Horizontal
Structure
The Automobile Supply Chain
Supplying Bodies
industries Manufacture and
Body assembling
stamping of body
and painting
Steel and panels
other metals
Rubber Components
Manufacture of mechanical and electrical Final Consumer
Electronics components (wheels, tires, seats, breaking Assembly market
systems, windshields, exhausts, etc.)
Plastic
Glass Engines and transmissions

Forging and casting of Machining and
Textiles engine and transmission assembly of engines
components and transmissions
Cereals Supply Chain
Extraction Manufacturing
Processing
Farm Grain Cereal
Facility Distribution and Retailing
Packaged Cereal
Converter Paperboard Packaging Distributor Store

Wood Pulp Packaged Cereal
Wood Pulp Wood Pulp Label Mfg Labels

Mfg
Logistics Operations
Pa
ling cka
nd g ing
Ha
Transportation
Scheduling
Production
Purchase
g rs
Demand
sin de
Ma
e s Or
Sto emen
nag
oc e
P r has
ck
rc
Pu
t
Wa
re ho
usi les
n Sa
g
Logistics and Integrated Transport Demand
Materials Management
Derived Demand
Induced Demand
Logistics
(Integrated Demand)
Physical Distribution
Value-Added Functions of Logistics
Production
Location Logistics Control
Time
Changes in the Relative Importance of Logistical Functions in Distribution Systems
Demand Driven
Inventory
Transport System
Information System
Supply Driven
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Total Logistics Costs Tradeoff
Total Logistics Costs

Costs
Warehousing Costs
Transport Costs
Shipment Size or Number of Warehouses

Logistical Improvements, Manufacturing Sector, 1960-2000
20 40
18 Logistics Costs (% GDP)
35
Inventory Costs (% GDP)
16
Cycle Time Requirements (days) 30
14
12 25
% of GDP
Days
10 20
8 15
6
10
4
2 5
0 0
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
Worldwide Logistics Costs, 2002
4%
6%
Transportation
39%
24% Warehousing
Inventory Carrying
Order Processing
Administration
27%
Logistics Costs and Economic Development
Agriculture Mining Industry Services Information
Argentina Brazil Poland

Kenya
Logistics Costs / GNP
Ukraine
Belgium
Canada
Japan
Singapore United States
Economic Development
Average Order Lead Times of European Manufacturers, Wholesalers, and Retailers
25
20
15
Days
10
0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Third and Fourth Party Logistics Providers
3PL
4PL
Modes
Parts and Raw
Manufacturers
Consumers
Materials
3PL
Retailers
Distribution Centers
3PL
3PL
Management
Services Offered by Third Party Logistics Providers
Standard Advanced Complete
Warehouse management Assembly Order planning and

processing
Transportation Packaging
IT management
Dispatching Returns
Invoicing
Delivery documentation Labeling
Payment collection
Customs documentation Stock accounting
Forward and Reverse Distribution
Producers Distributors
Consumers
Suppliers
Recyclers Collectors
Forward Channel
Reverse Channel
Characteristics of Large-scale Distribution Centers
Size Larger More throughput and less warehousing.
Facility One storey; Separate Sorting efficiency.

loading and unloading
bays
Land Large lot Parking space for trucks; Space for
expansion.
Accessibilit Proximity to highways Constant movements (pick-up and
y deliveries) in small batches (often LTL);
Access to corridors and markets.
Market Regional / National Less than 48 hours service window.
IT Integration Sort parcels; Control movements from

receiving docks to shipping dock;
Management systems controlling
transactions.
Cross-Docking Distribution Center
Distribution Center Before Cross-Docking
Suppliers
Suppliers
LTL
Customers
Receiving
Sorting
After Cross-Docking
Shipping
TL
Cross-Docking
DC
TL
Customers
Logistics Networks
Network Structure
Point to Point Hub-and-spoke
Dispersed
Locations
Clustered
Logistics and E-commerce
Supply chain Supply chain
DC
Traditional Logistics
E-Retailer DC
E-Logistics
Retailer
Customers Customers
City Logistics
DC Central City
al
in
rm
Te
an
rb
U
Gateways and Hubs
Gateway Hub
Corridor
Modal Gateways
Land Logistics
Manufacturing
Border
Air
Maritime
G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente

G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades


Modal Competition
Mode Infrastructure / Route Market Area
B B B B B
1
2 4 5
3
A A A A A
Modal Split in the United States by Passenger Travel Distance, 1995
100
90
1 day driving
80
70
Non-motorized
60 Automobile
50 Air
40
30
30 minutes walking
20
10
0
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Distance in km
Principles of Modal Shift
hare
tages M odal S
ve Advan Real
omparati nce
C
f orma
r per
Ove
Modal Share (A/B)
e
har
o dal S
ect ed M
Exp nce
r forma
rpe
U nde
Inertia Shift Maturity

Time
Integrated Transport Systems: From Fragmentation to Coordination
Factor Cause Consequence
Technology Containerization & IT Modal and intermodal

innovations; Tracking shipments
and managing fleets
Capital investments Returns on investments Highs costs and long
amortization; Improve utilization to
lessen capital costs
Alliances and M & A Deregulation Easier contractual agreements;
joint ownership
Commodity chains Globalization Coordination of transportation and

production (integrated demand)
Networks Consolidation and Multiplying effect

interconnection
Intermodal Transport Chain
Composition
Interchange
Connection
Local / Regional Distribution Decomposition

National / International Distribution
Transport Terminal
Piggyback and Doublestack Train Cars
Piggyback (TOFC)
40’ (12.2 m)
9’ (2.7 m)
17’ (2.7 m)
85’ (25.9 m)
18’ (5.5 m) Doublestack (COFC)
65’ (19.8 m)
World Container Traffic, 1980-2005
350
300
250
Million TEU
200
150
100
50
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
American Intermodal Rail Traffic, 1999-2005
14
Millions
12
10
8
Trailers
6 Containers
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Multimodal and Intermodal Transportation
Multimodal Point-to-Point Network Intermodal Integrated Network

C C
A A
B B Transshipment
Rail
Road
D D Transshipment
F F
E E
Multimodal Transport System

Distribution centers
Locality
Region
Articulation points
Nation
Terminals Flows
Transshipment Modal Function Competition / Cooperation
Handling Intermodal Function Maritime / Land interface
Average Length of Haul, Domestic Freight in the United States, 1960-2003 (in miles)
2000
Air carrier
1800
Truck
1600 Rail
1400 Coastal
1200
Miles
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Average Length of Haul, Domestic Passenger Modes in the United States, 1960-2003 (in miles)
900
800
700
Air carrier,
600
Bus, intercity
500 Amtrak
Commuter rail
400
300
200
100
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Driving Forces of Containerization and Co-modal Transport
Containerization
Specialized
Unitization Cellular ships Land consumption
terminals
Transshipment
Standardization Gantry cranes Multi-rate structure
productivity
Management and
Mergers Modal integration Logistics
coordination
Intermodal Information
Control over cargo Deregulation
operators System
Multimodal Transportation
Containerized Cargo Flows along Major Trade Routes, 1995-2004 (in millions of TEUs)
2004 11,8 4,3 8,4 5,6 1,8 3,0
2003 10,2 4,1 7,3 4,9 1,7 2,9

