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Edited by
G. Totten
M. Howes
T. Inoue
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of residual stress and deformation of steel/[edited by] G. Totten, M. Howes, T. Inoue.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. SteelFatigueHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Residual stressesHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Totten,
George E. II. Howes, Maurice A.H. III. Inoue, Tatsuo, 1939TA473 .H3215 2001
620.176dc21
2001040042
ISBN: 0-87170-729-2
SAN: 204-7586
ASM International
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
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Printed in the United States of America
Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International.
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Contributors
I. Alexandru
Faculty of Materials
Technical University of Iasi
Romania
T. Inoue
Department of Energy Conversion Science
Graduate School of Energy Science
Kyoto University, Japan
H. Bhadeshia
Department of Materials Science and
Metallurgy
University of Cambridge, UK
D.-Y. Ju
Saitama Institute of Technology
Saitama, Japan
V. Bulancea
Faculty of Materials
Technical University of Iasi
Romania
V.V. Dobrivecher
Ukraine National Academy of Science
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
Kiev, Ukraine
T. Ericsson
Linkopings Tekniska Hogskola IKP
Linkoping, Sweden
F.D. Fischer
Vorstand des Institutes fur Mechanik
Montanuniversitat Loeben
Loeben, Germany
A.V. Fomin
Leading Research Scientist
Institute Russian Academy of Sciences
Moscow, Russia
K. Funatani
Nihon Parkerizing Co. Ltd.
Nagoya, Japan
Bo Gong
Department of Metallurgy & Materials Science
University of Toronto, Canada
J. Grum
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
A.Y. Hassan
Director/Dean, School of Mechanical
Engineering
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
K. Heess
Karl Heess GmbH
Lampertheim, Germany
F.T. Hoffmann
ITW Bremen
Bremen, Germany
R. Hoffmann
ITW Bremen
Bremen, Germany
N.I. Kobasko
Ukraine National Academy of Science
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
Kiev, Ukraine
Z. Kolozsvary
S.C. Plasmaterm S.A.
Tg-Mures, Romania
A.I. Kovalev
Surface Phenomena Research Group
CNIICHERMET
Moscow, Russia
J. Kritzler
Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Unna, Germany
K.-H. Lang
Institut fuf Werkstoffkunde 1
Universitat Karlsruhe (TH), Germany
R.W. Lewis
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University College of Swansea, UK
D. Lohe
Institut fuf Werkstoffkunde 1
Universitat Karlsruhe (TH), Germany
J. Lu
Universite de Technologie de Troyes
Trayes Cedex, France
T. Lubben
ITW Bremen
Bremen, Germany
M.V. Medvedev
Research Scientist
Institute Russian Academy of Sciences
Moscow, Russia
V.P. Mishina
Surface Phenomena Research Group
CNIICHERMET
Moscow, Russia
V.S. Morganyuk
Ukraine National Academy of Science
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
Kiev, Ukraine
iii
M. Narazaki
Utsunomiya University
Tochigi, Japan
J. Pan
School of Materials Science and Engineering
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Shanghai, P.R. China
P. Ramakrishnan
Department of Metallurgical Engineering and
Materials Science
Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, India
I.A. Razumovsky
Leading Research Scientist
Institute Russian Academy of Sciences
Moscow, Russia
T. Reti
Banki Donat Polytechnic
Budapest, Hungary
C. Ruud
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA USA
G. Schleinzer
Vorstand des Institutes fur Mechanik
Montanuniversitat Leoben
Leoben, Germany
B. Scholtes
Institut fur Werkstofftechnik
Universitat Kassel, Germany
K.N. Seetharamu
School of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malayasia
G.E. Totten
G.E. Totten & Associates Inc.
Stony Point, NY USA
O.Vohringer
Institut fuf Werkstoffkunde 1
Universitat Karlsruhe (TH), Germany
D.L. Wainstein
Surface Phenomena Research Group
CNIICHERMET
Moscow, Russia
H.W. Walton
Consultant
Forest City, NC USA
Z. Wang
Department of Metallurgy & Materials Science
University of Toronto, Canada
G.M. Webster
Union Carbide Corporation
Tarrytown, NY USA
W. Wubbenhorst
Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Unna, Germany
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V.V. Zabilsky
Physical Technical Institute, Ural Branch of
RAS
Ijevsk, Russia
iv
W. Zinn
Institut fur Werkstofftechnik
Universitat Kassel, Germany
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Contents
Preface ........................................................................... vi
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Preface
Control of steel deformation is one of the most
common concerns within the metals processing
industry. Numerous surveys have been conducted by various organizations in recent years
to assess the critical needs of the industry. In
nearly every survey that has been conducted, distortion is either the greatest or second greatest
concern among the steel heat treating community. Steel distortion control will exhibit tremendous effects on the profitability of the commercial enterprise. Therefore, it is not surprising that
the ability to understand the overall distortion
process and to be able to design solutions to this
problem typically rank very high on these same
surveys.
In view of the enormous visibility and importance of steel deformation problems, the editors
decided to put together an engineering handbook
on steel deformation. To address this subject
properly, contributing factors to overall steel deformation problems, including material effects,
machining, heating and cooling, must be examined.
This handbook contains 27 articles, divided
into five sections: Effect of Materials and Processing, Measurement and Prediction of Residual Stress and Distortion, Residual Stress Formation in the Shaping of Materials, Residual
Stress During Hardening Processes, and Residual Stress Formation During Manufacturing Processes.
There are five articles in the section Effect of
Materials and Processing. Material Factors
discusses the effects of various material properties such as thermal properties and the interactions of residual stresses on the transformation
products formed and steel deformation during
fabrication. Transformation plasticity is discussed in some detail along with the use of modeling to better understand these processes.
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material
provides a global design approach to understanding the effects of residual stress generated during
surface engineering manufacturing processes
such as PVD and CVD on the material properties
obtained. Some of the topics discussed in this
chapter include developments in the measurements of residual stresses, advanced mechanical
surface treatments, and modeling of fatigue behavior taking residual stresses into consideration.
The effect of residual stresses on fatigue behavior is discussed in detail in the next article.
Examples of topics discussed include stability of
residual stresses, some aspects of fatigue in
steels, influence of residual stresses on cyclic deformation behavior, influence of residual stresses
on crack initiation and propagation, and effect of
residual stresses on S-N curves; an overview of
modeling of the effect of residual stresses on fatigue behavior is provided.
The next article provides an overview of the
stability and relaxation behavior of macro and
micro residual stresses in steel due to thermal
and mechanical treatments. This discussion includes relaxation of residual stresses by annealing, residual stress relaxation by uniaxial deformation, and relaxation by cyclic deformation.
Hydrogen embrittlement of metals, as well as
other types of brittle fracture, result from nucleation and development of micro-cracks caused
by internal stresses. The last article in this section provides an overview of the effect of residual stress on hydrogen embrittlement and stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) of steel. This discussion includes the effect of hydrogen on structure
and transformation of steel, types of hydrogen
embrittlement, delayed fracture in steel, crack
initiation and growth, SCC of low alloy steels,
crack initiation and growth mechanism of SCC
processes, methods of estimating sensitivity to
SCC, effect of alloying elements on resistance
to SCC, and the role of structure and thermal
processing in SCC.
In the section Measurement and Prediction of
Residual Stress and Distortion, the first article
describes a number of simple, inexpensive deflection (dissection) methods used to estimate residual stress of various types of components. The
methods include Almen strip; Navy C-Ring;
plate or bar slitting and deflection; tube slitting
and opening; and bending of bars, H-beams, and
channels.
The next article provides an overview of residual stress measurement methods. Topics include residual stresses arising from various
manufacturing processes, measurement methods
including strain measuring technique, post-stress
relaxation measurement, sectioning and material
removal methods. In addition, strain measurement methods such as x-ray and neutron diffraction, ultrasonic, birefringent and laser, optical
gages, brittle coatings, Barkhausen noise, and
chemical coatings are discussed. Semidestructive methods such as blind hole drilling and ring
coring are discussed.
Measurement of residual stresses in coatings
and thin films is important because their influence on mechanical and physical properties affect component service performance. Stress Devi
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Material Factors
H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, University of Cambridge
Heat Capacity
The dominant contribution to specific heat capacity comes from lattice vibrations (phonons),
since the majority of free electrons are prevented
from participation in heat absorption by the Pauli
exclusion principle. However, for iron and its
alloys, a further important contribution comes
from magnetic changes. The net specific heat capacity can therefore be factorized into three components:
T C
CP{T } C LV
TD
CeT C Pl{T }
where C LV{TD /T} is the Debye specific heat function and TD is the Debye temperature. The funcTable 1
Property
Phase(a)
c
P
b
Poisson ratio
c
P
b
c
P
b
Thermal expansivity, K1
Time,
temperature
1. Thermal stress
6. Latent
heat
Stress,
strain
4. Heat of
deformation
5. Stressinduced
transformation
2. Temperaturedependent phase
transformations
3. Transformation
strain
Microstructure
Fig. 1
(Eq 1)
c
P
b
c
P
b
c
P
b
0 (32)
200
210
210
200
0.291
0.280
0.280
0.280
15.0
49.0
49.0
43.1
4.15
3.78
3.78
3.76
190
360
440
1600
300 (570)
175
193
193
185
600 (1110)
150
165
165
168
0.309
0.296
0.296
0.296
2.1 105
1.4 105
1.4 105
1.3 105
18.0
41.7
41.7
36.7
4.40
4.46
4.46
4.45
110
230
330
1480
(a) , P, b, and represent allotriomorphic ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite, respectively. Source: Ref 3
0.327
0.310
0.310
0.310
21.7
34.3
34.3
30.1
4.67
5.09
5.09
5.07
30
140
140
1260
800 (1470)
124
120
120
...
0.345
0.325
0.325
...
25.1
27.0
27.0
...
4.90
5.74
5.74
...
20
30
30
...
c0
c1
V cm{T } (1 y)V m
{T } y V m
{T }
30
Heat capacity, CP, J mol 1K1
40
20
V am{T }
7.061(1 2.043 105T 1.52 108T 2)
Austenite
10
0
75
Ferrite
50
25
0
300
600
900
1200
1500 1800
Temperature, K
Plastic Deformation
The familiar mechanisms of plastic deformation are slip, mechanical twinning, and creep.
Phase transformations also cause permanent deformation (Ref 811). In steels, austenite can decompose into a large variety of microstructures
that are distinguished by the atomic mechanism
of transformation (Fig. 4). In a displacive transformation, the change in crystal structure is
achieved by a deformation of the parent structure. A reconstructive transformation is one in
which the change in structure is achieved by a
flow of matter, which occurs in such a way that
strains are minimized.
All the transformations cause changes in
shape (Fig. 5a), which for reconstructive transformations simply reflects the change in density.
For displacive transformations, the shape change
is an invariant-plane strain (IPS), that is, a combination of a shear on the invariant plane and a
dilatation normal to that plane. The strain energy
associated with a constrained IPS is minimized
when the product phase has a thin-plate shape.
This is why Widmanstatten ferrite, bainite, acicular ferrite, and martensite in steels grow in the
form of plates. The distinguishing features of a
variety of deformation modes are compared in
Table 2, and Table 3 describes the shape deformations.
The permanent strain caused by any transformation is called transformation plasticity. A
Fig. 2
Displacive
Reconstructive
8.0
7.8
Allotriomorphic
ferrite
7.6
V1
7.4
Widmansttten ferrite
Carbon diffusion during
paraequilibrium nucleation
and growth
Idiomorphic
ferrite
7.2
Massive ferrite
7.0
No change in
bulk composition
6.8
V0
6.6
300
600
900
1200
1500 1800
Temperature, K
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Pearlite
Martensite
Cooperative growth
of ferrite and
cementite
Diffusionless
nucleation and
growth
Material Factors / 5
phase change in a stress-free material is usually
triggered by heat treatment, when the parent
phase passes through an equilibrium transformation temperature. Alternatively, the application of a stress in isothermal conditions can trigger transformation in circumstances where it
would not otherwise occur. Unusual effects can
occur when stress and temperature work together. The transformation may occur at remarkably low stresses or at very small deviations
from the equilibrium temperature. This is why
even minute stresses can greatly influence the
development of microstructure, and vice versa.
It is not surprising that transformation plasticity
can be obtained at stresses that are much smaller
than the conventional yield stress of the parent
phase.
5 DV r
6 V rY
(Eq 2)
Table 2
Reconstructive
Displacive
Single
crystal
Table 3
Allotriomorphic ferrite
Idiomorphic ferrite
Pearlite
Widmanstatten ferrite
Bainite
Acicular ferrite
Martensite
Cementite plates
Mechanical twins ()
Annealing twins (c)
Slip
deformation
Mechanical
twinning
Displacive
transformation
Reconstructive
transformation
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Transformation
(a)
Characteristic
Deformation System
s(b)
d(b)
Morphology
Volume change
Volume change
Volume change
Invariant-plane strain
Invariant-plane strain
Invariant-plane strain
Invariant-plane strain
Invariant-plane strain?
Invariant-plane strain
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.36
0.22
0.22
0.24
0.21?
1/2
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.16?
0.00
0.00
Irregular
Equiaxed, faceted
Spherical colonies
Thin plates
Thin plates
Thin plates
Thin plates
Thin plates
Thin plates
Faceted
(a) An invariant-plane strain here implies a large shear component as well as a dilatational strain normal to the habit plane. (b) s and d refer to the
shear and dilatational strains, respectively. The values stated are approximate and will vary slightly as a function of lattice parameters and the details
of crystallography.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 5
Table 4
Phase
Displacement vector
0.185
Bainite
0.27
Widmanstatten ferrite
0.36
Martensite
Note: Typical habit plane and displacement directions for low-alloy steels. The indices all refer to the austenite phase. Note that the indices stated are
approximate, since the habit plane and displacement direction are usually irrational. The displacement vector does not quite lie in the habit plane
because the dilatational strain is directed normal to the habit plane. The magnitude of the displacement is given by m, which is the total displacement
including the shear and the dilatational components.
max
Fig. 6
Nature of stress
Uniaxial tension
Uniaxial compression
Elastic crack tip (a)
0.86
0.58
1.42
Tensile
+
Compression
0
Hydrostatic
compression
Stress (below austenite yield strength)
Indication of how the transformation-start temperature (for Widmanstatten ferrite, bainite, acicular ferrite, or martensite) should vary as a function of the
nature and magnitude of an applied stress whose magnitude is less than that of the yield stress.
Fig. 7
Nature of stress
Martensite
Bainite
Eutectoid
Martensite
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Tensile
Source: Ref 32
Sensitivity, K/MPa
0.06
0.09
0.011
0.06
1000
Free energy, J mol1
(a) The stress state for the crack tip is multiaxial, but the coefficient is
calculated by expressing the stress in terms of the von Mises equivalent
tensile stress. Source: Ref 32
the volume change. The corresponding interaction with displacive transformations is much
larger because of the shear component of the
IPS.