Asia-USA
2002 8,8 3,9 6,1 4,2 1,5 2,6 USA-Asia
Asia-Europe
2001 7,2 3,9 5,9 4,0 2,7 3,6
Europe-Asia
2000 5,6 3,3 4,5 3,6 2,2 2,9 USA-Europe
Europe-USA
1998 5,2 3,3 3,5 2,7 1,31,7
1995 4,0 3,5 2,8 2,3 1,21,4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
US Containerized Trade with Asia, 1996-2004 (in 1,000 TEUs)
18.000
Exports to Asia
16.000
Imports from Asia
14.000
12.000
10.000
8.000
6.000
4.000
2.000
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Distance, Modal Choice and Transport Costs
C1 C2
Road
Transport costs per unit
C3
Rail Maritime
D1 D2 Distance
Value Per Ton of U.S. Freight Shipments by Transportation Mode, 2002
Rail $198
Pipeline $241
Water $401
Truck $775
Truck and rail $1.480
Parcel, U.S.P.S, or courier $37.538
Air (incl. truck and air) $88.618
Single modes $611
Multiple modes $4.892
All Modes $667
1 10 100 1.000 10.000 100.000
Intermodal Transportation Cost Function
C(T)
Local / Regional Distribution Cost Decomposition C(dc)
National / International Distribution Cost
Connection C(cn)
Costs
C(I) Interchange
C(cn) Connection
Composition C(cp)
Origin Transshipment Destination
Time and Cost of Transport Activities Involving Moving a 40 Foot Container between the American East
Coast and Western Europe 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Moving container to consignee

Storage at inland depot
Unloading container at inland depot
Road transport, port terminal to inland depot
Clearance and inspection
Tranfer from stack to road trailer
Waiting in stack
Transfer to stack
Tranfer/unloading off ship
Containership travel time (NY-Rotterdam)
Transfer/loading onto ship
Unstacking and transfer to terminal trailer
Waiting in stack
Transfer from road trailer to stack
Waiting for admission to port terminal
Road transport to port terminal
Loading container on road trailer
Time (hours)
Container waiting for pickup after stuffing
Cost ($US)
Moving container from loading ramp to storage
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Cumulative Cost and Time of Moving a 40 Foot Container between the American East Coast and Western
Europe
3500
3000
2500
Cumulative cost (US$)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Cumulative time (hours)
Container Transport Costs
13%
23%
Ships
Containers
25% Terminals
Inland Transport
Other
18%
21%
Container Transport Costs from Inland China to US West Coast ($US per TEU)
Land access to final

destination (USA)
Port handling (USA)
Maritime transport
Port handling (China)
Land access to port

(China)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Carrying Capacity of Containers (in cubic feet)
53 feet truck 4.090
53 feet hi-cube container 3.955
53 feet standard container 3.830
40 feet hi-cube container 2.690
0 500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500
World Rail Passenger Traffic, 1980-2004
2,200
2,000
1,800
1,600
Billions of passengers-km
1,400
1,200
1,000
Asia
0,800
America
0,600 Africa and Middle East
0,400 Europe
Total Passengers-km
0,200
0,000
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
World Rail Freight Traffic, 1997-2004
8.000
7.000
6.000
Billions of tons-km
5.000 Asia
America
4.000
Africa and Middle East
3.000 Europe
2.000
1.000
0
1997 1998 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004
Types of Rail Corridors
Type Function Examples
Short distance Modal shift, improved capacity. Alameda, Panama

Public transit
Hinterland access Expand market area, reduce PIDN, Virginia Inland port
distribution costs & congestion
Inter-metropolitan Provide accessibility to a system Europe’s HST network

of cities
Landbridge Long distance container flows, North America

continuity for international trade
Circum-hemispheric Integrated global transport Northern East-West

chains Corridor
Comparison Between European and North American Railways
Issue Europe North America

Separation by region (markets)
Separation of infrastructure from
(private companies and
Organisation operations (for accountancy
concessions of vertical integrated
purposes)
companies)
Market focus Passenger oriented Freight oriented
Mainly public with a few

Ownership Private
exceptions (e.g. UK)
Distances Short Medium to long

113
114
G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente

G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades


International Seaborne Trade and Exports of Goods, 1955-2004
9,0
8,0 Seaborne Trade (billions of tons of goods loaded)
Exports of Goods (trillions of $US)
7,0
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
00
03
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Domains of Maritime Circulation
Rhine / Danube
Bosporus
Mississippi / Great Lakes / St. L awrence
Gibraltar
Suez
Hormuz East / Southeast Asia
Nile Bab el-Mandab

Panama
Malacca
Amazon
Good Hope
Magellan
127
Types of Maritime Routes
Port-to-Port Pendulum Round-the-World

Evergreen Round-the-World Route, Westbound
New York
Norfolk Pusan Tokyo
Charleston
Los Angeles Hong Kong Osaka
Hakata
Laem Chabang Kaohsiung
Colon
Columbo
Thamesport Hamburg
Rotterdam
Zeebrugge
Le Havre
Three Major Pendulum Routes Serviced by OOCL, 2006
Hamburg
Le Havre Rotterdam
Southampton
FosGeno a
Barcelona
New York
Oakland Norfolk 27 Days Tokyo
Los Angeles Charleston Ningbo Shanghai
Kaohsiung
Hong Kong 39 Days
Laem Chabang
Singapore
49 Days Port Kelang
Atlantic Express (ATX)

European Union / Mediterranea n (EUM)
Note: Paths are approximate South China Express (SCX)

Liner Transatlantic Crossing Times, 1838 – 1952 (in days)
16
14
12
10
0
1830 1855 1880 1905 1930 1955
Ton-km Shipped by Maritime Transportation, 1970-2004 (in billions)
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1995
Oil
1990
Iron Ore
1985 Coal
1980 Grain
1970 Containers and other
0 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000

Maritime Traffic per Continent and Ocean,
p 1960-1990
31%
18%
Atlantic 15%
16%
Mediterranean 13%
10%
60%
9%
Pacific
15%
8%
Indian
3%
1960
28%
16%
15%
25%
8%
40% 15%
8%
25%
6%
4%
1990
Registered World Fleet, 1914-2000
600.000 7
Number of ships
500.000 Total gross tonnage (1,000s) 6
Average Tonnage (in 1,000 tons)
Average tonnage
5
400.000
4
300.000
3
200.000
2
100.000 1
0 0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Vessel Size Groups (in dead weight tons)
Handy
Crude Oil Tankers
Handymax
Dry Bulk Carriers
Panamax
Capesize
Aframax
Suezmax
VLCC
ULCC
0 50.000 100.000 150.000 200.000 250.000 300.000 350.000 400.000 450.000 500.000
Merchant Fleet of the World, Tonnage Registered per Ship Size, 1985-2000
600.000
500.000
Over 100,000
400.000 50,000- 99,999
Gross Tons
20,000- 49,999
300.000 10,000- 19,999
4,000-9,999
200.000 500-3,999
100-499
100.000
0
1985 1990 1995 2000
Operating Costs of Panamax and Post-panamax Containerships (in USD)
$16
Millions
$14
Port charges
$12
Fuel
$10 Administration
$8 Stores and lubes
$6 Insurance
Repair and maintenance
$4
Manning
$2
$0
Panamax (4,000 TEU) Post-panamax (10,000
TEU)
Pendulum Services and Cabotage
Country 1
Pendulum Service
A D
B E
Cabotage
C F
Country 2
Maritime Shipping Characteristics
Tramping Liner Shipping

Transportation Demand
Number of shippers Few Many
Quantity Large Small
Density High (weight) Low (volume)
Unit value Low High
Regularity Low High
Transportation Supply
Contract Vessel Freight (bill of lading)
Vessels Liquid and bulk General cargo
Frequency Low High
Implications
Freight Liquid and main bulk commodities Minor bulk and general cargo (containerized)
Services Supply / demand regulation Prior to demand
Freight elasticity Low Low
Markets Developing / developed countries Developed / developed countries
Share in Maritime Transport (2000)
Tons 70% 30%
Value 20% 80%
Cargo, Trade and Ship Characteristics
Cargo Type Trade Characteristics Vessel Size

General Cargo
Conventional Varied small consignments, Numerous Small

consignees, Slow handling rates, Various
routes, Numerous ports
Unitized More uniform cargo, Rapid handling, Many ports Small to medium
(containers) (size increasing)
Dry Bulk
Grain Small to medium consignments, Varied handling Small to medium

rates, Many restrictive ports
Ores/coal Large consignments, Long hauls, Moderate Medium to very large
handling rates, Specialized terminals, Few ports
Liquid
Crude oil Very large consignments, Long hauls, Few Very large to ultra
routes, Specialized terminals, Few ports large
Oil products Small shipments, Numerous consignees, Many Small to medium
ports
Tons Shipped by Maritime Transportation, 1981-2000 (in millions)
6000
Other
5000 Grain
Ore/coal/minerals
4000 Oil
3000
2000
1000
0
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Maritime Engagement of the 15 largest Traders, 2000 (in %)

Singapore
Share of world fleet in terms of dwt
Taipei, Chinese
Share of world trade (exports + imports)
Korea, Rep. of
Mexico
Belgium
Netherlands
Hong Kong, China
Italy
China
Canada
France
United Kingdom
Japan
Germany
United States
0,0% 2,0% 4,0% 6,0% 8,0% 10,0% 12,0% 14,0% 16,0%

Inland Waterway Traffic, Western Europe, 1970-2000 (in billion ton-kms)
140
120
100 UK
Netherlands
80
Germany
60 France
Finland
40 Belgium
20
0
1970 1980 1990 1995 2000
Factors Impacting Maritime Shipping Networks
Frequency of Service Fleet and Vessel Size Number of Port Calls
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
Port calls per week 4,000 TEU 5,000 TEU Port calls per week
Global Fleet of Containers, 2000 (in TEUs)
20 Foot
40 Foot
1999 Other
2000
0 1.000.000 2.000.000 3.000.000 4.000.000 5.000.000 6.000.000 7.000.000
Five Generations of Containerships

First Generation (1956-1970) Length Draft TEU
Converted Cargo Vessel 135 m 500
<9m
Converted Tanker 200 m < 30 ft 800
Second Generation (1970-1980)
10 m 1,000 –
Cellular Containership 215 m 33 ft 2,500
Third Generation (1980-1988)
250 m 3,000
Panamax Class 11-12 m
36-40 ft
290 m 4,000
Fourth Generation (1988-2000)

Post Panamax 275 – 4,000 –
11-13 m
305 m 36-43 ft 5,000
Fifth Generation (2000-?)

Post Panamax Plus
13-14 m 5,000 –
335 m
43-46 ft 8,000
Characteristics of Some Historical Containerships
Year Name Capacity Yard Length (m) Width (m) Draft (m) Speed
(TEU) (knots)
1956 Ideal X 58 US 174.2 23.6 ? 18.0
1968 Elbe Express 730 B&V 171.0 24.5 7.9 20.0
1981 Frankfurt Express 3,430 HDW 271.0 32.3 11.5 23.0
1991 Hanover Express 4,407 Samsung 281.6 32.3 13.5 23.0
1995 APL China 4,832 HDW 262.0 40.0 12.0 24.6
1996 Regina Maersk 6,700 Odense 302.3 42.8 12.2 24.6
2001 Hamburg Express 7,506 Hyundai 304.0 42.8 14.5 25.0
2003 OOCL Shenzhen 8,063 Samsung 319.0 42.8 14.5 25.2
2005 MSC Pamela 9,200 Samsung 321.0 45.6 15.0 25.0
2006 Emma Maersk 14,500 Odense 393.0 56.4 15.5 24.5
Specifications for Very Large Post-Panamax Containerships
Malacca-max Suez-max Sovereign

(Projected) (projected) Maersk
Capacity (TEU) 18,000 12,000 8,400
Length (meters) 400 400 348
Width (meters) 60 50 43
Draft (meters) 21 17 14
Deadweight (tons) 243,600 157,900 105,000
Speed (knots) 25 25 25
The Largest Available Containership, 1980-2005 (in TEUs)
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Average Cost per TEU by Containership Capacity and By Route, 1997
700
Europe - Far East (11,500 miles)
600
Trans Pacific (8,000 miles)
Costs per TEU ($US)
500 Trans Atlantic (4,000 miles)
400
300
200
100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Capacity in TEU
Economies and Diseconomies of Scale in Container Shipping
ent
ipm
h
nss
Costs per TEU
Tra
n
rtatio
Tr anspo
Inland
Maritime Ship
ping
Capacity in TEU
Functional Integration of Supply Chains

Maritime Land Distribution
Distribution
Shipping Custom
Agent Agent Rail / Trucking Trucking
Shipping Line Stevedore Freight Depot

Forwarder
Economies of scale
Megacarrier
Level of functional integration
The Function of Transport Terminals
Location
Local
Regional
Global
Infrastructures
Accessibility
Transport Gateways
Foreland Hinterland
Gateway
Local
Regional
Global
The Hinterland of a Transport Terminal
Island
Competition Margin
Client
Terminal A
Main Hinterland
Continuous and Discontinuous Hinterlands
Discontinuous
Port A Continuous hinterland Port A hinterland Port A
'Island' formation
Discontinuous
hinterland Port B
Port B Continuous hinterland
Core of the service area
Port B Middle section of the service area
Outer section of the service area
Maritime load centre
Inland terminal
Types of Hinterland
Macro-economic Physical Logistical
Concept Transport demand Transport supply Flows
Elements Logistical sites Transport links and Mode, Timing,

(production and terminals punctuality and
consumption) as part frequency of services
of GPNs
Challenge International division Additional capacity Supply chain
of production and (modal and management
consumption intermodal)
Port Foreland and Hinterland
Hinterland Foreland
B
A D
Main hinterland
Competition margin
C
Terminals as Clusters and Growth Poles
Cluster Structure Cluster Governance

(Dis)agglomeration Intermediaries
Terminal forces Trust
Terminal-dependent Internal competition Leader firms
activities Cluster barriers Collective action
Agglomeration Heterogeneity regimes
Inter-terminal link
A Terminal-client link
Cluster Performance
Value added
Ports and Urban Land Use

Interface
t
Te
en
ch
nm
no
ro
lo
vi
gy
En
4
2
Legislation
3
City 1 Port
3 2
4
Ec
on
om
s
ic
y
li t
Po
Zone of conflict/cooperation
1 Port migration Environmental filter
2 Industrial migration
Traditional port/city zone
3 Land use competition
4 Water use competition
Port Sites
In a delta Margin of a delta Along a river Natural harbors
In an estuary Near an estuary In a bay Protected
Harbor Types
Coastal Natural Coastal Breakwater River Basins River Tide Gates
Coastal Tide Gates River Natural Canal or Lake Open Roadstead

Major Port Holdings, 2006
APM Terminals
Dubai Ports World
Hutchison Port Holdings
Peninsular and Oriental Ports
Port of Singapore Authority
Pacific Asia Europe
Container Terminals Controlled By Major Port Holdings, 2006
South
America South
/ Asia /
Australi North Pacific Caribbe Middle
Holding a Europe America Asia an East Total
APM
Terminals 7 13 7 3 5 39
Dubai Ports
World 1 2 4 2 5 15
Hutchison
Port Holdings 10 22 7 1 42
Peninsular &
Oriental Ports 4 7 5 6 1 5 29
Port of
Singapore
Authority 11 20 1 32
Total 5 37 18 59 13 17 157
Basic Constraints of Port Sites
Land Access
Land Space
Port
Interface
Infrastructures
Maritime Space
Maritime Access
Capacity Range of Containerships by Draft
7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
TEUs
3.000
2.000
1.000
0
8m 8.5m 9m 9.5m 10m 10.5m 11m 11.5m 12m 12.5m 13m
(26ft) (28ft) (30ft) (31ft) (33ft) (34ft) (36ft) (38ft) (39ft) (41ft) (43ft)
Containership draft
Number of Large and Medium Ports by Channel Depth
6 to 10 8
11 to 15 11
16 to 20 16
21 to 25 36
26 to 30 76
Channel Depth (Feet)
31 to 35 76
36 to 40 71
41 to 45 47
45 to 50 16
51 to 55 6
56 to 60 10
61 to 65 4
66 to 70 4
71 to 75 5
76 and over 33
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Number of Ports
Typology of Port Cities