For displacive transformations, the influence
of stress on the transformation can be expressed
as a mechanical driving force (DGmech), which is
the work done by the external stress in producing
the macroscopic shape deformation (Ref 30, 31):
DGmech rNd ss
(Eq 3)
Limits to Stress-Assisted
Transformation
Chemical
0 Mechanical
1000
Total
2000
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Temperature, C
Typical magnitudes of the chemical and mechanical driving forces for stress-affected transformation. The mechanical driving force is estimated for an
applied stress that is equal to the yield stress of austenite.
Since this yield stress becomes small at high temperatures,
the contribution of the mechanical driving force also decreases. Therefore, transformation becomes impossible as
the temperature exceeds about 700 C (1290 F).
Fig. 8
Material Factors / 7
500
AISI 316
9CrMo
2CrMo
Austenite YS
400
Stress, MPa
300
200
100
0
100
200
400
600
800
Temperature, C
(a)
Stress
Plastic
strain in
austenite
Transformation
finished
Stress due to
thermal
contraction
of austenite
Stress due to
thermal contraction
of ferrite
Transformation
begins
3
75 MPa compressive stress
2
1
0
2
100
200
300
400
500
600
Transformation time, s
(b)
Temperature
Fig. 9
Modeling Anisotropic
Transformation Strains
1
Fig. 11
Fig. 10
0.06
0.06
Si
Mn
Ni
Mo
Cr
DT, C(F)
0.5
0.3
0.9
1.6
...
1.7
...
0.4
...
0.35
802400 (1476750)
422350 (792660)
14.5
8
1 fse1 p1 f dp1 p1
fse2 p1 f dp2 p1
fse3 p1 f dp3 p1
fse1 p2 f dp1 p2
1 fse2 p2 f dp2 p2
fse3 p2 f dp3 p2
e1
p1
P I fs e2 ( p1 p2 p3) f d p2 ( p1 p2 p3)
e3
p3
(Eq 4)
where the subscript i identifies a particular segment of interest and X and X *, respectively, represent the real and reciprocal bases of the coordinate system in which the deformation is
described. The notation due to MacKenzie and
Bowles (Ref 27) is discussed in detail in Ref 35.
The components of the shear direction and the
dilatation direction are given by:
[X;ei] fi[cos(hi) 0 sin(hi)]
[X; pi] fi[sin(hi) 0 cos(hi)]
120
180
210
(a)
Ui
330
90
60
150
30
180
210
300
270
r
[s sin 2hI cos i d(1 cos 2hi)]
2
120
30
(X Pi X ) [1 0 0]
i1
60
150
240
(X Pi X ) [0 0 1]
i1
18
[X; x]
90
18
[X; z]
fse1 p3 f dp1 p3
fse2 p3 f dp2 p3
1 fse3 p3 f dp3 p3
330
240
(b)
300
270
Transformation behavior inherent in the model (Ref 36). The dots illustrate the area fraction of each segment,
which in the calculations is scaled according to the value of Ui DG c. (a) Zero stress. All segments have
equal area fraction, and the order in which they transform is irrelevant. (b) Applied stress of 40 MPa and DG c 400 J/
mol. The area fractions of the segments are no longer equal. The segments in which the distance of the dot from the origin
is largest transform first.
Fig. 12
Material Factors / 9
lowed by those that do not. This also carries the
implication that the interaction of the stress is
with the growth process (that is, the IPS shape
deformation) rather than the strain field of the
nucleus, which is likely to be different. It is
worth noting that there are similar results for
martensite: most favored variants grow first in
the sequence of transformation under stress (Ref
15, 24).
Summary
Many of the thermal properties of steelsfor
example, heat capacity, thermal expansion coefficients, and latent heats of transformation
are remarkably well understood. Indeed, commercially available thermodynamic databases
and programs can be used to estimate these
quantities as a function of temperature and
chemical composition. This capability has not
been exploited in the analysis of residual
stresses, even though phase diagram calculations
using the same software are now routine in industry and academia.
Other properties, such as elastic modulus, are
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
REFERENCES
9.
1. T. Inoue and Z. Wang, Mater. Sci. Technol.,
Vol 1, 1985, p 845850
2. P.W. Fuerschbach, in The Metal Science of
Joining, M.J. Cieslak, J.H. Perepezko, S.
10.
11.
12.
L
T
+
L, T
Strain
Strain
13.
14.
Transformation time
15.
16.
Equivalent time
(a)
17.
L
18.
Strain
Strain
L
0
19.
20.
21.
Equivalent time
Transformation time
(b)
22.
L
23.
+
Strain
Strain
0
Transformation time
24.
0
T
25.
Equivalent time
26.
(c)
27.
Schematic of the reported variations (Ref 24) in longitudinal and radial strains during the isothermal formation
of bainite under the influence of a tensile load, presented alongside predictions (Ref 36) from the crystallographic/thermodynamic model. The stresses are all intended to be below the austenite yield strength, and the data in this
case refer to uniaxial tension. (a) Zero stress, any temperature. (b) Small stress, low temperature. (c) Small stress, high
temperature; or large stress, low temperature.
Fig. 13
28.
tion of external treatment (shot peening, autofretting, roller burnishing, hammer peening,
shock laser treatment)
Nonhomogeneous plastic deformation during
nonuniform heating or cooling (ordinary
quenching, molding of plastics)
Structural deformation from metalworking
(heat treatment)
Heterogeneity of a chemical or crystallographic order (nitriding or case hardening)
Various surface treatments (enameling,
nickel plating, chrome plating, PVD and
CVD coating)
Differences in expansion coefficients and mechanical incompatibility of the different components of composites (composites with a
metallic and organic matrix, ceramic coatings)
The first series of methods is based on destroying the state of equilibrium in the mechanical component. The residual stress is then evaluated from its relaxation. However, it is only
possible to measure the consequences of stress
relaxation and not the relaxation itself (displacement, fracture, strain). In most cases, the change
in strain is selected as the parameter to be studied. The following procedure is used:
1. Creation of a new stress state by machining
or layer removal
2. Detection of the local change in stress by
measuring the strain or displacement
3. Calculation of the residual stress as a function
of the strain measured using the elastic theory
(analytical approach or numerical calculations such as FEM)
During the recent years, the incremental holedrilling method is extensively used. It is sensitive to the first kind of residual stress, that is, the
macroscopic residual stress. The principle of this
technique is simple. It involves monitoring the
change in strain when a hole is drilled in a component with residual stress. These strain measurements can be related to the original residual
stress distribution in the analyzed sample at the
hole location. The relationship between the
strain and the residual stress can be calculated
with the calibration coefficients Ain and Bin. The
general approach used to determine the Ain and
Bin FEM is detailed in Ref 2. Recently, the high
sensitivity moire interferometer and incremental
hole-drilling method for residual stress measurement has been developed. The theoretical development of a combined method is introduced in
Ref 3 and 4. The relationship between the threedimensional surface displacements produced by
introducing a blind hole and the corresponding
residual stress is established by employing the
existing theoretical solution containing a set of
undetermined coefficients. The coefficients are
calibrated by the three-dimensional finite ele-
Quality control
Manufacturing
Measurement
technique
Prestress process
development and
modeling
Relaxation of
residual stress
Dimensional
stability
Fig. 1
Effect of residual
stress on behaviors
New design
Mechanical
design
Main research fields and industrial application fields in which residual stress is taken into account
ment method. The in-plane surface displacements Ux and Uy and out-of-plane surface displacement Uz produced by the relaxation of
residual stresses are obtained using moire interferometry and Twyman-Green interferometry,
respectively. Figure 2 shows three-dimensional
displacement as a function of the drilling depth.
The main advantage of this technique is the possibility of studying the residual stress with an inplane stress gradient (Ref 5). It is also possible
to study composite materials (Ref 6). In this
case, the through thickness residual stress distribution was evaluated ply by ply in a carbon fiber/epoxy composite. Figure 3 shows an example of residual stress determined by using this
technique.
Recently, this method was used (Ref 7) to
study the Plastic Ball Grid Array (PBGA) package, which is a cost-effective surface-mounting
package with a high-density interconnection,
low profiles, and light weight. It is currently used
in many electronic products, including portable
telecommunication and computing products. A
typical structure in a PBGA package consists of
four layers: a plastic molding compound, a silicon chip, a chip-attach adhesive layer, and an
organic chip carrier. Due to the coefficient of
thermal expansion mismatch between the silicon
chip, the plastic compound, and the organic chip
carrier, considerable residual stresses are developed in the package during the assembly process. The process-induced residual stress can
play a significant role in the reliability of electronic components and packages. Since a PBGA
package is small and the surface layer is made
of a plastic material, it has proved very difficult
to use other existing methods of residual stress
measurement. In this research work, a practical
method has been developed to determine residual stress for electronic packaging. In this
method, blind holes are drilled into the specimens, and relationships are established between
the released surface displacement and the corresponding residual stress by introducing a set
of calibration coefficients. A multilayer three-dimensional FEM is established to determine the
relevant calibration coefficients. The surface displacements are measured accurately in a small
region around the hole. For a practical PBGA
package, the tensile residual stress is determined
in both the plastic molding compound and the
glass/epoxy laminate chip carrier. The method
is accurate, simple, convenient, and practical.
More applications in the field of electronic products are anticipated.
The x-ray diffraction and neutron diffraction
methods are based on the measurement of lattice
strains by studying variations in the lattice spacing of the polycrystalline material. The first
method measures the residual strain on the surface of the material, and the second measures the
residual strain within a volume of the sample.
Diffraction techniques can be used to study all
three types. The peak shift method is sensitive
to the first two, whereas line broadening is sensitive to the second and third types. These techniques have been used to measure the first type
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem / 13
of residual stress in different phases of advanced
materials, such as metal-matrix composites (in
matrix and in reinforcement) (Ref 8, 9).
Residual stress can be incorporated into the
design of mechanical components. Although this
leads to a better knowledge of the fatigue life of
parts and reduces the safety coefficient at the design stage, it also poses a host of new problems
on a quality assurance level. All statistical controls are only applied today to a few critical components in the aeronautical and nuclear industries; this practice could easily become
Fig. 2
Three-dimensional displacements measured for different hole depth by a combination of optical methods and
the incremental hole-drilling method in a shot peened sample. Champ, field
Table 1
the reference techniques. Figure 4 proposes a residual stress inspection plan. Other new techniques, such as neutron diffraction and optical
method, will be introduced in industry. A detailed analysis of different techniques of measurement is out of the scope of this article.
Modeling of Process
The experimental techniques developed previously can contribute to the development of a
residual stress prediction model. The results calculated by the model make it easier to take the
residual stress into account during the mechanical design. The residual stress induced by the
thermal processing is extensively treated in the
other articles of this Handbook. Only some examples concerning the mechanical surface treatments and the comparison between the numerical simulation and experimental validation are
presented briefly.
Two kinds of models can be mentioned: analytical models and numerical models. In this
case, mechanical surface treatment models were
developed for shot peening (Ref 10) and cold
rolling (Ref 11), while several finite element
codes were used or developed for welding,
grinding, heat treatment (quenching), and thermal cutting (Ref 12, 13). The results show good
correlation between the prediction of the model
and the experimental results. But it can also be
seen that three-dimensional calculations are necessary to obtain good results in all directions. If
a two-dimensional calculation is used, the residual stress evaluation correlates well in one direction only. So, in the future, three-dimensional
calculations will be of greater significance for
real case modeling (Ref 13).
In the case of shot peening, a three-dimensional finite element dynamic model was developed to obtain a better description of the shotpeening process and to introduce this approach
into the component design (Ref 14). With the
Process
Casting
Shot peening, hammer peening, roller burnishing, laser
shock treatment, bending, rolling, chasing, forging,
straightening, extrusion
Grinding, turning, milling, drilling, boring
Mechanical
Thermal
Structural
No
Heterogeneous plastic deformation
between the core and surface of the
part
Plastic deformation due to the removal
of chips
No
No
Phase transformation
Depends on the material
No
Thermal incompatibility
Welding
Brazing
Electroplating
Shrinkage
Mechanical incompatibility
Mechanical incompatibility
Temperature gradient
Thermal incompatibility
Mechanical incompatibility
Mechanical incompatibility,
microcracking
Mechanical incompatibility
Mechanical incompatibility
PVD, CVD
Composite
EB, electron beam; HVOF, high-velocity oxygen fuel; HAZ, heat-affected zone
Change of phase
No
of analysis seems promising for studying the repercussions of a large number of parameters.
However, these methods are only efficient when
a maximum number of experimentally measured
parameters can be introduced. They also need to
be improved if they are to take most phenomena
into account. The proposed models could be
completed by analyzing the influence of the type
of contact, the direction of the shot during the
impact, behavior of the material, and so on. It
could then be possible to introduce the residual
stress field into metal parts in order to study their
behavior, using numerical simulation, for several
types of mechanical and fatigue life tests.
70
60
50
40
Residual stress, MPa
30
20
10
0
112.5
225
337.5
450
562.5
675
787.5
900
10
20
30
y
40
50
Hole depth, m
Fig. 3
S
R + S
I M
Mechanical components
manufacturing lines
Fig. 6
100
Good
quality
50
Defect
Assembly
of parts
Statistical analysis
of results
0
Measurement of the residual
stress distribution through
the thickness of the part
using conventional techniques
(x-ray, hole drilling)
0.10
0.20
0.30
Fatigue
0.40
50
100
Corrosion
under tensile
stress
150
200
Residual
stress
250
300
Breaking
srr L = 0.3 mm
szz L = 0.3 mm
Friction
Tensile
strength
350
400
Improvement of
process
Residual stress inspection plan for the purposes
of quality assurance. NDE, nondestructive evaluation; US, ultrasonic; AE, acoustic emission
Fig. 4
450
Depth, mm
Modeling of the residual stress distribution induced by shot peening using the 3-D finite element method
Fig. 5
Dimensional
stability
Fig. 7
Interfacial
bond strength
of coating
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem / 15
leads to a tangential residual stress equal to or
slightly greater than the longitudinal stress. The
thickness of the material subjected to residual
compressive stress is in the same order of magnitude as the layer transformed during treatment
(Ref 15). Fatigue tests were carried out by the
French Technical Center for Mechanical Industry (CETIM) on 36 mm diameter XC42 steel cy-
Surface
hardness, HRC
Fatigue limit
after 5 106
cycles, MPa (ksi)
rm
ra
5556
596 (87)
584 (85)
5556
623 (90)
610 (88)
5459
6061
670 (97)
780 (113)
660 (96)
750 (109)
Longitudinal
stress
Transverse
stress
128 (19)
243 (35)
273 (40)
341 (49)
655 (95)
863 (125)
777 (113)
468 (68)
571 (83)
583 (85)
676 (98)
603 (87)
1132 (164)
1156 (168)
Source: Ref 16
Sample type
2.10, MPa
State
Crack
initiation site
BX, MPa
As welded
207
40
207
37
Shot peened
392
519
Weld toe
1
Multipass
Fig. 8
Effect of residual stress on the fatigue strength of E690 welded joints. rRX, residual stress perpendicular to the
fillet (rRX); rRI, principal maximum residual stress evaluated at a depth of 0.1 mm below the surface. Source:
Ref 17
r rR rf*
106
ZAT D.T.