Port Traffic
Small Medium Large
Small
Coastal port town Regional port town Major port town
City Port
City Size
Medium
Regional city Regional port city Major port city

Large
Coastal metropolis Port metropolis World port city

The Evolution of a Port
Setting Expansion Specialization
4
4 4
3
1 2 5
2 3 4 4
Downtown Terminal facilities Rail

Water depth Reconversion
Urban expansion Port-related activities Highway
Evolution of the Port of Rotterdam Wassenaar

Wassenaar Development
Leiden Phases
Voorschoten
1400 - 1800
United Kingdom 1800 - 1900
Netherlands
1920 - 1940
Germany
Belgium
1946 - 1960
Den Haag 1960 -
Zoetermeer 1970
Luxembourg
France 1970 - 2000
ne
hi
R
Pijnacker
's-Gravenzande
's-Gravenzande Delft
Delft
Naaldwijk
Capelle aan
aan den IJssel
IJssel
Maassluis
Krimpen aan den IJssel

Schiedam
Vlaardingen
Rotterdam
Hoogvliet
Barendrecht
Barendrecht
Hellevoetsluis
Hellevoetsluis Spijkenisse
Oud-Beijerland
Oud-Beijerland
0 1.5 3 6 9 12
Miles
Stages in Port Development
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Period Up to the mid 19th Mid 19th century to mid Late 20th century Late 20th century, early
century 20th century 21st century
Development rationale Rise in trade Industrialization Globalization Logistics
Main port function Cargo handling Cargo handling Cargo handling Cargo handling
Storage Storage Storage Storage
Trade Trade Trade Trade
Industrial manufacturing Industrial manufacturing Industrial manufacturing
Container distribution Container distribution
Logistics control
Dominant cargo General cargo Bulk cargo Containers Containers and
information flows
Spatial scale Port city Port area Port region Port network
Role of port authority Nautical services Nautical services Nautical services Nautical services
Land and infrastructure Land and infrastructure Land and infrastructure
Port marketing Port marketing
Network management
Evolution of Port Function

The Spatial Development of a Port System
Phase 1: Scattered ports Phase 2: Penetration and hinterland capture
LAND
SEA
Phase 3: Interconnection & concentration Phase 4: Centralization
Phase 5: Decentralization and insertion of ‘offshore’ hub Phase 6: Regionalization
Freight corridor
Load center Interior centre Deepsea liner services Regional load centre network
Shortsea/feeder services
Forms of Port Privatization
Type Nature
Sale Port is transferred on a freehold basis but with the requirement that it be
used only to provide port services.
Concession Long-term lease of port land and facilities and the requirement that the
concessionaire undertakes specified capital investments to build, expand,
Agreement or maintain the cargo-handling facilities, equipment, and infrastructure.
Capital lease Similar to a concession except that the private sector is not explicitly
required to invest in the facilities and equipment other than for normal
maintenance and replacement over the life of the agreement.
Management contract Private sector assumes responsibility for the allocation of port labor and
equipment and provides services to the port users in the name of the port.
The port retains control over all the resources.
Service contract The private sector responsibility for performing specific port activities. The
arrangement differs from a management contract in that the private sector
provides the management, labor, and equipment required to accomplish
these activities.
Equipment lease Can be in various forms involving leaseback arrangements or supplier
credits. These agreements are used to amortize the costs to the port for
new equipment and to ensure a reliable supply of spare parts and, often,
a guaranteed level of service/reliability from this equipment
Throughput of the World’s Major Ports, 1997-2000 (in millions of metric tons)
Hamburg 1997
Marseilles 2000
Yokohama
Pusan
Antwerp
Nagoya
Hong Kong
Shanghai
Singapore
Rotterdam
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Container Traffic of the World 20 Largest Ports, 2003

Gioia Tauro
Laem Chabang
Bremen/Bremerhafen
Tokyo
Tanjung Pelepas
New York/New Jersey
Quingdao
Long Beach
Port Kalang
Dubai
Antwerp
Hamburg
Rotterdam
Los Angeles
Kaohsiung
Busan
Shenzhen
Shanghai
Singapore
Hong Kong
0 5.000.000 10.000.000 15.000.000 20.000.000 25.000.000

World Top 10 Container Ports, 1985-2000 (in Millions of TEUs)
Antwerp 1985
1990
Hamburg
1995
2000
Long Beach
Los Angeles
Shanghai
Rotterdam
Kaohsiung
Busan
Singapore
Hong Kong
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
The 50 Largest Container Ports, 1980-2003 (TEUs)
2003
20.000.000 2000
1995
1990
1985
15.000.000 1980
10.000.000
5.000.000
0
Cargo Throughput of the Port of Rotterdam, 2000
Inbound (249 million tons) Outbound (73 million tons)
16% 15%
32%
25%
60%
52%
Total dry bulks Total liquid bulks Total general cargo Total dry bulks Total liquid bulks Total general cargo
Modal Split of the Container Traffic, 1995-2000
Antwerp
Road
Rail
Inland navigation
Rotterdam
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Cargo Handled by the Top 5 US Container Ports, 1985-2005 (in TEUs)
45
Millions
New York/New Jersey

40
Charleston
35 Oakland
30 Los Angeles
Long Beach
25
Total
20
15
10
5
0
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
Container Traffic at North American Ports, 1980-2004 (TEUs)
45
Millions
United States
40
Canada
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Value and Tonnage of Foreign Cargo Handled by Maritime Facade, United States, 1999 (in dollars and short
tons)
Value Tonnage
300 600
Millions
Billions
250 Exports 500 Exports

Imports Imports
200 400
150 300
100 200
50 100
0
0
Atlantic Pacific Gulf of Great
Atlantic Pacific Gulf of Great
Mexico Lakes
Mexico Lakes
The Advantages of Offshore Hub Terminals
Pendulum Route A Pendulum Route B
Offshore Hub Short Sea

Shipping
Ports with the Highest Transshipment Function, 2004
0 5 10 15 20 25
Port Klang 2,6 50%

Dubai 3,2 50%
Transshipment share
Kaohsiung 5,3 55%
Volume (M TEU)
Las Palmas 0,6 57%
Piraeus 0,9 57%
Sharjah 1,4 70%
Colombo 1,6 72%
Panama 1,9 81%
Algeciras 2,5 85%
Taranto 0,7 86%
Kingston 1 86%
Damietta 1 87%
Malta 1,4 90%
Cagliari 0,5 90%
Port Said 0,7 90%
Singapore 19,4 91%
Salalah 2,1 95%
Gioia Tauro 3,1 95%
Tanjung Pelepas 3,3 96%
Freeport 1,1 98%
30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Transloading
A
Customer
g
c kin
Tru avel
ce t y Tr
tan E mp
g Dis
Producer Lon
B
Short Distance
Trucking
Transloading
Long Distance Rail
The Panama Canal
Atlantic Ocean
Cristobal
Colon
Gatun Dam
"
Gatun Locks
!?
Facility
!? Lock
Lake Gatun " Dam
W Continental Devide
Port
Hondu ras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Venezuela
Panama
Gaillard Cut
W
Colombia Pedro Miguel Locks Panama Canal
!?
Panama Canal Railway
Miraflores Locks
Ecuador Balboa !?
Panama City
Pacific Ocean
±
0 5 10 20 30 40
Kilometers
Shipping Lanes and Strategic Passages in Pacific Asia

Russia
Tsugaru
Japan
n
ea
China
Oc
i fic
Pac
India
a
Se
na
hi
C
h
ut
So
Malacca
Makassar
Indonesia
Torres
I n d ia n
Ocean Sunda
Lombok
Equidistant Conic Projection

Australia
The Strait of Malacca
Pa
ul
c
fo
ifi
c
fT
Th
O
ce
ha
ail
an
In
ila
a
di
nd
nd
an
O
Strait of Malacca
ce
an
Ma
South China Sea
la y
sia
s ia
Singapore alay
M
Indonesia
In
Indian Ocean
do
ne
si
a
Strait of Sunda
0 100 200 400 600 800

Miles
Shipping Lanes, Strategic Passages and Oil Reserves in the Middle East
Russia
China
Bosporus
Turkmenistan
Turkey
Afghanistan
Syria
Pakistan
Iraq Iran
Suez
India
Hormuz
Libya Kuwait
Egypt QA
AE
Saudi Arabia
Oman
Yemen
Sudan Bab el-Mandab

Millions of barrel s per day (2004)
Oil Reserves (barrels, 2005) Less than 0.5
Less than 20 billion 0.5 to 2.5

Somalia
20 to 60 billion 2.5 to 5.0
60 to 125 billion
More than 125 billion
More than 5.0
No significant reserves
The Dardanelles and Bosporus Passages
Greece
Black Sea
Turkey
Bosporus
Istanbul
Marmara Denizi
s
lle
a ne
rd
Da
Turkey
Mediterranean 40 20 0 40 Miles
Ocean
g
1 Day 0.3 Day 1 Day
5,600 km 600 km 970 km 9,870 km
The Northern East-West Ru
Freight Corridor
Halifax 8 Days Narvik 0.6 Day Tornio 1 Day Vainikkala 8.2 Days Vostochny
Haparanda/Tornio ss Freight Transport Sequence
Vostochny
ia
Finland
Narvik
Oulu
Sweden Vainikkala St. Petersburg
Harbin
Lianyungang
Beijing
Scandinavian Segment
Zabaykalsk
es
United Stat
Lanzhou
Canada Ulaanbaatar
China
Irkutsk
Mongolia
Russia
Urumqi
Novosibi rsk
Druzhba
Lokot
Astana
New York
Yekaterinburg Presnog orkovka
Boston
Kazakhstan
Perm'
Halifax Haparanda/Tornio Archangel'sk

Oulu Vologda
Vainikkala
St. Petersburg
Moscow
Transatlantic Segment
Rail Main Trunk (Broad Gauge)

Port Rail Main Trunk (Standard Gauge)
Brest
Gauge Change Rotterdam Rail Connector (Broad Gauge)
Rail Terminal Rail Connector (Standard Gauge)

Azimutha l Equidistant Polar Projection
Source: International Union of Ra ilways (2004) The Northern East West (N.E.W.) Freight Corridor, Transpo rtutvikling AS. Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University, No vember 2005
Major Global Trade Routes, 1400-1800
Baltic
North America Western Central Asia
Europe
Hormuz
China
Mexico Havana Canton
India
Caribbean West Africa Aden
Manila
Pacific
Pacific East Africa Aceh Malacca
Ocean
Ocean Southeast Asia
Peru Indian
Brazil Ocean
Trade Route Atlantic
Dominant Capital Flow Ocean

G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente

G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades

Flight Times by Piston and Jet Engines from Chicago

Piston Engine
10 hours
15 hours
20 hours
24 hours s
30 hours h our
40
Jet Engine
urs
20 h o
rs
ou
10 hours rs
h
hou
15
24
Main Commercial Passenger Aircraft, 1935-2008
Aircraft Year of First Speed (km/hr) Maximum Range at Seating Capacity
Commercial Service Full Payload (km)
Douglas DC-3 1935 346 563 30
Douglas DC-7 1953 555 5,810 52
Boeing 707-100 1958 897 6,820 110
Boeing 727-100 1963 917 5,000 94
Boeing 747-100 1970 907 9,045 385
McDonnell Douglas DC-10 1971 908 7,415 260
Airbus A300 1974 847 3,420 269
Boeing 767-200 1982 954 5,855 216
Boeing 747-400 1989 939 13,444 416
Boeing 777-200ER 1995 1030 14,300 300
Airbus A340-500 2003 886 15,800 313
Airbus A380 2006 930 14,800 555
Boeing 787-8 2008 1040 15,700 250
Range from New York of Different Modern Commercial Jet Planes

)
km
00
3,7
0(
B -7
32
77-
A-
100
( 7,4
00
km )
) km
0
,40
(11
00
7-4
-74
B
World Air Travel and World Air Freight Carried, 1950-2004
4000
140
Passengers
3500
Freight 120
3000
100
2500
Billions of tons-km
80
2000
60
1500
40
1000
500 20
0 0
50
53
56
59
62
65
68
71
74
77
80
83
86
89
92
95
98
01
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
World Air Travel and Gross World Product, 1950-2001
50 3500
45 Gross World Product
Passengers 3000
40
35 2500
Trillions of $US
30 2000
25
20 1500
15 1000
10
500
5
0 0
50
53
56
59
62
65
68
71
74
77
80
83
86
89
92
95
98
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Air Transportation Growth (Passengers and Freight) and Economic Growth, 1950-2001
30%
Passengers-km
25% Tons-km
GWP
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
-5%
-10%
Stages in Air Network Development
Stage 1 Stage 3
Stage 2 Stage 4
Early Intercontinental Air Routes, 1930s
Eyeries London
Amsterdam
Paris
sr ad r
At disi
Ba ghd Zaw
Botwood Toulouse
ns
in
Ba r az
he
Br
Lisbon Marseilles
y
New York
Da
A
T lica
a
Azores
Ca angie nte Alexandria
A l pur
Ka dar
Ca bad
Jo hi
c
Gw k
s
a
ra
dh
Ag abl r
y a
Gaza
a
Ja
t
lah
Cairo
t
adi anc
Ra ab
lcu
or Ban oon
r a
it
k
wa
ng
ga eta kok
Wadi Halfa
jah
Ku
g
ar
Sh
Da Khartoum
po r
kar
re
S
Juba
Al
Sin
Nairobi
pu
n
ga
da
Mbeya
ain
Me
in
Na
Ja ang
w
ng W
tal
ar
ra ta
b
D
lem
ya
Su kar
Harare
ba
Pa
pa
Ku
Lo un ne
e
an
Rio
i
Johannesburg
Mo her
re a
isb
ng t I s
Sa d
lev ch
eJ
t
nti
Ka
Br
ane
a
ag
ille
o i ro Cape Town
Bu Imperial Airways African Route (c1933)
ar
en
ey
Ch
os
dn
Air Imperial Airways/Quantas Australian Route (c1934)
Sy
es
Aeropostale (1930)
Pu
nta KLM Amsterdam – Jakarta (1935)
Are
nas Pan American Transatlantic Route (1939)
Average Airfare (roundtrip) between New York and London, 1946-2004
$7.000
$6.500
$6.000
$5.000
$4.000 $4.100
$3.000
$2.600
$2.000
$1.000
$600
$0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
World’s 10 Largest Passengers Airlines, 2000 (in 1,000 passengers)
British Airways
Air France
All Nippon Airways
Continental Airlines
Lufthansa
US Airways
Northwest Airlines
United Airlines
American Airlines
Delta Air Lines
0 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000 120.000
World’s 10 Largest Freight Airlines, 2000 (in 1,000 tons)
Air France
British Airways
Northwest Airlines
Cathay Pacific
Singapore Airlines
Japan Airlines
Lufthansa
Korean Air Lines
United Parcel Service
Federal Express
0 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000

Airline Deregulation and Hub-and-Spoke Networks
Before Deregulation
After Deregulation
Hub
Hub
Air Hubs and Market Fragmentation
1984 - Chicago Gateway - 1 US Flight Daily (Trans World: B747)
London
Chicago
2001 - Chicago Hub - 22 US Flights Daily (American / United: B767, B777 )

Stockholm
Chicago Glasgow
Birmingham Manchester Dusseldorf

Brussels
London Frankfurt
Zurich
Milan
Characteristics of Major Air Travel Markets
United States Europe Pacific Asia