(40-75 mm)
ZAT B.S.
(40 mm)
Nontreated metal
da/dN, m/s
107
108
Rs = 0.1
E36Z
109
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
K, MPa m
Fig. 9
Ref 18
Effect of a residual stress-relieving treatment on the cracking speed in the HAZ (butt-welded assembly of an
E36Z steel). ZAT D.T., HAZ of the heat treated sample; ZAT D.T., HAZ of the as-welded sample. Source:
used, can remain in the coatings and in the substrates. They are of several types: microstresses
in the grain, produced during cooling, and
macrostresses affecting the entire coating.
Macrostresses are created not only by cooling
but also by the difference in temperature between the substrate, the sprayed layer, and the
outside surface. The differential contraction thus
produced between the various materials, due to
the difference in physical and mechanical properties, determines the stresses in the coating and
the coating-substrate interface. These stresses
therefore influence the mechanical and thermomechanical behavior of the coated parts.
In order to appreciate the quality of a coating,
three types of damage to parts in service can be
considered:
utes
Shot peened test specimen: no cracking after
12 days under the same conditions
The tests conducted by W.H. Friske show that
the fatigue life is 1000 times greater for a shotpeened 304 grade stainless steel part than it is
for a non-shot-peened part (Ref 20). Tests carried out by CETIM on Z6CN18.9 stainless steel
produced similar results (Ref 21).
Effect on Adhesion of Coatings (Ref 22
25). Most coatings are produced for a specific
reason, particularly to improve the corrosion and
wear resistance of the base material, or to provide a thermal barrier for use at high temperature. But this is only achieved if the coating adheres to the substrate correctly. Adhesion
therefore indicates correct preparation of the surfaces to be coated and the quality of the coating
operation. The last few years have seen the appearance of plasma-spraying techniques, both at
atmospheric pressure and at reduced pressure.
These processes offer a high degree of flexibility
for coatings in critical areas. However, high residual stress, inherent to the coating method
R
Kc
7
6
300
200
4
3
100
2
1
0
Kc, MPa m
1
2
TT
STT
100
Fig. 10
by the coating.
defect. Reference 27 gives a very methodical approach to defining the criteria and processes relating to relieving stress in welded structures.
The same type of reflection can be applied to
other types of parts.
rD
(rm rR)
Rm
(Eq 1)
(Eq 2)
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem / 17
Unfortunately, these results are in contradiction with an equation of the Goodman type. In
Eq 2, the coefficient is none other than what
is usually called the endurance ratio:
rD
Rm
800
A
B Repeated
C bending tests
D
Repeated tension test
700
a, MPa
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
1000
m, MPa
2000
Use of Haigh diagrams to take longitudinal residual stress into account (XC42 steel
quenched after induction heating). A through D represent
results of repeated bending tests; X, repeated tension test.
Table 2 presents fatigue test results that correspond to A to
D.
Fig. 11
a, MPa
A
B
Repeated
C
bending tests
D
Repeated tension test
400
200
100
100
200
300
400
Pmax, MPa
Use of the Dang Van criterion to take residual
stress into account (XC42 grade steel quenched
after induction heating). A through D represent repeated
bending test; X, repeated tension test.
Fig. 12
300
200 100
(Eq 3)
invent new criteria, but it leads to complications because of the increasing number of parameters that need to be determined. Even with a
linear relationship of the Dang Van type, two
Wohler curves have to be determined to obtain
at least the two points needed to produce the diagram. If additional constants are added, the test
plane will be even greater, which means that the
criterion cannot be used in industry. As a result,
the criterion to be used must be simplified as
much as possible. This case deals with radial
loading problems (r1 K1 r2 K2 r3), and a
relationship of Eq 3 is sufficient. To simplify
matters further, the Crossland or Dang Van criterion can be used. In the case of combined and
out-of-phase loading, new criteria have been developed to take the out-of-phase effect into account (Ref 3639).
But as yet, these criteria have not been validated in a study in which combined and out-ofphase residual stresses have been taken into account. When the fatigue stress is complex, it is
also very difficult to calculate the expected residual stress relaxation.
When fatigue cracks are initiated on the surface, the stresses to be taken into account are
biaxial; this gives the following for the Crossland or Dang Van criterion:
socta
sa
Pmax
2
3
r 1a r 2a r r
2
1a 2a
r1a
2
1
(r1a r2a r1m r2m r1R r2R)
3
a, MPa
a, MPa
(a)
a, MPa
Pmax
Fig. 13
Relaxation
des R
Pmax
Initial
(b)
Pmax
(c)
Illustration of the different methods used to take residual stress into account
a, MPa (Surface)
Xian
CETIM
300
200
100
100
200
300
400
500
Fig. 14
Fatigue results for a 45SCD6 steel treated under different conditions in a Dang Van diagram, taking the residual
stress on the surface into account. Xian, results obtained by Xian Jiaotong University; CETIM, results obtained
by CETIM
a, MPa
600
500
350
With
Without
400
A Consideration
600 MPa
200
a, MPa
300
Xian
CETIM
300
550 MPa
2 106
5 106
100
250
300
200
100
100
200
300
400
500
Fatigue results for a 45SCD6 steel treated under different conditions in a Dang Van diagram, taking the residual
stress into account using the critical layer approach. Xian, results obtained by Xian Jiaotong University;
CETIM, results obtained by CETIM
50
100
150
200
Pmax, MPa
Pmax, MPa
Fig. 15
107
240
Fig. 16
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem / 19
rience or modeling. In Ref 29 and 30, a complete
model was presented using FEM to determine
the stabilized residual stress after fatigue loading. This estimation of the residual stress can
then be used to calculate the fatigue life of a part,
taking residual stress into account. Despite the
initial definition of the Dang Van criterion,
which proposes that it only be used in cases of
fatigue strength with an unlimited number of cycles, an attempt was made to extend this criterion
to include a limited fatigue life with a very large
number of cycles (more than 2 106) (Ref 40).
Figure 16 shows an example of the fatigue life
estimated by calculation. First, a fatigue strength
diagram of the Dang Van type was defined according to the fatigue life obtained from a series
of fatigue life contours. Then the residual stress
relaxation was calculated using FEM (Ref 29).
Finally, the stabilized residual stress was introduced into the diagram. In this example, in the
case of a loading of 550 MPa, the point corresponding to loading is inside the limit of the
fatigue life at 107 cycles. No failure occurs. For
a loading of 600 MPa, the point corresponding
to loading including the residual stress is between the line corresponding to 5 106 cycles
and that of 2 106 cycles. Failure therefore
alt
2 Hardening effect
3 Roughness increase
1
3
Pmax
Fig. 17
Role of hardening
and residual stress
20
Role of
residual stress
10
0
Role of superficial hardening
10
20
30
40
50
HRC
Effect of the resistance of the base metal on the
increase in the fatigue strength after shotpeening treatment, distinguishing between the effect of
strain hardening and that of residual stress
Fig. 18
concentration
to plasticizing
layers
Figure 17 shows the effect of the surface finish
and strain hardening on the fatigue strength of
materials. It can be seen that an increase in the
roughness decreases the safety area, and strain
hardening increases the safety area, provided it
does not damage the material.
In the case of thermal or thermochemical surface treatments (induction quenching, case hardening, etc.), for example, it is necessary to take
the new fatigue strength of the treated layer into
account in the calculation.
The problem is more complex in the case of
residual stress introduced by plastic deformation
(pre-straining, machining, shot peening, roller
burnishing), since it is more difficult to distinguish between the influence of residual stresses
and residual microstresses present in the grains
of the deformed material and that of strain hardening of the material.
Evans (Ref 41) made this distinction in the
case of shot peening; to do so, he carried out
three types of fatigue tests on materials with
various mechanical properties:
Fatigue tests on a non-shot-peened material
Fatigue tests on a shot-peened material
Fatigue tests on a shot-peened material, but
with a mean test stress rm, which compensated for the surface residual stress. In this
type of test, the effect of the macroscopic residual stress is cancelled out and the fatigue
strength obtained only depends on the increase in the mechanical properties of the
plastically deformed material and the residual
microstresses distributed throughout the material. The results obtained are presented in
Fig. 18.
40
30
actly show what the author is trying to demonstrate, since in the two types of tests for the same
material, the ratio of R(rmin /rmax) is modified.
As has been shown, the residual stress relaxation
changes when the R ratio is varied (Ref 29). The
real contribution of each factor will therefore be
different from that indicated in Fig. 18.
It can thus be seen that taking residual stress
into account in the calculation requires a serious
examination of the different parameters involved. When reliable results are needed, fatigue
tests will no doubt need to be carried out on the
part or the structure concerned. However, modeling enables the variation in the different parameters to be rapidly simulated in order to find
an optimal solution.
Partial Summary. The previous results show
that it is now possible to take residual stress into
account in calculations designed to predict the
fatigue life using a global approach. This must
take the relaxation of residual fatigue stress into
account, as well as the other effects (strain hardening, hardness) introduced by the manufacturing method used. A multiaxial fatigue criterion
that can integrate both the problem of residual
stress and the effect of the stress gradient applied
to a zone in the presence of stress concentration
has been developed, that is, the Crossland or
Dang Van criterion. It is used for a stabilized
state of residual stress, averaged out for a basic
volume of damage (thickness of critical layer),
and applied within a network of contours that
represents the fatigue life. In the future, tests will
be carried out to validate this type of criterion in
the case of combined stresses on notched parts
in the presence of residual stress.
Table 3 Increase in the fatigue life of various mechanical components as a result of shot
peening
Type of part
Type of stress
Spindles
Shafts
Gear box
Crankshafts
Aircraft coupling rods
Driving rods
Cam springs
Helical springs
Torque rods
Universal joint shaft
Gear wheel
Tank chain
Weld
Valve
Rocker arm
Reverse bending
Torsional
Fatigue life tests in service
Fatigue life tests in service
Tensile compression
Tensile compression
Dynamic stress
Fatigue life in service
Dynamic stress
Reverse bending
Fatigue life tests
Fatigue life tests
Fatigue life tests
Fatigue life tests
Fatigue life tests
4001900
700
80
3000, but highly variable
105
45
100340
3500
140600
350
130
1100
200
700
320
250
200
Alternated
stress
150
0
100
0
50
Repeated
stress
0
70
S-
G
70
S-
G
70
S-
G
40
S-
G
40
70
S-
S-
llin
g
en
ng
in
ro
en
io
ce
rfa
su
ct
di
at
re
tri
pe
fe
ot
du
in
sh
ni
tt
ou
ni
ni
te
io
ith
Fig. 19
Treatment or process
ST by nitriding R = 0.1
TT by induction R = 0.1
TS carburizing R = 0.1
ST by surface rolling R = 0.1
200%
ST by surface rolling R = 0.1
ST by shot peening R = 0.1
0
Fig. 20
25
50
Increase, %
75
Beneficial effect of various surface treatments on the fatigue strength (maximum gain reported in the literature).
TT, thermal treatment; ST, surface treatment
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem / 21
portant in the prediction of residual stress relaxation. They make it possible to calculate the residual stress state for a corresponded number of
cycles.
Then, a method to predict fatigue life while
taking these stabilized residual stresses into account is presented. The fatigue criterion under
multiaxial stresses is used. After the relaxation,
the residual stresses can be combined directly
with the cyclic loading. They change the value
of the mean stresses and influence the fatigue
life.
As a result, a design tool on fatigue for threedimensional components, FATIGUE3D, has
been developed in the laboratory of LASMIS
Calculation of
residual stresses
Outside solicitation,
cyclic loading
Measurement of
residual stresses
Prediction of
residual stress
Cyclic behaviors
of material
Fatigue, 3D
Mechanical properties
of material
Fig. 21
Basic steps of calculation while taking into account the residual stresses
N1
Fig. 22
s = OM/OM
M
N-cycles
M
Fig. 23
P
Principle of calculating the safety factor on fatigue
Fig. 24
Three-dimensional mesh
100
Axial stresses
under tensile loading
100
Measurement
Calculated
200
Tangential stresses
under tensile loading
0
Residual stresses, MPa
300
400
500
Measurement
Calculated
100
200
300
400
500
600
600
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.4
0.5
0.6
100
100
Axial stresses
under torsion loading
100
0
Residual stresses, MPa
0
Residual stresses, MPa
0.15
Depth, mm
Depth, mm
Measurement
Calculated
200
300
400
500
600
Tangential stresses
under torsion loading
Measurement
Calculated
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.1
Depth, mm
Fig. 25
0.3
Depth, mm
/2, MPa
1000
900
NR/2
800
700
600
35 NCD 16
(Rm (UTS) = 110 MPa)
0.5
0.75
N,
cycles
1
2
3
15
50
150
NR/2
Re(Y.S.),
MPa
940
920
910
870
830
800
660
t/2, %
Fig. 26
0.2
The cyclic behavior of 35NCD16 grade steel. Re, yield stress; R ec, cyclic yield stress as a function of number
of cycles; Det, axial plastic strain range during cyclic loading
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem / 23
100
100
103 cycles, traction compression 550 MPa
100
Axial measurement
Axial calculated
Tangential measurement
Tangential calculated
200
300
400
Axial measurement
Axial calculated
Tangential measurement
Tangential calculated
100
200
300
400
500
500
0
0.10
0.05
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.15
Depth, mm
100
200
300
400
Axial measurement
Axial calculated
Tangential measurement
Tangential calculated
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
500
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
Fig. 27
100
Tangential residual stress, MPa
100
Traction-compression
550 MPa
600 MPa
620 MPa
650 MPa
700 MPa
200
300
Traction-compression
550 MPa
600 MPa
620 MPa
650 MPa
700 MPa
0
100
200
300
400
500
0.05
0.10
0.15
Depth, mm
Fig. 28
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
Depth, mm
Depth, mm
0.30
Axial measurement
Axial calculated
Tangential measurement
Tangential calculated
100
0.25
200
100
0.20
Depth, mm
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.15
Depth, mm
0.20
0.25
0.30
750
Without residual stresses
Experimental
Numerical
700
650
600
550
500
420
400
380
360
340
320
450
105
Fig. 29
440
Torsion load, MPa
106
107
Fatigue life N cycles
300
105
106
107
Fatigue life N cycles
Summary
S11
Value
2.24E+02
4.24E+01
+1.39E+02
+3.20E+02
+5.01E+02
+6.82E+02
1
3
2
Fig. 30
Prediction of admissible residual stress (or the prestressed area) for a notched sample under bending loading,
using the finite element method
Mechanical component
development
Introduction of a surface
and prestress treatment
Optimization of geometry
according to the choice
of manufacturing process
No
Stress analysis by
a finite element method
Adjustment of a
finite element model
Is fatigue life
in accordance
with
specifications?
Yes
Stop
Experimental checking of
stress: rapid prototyping
No
Fig. 31
Are results
coherent?
Yes
Fatigue life
estimation
Various connections between residual stress-integrated design and other sectors that use the concurrent engineering approach
Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem / 25
ity control tool. For industrial applications, future developments are necessary:
Measurement techniques
grant Brite-EuRam, BRRT-CT985090, ENSPED project), and the National Science Foundation of China (two bases project) is acknowledged.
measurement methods
Integration of the portable optical method for
strain measurement in destructive techniques
Processing and materials
Development for the industrialization of new
diction of initial residual stress in various processes: forging, casting, machining, welding,
plasma spray coating, composite processing,
electronic packaging manufacturing, mechanical surface treatment
Integration of the residual stress modeling
method into a global life design (3-D) and the
creation of optimization codes for the design
of mechanical components using the concurrent engineering approach
With the recent progress in the field of research and development, it is now possible to
introduce a new area of research: prestress engineering of structural materials (PESM or
PRESMA). In the near future, the mechanical
engineer will be able to use these tools in a prestressed concrete approach to civil engineering.
The ENSPED program in Europe is an excellent
example of the cooperation of industrial and research partners. Using this new approach, the fatigue behavior and mechanical behavior of new
materials can be considerably improved, increasing two- or threefold in some cases. In fact, many
failures occur in the area close to the surface.
Improving the mechanical behavior is often only
necessary on the surface (fatigue, fretting fatigue, wear, stress corrosion). As a result, this
type of approach can be expected to develop
very quickly in order to introduce adequate prestressing treatment in the area indicated by the
advanced design tool.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is grateful to all the people at LASMIS working in the field of residual stress for
their help during the preparation of this paper:
Prof. J.L. Chaboche, Dr. D. Retraint, Dr. E. Rouhaud, Dr. X.L. Gong, Dr. L. Couturier, Dr. R.
Akrache, Dr. Z. Wu, Dr. S. Rasouli Yazdi, Mr.
A. Milley, Mr. D. Deslaf, Mr. B. Guelorget, Mr.
A. Voinier, Mr. F. Belahcene, Mr. K. Gong. Financial support from the European Union (under
12.
REFERENCES
1. J. Lu, Ed., Handbook of Measurement of Residual Stresses, Society for Experimental
Mechanics, USA, 1996
2. J. Lu, A. Niku-Lari, and J.F. Flavenot, Latest Development of Residual Stresses Measurement by the Hole Drilling Method, Materiaux et Techniques, Dec 1985, p 709718
3. Z. Wu, J. Lu, and B. Han, Study of Residual
Stress Distribution by a Combined Method
of Moire Interferometry and Incremental
Hole Drilling. Part I: Theory, J. Appl.
Mech., ASME, Sept 1998
4. Z. Wu, J. Lu, and B. Han, Study of Residual
Stress Distribution by a Combined Method
of Moire Interferometry and Incremental
Hole Drilling. Part II: Implementation of
Applied Mechanics, J. Appl. Mech., ASME,
Sept 1998
5. Z. Wu and J. Lu, Residual Stresses by Moire
Interferometry and Incremental Hole Drilling, Experimental Mechanics, Advances in
Design, Testing and Analysis, Vol 2, I.M.
Allison, Ed., Conf. ICEM 98, 2428 Aug
1998, (Oxford), p 13191324
6. Z. Wu, X.K. Niu, J. Lu, and P.G. Ifju, Study
of Process-Induced Stress in Orthotropic
Composite LaminateCarbon/Epoxy [O2 /
902]2s, Proceedings of the SEM Spring
Conference on Experimental and Applied
Mechanics, 13 June 1998, (Houston,
Texas), p 179181
7. Z. Wu, J. Lu, and Y. Guo, A New Method
of Residual Stress Measurement on Electronic Packaging, Experimental Mechanics,
Advances in Design, Testing and Analysis,
Vol 2, I.M. Allison, Ed., Conf. ICEM 98,
2428 Aug 1998, (Oxford), p 987991
8. J. Lu, J.F. Flavenot, and S. Thery, Study on
the Effect of the Finishing Treatment on the
Residual Stress Gradient in SiC Reinforced
Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite, J.
Compos. Technol. Res., ASTM, Vol 12 (No.
4), 1990, p 232238
9. J. Li, J. Lu, M. Perrin, M. Ceretti, and A.
Lodini, Study on the Residual Stress in
Cold-Rolled 7075 Al-SiC Whisker Reinforced Composites by X-ray and Neutron
Diffraction, J. Compos. Technol. Res., July
1995, p 194198
10. J. Lu, P. Peyre, C. Omam Nonga, A. Benamar, and J.F. Flavenot, Mechanical Surface
Treatments, Current Trends, and Future
Prospects, Surface Modification Technologies VIII, T. S. Sudarshan and M. Jeandin,
Ed., TMS, Sept 1994, p 589601
11. A. Benamar, J. Lu, J.F. Flavenot, P. Barbarin, G. Chalant, and G. Inglebert, Modeling Residual Stresses by Cold Rolling an
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
COMPONENTS MAY FAIL DURING SERVICE in very different ways. Important aspects
are:
Onset of plastic deformation or exceeding of
crack length
mechanisms of residual stress formation are inhomogeneous plastic deformation caused by mechanical, thermomechanical, or thermal attack
and the development of constraint between different constituents of a component such as
phases or coatings during the formation of the
constituents (e.g., during the coating process)
and/or during cooling from a higher process
temperature (e.g., the sintering temperature).
Manufacturing processes not only result in the
formation of definite macro residual stress states,
but may also effect other changes of the component state close to its surface:
Formation of a specific topography
Work-hardening or (in very hard material
Residual Stress
Stability of Residual Stresses. For the assessment of the influence of residual stresses on
fatigue behavior, the stability of the residual
stress state is of utmost importance. The reader
is referred to the article Stability of Residual
Stresses in this Handbook, which deals with the
relaxation of residual stresses due to monotonic
or cycling loading or due to thermal energy. It
is shown there that the micro residual stress state
is more stable against mechanically and thermally induced relaxation than the macro residual
stress state. On the other hand, it is also proved
that during fatigue the micro residual stress state
of a given steel may be changed by cyclic hardening and/or cyclic softening processes, which
are closely related to cyclic plastic deformations.
Hence, during fatigue loading of a component
with locally varying macro as well as micro residual stress states, complex interactions of the
macro residual stress state with the cyclic loading stresses and the micro residual stress state
Nf
Ni
Ns
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 1
Wohler curves for slip band formation (Ns), microcrack initiation (Ni), and failure (Nf). Source:
Ref 5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
10
102
103
104
105
0.15
Inhomogeneous
softening
Homogeneous
hardening
0.10
0.05
01
10
102
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 3
106
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 2
ening or/and work-softening effects in the total volume (homogeneous loading such as
push-pull of smooth specimens) or in the
highest loaded regions (inhomogeneous loading such as bending, torsion, or any loading
of notched components) and development of
persistent slip bands at the surface
Stage B: Microcrack initiation and propagation. Normal evolution of a macrocrack in the
surface region
Stage C: Stable macrocrack propagation connected with changes in the state of the material in the crack tip plastic zone
ure
An example of the consequences of these fatigue
stages is shown in Fig. 1 in an S-N diagram
(Wohler diagram) for the plain carbon steel SAE
1020 (German grade C 20), which presents experimental results for persistent slip band formation (ra /log Ns curve), microcrack initiation
(ra /log Ni curve), and failure (ra /log Nf curve)
(Ref 5).
Cyclic Deformation Behavior. Investigations on the cyclic deformation behavior in stage
A using computerized servohydraulic test systems enable the determination of the complete
stress/total-strain response at distinct numbers
of cycles that yields to hysteresis loops. In a
stress-controlled test, the plastic strain amplitude
ea,p plotted versus log N results in a cyclic deformation curve that corresponds to the microstructural changes in the material during cyclic
loading. Decreasing (increasing) ea,p values with
an increasing number of cycles N are typical for
a cyclic work-hardening (work-softening) behavior.
Characteristic cyclic deformation curves of
the low-alloy steel AISI 4140 (German grade 42
CrMo 4) in a normalized state are shown in Fig.
2. During stress-controlled push-pull tests with
R rmin/rmax 1 and ra RP0.2, the plastic
strain amplitudes systematically change with the
stress amplitudes applied. In the initial stage of
cyclic loading, a quasi-linear elastic behavior is
found. This stage is followed by a period of increasing ea,p values due to cyclically induced
work-softening effects that are connected with
inhomogeneous deformation processes caused
by fatigue Luders bands. This can be proved with
photoelastic investigations. A typical result obtained for this steel is presented in Fig. 3. Plastically deformed areas appertaining to the individual stages of inhomogeneous cyclic
deformation were registered photographically
and marked as hatched areas on the specimens
that are allied to the cyclic deformation curve.
Similar macroscopic softening effects occur in
all normalized states of plain carbon steels and
low-alloy steels with carbon contents below 0.6
wt% (Ref 68).
The quasi-linear elastic period shortens and
the extent of cyclic work softening grows simultaneously with increasing stress amplitude
ra. After reaching a maximum of softening, the
materials behavior is mainly characterized by
work hardening, and the ea,p values decrease
with increasing number of cycles. At the end of
the specimens life, the plastic strain amplitude
increases again, however fictitiously as a consequence of changes in the compliance of the
specimens due to crack propagation. The plot of
ra versus ea,t at N Nf /2, the so-called cyclic
stress-strain curve, of this steel is presented in
Fig. 4 together with the monotonic-stress/totalstrain curve at nearly the same strain rate e . In the
elastic-plastic range, the cyclic curve is lower
than the monotonic curve due to the work softening. The cyclic stress-strain curves of plain
Monotonic:
0.4 101s1
400
300
Cyclic:
0.3 101s1
N = Nf/2
200
100
0
0
0.1
0.3
0.2
Total strain (t) or total strain amplitude (a,t), %
Monotonic stress-strain curve and cyclic stressstrain curve at Nf /2 of normalized AISI 4140 steel
at nearly the same strain rates. Source: Ref 68
Fig. 4
0.8 wt% C
0.45
400
0.22
300
0.01
200
100
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
810
750
0.2
0.1
700
600
500
Fig. 6
68
a = 850 MPa
0.3
10
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
105
(one) 101s1
800
Cyclic:
0.6 101s1
N = Nf/2
600
400
200
0
10
Fig. 7
0.4
Monotonic:
1000
0.4
0.5
500
0.3
0.2
a = 750 MPa
Inhomogeneous
softening
0.1
0
10
106
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
Cyclic deformation curve and development of
inhomogeneous strain distribution during cyclic
softening of quenched-and-tempered AISI 4140 steel.
Source: Ref 68
Fig. 8
(Eq 1)
R1
R2
R3
Stress intensity factor range, log K
Fig. 9
Crack propagation rate versus stress intensity factor range for stress ratio values R1 R2 R3
and
ea,e rf /E N b
f
(Eq 6)
da
C (1 R)m DKn (DK DKth)p
dN
[(1 R) KIc DK]q
(Eq 5)
(Eq 7)
and
(Eq 2)
ea,e E N b
ra N b
constant
f
f
log a
log f
log Rm
log Rf
log Ns
Fig. 10
log Ne log Nf
f/ E
E N
N
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
Fig. 11
Fatigue strength, Rf
ra rf N b
f
often describes the lifetime behavior satisfactorily. rf is the fatigue strength coefficient and b
the fatigue strength exponent.
In the case of total-strain-controlled fatigue
tests the ea,t values in the total strain Wohler
curve (Fig. 11) can be separated into the elastic
and plastic parts:
Re
Goodman
0
Rf
Gerber
Fig. 12
(Eq 3)
Rm
(Eq 4)
From experience it is known that both parts extend exponentially from the number of cycles to
failure Nf, which means that the plots log ea,e
versus log Nf and log ea,p versus log Nf are linear.
(Eq 8)
(Eq 9)
which represents a straight line between the fatigue strength R0f at rm 0 and the tensile
strength Rm, is frequently used to estimate fatigue strength. For practical use, the allowable
stresses are restricted by the demand that macroscopically no plastic deformation should occur. This restriction leads to a straight line connecting the yield strength Re at both axes.