Deregulation started in 1978 Deregulation started in 1997 Regulated markets with
government ownership
Low population density and High population density and Dispersion of urban centers but
dispersed urban centers concentrated urban centers high regional concentrations
Relatively open air spaces and Congested air spaces and Congested gateway airports
airports airports underutilized regional airports
Rail minor competitor; Car High speed rail is a direct Except for Japan, less
compete for short distances competitor; Rail is a minor competition from other
competitor; Car compete for transportation modes
short distances
No loyalty to carriers (pricing Some lingering loyalty to Strong “imposed” loyalty to
and frequent flyers) carriers carriers
Price transparency Price becoming transparent Price not transparent
Limited income growth and Limited income growth and Growing income levels
limited leisure more leisure time
Market Share of World Airline Traffic, 2003
Oneworld SkyTeam
American Airlines, British Airways, Aer 21%
Lingus, Cathay Pacific, Finnair, Iberia,
LanChile, Quantas
Star
United Airlines, Lufthansa, Air Canada, Air
New Zealand, ANA, Asiana, Austrian, bmi Others
Star 38%
british midland, LOT Polish Airlines, 24%
Mexicana, SAS, Singapore, Spanair, Thai
Airways, Varig, US Airways, TAM, TAP
SkyTeam
Air France, Delta Airlines, Aeromexico,
Oneworld
Alitalia, CSA Czech Airlines, Korean Air, 17%
Northwest, Continental, KLM
Commodities Shipped by Air Freight, 2003
Total: 144 billion freight ton-kms
17%
Capital equipment
43% Intermediate materials
13%
Perishables
Computers
Apparel
Other
11%
7% 9%
Income per passenger-km of major airline alliances, 1997
19,3% Oneworld (American, Canadian, JAL, US Airways,

28,2% British Airways, Quantas, Iberia, Cathay Pacific)
Star (United, Lufthansa, Thai, SAS, Air Canada,
Varig, SAA, Singapore, ANA, ANZ, Ansett Australia)
10,6% Northwest, Continental, KLM, Alitalia
Delta, Swissair, Sabena, Austrian
14,3% Others
27,6%
Operating Expenses of the Airline Industry, 2004
15
Flight operations (fuel and pilots)
33,7 Maintenance (parts and labor)

5,1
Aircraft and traffic servicing
6,5 Promotion and sales
Passenger services
7,2 Administration
Equipment depreciation and amortisation

6,5
10,7 Transport related
15,3
Operating Revenues of the Airline Industry, 2004
18,8%
Passenger
4,2%
Freight
Charter
Other
11,9%
65,1%
Seat Capacity of Selected Aircrafts, pre and post-1985
Main pre-1985 Models Main post-1985 Models
Airbus 310 297

Boeing 747 400
Boeing 767 252
Airbus 320 132

Douglas
265
DC10
Boeing 737 141
Boeing 757 183

Lockheed
302
L1011
Boeing MD80 144
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Operating Fleet, Major US Carriers, 2001

L-1011
F-100
MD-90
MD-80
MD-11
DC-10
DC-9
DC-8
B777
B767
B757
B747
1,277
B737
B727
B717
A330
A321
A320
A319
A310
A300
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Major Air Traffic Flows, 1999 (millions of passengers)
Others
South America
Central America
Africa
Africa - Europe
Middle East
North America - Asia
Africa - South America
Europe - Asia
North America - Central America
Southwest Pacific
North America - Europe
Asia
Europe
North America
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
World’s 10 Largest International Air Carriers, 2000 (in 1,000 passengers)
Cathay Pacific
SAS
Swissair
Japan Airlines
Singapore Airlines
KLM
American Airlines
Air France
Lufthansa
British Airways
0 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000

World’s 10 Largest Domestic Airlines, 2000 (in 1,000 passengers)
Japan Air System

Japan Airlines
TWA
Continental
All Nippon Airways
Northwest Airlines
US Airways
American Airlines
United Airlines
Delta Air Lines
0 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000
Major Air Traffic Flows Between Regions, 2000 (% of IATA Scheduled Passengers)
North America 3.9 Europe

1.7 23.2 1.7
35.5 1.9
15.9
1.8 1.3
1.5
Central America Middle East Asia
1.3 1.1
South America 1.7
Africa
Southwest Pacific
3.2
2.6
Major Air Freight Flows Between Regions, 2003 (in billions of ton-km)
24.2 North America 9.9 Europe

11.6 24.2
1.3
13.8 22.4 12.3 3.3
1.9 12.4 13.8
9.1
2.2
2.7 2.5 0.1
2.7 1.7 Asia / Pacific
4.6 Middle East
0.1
0.1 Africa
Latin America
Airport Components
Airfield
Isle Shuttles
Terminal
Terminal
1 2 3
Airport Location Factors
City Center Low
High High
Commuting radius
Low High Low
Benefits Externalities Suitability

Location Ring
Site of the Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Terminal
ay
e rn runw stati
on
Nort
h Train
nal
inal rt ermi
Term enge
Fut ur e
n P as s
nsio
Expa
a y Light Rail System
runw
hern r ea
Sout ca rgo a
and
stics
Logi
To Kowloon
and Hong Kong
Airport Hubbing Level
High
Percentage Passengers Connecting 50%
25%
None 0%
World’s Largest Passengers Airports, 2004 (in millions)

NEW YORK (JFK)
BANGKOK (BKK)
MADRID (MAD)
PHOENIX (PHX)
LAS VEGAS (LAS)
DENVER (DEN)
AMSTERDAM (AMS)
FRANKFURT/MAIN (FRA)
PARIS (CDG)
DALLAS/FT WORTH AIRPORT (DFW)
LOS ANGELES (LAX)
TOKYO (HND)
LONDON (LHR)
CHICAGO (ORD)
ATLANTA (ATL)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Passenger Traffic at the World’s Largest Airports, 2004
London Heathrow
Frankfurt Intl
Chicago O'Hare
Paris De Gaulle
Tokyo Haneda
Los Angeles Intl Atlanta Hartsfield
Dallas Intl
Passengers
Less than 30 M
30 M to 40 M
40 M to 60 M
More than 60 M
World’s Largest Freight Airports, 2004 (in millions of metric tons)
CHICAGO (ORD)
SHANGHAI (PVG)
TAIPEI (TPE)
NEW YORK (JFK)
LOUISVILLE (SDF)
MIAMI (MIA)
SINGAPORE (SIN)
FRANKFURT/MAIN (FRA)
PARIS (CDG)
LOS ANGELES (LAX)
SEOUL (ICN)
ANCHORAGE (ANC)
TOKYO (NRT)
HONG KONG (HKG)
MEMPHIS (MEM)
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0

Freight Traffic at the World’s Largest Airports, 2004
Fra nkfurt Intl
New York Ny/Newark Kennedy Paris De Gaulle Incheon Hlpt Tokyo Narita
Memphis Intl
Los Angeles Intl
Louisville Standiford
Miami Int'L
Hong Kong IntlTaipei Shek
Freight
Singapore Changi
Less than 1 M
1 to 1.5 M
1.5 to 2 M
More than 2 M
Tons of Landed Freight at Major US Airports, 2003
SEA
BFI
GEG
PDX
BOI MSP MHT

BOS
SYR
BUF BDL
FSD
MKE JFK
ORD DTW EWR
RFD TOL CLE
SLC PHL
RNO DSM
OMA FWA PIT MDT
SFO OAK IND DAY BWI
DEN IAD
SJC CVG
MCI SDF
STL RIC
LAS
RDU
LAX
BNA
ONT TUL MEM CLT
ABQ
PHX HSV CAE
SAN ATL
DFW
ELP SHV
JAX
AUS IAH MSY

Tons of Landed Freight (2003) SAT MCO
Less than 400,000 2 million to 4 million TPA
400,000 to 800,000 MIA

FLL
800,000 to 2 million
More than 4 million
G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente

G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades


Transport Fatalities by Mode, United States, 1970-2003
60.000
50.000
40.000
Waterborne
Railroad
30.000
Highway
20.000 Air Carriers
10.000
0
1970 1980 1990 2001 2003
Probability of Pedestrian Fatality by Impact Speed
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Impact speed (km/h)
Loss of Life per 10,000 Vehicles, OECD Countries, 1993-1995
United States
Netherland
Germany
Canada
Australia
Japan
Switzerland
UK
Norway
Sweden
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs
Mobility
Mobility Paradox Costs
Costs
Growing
Growingdemand
demand Internal
Internalcosts
costs(users)
(users)
Motorization
Motorization External
Externalcosts
costs(society)
(society)
Energy
Energy(petroleum)
(petroleum) Environmental
Environmentalimpacts
impacts
The Environmental System
Atmosphere
Ecosphere
H
e
yd
er
r
ph
os
os
ph
th
er
Li
e
Biosphere
The Environmental
1. ATMOSPHERE Impacts of Transportation
Large scale diffusion of pollutants. 4. ECOSPHERE
High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of pollutants because of
local conditions (e.g. smog). 4.1 AQUATIC ECOSPHERE
Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, notably over ozone, sulfur Alteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways.
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of tolerant ones.
Climatic changes (global warming). Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by nitrification.
Acid rain. Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species.
Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g. smog and greenhouse Reproductive impediments.
gases). 4.2 LAND ECOSPHERE
Damages over the vegetation modifying:
2. HYDROSPHERE hydric cycles.
Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state. the level of underground water resources.
soil erosion.
Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground and underground water.
air purification capacity of the ecosphere.
Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are particularly vulnerable). food sources (agriculture).
Growth in the solubility of several metals because of acidification. entertainment and tourism.
Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, calcium, magnesium and Reduction of the vital space.
potassium by runoffs. Reduction of the genetic potential of species.
Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates. Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food chain.
Consumption of resources.
4.3 HUMAN ECOSPHERE
Odors.
3. LITHOSPHERE Noise.
Acid depositions. Cardiovascular and respiratory problems.
Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through acidification. Susceptibility to infection.
Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium. Drops in life expectancy.
Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen. Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death.
Modifications in the compositions and the depth of decomposition gradient. Damage to structures:
Inhibition of decomposition. loss of useful life. (amortization)
Loss of the soil flora and fauna. loss of property values.
Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination. corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.).
Removal and consumption of land. destruction of historical and cultural monuments.
Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and energy.
Estimated Automobile Costs
32%
45% External cost

Internal fixed costs
Internal variable costs
23%
Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment
Activity
Activity Mode
Mode Traffic
Traffic
Infrastructure
Infrastructure
Road
Road
Vehicle
Vehiclemanufacture
manufacture
Rail
Rail Passengers
Passengers
Vehicle
Vehicletravel
travel
Maritime
Maritime Freight
Freight
Vehicle
Vehiclemaintenance
maintenance
Air
Air
Vehicle
Vehicledisposal
disposal
Transportation Systems and the Environment
Network Centralized network Diffused network
Localized emissions Diffused emissions

Energy efficient High energy use
Traffic
Level of emissions
Traffic Level of energy consumption
Car Nature of emissions

Mode
Bus
Mode Walking Nature of energy consumption
Rail
Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects
CO2
Global
Duration
NOX
Regional
Lead Local
Particulates
Noise
Space
The Concept of Externalities
C(E) Total costs
ΔE(L1) Optimal cost

C(O)
E(L1) Intervention costs
C(L1) Externalities
ΔC(L1)
0 L1 L(O) L
Level of intervention
Sources of Energy
Chemical
Chemical
• •Fossil
Fossilfuels
fuels(Combustion)
(Combustion)
Non-Renewable
Non-Renewable Nuclear
Nuclear
• •Uranium
Uranium(Fission
(Fissionofofatoms)
atoms)
Chemical
Chemical
Energy
Energy • •Muscular
Muscular(Oxidization)
(Oxidization)
Nuclear
Nuclear
• •Geothermal
Geothermal(Conversion)
(Conversion)
• •Fusion
Fusion(Fusion
(Fusionofofhydrogen)
hydrogen)
Gravity
Gravity
Renewable
Renewable • •Tidal,
Tidal,hydraulic
hydraulic(Kinetic)
(Kinetic)
Indirect
IndirectSolar
Solar
• •Biomass
Biomass(Photosynthesis)
(Photosynthesis)
• •Wind
Wind(Pressure
(Pressuredifferences)
differences)
Direct
DirectSolar
Solar
• •Photovoltaic
Photovoltaiccell
cell(Conversion)
(Conversion)
Energy Content of some Combustibles (in MJ/kg)
Wood
Coal
Crude Oil
Kerosene
Ethanol
Methanol
Methane
Natural Gas
Gasoline
Hydrogen
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Evolution of Energy Sources
Mid 21st Century
Animal
Late 20th Century
Biomass
Coal
Early 20th Century Oil
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Mid 19th Century Hydrogen
15th Century
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Global Energy Systems Transition, (% of market)
100
Wood
Coal
80
Solids Gases
60
Hydrogen
40
Liquids
20
Oil
0 Natural Gas
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150
World Fossil Fuel Consumption per Source, 1950-2002 (in million of tons of equivalent oil)
8000
7000 Natural Gas

Oil
6000
Coal
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
50
53
56
59
62
65
68
71
74
77
80
83
86
89
92
95
98
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
World Marketed Energy Consumption by Region, 1980-2030
800
700 Non-OECD
OECD
600
Quadrillion Btu
500
400
300
200
100
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Energy Consumption in the Transportation Sector, G7 Countries, 1995
100
90 Transportation Consumption
80 Other Energy Consumption
70
60
Exajoules
50
40
30
20
10
0
Canada France Germany Italy Japan UK USA
Energy Consumed by the Transportation Sector, United States, 1949-1999 (in billions of BTUs)
30.000.000
Petroleum Consumed by the Transporation Sector

25.000.000
Total Energy Consumed by the Transportation Sector
20.000.000
15.000.000
10.000.000
5.000.000
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
253
World Oil Energy Consumption by Sector, 1973-2000
2000 20,1 57,7 5,9 16,3

Industry
Transport
Non-energy
Other sectors
1973 26,2 42,2 6,4 25,2
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Automobile Emission Factors
1000 20
HC
CO
NOx 15
Emissions (grams)
% of Vehicle-km
100
10
10
5
1 0
5 10 20 30 35 45 55 60 70 80 85 95 100
Speed (in km/hr)
Gasoline Price and Use, Western Industrial Countries, 1994
1,4
Portugal
1,2
1
Dollars per liter
0,8
0,6 Japan Australia
0,4 Canada
R2 = 0,7704 United States
0,2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Liters per person
Distance Driven and Carbon Emissions, U.S. Automobile Fleet, 1970-2000
350 4
300 Carbon Emissions 3,5

Distance Driven
3
250
Million metric tons
2,5
Trillion KM
200
2
150
1,5
100
1
50 0,5
0 0
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Noise Levels (in decibels) dB (A)
120 Aircraft at take off

110
100 Pneumatic drill at 1 meter

90 Lorry, motorcycle, underground train
80 Busy crossroads
70 Noise level near a motorway
60 Busy street through open windows
50 Busy street through closed windows
40
30 Quiet room
20 Broadcasting studio
10 Desert
0
G. Ferrovia
H. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Ambiente

G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades


Passengers Mobility Transition
Industrial
Revolution Mass Production Globalization
Individual
Motorized
Collective
Non-motorized
Economic Development
Current and Potential Car Fleet in India and China
640
China
13
Vehicle Fleet Size for Industrialized Vehicle Ownership Level
Current Size of Vehicle Fleet (1999)
513
India
8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Millions
World Urban Population, 1950-2005 with Projections to 2020 (in billions)
4,5
World
4 Developed countries
Developing countries
3,5
2,5
1,5
0,5
0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be
published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.
The 15 Largest cities in the world, 1975-2015 (millions)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tokyo
Mumbai
Mexico
São Paulo
New York
Delhi
Shanghai
Calcutta
Dhaka
Jakarta
Lagos
Karachi
Buenos Aires 1975