Through this, the allowable stress amplitudes lie
in the hatched area in Fig. 12. The slope of the
Goodman straight line is often also described as
mean stress sensitivity M R0f rm /Rm. The
Goodman approximation normally leads to conservative estimations. Often, the Gerber parabola
(Ref 22):
Rf R0f [1 (rm /Rm)2]
(Eq 10)
(Eq 11)
0.4
a in MPa
Unpeened
Shot peened
0.3
380
0.15
10
102
103
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
0.4
a in MPa
450
Unpeened
Shot peened
0.3
550
600
0.05
400
375
350
350
400
275
0
1
10
(b)
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
1.0
900
0.8
105
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
10
a in MPa
Unpeened
800
Shot peened
750
700
0.2
500
400
550
600
(c)
10
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
105
a in MPa
Unrolled
0.03
Deep rolled
600
650
550
600
0.02
500
0.01
550
500
0
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
10
(b)
105
106
Fig. 14
0.10
Untreated
0.08
Shot peened
0.06
Deep rolled
0.04
0.02
0
106
Fig. 13
106
0.04
1
1
105
106
0.6
0.4
500
450
1
450
550
0.2
0.1
a in MPa
Unrolled
Deep rolled
510
0.10
(a)
Plastic strain amplitude (a,p), %
(a)
Plastic strain amplitude (a,p), %
600
325
300
250
0.1
0.20
350
0.2
10
100
103
Number of cycles, N
104
105
Cyclic deformation curves of different mechanically surface treated materials for stress-controlled push-pull loading in the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) regime of the plain carbon SAE 1045 steel. Stress amplitude
ra 350 MPa, Almen intensity I 0.120 mm A, rolling
pressure p 150 bar; surface residual stresses: shot peening rrs 500 MPa, deep rolling, approximately 600/
350 MPa. Source: Ref 28, 29
Fig. 15
700
600
500
400
300
200
Untreated
Deep rolled
Shot peened
100
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Plastic strain amplitude (a,p), %
0.5
Fig. 16
rs
l
0.4
n,a in MPa
rs = 15 MPa
rs = 490 MPa
0.3
220
0.2
240
200
220
175
0.1
150
0
1
10
102
170 150
190
103
104
105
106
0.06
n,a = 200 MPa
0.04
rs = 710 MPa
460
0.02
320
0
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
(a)
Number of cycles, N
0.06
0.30
n,a in MPa
220
190
170
150
0.15
0.00
(a)
0.04
0.02
460
rs = 710 MPa
0.2
1
0.15
1
(b)
10
102
103
104
105
106
(b)
10
102
103
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 17
320
Fig. 18
specimens and in Fig. 18 for quenched-and-tempered specimens of SAE 1045 with a notch factor Kt 3.0 that were investigated in push-pull
tests (Ref 30, 31). Figure 17(a) compares the cyclic deformation curves of material states with
very low residual stresses (produced by milling
and subsequent annealing) with rather high residual stresses (produced by shot peening). In
both conditions plastic deformation occurs in the
first cycle at nominal stress amplitudes rn,a
above 150 MPa. The annealed state yields continuous cyclic softening for all investigated rn,a
values. Contrarily, the initial plastic strain amplitudes of the shot peened condition that are
much less dependent on the stress amplitude
compared to the milled and annealed state are
reduced during the first cycles. This is a result
of residual stress relaxation that is the more pronounced the higher the nominal stress amplitude
is (see the following section Evaluation of Experimental Results). The consequences are
smaller effective stress amplitudes and smaller
ea,p values in the following cycles. Hence, the
observed cyclic work hardening is fictitious.
However, at higher numbers of cycles, cyclic
softening occurs with lower ea,p values than in
the unpeened condition.
On the other hand, as can be seen from Fig.
17(b), the shot peening notch root residual
stresses have an influence on the initial parts of
the mean strain curves that were determined for
different nominal stress amplitudes (Ref 30, 31).
As a consequence of the cyclic deformation induced relaxation of the compressive residual
stresses in the notch, the initial parts of the em /
log N curves show negative plastic mean strains,
where the magnitudes of em increase with increasing nominal stress amplitude. The minima
of em are shifted to lower numbers of cycles with
increasing rn,a values. However, from the minima of em at approximately 5% of the number of
cycles to failure, the em /log N curves show increasing mean strains for all nominal stress amplitudes. Simultaneously, a decrease of the tensile compliance in the hysteresis loops that
intensifies with an increasing number of cycles
is observed. By that, the compressive compliance is approximately constant. This finding
proves that this increase of the mean strains with
the number of cycles is caused by an increase of
the number of microcracks and/or the growth of
microcracks. These sections are indicated by
dashed lines in the em /log N curves of Fig. 17(b).
The true plastic strain amplitudes in the cyclic
deformation curves of the quenched-and-tempered (400 C/2 h) specimens in Fig. 18(a) are
influenced by the magnitude of the notch root
residual stresses, but not by their sign (Ref 30,
31). All investigated conditions in Fig. 18(a)
show for the initial cycles fictitious cyclic-workhardening effects due to the relaxation of residual stresses rrs of the surface layers (rrs 460
MPa and 320 MPa produced by upcut milling
as well as 710 MPa by shot peening). Up to
N 20 cycles, increasing magnitudes of the
compressive residual stresses cause higher negative mean strains. However, positive milling re-
0
n,a = 220 MPa
200
n,a = 150 MPa
400
0.20
250
a in MPa
0.16
125
0.12
150
0.08
350
0.04
200
100
0
1
102
10
(a)
3
10
102
103
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
(a)
105
106
125
250
9
350
15
a in MPa
102
10
400
450
103
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 20
rs
300
100
300
600
900
0
(b)
10
102
103
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 19
A Untreated
B Deep rolled
80
60
40
20
0
C Shot peened
Macrocracks
(>750 m)
Short cracks
(200-750 m)
Microcracks
(>200 m)
No damage
marks
Fig. 21
200
3
(b)
1
104
150
100
21
600
103
Number of cycles, N
rs
800
(a)
Fracture
Crack initiation
600
200 m
(b)
400
200 m
200
Shot peened
(c)
Ground
0
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
107
200 m
(d)
200 m
200 m
0.4
200 m
0.2
Site of
macrocrack
initiation
shot peening
r (r
2ra
a
1/b;
r )
rs
(Eq 13)
200 m
1000
1200
Stress amplitude (a), MPa
(g)
1400
Fig. 23
stresses
(f)
0.3
800
face treatment
(e)
Ni
Fig. 22
0.1
Fig. 24
(Eq 14)
dN
(1 R)Kc DK
200
rs
200
(Eq 15)
104
As received
105
106
Autofrettaged
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Ratio a/W
Fig. 27
400
12
8
4
0
4
8
Distance from crack tip, mm
(a)
12
10
150 bar
Crack propagation rate
(da/dN), mm/cycle
rs
200
200
8
4
0
4
8
Distance from crack tip, mm
102
=2
103
104
=3
105
8
4
75 bar
225 bar
4
2
300 bar
0
1
2
Crack length (a), mm
Fatigue crack propagation rates da/dN in annealed and with different rolling pressures
deep-rolled steel AISI 304. Stress amplitude ra 320 MPa,
surface residual stresses rrs 200 MPa (75 bar), 350
MPa (150 bar), 400 MPa (225 bar), and 300 MPa (300
bar). Source: Ref 29
Fig. 28
Fig. 25
12
103
104
Stress relieved
As welded
105
106
10
20
30 40
60 80
Fig. 26
Untreated
12
12
(b)
106
400
103
Crack propagation rate da/dN versus stress intensity range DK in the heat-affected zone of
EN S355 steel in an as-welded condition and after a stressrelief heat treatment. Source: Ref 44
Fig. 29
103
0.1 0 0.5 1.0
104
0.2
R = 0.4
2.0
105
106
10
20
30
40 50 60
(a)
103
R=0
0.5
104
105
106
1.0
2.0
6
10
20
30
40 50 60
(Eq 16)
(b)
103
104
105
106
10
20
30
300
Upcut milling
rs = 234 MPa
200
Downcut milling
rs = 242 MPa
kt = 2.5
=5
0
104
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
Fig. 31
103
104
105
106
10
20
30
40 50 60
(d)
Crack propagation rate da/dN versus stress intensity range DK in the base material (a) and (c)
and versus effective stress intensity range DKeff (b) and (d)
in the welded zone of the SAE 1019 steel. Source: Ref 45
Fig. 30
300
200
=1
= 0.4
= 0.1
kt = 1.7, = 2
kt = 2.5, = 5
100
kt = 4.4, = 15
kt = 2.5, = 2
Smooth
Notched
0
750 500 250
250
500
750
rs
Fig. 32
Annealed
rs = 0 MPa
100
40 50 60
(c)
Crack propagation rate (da/dN), mm/cycle
1 dr
r dz
z0
(Eq 17)
was 5 mm1. All data are nominal stress amplitudes and are valid for a failure probability of
50%. The bending fatigue strength was evaluated at an ultimate number of cycles Nu 107.
By downcut milling and upcut milling, surface
residual stresses of 242 and 234 MPa, respectively, were generated. The corresponding S-N
curves are almost identical. A third batch of
specimens was annealed 2 h at 700 C after
downcut milling. The annealing results in a reduction of bending fatigue life and bending fatigue strength (Ref 4749).
The alternating bending fatigue strengths of
milled smooth and notched specimens with different geometries are plotted in Fig. 32 as a function of the surface residual stresses (Ref 4652).
Again, all data are given for a failure probability
of 50%, and the bending fatigue strengths are
nominal stress amplitudes at Nu 107. With
increasing stress-concentration factor and decreasing stress gradient, the bending fatigue
strength decreases. The influence of the stressconcentration factor is clearly visible from a
comparison of the specimens with the same
value g 2 mm1, but different values kt
1.7 and 2.5, respectively. On the other hand, the
increase of g from 2 to 5 mm1 at specimens
with kt 2.5 results in a significant increase of
bending fatigue strength. It is also interesting to
note that specimens with kt 4.4, g 15 have
a somewhat higher strength than specimens with
300
280
260
Deep rolled
240
220
200
180
104
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
320
280
rs
260
240
220
200
180
104
1000
Deep rolled
300
(a)
2 20 m, 30 m/s
500
2 6 m, 15 m/s
0
2 3 m, 15 m/s
500
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
0.1
0.2
Distance from surface, mm
(b)
600
500
400
rs = 221 MPa
300
200
100
0
104
19
kt = 1.7
=2
602
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
Fig. 34
Fig. 35
S-N curves of specimens made from normalized plain carbon SAE 1015 steel in the asheat-treated state and after an additional deep rolling for
(a) push-pull loading and (b) rotating bending. After Ref 53
Fig. 33
400
= 0.4
Smooth
300
= 0.1
kt = 1.7
Notched
=2
200
100
0
500
=5
kt = 2.5
250
=2
0
250
500
750
rs
Surface residual stress (l ), MPa
Fig. 36
320
600
500
Shot peened
400
300
Ground
200
100
0
104
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
(a)
Nominal stress amplitude (n,a), MPa
600
500
Shot peened
400
Milled
300
200
Ground
100
0
104
(b)
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
Fig. 37
400
Smooth
= 0.4
300
200
Notched
kt = 1.7
=2
100
0
750 500 250
250
500
750
rs
Fig. 38
fluence on finite fatigue life. Figure 37(b) compares S-N curves of notched specimens which
were milled, ground, and shot peened after
800
600
400
Notched
Smooth
200
1000
2000
3000
4000
Deep-rolling force, N
5000
Fig. 39
Fig. 41
600
rs = 400 MPa
500
400
300
200
923
100
0
104
kt = 1.7
=2
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
Fig. 42
1000
200
0
200
rs
rs
400
3
4
5
400
600
800
1000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distance from surface, mm
0.5
Depth distribution of the residual stress in specimens made from blank-hardened AISI 5115
steel in the as-blank-hardened (1) and in different conditions of the shot peened state (3), (4), and (5) corresponding
to Fig. 39. After Ref 5456
Fig. 40
2 15 m, 30 m/s
500
2 9 m, 15 m/s
0
2 3 m, 15 m/s
500
0.1
0.2
Distance from surface, mm
Fig. 43
800
Smooth
= 0.4
600
400
200
0
1000
Notched
kt = 1.7
=2
500
500
1000
800
Smooth
= 0.4
600
400
Ground
Shot peened
Milled
200
Notched
kt = 1.7
=2
0
1000
500
500
1000
rs
1500
rs
Fig. 46
900
Shot peened
800
700
Ground
600
10
4
1
500
400
104
200
400
600
800
Surface hardness, HV 5
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
(a)
Fig. 47
1000
900
0
5458 HRC
800
700
600
500
400
104
(b)
Alternating bending S-N curves of specimens
made from quenched plain carbon SAE 1045
steel. (a) Smooth specimens after grinding and after additional shot peening. (b) Notched specimens after grinding,
milling, and grinding with additional shot peening with
shot of the indicated hardness. Source: Ref 4649
Fig. 45
rs
SAE 1045
AISI 5115
40
100
1000
crease of finite fatigue life. Additionally, the SN curve of milled specimen is included. Finite
fatigue life and bending fatigue strength of these
specimens are lower compared to shot-peened
ones, even though they contain very high surface
compressive residual stresses of 1200 MPa.
In Fig. 46, the bending fatigue strength data
already plotted in Fig. 44 are complemented by
data evaluated from Fig. 45. The arrows mark
the shift in bending fatigue strengths and surface
residual stresses produced by shot peening.
Similar to the discussion of Fig. 39 and 40, it
becomes obvious that the magnitude of surface
residual stress is not a suitable parameter for the
assessment of the influence of shot-peening-induced residual stresses on the fatigue strength.
200
325
400
280
200
600
185
0
10
Fig. 48
600
Smooth
= 0.4
n,a = 200 MPa
rs
Ratio Rf/HV 5
Rh = 3 m
1
Rh = 15 m
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Surface hardness, HV 5
400
Notched
kt = 1.7, = 2
n,a = 150 MPa
200
0
0
10
Fig. 49
600
=2
kt = 2.5
=5
1.5
kt = 1.7
400
200
200
0
0
200
400
106 107
10
102
103
104
105
106
Number of cycles, N
600
rs
Surface residual stress (l ), MPa
Fig. 50
105
Notched
n,a = 350 MPa
kt = 1.7
=2
kt n,a = 595 MPa
=2
1.0
400
104
Smooth
= 0.4
n,a = 400 MPa
rs
2.0
103
(a)
Surface residual stress (l ), MPa
2.5
102
Number of cycles, N
(b)
Surface residual stress in smooth and notched
specimens made from quenched-and-tempered (600 C/2 h) plain carbon SAE 1045 steel versus
number of cycles (a) at a lifetime of approximately 2 106
cycles and (b) at a lifetime of approximately 105 cycles.
Source: Ref 4749
Fig. 51
rs
500
N 107
Before loading
1000
1500
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Fig. 52
rs
0
n,a = 460 MPa
N 103
n,a = 300 MPa
500
N 107
Before loading
1000
1500
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Fig. 53
2.5
2.0
kt = 1.7
=2
1.5
1.0
500
500
1000
rs
Fig. 54
rs
0
Before loading
n,a = 750 MPa
500
N 107
1000
1500
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distance from surface, mm
0.5
Residual stress of smooth ground and additional shot peened specimens made from
quenched plain carbon SAE 1045 steel before loading and
after 107 cycles versus distance from surface. Source: Ref
4649
Fig. 55
800
Smooth
= 0.4
600
400
Ground
Shot peened
Milled
200
Notched
kt = 1.7
=2
0
1500 1000 500
0
500
1000
rs
Maximum residual stress (max ), MPa
Fig. 56
Before loading
500
rs
N 107
1000
1500
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distance from surface, mm
0.5
(a)
after
107 cycles. In this case, a significant relaxation and redistribution of the residual
stresses occur.
Before loading
500
rs
1000
N 107
1500
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distance from surface, mm
0.5
(b)
Residual stress of notched ground and additional shot peened specimens made from
quenched plain carbon SAE 1045 steel before loading and
after 107 cycles versus distance from surface. (a) Shot
peened with shot of a hardness of 46 to 50 HRC. (b) Shot
peened with shot of a hardness of 54 to 58 HRC. Source:
Ref 4649
Fig. 57
Fig. 58
Haigh diagram. Bending fatigue strength Rf of smooth and notched specimens made from a medium-strength
steel versus residual stress. After Ref 1, 62
(a)
(b)
Haigh diagrams. Bending fatigue strength Rf of
smooth and notched specimens made from
quenched plain carbon SAE 1045 steel with different surface conditions. (a) Versus surface residual stress. (b) Versus
maximum residual stress
Fig. 59
Fig. 60
smooth and notched specimens via the different ultimate tensile strengths.