Cairo
2005
2015
Los Angeles
Cities with more than 5 Million People, 2000
Saint Petersburg
Moscow
London
Paris
Chicago Essen Istanbul BeijingTianjinSeoul
Los Angeles New York
Lahore Osaka
Cairo Delhi ChongqingWuhan
Karachi Calcutta Shanghai
Mexico City Santiago Hyderabad
BangaloreMadras Bangkok
Santiago Lagos
Kinshasa Jakarta
Lima
Rio de Janeiro
Santiago
Buenos Aires
Percentage of Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030
Asia
Latin America
North America
Europe
2030
Africa 2000
1975
World 1950
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030 (in millions)
Asia
Latin America
North America
Europe 2030
2000
1975
Africa
1950
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and Europe
North America Europe
r(NA) r(E)
Density
Density
IV
III
I II I II III IV
Distance Distance
I - Prior to mechanized transport
II - Early forms of mechanized transport (tramways)
III - Diffusion of motor vehicles (buses, automobiles)
IV - Suburbanization
Average Journey to Work Travel Time, 1990
40
35
30
25
Minutes
20
15
10
0
United States Western Europe Japan Other Asia Australia
Transportation, Activity Systems and Land Use
Spatial
imprint
Infrastructures
Modes Transportation Urban Form
Users
Spatial
interaction
Labor
Urban Spatial Structure
Customers Activity
Suppliers
Spatial
location
Land Use Pattern

Dynamics of Urban Change
Network Very Slow

Freight Transport Commuting
Very Fast
Pace of Change
Employment Population
Fast
Workplaces Housing Slow
Land Use Very Slow
Components of an Urban Transit System
X
X X
X X X
X
X
X X X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X X
Metro station Transit rail station Bus stop Shuttle stop Paratransit Taxi service
X
Express stop boundary
Transfer
Types of Urban Movements
Movement Type Pattern Dominant Time Destination
Pendular Structured Morning and Localized

afternoon (employment)
Professional Varied Workdays Localized
Personal Structured Evening Varied with some foci
Touristic Seasonal Day Highly localized
Distribution Structured Nighttime Localized
Main Purposes of Urban Trips
3%
20%
Work
Shopping
School
Business (Work)
49% 15% Business (Personnal)
Home
Other
5%
3%
5%
Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a North American Metropolis
35
Shopping
30 Social / Recreation
Work
25 Total trips
Percentage
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Typical Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day
14
12
10
0
1AM 3AM 5AM 7AM 9AM 11AM 1PM 3PM 5PM 7PM 9PM 11PM
Modal Split for Global Cities, 1995
100
90
80
70
Private Motor Vehicle
60
Transit
50 Walking / Cycling
40
30
20
10
0
Chinese Cities American Cities Australian West European High Income Low Income
Cities Cities Asian Cities Asian Cities
Modal Split for Some Cities, 1990
100%
80%
Cycling
60%
Walking
Transit
40% Private Car
20%
0%
New York Houston London Shanghai
Modal Split for Some Asian Cities, 1990s
100%
80%
60% Walking & Cycling

Transit
Private Car
40%
20%
0%
Bangkok Kuala Jakarta Tokyo Manila Singapore Hong
Lumpur Kong
Mode Share for Commuting, New York, 1980-2000
100%
90%
80%
70%
Other non walk
60% Taxi
50% Bus
40% Subway
30% Automobile
20%
10%
0%
1980 1990 2000
Key Issues in Urban Freight Transportation
Issue Challenge
Increasing volume of freight moving in urban areas Capacity of urban freight transport systems
Changes in the nature of freight distribution Smaller volumes and time-sensitive freight
Repetitiveness Many urban activities (retail, groceries and catering)

require daily deliveries
Environmental issues Growing demand for reverse logistic flows (waste and
recycling)
Emergence of e-commerce Growth in home deliveries
Congestion Lower driving speeds and frequent disruptions

(reliability)
Regulation Emissions, access and zoning
Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving in the United States
13%
17%
Increase in population
Increase in trip length
Increase in trips
17%
Decrease in vehicle occupancy
35%
Switch to driving
18%
Levels of Automobile Dependency
Car only
Automobile Dependency High
75%
Medium
50%
Low
Transportation
alternatives
Space / Time Relationships and Modal Choice
High Density Low
High
Au pe
Worst case
Congestion
to nd
e
m en
ob c
ile y
TIME
Low
M
ix
ed
Tr
Best case
an
si
t
Concentrated SPACE Dispersed
The Vicious Circle of Congestion
Congestion
Public
Public pressures
pressures
The
The number
number of
of to
to increase
increase
movements
movements capacity
capacity
increases
increases
New capacity
The
The average
average
length
length of
of Movements
Movements
movements
movements are
are easier
easier
increases Urban
Urban sprawl
sprawl
increases
is
is favored
favored
Traffic Conditions in Major American Cities, 1982-2003
100%
90%
80%
70%
Extreme
60%
Severe
50% Heavy
40% Moderate
Uncongested
30%
20%
10%
0%
1982 1990 1997 2003
Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day
100
90
80
70
Percent of Peak Parking
60
50
40
Residential
30 Office
20 Retail
10 Restaurant
Cinema
0
6AM 7AM 8AM 9AM 10AM 11AM 12AM 1PM 2PM 3PM 4PM 5PM 6PM 7PM 8PM 9PM 10PM
Recurring Congestion
Traffic
Capacity
Congestion
Unused Capacity
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
G. Marítimo
I. Aéreo
J. Externalidades


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ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008

Slides adaptados de:

A. Economia, Comércio e Transporte

ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008

Slides adaptados de:

ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008

Global GDP, 2002

World GDP per Capita, 2000 ($US)

Total Merchandise Trade

World Merchandise Production

20 Share of World GDP (%)

0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600

Share of World Goods Exports, Selected Countries, 1950-2004

Trade by Ocean, 1995

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Poles of the Global Economy

R&D Marketing / Retail

Share of Containerized Cargo in Global Trade, 1980-2000

A Rail Maritime Road B

Modal Profile of Freight Transportation, United States

Mode Value Volume Service Distance

Direct Transport Direct Transport Indirect Indirect

• Income from • Improved • Rent income • Formation of

The Share of Transportation in the GDP, United States 2000

Transport Impacts on Economic Growth

Expansion New Activities

Transport Infrastructure Investment

Additional Transport Capacity, Efficiency, Reliability

ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008

A. Economia, Comércio e Transporte

Slides adaptados de:

ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008

Growth Factors in Transport Demand

Share of Total Domestic Passenger Activity by Mode, G7 Countries, 1996

Road Rail Air Maritime

•Speed •Capacity •Speed •Capacity

•Price •Price •Value •Price

Modal Shares of U.S.-NAFTA-Partner Merchandise Trade by Value and Weight, 2004

Performance Comparison for Selected Freight Modes

26 Tons; 910 Bushels

5,000 TEU 2,116

Evolution of Chinese Freight Traffic, 1990-2000 (in million tons)

Transportation and the Supply and Distribution Chain

Supply Activity Distribution

Fixed and Operating Transport Costs

Mode Fixed/Capital Costs Operating Costs

Rail or Highway Land, Construction, Rolling Stock Maintenance, Labor, Fuel

Pipeline Land, Construction Maintenance, Energy

Air Land, Field & Terminal Maintenance, Fuel, Labor

Different Components of Transport Time

A. Economia, Comércio e Transporte

ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008

Centralized Decentralized Distributed

A. Economia, Comércio e Transporte

Slides adaptados de:

ISEG 4 de Abril de 2008

Absolute and Relative Distance in a Network

Customer Service Strategic Planning

Parts and raw Manufacturing

Bulk shipping Unit shipping LTL shipping

Producer-Driven and Buyer-Driven Global Commodity Chains

Producer-Driven Commodity Buyer-Driven Commodity

Ownership of Transnational Firms Local Firms, predominantly in