In the range of compressive residual stresses,
the relationships are much more difficult. The
fatigue strength of smooth specimens is much
less than expected by the Haigh diagrams, regardless of whether the existing surface or the
maximum residual stresses are concerned. In the
case of shot peened specimens, this finding is
clearly related to subsurface crack initiation.
Therefore, neither the stress state at the surface
(Fig. 59a) nor the stress state in the depth of the
maximum compressive stresses (Fig. 59b) is directly relevant for the fatigue strength. Regarding notched specimens, the fatigue strength of
shot peened states is much higher than expected
by the Haigh diagram, if it is correlated with the
surface residual stresses (Fig. 59a). This simply
means that crack initiation must occur at the surface, if the specimens are loaded with amplitudes
in the range of the fatigue limit. On the other
hand, the stress amplitude in the depth of the
maximum of the compressive stresses of shot
peened specimens is somewhat lower than expected from the Haigh diagram (Fig. 59b). The
same holds for the data points of milled specimens, which have maximum compressive residual stresses at the surface. These findings can
only be understood if crack initiation and crack
propagation or crack arrest are treated separately.
This is done in the sections Concept of Local
Fatigue Strength and Propagating and Nonpropagating Cracks.
Application to a Medium-Strength Steel. In
medium-strength steels, residual stress relaxation definitively influences the relationships in
the Haigh diagram. Since the manufacturing process, which generates the macro residual
stresses, almost always changes the micro residual stresses and, hence, the local cyclic yield
strength, there are no unique borderlines for the
onset of residual stress relaxation as assumed in
Fig. 58. Nevertheless, Fig. 60 tries to bring the
results shown in Fig. 36 and 38 into a Haigh
diagram.
Regarding smooth specimens, the ultimate
tensile strength was taken from Ref 49. In
ground specimens with tensile residual stresses,
stress relaxation (marked by an arrow) brings the
corresponding data point rather close to the
Goodman line. The border lines for the onset of
residual stress relaxation are constructed using
this data point. However, these border lines are
not valid for shot peened specimens, in which
the residual stresses relax to a much smaller extent than expected as shown by the lower arrow.
Obviously, the resistance to residual stress relaxation is enhanced by shot peening, which results
in a stronger work hardening and, hence,
stronger increase of micro residual stresses than
grinding. Work hardening, however, should also
increase the fatigue strength at zero residual
stress and, hence, should produce deviations
from the solid line established with the aid of the
data points of ground specimens. However, as
already discussed in the paragraphs on medium-
strength steel in the section Evaluation of Experimental Results, there is a detrimental effect
of a very high surface roughness. The second
arrow illustrates the correction, which is based
on Fig. 47, for this effect. Compressive residual
stresses produced by grinding show some relaxation, although their initial value is inside of the
border lines. This finding is consistent with the
consideration given so far, since work hardening
is almost negligible in this specimen. Moreover,
the data point corresponding to the relaxed compressive grinding residual stresses still falls below the Goodman line. This finding was already
attributed to the low penetration depth of the
grinding residual stresses.
The residual stress sensitivity of notched specimens with kt 1.7 is significantly smaller than
that of smooth specimens, even though the consideration is based on the relaxed residual
stresses. Therefore, the different residual stress
sensitivity of the fatigue strength of smooth and
notched specimens, respectively, is not solely
based on different residual stress relaxation, and
the third conclusion given previously for a highstrength steel is also valid for a medium-strength
steel to some extent. From an extrapolation of
the Goodman line plotted, an ultimate tensile
strength of 1133 MPa is obtained, which is significantly higher than the ultimate tensile
strength of smooth specimens. Again, this finding results from the triaxial stress state in the
interior of the notched specimens and is consistent with data measured on other mediumstrength steels (Ref 63, 64). Regarding material
states with compressive residual stresses, the
data point of milled specimens comes rather
close to the Goodman line. No measurements
were done concerning the stability of this residual stress state. Since the data point falls inside
of the border lines, the residual stress state
should be stable. Contrarily, there is some relaxation of the compressive residual stresses in
ground specimens even though their initial value
falls inside of the border lines, too. Again, this
is a consequence of different micro residual
stress states. Similar to smooth specimens, the
data points fall below the Goodman line as a
result of the small penetration depth of the com-
1000
800
SAE 1045
600
400
AISI 304
300
200
100
103
Untreated
Shot peened
Deep rolled
105
106
104
Number of cycles to failure, Nf
107
Fig. 61
Damage Parameters
As discussed in the section Lifetime Behavior, there are some so-called damage parameters
that correlate fatigue life with loading parameters. The well-known Manson-Coffin relationship (Eq 5) is not applicable to material states
with residual stresses, because it does not account for mean stresses. On the other hand, the
Ostergren parameter (Eq 12) and the Smith-Watson-Topper parameter (Eq 11) include the mean
stress via the maximum stress. With the limitations already outlined in the previous section,
one could try to use these parameters to assess
the effect of residual stresses on fatigue life.
However, the application of the Ostergren parameter requires the knowledge of the local
plastic strain amplitude, which in turn needs sophisticated modeling of the local cyclic elasticplastic deformation behavior. This seems not to
be a useful approach. However, the Smith-Watson-Topper parameter (SWT parameter) is easier
to evaluate and was used in Ref 28 to account
for surface treated steels (normalized SAE 1045
and AISI 304). Figure 61 shows characteristic
plots of the SWT parameter versus the number
of cycles of stress-controlled tests on both steels
(Eq 18)
where the residual stress sensitivity m(z) approaches the mean stress sensitivity M of the
Goodman relationship (e.g., Eq 9) if the residual
stresses are stable. Then, the residual stress sensitivity is determined approximately by m(z)
sitivity m again approaches the mean stress sensitivity M as shown in the paragraphs applying
the Haigh diagram to medium-strength steels in
the previous section. The depth distributions of
the tensile strength Rm(z) and of R0f (z) can be
estimated from appropriate correlations with
Notched
Residual stress, rs
Residual stress, rs
Smooth
0
(a)
(b)
N f = 104
a and Rf,loc
a and Rf,loc
N f = 104
Nf =
Nf =
0
(c)
(d)
Distribution of residual stress (a) and (b) and distribution of loading stress and local fatigue strength for loadings
in the range of finite and infinite lifetime (c) and (d) for smooth (a) and (c) and notched (b) and (d) specimens
made from a high-strength steel
Fig. 62
Propagating crack
Not propagating
crack
d = 0.6 mm
1000
Rf
800
Loading
stresses
1200
d = 0.3 mm
1200
1000
Rf
800
600
600
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Distance from surface, mm
0.4
400
rs
400
800
1200
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.3
Distance from surface, mm
0.4
400
800
1200
0
(c)
0.1
0.2
0.3
Distance from surface, mm
(b)
400
l, MPa
rs
l, MPa
(a)
0.1
0.2
0.3
Distance from surface, mm
0.4
(d)
Distribution of the local fatigue strength and the loading stress for different stress amplitudes with marking of
the locus of crack initiation (a) and (b) and distribution of residual stress (c) and (d) for specimens made from
a quenched SAE 1045 steel after shot peening with shot with a mean diameter of 0.6 mm (a) and (c) and 0.3 mm (b) and
(d), respectively. After Ref 38, 39
Fig. 63
1500
Local fatigue
strength
1000
Loading stress
500
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
(b)
(c)
Distribution of the local fatigue strength and the loading stress with marking of the locus of crack initiation
for notched (a) and (b) and smooth (c) specimens made from a quenched SAE 1045 steel after shot peening
with a shot of a hardness of 46 to 50 HRC (a) and 54 to 58 HRC (b) and (c), respectively. Source: Ref 49
Fig. 64
1500
1000
Local fatigue
strength
500
Loading stress
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
Distribution of the local fatigue strength and the loading stress with marking of the locus of crack initiation
for notched (a) and smooth (b) specimens made from a quenched-and-tempered (600 C/2 h) SAE 1045 steel
after shot peening with a shot of a hardness of 46 to 50 HRC
Fig. 65
Keff, MPa m
(Eq 19)
4
Range of Kth,eff
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Fig. 66
(Eq 20)
for smooth (kt 1) and notched (kt 1) specimens without residual stresses. rn,a is the nominal stress amplitude. If residual stresses are
present, the maximum stress is increased or decreased, depending on the sign and the amount
of the residual stresses, leading to:
DKeff (kt rn,a
rrs) p aY Kmax
(Eq 21)
if Kmin 0 or:
DKeff kt Drn p aY
60
Without residual stresses
Keff, MPa m
12
Initial residual
stresses
40
Relaxed
residual
stresses
20
Range of Kth,eff
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Fig. 67
(Eq 22)
if Kmin 0.
Application to a High-Strength Steel. In a
high-strength SAE 1045 steel, literature data for
the threshold value Kth,eff fall in the range from
2.2 to 3.2 MPa m (Ref 67). As a first example,
ground notched specimens (kt 1.7, g 2)
with tensile residual stresses (see Fig. 43, curve
with open circles) are treated. Concerning the
half-elliptical cracks that initiate at the notch
root, a geometry factor Y 1 is assumed. The
interaction of this residual stress state with the
loading stress amplitude ra 230 MPawhich
corresponds to the fatigue strengthresults in
the depth distribution of DKeff shown in Fig. 66.
In a depth of 5 lm only, DKeff exceeds the
threshold value. Therefore, a crack that initiates
at the notch root will always propagate into the
interior of the specimen, and the fatigue limit
40
30
Relaxed residual
stresses
Keff, MPa m
Keff, MPa m
15
Initial
residual
stresses
Range of Kth,eff
20
10
Initial residual
stresses
Relaxed
residual
stresses
10
Range of Kth,eff
Crack initiation
0
0
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Fig. 68
Fig. 69
8
With residual
stresses
Keff, MPa m
2
Range of Kth,eff
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Fig. 70
Keff, MPa m
20
Without residual
stresses
15
Initial residual
stresses
Relaxed
residual
stresses
10
Range of Kth,eff
5
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Fig. 71
Relaxed residual
stresses
Without residual
stresses
Keff, MPa m
16
12
8
Initial residual
stresses
4
Range of Kth,eff
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distance from surface, mm
0.5
69. It becomes obvious that a crack, once initiated, can propagate. Regarding crack propagation toward the surface, the simple model predicts very slow crack growth in the range
1200
R m = 1650 MPa
Final failure
1000
Transition range
1400 MPa
No final
failure
1150 MPa
800
600
400
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Fig. 73
30
Without residual stresses
n,a = 640 MPa
n,a = 600 MPa
Keff, MPa m
Initial residual
stresses
20
Condition 6
n,a = 640 MPa
Condition 5
n,a = 600 MPa
Assumed
relaxed
residual
stresses
10
Range of Kth,eff
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distance from surface, mm
0.5
0.6
Range of the effective stress intensity factor DKeff without and with consideration of the initial and the relaxed,
respectively, residual stresses versus distance from surface for (corresponding to Fig. 39) shot peened smooth
specimens made from a blank-hardened AISI 5115 steel at cyclic bending loading
Fig. 74
rs
ls
Smooth
Fatigue strength, Rf
kt
Rh
rs
micro
rs
ls
Notched
Smooth
rs
micro
ls
Notched
Smooth
kt
Rh
Notched
Fig. 75
or quenched-and-tempered (at a low temperature) steel, upper band in the figure) are concerned
The depth distribution of the macro residual
stress rrs, characterized by its sign, magnitude, and gradient grs
The depth distribution of the micro residual
stress rrs
micro
The notch factor kt (smooth and mildly
notched specimens are regarded in the figure)
The gradient of the loading stress gls
The surface topography, characterized by the
roughness height Rh
Low-Strength Steel
In a low-strength steel, there will be no or very
little influence of the macro residual stress, because it is relaxed more or less completely if the
cyclic loading approaches the fatigue strength
(see Fig. 32 and 48). A change of the micro residual stress state by work hardening may significantly increase Rf since the resistance against
cyclic plastic deformation and hence, crack initiation increases (see Fig. 31). Then, also the resistance against macro residual stress relaxation
is raised resulting in a certain sensitivity of the
work-hardened zone to macro residual stress.
This may be detrimental or beneficial (see Fig.
33b) for Rf depending on the sign and the magnitude of the macro residual stress. The influence
of the surface topography is rather small in a
low-strength steel (see Fig. 47). The fatigue
notch factor kf is significantly smaller than the
notch factor kt because cyclic plastic deformation and stress redistribution occur in the notch
root (see Fig. 32). With increasing loading stress
gradient at a given kt, the fatigue strength increases due to the decrease of the highly stressed
volume of the component or specimen (compare
kt 2.5, g 2 with kt 2.5, g 5 in Fig.
32).
Medium-Strength Steel
In a medium-strength steel, there is a significant influence of the macro residual stress on Rf
since only a small part of rrs relaxes during cyclic loading in the range of the fatigue limit (see
Fig. 36, 38, 51a, and 52). However, in the lowcycle fatigue range, relaxation becomes more
complete with increasing amplitude, and the influence of the macro residual stress vanishes (see
Fig. 34, 37, 39, 51b). Tensile residual stresses
are always detrimental to Rf. Therefore, in the
presence of large tensile residual stresses a medium-strength steel may have equal or even
lower fatigue strength than a low-strength steel
(compare Fig. 32 with 36). If relaxed tensile residual stresses are concerned, the residual stress
sensitivity m of the fatigue strength approaches
the mean stress sensitivity M (see Fig. 60). In
material states of similar hardness loaded in the
range of the fatigue limit, compressive residual
stresses relax stronger than tensile ones simply
because of the different corresponding stress am-
High-Strength Steel
In high-strength steels, stress relaxation during cyclic loading in the range of the fatigue
strength only occurs in notched specimens bearing very high compressive residual stresses.
Then, the resulting fatigue strength is also high,
and during corresponding cyclic loading very
high magnitudes of the minimum stress occur,
which leads to some residual stress relaxation
(see Fig. 57b). Contrarily, in the range of high
tensile residual stresses and cyclic loadings that
lead to infinite life or to technically relevant lifetimes the occurring maximum stresses are much
lower and no residual stress relaxation is observed even in the range of low-cycle fatigue.
Consequently, the residual stress sensitivity and
the mean stress sensitivity of Rf are identical (see
Fig. 59), and the fatigue strength is strongly reduced with increasing tensile residual stress.
This is also true for the finite fatigue life (see
Fig. 42). In the range of compressive residual
stresses, complex relationships exist. A strong
effect of rrs will only occur if cracks are initiated
at the surface. However, in thick smooth specimens or components cyclically loaded in the
range of the fatigue strength, the loading stress
gradient is usually lower than the gradient of the
local fatigue strength, which depends on the
depth distribution of the residual stresses. Consequently, cracks are initiated below the surface
(see Fig. 62a and c, 63, and 64c) and the improvement of the fatigue strength even by high
compressive residual stresses is limited (see Fig.
45a, 46, and 56). With increasing stress amplitude and hence loading stress gradient, the crack
initiation site is shifted to the surface. Therefore,
the finite fatigue life is much more improved
than the fatigue strength (see Fig. 62a and c, 63,
and 45d). In notched specimens, the loading
stress gradient is larger than in smooth ones. If
high compressive residual stresses with a sufficient depth and/or a small gradient exist, crack
initiation will occur in the notch root resulting
in a strong improvement of the fatigue strength
(see Fig. 64a and b, 45b, 46, and 56). However,
if the penetration depth of the compressive residual stresses is low and therefore the gradient
of the local fatigue strength highfor example,
after grindingthe improvement of the notch
fatigue strength will be small (see Fig. 44 and
59). Frequently, after shot peening or deep rolling, maximum compressive residual stresses occur below the notch root. Then, the fatigue
strength may not be determined by the maximum
cyclic loading, which does not result in crack
initiation, but by the maximum cyclic loading at
which crack arrest below the surface is possible
(see Fig. 67, 68, and 73). As a consequence of
all these relationships, the fatigue notch factor
may vary strongly in the presence of compressive residual stresses regarding one-notch geometry and may take values ranging from less
than unity to the notch factor kt, as sketched in
Fig. 75. In fact, regarding smooth and notched
specimens, Fig. 44 and 54 prove that kf of ground
specimens with compressive residual stresses
produced by grinding approaches kt. From Fig.
56 it can be deduced that kf of shot peened specimens approaches unity. At vanishing residual
stresses, kf comes close to kt as expected in a
high-strength steel. With increasing tensile residual stress, the fatigue notch factor is reduced
and finally approaches unity (see Fig. 44 and 54).
Again, this finding is in correspondence with the
Goodman relationship for smooth and notched
specimens (see Fig. 58 and 59). The surface
roughness has principally a large influence on
the fatigue strength of high-strength steel, as
shown in Fig. 47. On the other hand, in practice
the roughness height of hard steel is rather low
even after mechanical surface treatments such as
shot peening.
Recommendations
From all of these relationships, some recommendations may be deduced. In medium- and
high-strength steels tensile macro residual
stresses must strictly be avoided since they always promote crack initiation and crack propagation and are detrimental to the fatigue strength
andat least in higher strength steelto finite
fatigue life. In a low-strength steel, the influence
of tensile macro residual stresses is usually small
or negligible, and the change of the micro residual stress state by work hardening is much more
important. In most cases, work hardening will be
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
(Eq 1)
(Eq 2)
400
Ck22
F
Ck45
A
Ck22
B
Ck45
C
Ck45
D
Ck45
G
100Cr6
E
Ta, C
400
Normalized
+5% deformed
in tension
Normalized
+ ground
800
Untempered
1200
Fig. 1
1.0
rs(Ta)/rs(293 K)
rs, MPa
Hardened
Hardened +
shot peened
Macro residual stress (rrs) of different steels before and after annealing for 1 h at 200 C (390 F). Ck 45 SAE
1045; Ck 22 SAE 1023; 100 Cr 6 AISI 52100
100
200
300
400
C
B
0.6
0.2
0
0.15 0.20
600
ta = 1 h
0.8
0.4
500
E
F
G
Ta/Tm, K
Macro residual stress ratio versus homologous
annealing temperature of different steels (see
Fig. 1) after annealing for 1 h
Fig. 2
can be linearized with the help of a Zener-WertAvrami function (Ref 33) to:
m
rrs/rrs
0 exp [(Ata) ]
(Eq 3)
should hold between annealing time and temperature. In Eq 3, t0 is a time constant, k is the
Boltzmann constant, and DH is the activation enthalpy for the relaxation process in the ta versus
Ta range under consideration. Data in the form
of rrs versus 1og ta plots as in Fig. 3 are not
suited to a direct evaluation using Eq 3.
The effect of time on residual stress relaxation
Ta, C
Ta, C
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
200
250
300
0.5
350
400
450
500
550
0.5
Normalized
0
1.0
150
150
1.0
250
250
0.5
350
350
450
1.0
0.5
HW/HW0
1.0
450
1.0
150
150
250
250
0.5
0.5
350
350
450
0
0
10
100
1000
450
Hardened
0
0
10
100
1000
Fig. 3
(Eq 5)
(Eq 6)
with the result that for a constant annealing temperature Ta, a plot of log ln(r0rs/rrs) versus log ta
gives a straight line (see Fig. 6).
Corresponding annealing temperatures and
times for rrs/r0rs constant can be derived from
such plots, as schematically illustrated in Fig. 6
in the log ta versus l/kTa plot. The values for
rrs/rrs0 constant lie on a straight line. Based
on Eq 5 and 6, this line results in
log ta constant
1.0
(Eq 4)
DH
ln 10 kTa
(Eq 7)
3.0
400
Ground
350 C/22 min
2.5
200
2.0
0
0
2.4
2.2
HW, 2
rs, MPa
Milled
2.0
200
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0
Shot peened
3.0
200
2.5
400
2.0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Fig. 4
Macro residual stress and half-width of the x-ray interference line versus distance from surface before and after
annealing of ground, milled, and shot-peened SAE 1045 samples in a normalized state
case of randomly distributed dislocations or tangles of extremely high density, qt for example,
in hardened steels where qt 1012 cm2 (Ref
23, 24)residual stress relaxation is expected
to involve dislocation-core diffusion-controlled
climb by edge dislocations. Predominantly volume diffusion will determine recovery if the dislocation configurations are relatively stable and
consist of plane arrangements, cell walls, or subgrain or low-angle grain boundaries. This recovery process probably occurred in the investigated
shot-peened quenched and tempered steels and
normalized steels as well as nonferrous alloys.
In view of the activation energies, the residual
stress relaxation in the hardened steels can probably be classified between these two extremes
and occurred by two recovery mechanisms in
competition with each other.
Up to now, discussion has centered on residual stress relaxation at temperatures Ta 0.5
Tm that is, those temperatures brought about
by typical recovery processes. In this case, mechanical parameters such as hardness and yield
strength are not significantly altered. During a
recrystallization anneal at Ta 0.5 Tm, the dislocation density rapidly takes very small values
as a result of the growth of new grains. This leads
to complete removal of macro residual stresses
and to small micro residual stresses, but is associated with pronounced changes in mechanical
properties. If extensive residual stress reduction
0
Shot peened
400 C/30 min
400
800
Ta,4
Normalized
Ta,3
6
300 C/60 min
400
HW, 2
Shot peened
rs, MPa
Ta,2
rs
log ln (0/rs)
Normalized
800
Quenched and tempered
Ta,1
log ta
400
5
4
Shot peened
800
Hardened
0
Fig. 5
log ta
0.2
Hardened
0.4 0
Distance from surface, mm
Ha/ln10
3
0.4
Macro residual stress and half-width versus distance from surface before and after annealing of shot-peened
SAE 1045 samples in normalized, quenched and tempered, and hardened states
1/kTa
Fig. 6
Loading stresses acting in opposition to the residual stresses in a given region of the material
delay the onset of microplastic deformation in
this region. Since the distribution of residual
stresses in a component is always inhomogeneous, there will be other regions in which superposition of rrs and rls in the same sense promotes plastic deformation. Therefore, it depends
on the superposition of rls and rrs at any point
in the component if a loading stress retards (|rls
rrs|max |rrs|max) or enhances (|rls rrs|max
|rrs|max) residual stress relaxation.
At this stage it is interesting to explain the
result shown in Fig. 1 and 2, where residual
stress relaxation in a deformed sample of SAE
1045 is delayed in comparison to that in SAE
1023 despite the compressive residual stresses
having double the magnitude. Due to its higher
carbon content, SAE 1045 contains a greater number of ferrite-cementite phase boundaries than
SAE 1023. These phase boundaries represent stable obstacles to dislocation slip. Apparently, the
restricted possibilities for recovery-driven movement of dislocations to arrangements of lower en-
(Eq 9)
ep C(T)rntm
600
rrs
eq Rce
0.4
10
500
250 C
400
300 C
300
350 C
200
400 C
100
10
102
ta, min
103
104
(a)
3.2
Ta = 250 C
102
300 C
2.8 350 C
400 C
450 C
2.4
103
104
600 C
90
525 C
0
10
80
410 C
60
375 C
340 C
320 C
50
250 C
20
40
30
0.8
200 C
10
150 C
102
10
ta, min
103
104
(b)
1.4
200
Ta = 250 C
70
rs
0.4
50 C
Ta = 4
log ln (0/rs)
Ta = 450 C
0
10
Annealing time, h
1
(Eq 10)
1.2
300 C
350 C
400 C
1.0
250
450 C
200
rs
, MPa
micro
(Eq 8)
rrs
eq
ened steels occurs more quickly or at lower temperatures, the greater the magnitude of the residual stresses themselves. This is a consequence of
temperature, time, and stress-dependent processes similar to those observed in so-called primary microcreep. Empirical relationships of the
form
|rs|, MPa
HW, 2
0.8
150
0.6
10
1.2
102
10
ta, min
103
104
(c)
1.6
1
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
2
log ta
(Eq 11)
However, macro residual stresses are inhomogeneously distributed over the cross section, and
for the residual stress relaxation in a localized
area the following relationship holds true:
rrs
0
E
e t e p e e 0
(Eq 13)
rs
constant ep
r
E
e p C*(T) (rrs)n e e
rs
(rrs
0 r )
ep
E
r rs
E
(Eq 14)
(Eq 12)
650
200
500
T( t )
200
Ta = 450 C
rs, MPa
rs, MPa
ta = 6000 min
60 min
400
6 min
600
Measured
Calculated
400
Tsalt = 450 C
300
Surface data
450
Transient relaxation
350
T, C
550
250
0.1
0.2
0.3
Distance from surface, mm
0.4
Fig. 9
rs+ ls
t2, 2
20
40
60
80
100
T1
T2
Temperature, T
Fig. 11
Fig. 10
Measuring property
DH, eV
B, min1
3.30
0.080
1.40 1018
t2 >> t1
2
1
Creep yield strength versus temperature at different creep times and strain rates
t, s
Table 1 Material properties DH, m, and B of the Avrami approach determined for different
heat treatment conditions of the shot-peened steel AISI 4140
Normalized
T 1
100
105
106
107
Heat treatment
t1, 1
rs
200
Isothermal relaxation
0 min
800
In certain cases in practice, uniaxial deformation is often employed in addition to stressfree annealing to relieve residual stresses. In the
case of forming, for example, the residual
stresses can be reduced by a second forming
stage using a smaller reduction in the crosssectional area. This can be achieved by redrawing, restretching, rerolling, repressing, and
straightening (Ref 16, 17). However, these techniques can be used only on simply shaped components with a uniform cross section. In the case
of welded seams, a uniaxial load is applied to
reduce or redistribute macro residual stresses.
When a critica1 value of the applied loading
stress is exceeded, directed dislocation movement converts the elastic strain associated with
the macro residual stress into micro plastic
strain.
Several typical examples will serve to illustrate the relaxation of residua1 stresses due to
joining and shot peening by uniaxial deformation. In an evaluation of the effect on the strength
of macro residual stresses set up during welding,
it is important to know the stability of these
stresses on loading the weld. Figure 13 illustrates
the considerable reduction in macro residual
stresses accompanying tensile loading of joints
r
E
Strain rate p, s1
et constant ep ee ep
nation of the two expressions that increasing residual stress values lead to a more effective residual stress relaxation. As a result of the greater
driving force, shorter times and/or lower temperatures are necessary. This is in agreement
with the experimental results presented.
The influence of the magnitude of the residual
stresses can also be illustrated by describing the
residual stress relaxation with the Norton approach, which is known from high-temperature
creep. The total strain rate as the sum of elastic
and plastic strain rate must vanish according to
>>
3.38
3.29
2.48
2.64
2.33
0.080
0.122
0.116
0.096
0.110
1.90 1021
1.22 1021
1.09 1013
5.32 1012
1.20 1016
108
T = 450 C
109
400 C
350 C
300 C
1010
1011
60
100
200
400
250 C
600
1000
rs, MPa
Plastic strain rate versus mean residual stress of
shot-peened AISI 4140 in a quenched and tempered condition (450 C, or 840 F, for 2 h). Determined
from the data of Fig. 8(a)
Fig. 12
200
Re
Rm
(Eq 15)
200
200
400
400
800
Re Rm
1200
0
rs, MPa
rs, MPa
ls, MPa
Welding residual stress versus tensile loading
stress of a maraging steel. (a) Transverse residual stresses in the welding seam center of an electron beam
welded joint. (b) Transverse residual stresses 3 mm (0.12
in.) from the welding seam center of a TIG welded joint
Fig. 13
200
400
600
6
t, %
15
HW, min
rs, MPa
0
200
600
1600
15
30
45
400
800
800
1600
60
6
ls, MPa
Macro residual stress at the surface versus loading stress under tension and compression, respectively, of shot-peened AISI 4140 in a quenched and
tempered condition (450 C, or 840 F, for 2 h)
Fig. 14
t, %
Fig. 15
(Eq 17)
30
200
(Eq 16)
(Eq 18)
(Eq 19)
req |Re(c),s|
2
ls
rs
(rlscrit(c))2 (rrs
s ) rcrit(c) rs
(Eq 20)
is valid. For the quenched and tempered conditions, however, the yield strengths show with
|Re(c),s| |Re(c)|
T = 25 C
T = 250 C
T = 400 C
200
400
600
1600
800
800
1600
ls, MPa
,
200
,
,
Macro residual stress at the surface versus loading stress under tension and compression, respectively, at different deformation temperatures for shotpeened AISI 4140 in a quenched and tempered condition
(450 C, or 840 F, for 2 h)
Fig. 17
Quenched and
tempered 450 C
Quenched and
tempered 650 C
Normalized
rs, MPa
Surface
Core
rs
rs
200
Surface
Cross
section
area
400
srs
600
1600
1200
800
400
400
800
1200
1600
ls, MPa
Macro residual stress at the surface versus loading stress under tension and compression, respectively, of shotpeened AISI 4140 in different heat treatment conditions: normalized; quenched and tempered at 450 C (840
F), for 2 h (qt 450); and quenched and tempered at 650 C (1200 F) for 2 h (qt 650)
Fig. 16
Fig. 18
(Eq 21)
200
T = 25 C
0
rs, MPa
200
400
600
Calculated
Measured
T = 400 C
200
0
rs, MPa
200
400
Calculated
Measured
600
1600
800
800
1600
ls, MPa
Measured and calculated macro residual stress
at the surface versus loading stress under tension and compression, respectively, at different deformation temperatures for shot-peened AISI 4140 in a quenched
and tempered condition (450 C, or 840 F, for 2 h)
Fig. 19
a = 700 MPa
a,p in 103
2
1
(a)
600 500
400
0
0
700
rlscrit(c)
Temperature
Re(c)
F
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
Re(c),s /Re(c)
25
250
400
75
480
750
275
300
340
40
45
49
345
300
275
50
45
40
480
496
516
70
72
75
1.39
1.65
1.87
1.58
1.33
1.28
70
75
480
750
340
600
400
360
49
85
60
52
805
1300
950
830
115
190
140
120
685
953
758
606
100
138
110
88
0.85
0.73
0.79
0.73
1.56
1.05
1.05
1.05
Normalized
500
a = 400 MPa
400
Re(c),s
C
Heat treatment
200
Table 2 Critical compressive loading stress rlscrit(c), yield strength Re(c) of unpeened conditions, surface yield strength Re(c),s, yield strength ratio Re(c),s /Re(c), and ratio of half-width values
HWs /HWc of shot-peened AISI 4140 in different heat treatment conditions
rs, MPa
600
HWs /HWc
600
10
(b)
102
104
Number of cycles, N
106
Fig. 20
900
800
200
700
600
300
l,s
500
400
400
300
500
600
700
10
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
105
106
107
(a)
0
a,s, MPa
100
1000
Tpeen = 290 C
900
200
800
700
rs , MPa
600
500
400
400
500
400
600
Top longitudinal
Bottom longitudinal
Top transverse
Bottom transverse
200
0
10
1000
100
l,s
|rs|, MPa
600
a,s, MPa
Tpeen = 20 C
300
800
rs , MPa
due to the so-called cyclic creep, where the properties A and m can be determined for each stress
amplitude from the experimental data in the linear sections of the curves in Fig. 20(b). In the
case of the stress amplitude ra 400 MPa (60
ksi), after the first cycle no further residual stress
relaxation is observed with increasing number of
cycles N. Obviously, this ra value is smaller than
the materials resistance against cyclic residual
stress relaxation ra,crit at the surface. For the two
highest stress amplitudes, ra 600 and 700
MPa (90 and 100 ksi), at the end of fatigue life
greater residual stress relaxation rates are observed than predicted by the rrs /log N law. The
beginning of this phase can be correlated with
the onset of cyclic work softening in the ea,p versus N curves in Fig. 20(a). Hence, increasing
plastic strain amplitudes at constant stress amplitude may cause increasing relaxation rates of
residual stresses.
For shot-peened AISI 4140 in a quenched and
tempered state and subjected to alternating bending at the stress amplitude ra,s 700 MPa (100
ksi), Fig. 21 presents the course of the absolute
values of the macro residual stresses at the surface of flat specimens versus the number of cycles in the longitudinal and transverse directions
(Ref 40). While the longitudinal residual stresses
at the top side (which was loaded in compressive
direction in the first half-cycle) relax from 600
MPa (90 ksi) to about 480 MPa (70 ksi),
the longitudinal residual stress at the bottom side
shows no considerable relaxation. In the second
half-cycle, this trend is reversed and the residual
stresses measured become similar. In the course
of further cyclic loading up to 105 cycles, the
residual stresses decrease linearly with the logarithm of the number of cycles according to Eq
21. After crack initiation at 105 Ni 4 105,
further reductions in the magnitudes of the residual stresses are measured. The residual
stresses in the transverse direction always relax
more slowly than in the longitudinal direction.
For initial stress amplitudes at the surface between 300 and 1000 MPa (45 and 145 ksi), Fig.
22 summarizes for the same steelin conven-
102
104
Number of cycles, N
700
106
10
102
103
104
Number of cycles, N
105
106
107
(b)
Absolute values of macro residual stress at the
surface versus number of cycles during alternating bending tests of shot-peened AISI 4140 in a
quenched and tempered condition (450 C, or 840 F, for
2 h) for a surface stress amplitude of 700 MPa (100 ksi)
Fig. 21
Macro residual stress at the surface in longitudinal direction versus number of cycles during alternating
bending tests of quenched and tempered AISI 4140 (450 C, or 840 F, for 2 h) at different surface stress
amplitudes. (a) Conventionally shot-peened condition (Tpeen 20 C, or 70 F). (b) Warm-peened condition (Tpeen 290
C or 555 F)
Fig. 22
1.0
0.9
a,s, MPa
HWs/HWs,0
300
400
0.8
500
600
700
0.7
800
900
1000
0.6
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
Number of cycles, N
(a)
1.0
a,s, MPa
0.9
400
HWs/HWs,0
500
600
0.8
700
800
900
0.7
1000
0.6
1
(b)
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
Number of cycles, N
Ratio of half-width at the surface versus number of cycles during alternating bending tests of quenched and
tempered AISI 4140 (450 C, or 840 F, for 2 h) at different surface stress amplitudes. (a) Conventionally shotpeened condition (Tpeen 20 C, or 70 F). (b) Warm-peened condition (Tpeen 290 C, or 555 F)
Fig. 23
200
(Eq 22)
(Eq 23)
For cyclic bending tests under the conditions illustrated in Fig. 27, the critical loading stress
rs,crit can be found by plotting the residual stress
values after the first cycle from Fig. 22 versus
the loading stress on the surface. This is given
in Fig. 28 for conventionally peened and warmpeened samples. The data points at N 1 show
that the critical loading stress at which quasistatic residual stress relaxation begins is much
higher for the warm-peened condition (rs,crit
500 MPa, or 70 ksi) than for the conventionally
peened variant (rs,crit 310 MPa, or 45 ksi) due
to the above-mentioned strain aging effects. The
residual stress relaxation during cyclic loading
Tpeen = 20 C
rs, MPa
200
N=0
400
N=1
N = 10
N = 102
N = 103
600
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35 0.40
Tpeen = 290 C
a,s = 1000 MPa
rs, MPa
200
N=1
N = 10
400
N = 102
600
N = 103
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35 0.40
Fig. 24
Applying Eq 24 for the shot-peened variants investigated, clear differences of Re(c),s can be recognized (see Table 3) (Ref 48). For both variants, however, the resulting compressive yield
strength at the surface is smaller than that of the
core region, which is qualitatively in agreement
with the results in Table 2. This is also due to
the Bauschinger effect. However, the
Bauschinger-induced work softening is much
smaller for the warm-peened samples than for
the samples peened at room temperature, due to
the dynamic and static strain aging effects that
occur during and after warm peening.
By using the critical loading amplitude ra,crit
as well as the residual stresses at the surface
rrss,N1 after N 1, and the assumption that the
residual stress state at the surface is still almost
axisymmetric, the cyclic yield strength at the
surface Rcycl
e,s can be calculated similarly to Eq 24
by:
2
rs
2
rs
Rcycl
e,s (ra,crit) (rs,N1) rs,N1 ra,crit
(Eq 25)
N=0
800
|Re(c),s|
2
rs
(rs,crit)2 (rrs
s ) rs rs,crit
800
e,s /Re
1.07). The increase of Rcycl
at
the
warm-peened
e,s
Summary
The stability of the mechanically treated surface state of components during the application
of thermal and/or mechanical energy is desirable
800
P = 50%
700
Tpeen = 290 C
Tpeen = 200 C
600
Tpeen = 20 C
500
Ground
400
104
105
106
Nf
640
590
530
Rfb, MPa
a,s, MPa
440
107
108
Fig. 26
Cross section
area
Surface
4.0
Tpeen = 20 C
a,s = 1000 MPa
N=0
N=1
N = 10
3.5
srs
HW, 2
N = 102
Core
N = 103
rs
rs
c
3.0
2.5
Surface
2.0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35 0.40
Fig. 27
to bending
(a)
4.0
Tpeen = 290 C
a,s = 1000 MPa
100
N = 1 N = 104
Tpeen = 20 C
N = 102
200
Tpeen = 290 C
N = 103
300
l,s
3.0
rs , MPa
N=1
N = 10
3.5
HW, 2
N=0
2.5
400
500
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35 0.40
Fig. 25
s,crit
600
700
200
2.0
a,crit
s,crit
a,crit
400
600
800
|s| or a,s, MPa
1000
Macro residual stress at the surface in longitudinal direction versus absolute value of surface
stress or surface stress amplitude of quenched and tempered AISI 4140 (450 C, or 840 F, for 2 h) after alternating
bending to N 1 and N 104 in conventionally shotpeened and warm-peened conditions
Fig. 28
20
290
rrs
s
rs,crit
Re(c),s
F
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
Re(c),s /Re(c)
70
555
310
500
45
75
600
660
90
95
801
1008
116
146
0.60
0.78
20
290
rs,rs N1
ra,crit
cycl
Re,s
F
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
cycl
Rcycl
e,s /Re
70
555
514
714
74
103
520
620
75
90
895
1156
130
168
0.82
1.07
(Eq 26)
sufficient stable obstacles to dislocation movement, which increases rcrit at the loads given. For
T 0.4 Tm (Tm melting temperature in K)
these could, for example, be grain and phase
boundaries, finely dispersed incoherent particles,
coarse secondary phases, and, as long as no diffusion can occur, solute alloying atoms and certain dislocation arrangements. The onset and extent of residual stress relaxation is influenced in
a complex manner by the combined effects of
heat treatment, unidirectional and cyclic stress,
and multiaxial applied and/or residual stress
states. The kinetic of residual stress relaxation is
essentially determined by the difference |rls|
|rrs| |Ri|. The greater the applied loading stress
isthat is, the higher the temperature, the
longer the time, and the greater the magnitude
and amplitude of the applied stress, plastic deformation, or number of cyclesthe greater the
increase in the rate of residual stress relaxation.
The rate often increases as the absolute value of
the residual stress increases. The fewer the stable
obstacles to dislocation slip, the faster the rate.
(Eq 27)
REFERENCES
1. E. Macherauch and V. Hauk, Ed., Proc. Int.
Conf. Residual Stresses 1, DGM-Informationsgesellschaft, Oberursel,1987
2. B. Beck, S. Denis, and A. Simon, Ed., Proc.
Int. Conf. Residual Stresses 2, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1989
3. H. Fujiwara, T. Abe, and T. Tanaka, Ed.,
Proc. Int. Conf. Residual Stresses 3, Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1992
4. M. James, Ed., Proc. Int. Conf. Residual
Stresses 4, Society for Experimental Mechanics, 1994
5. T. Ericsson, M. Oden, and A. Andersson,
Ed., Proc. Int. Conf. Residual Stresses 5, Institute of Technology, Linkopings Universitet, 1998
6. A. Niku-Lari, Ed., Proc. Int. Conf. Shot
Peening 1, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982
7. H.O. Fuchs, Ed., Proc. Int. Conf. Shot Peen-
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
METALLURGISTS AND METALS SCIENTISTS traditionally consider hydrogen an undesirable impurity in metals and alloys, associating its presence with the origination of
floccules, porosity, and corrosion. Due to specific behavior of the element in steel, it makes
worse technological and exploitation properties
of the material. Hydrogen embrittlement (HE),
as well as other types of brittle fracture, of metals
result from nucleation and development of microcracks caused by internal stresses. Peculiarities of HE are involved with steel physical properties and mechanisms of its interaction with
hydrogen. Considerable hydrogen solubility difference depending on external factors, a high diffusion mobility, and the capability to form molecules on interfaces that induces a high internal
hydrostatic pressure all promote various types of
brittleness.
Hydrogen in Steel
Sources of Hydrogen Penetration in Steel.
Water-containing raw charge materials and fur-
nace gases involved in the open-hearth (Martins) process are the main sources of hydrogen
penetration in steel (Ref 1). Industrial cast usually contains H2 of not less than 1.5 to 2.0 cm3 /
100 g. Use of vacuum evaporation in a ladle or
at casting is the only way to decrease the content
of hydrogen in steel down to a concentration not
affecting the mechanical properties, of the steel.
Penetration of hydrogen into a carbonic and
alloyed steel was observed in a hydrogen atmosphere at a high pressure (Ref 2, 3). Metal welding is one of the most dangerous technological
processes inducing penetration of hydrogen in
steel. During the process, hydrogen, contained in
electrode coatings as organic compounds and
water molecule, is dissociating, then being in the
atomic state it dissolves in a molten metal and
partly diffuses into neighboring zones of the basic material. Various electrochemical processes,
etching in acids, and interaction with liquid
agents containing hydro-sulfide also promote to
steel saturation with hydrogen. Therefore, hydrogen is an inevitable impurity in steel pro-
T, C
102
600
500
K K0 p1 / 2 exp(D
H / RT)
lg H 1376/T 0.665
400
(Eq 1)
where H is hydrogen concentration, at.%. Temperature dependence of hydrogen solubility in cFe can be evaluated from (Ref 3):
lg H 1411/T 0.468
(Eq 3)
101
0.4
Fig. 1
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1000/T, K1
1.4
1.6
1.8
Hydrogen solubility in iron in dependence on temperature at atmospheric pressure. Data source: Ref 25
(Eq 4)
(Eq 5)
(Eq 6)
Just as impurities forming interstitial solid solutions, hydrogen interacts with various crystal
defects, creating nonuniform solid solutions.
Presence of microdeformation near the crystal
imperfections increases hydrogen solubility
there. Therefore, the solubility of hydrogen in
steel rises with an increase in density of defects.
When diffusing inside the crystal, hydrogen atoms are retained by the lattice imperfections, and
its effective diffusion coefficient essentially decreases. This results in sharply diminishing diffusion mobility of hydrogen in iron at low temperatures. Defects retaining hydrogen are known
as traps. Its concentration controls an excessive
hydrogen solubility, compared with the lattice
one (i.e., in an ideal lattice). Moreover, the number of places capturing hydrogen is inversely
proportional to the value of the effective diffusion coefficient.
The role of traps can be played by edge dislocations, boundaries of mosaic blocks or grains,
single pores uniformly distributed in crystals, inclusions of a second phase, and atoms of alloy-
ing elements. The energy of hydrogen interaction with different structural components varies
in a narrow interval (0.10.4 eV per atom). In
particular, the one with dislocations in iron was
evaluated as about 1.6 1020 J (0.1 eV per
atom) (Ref 25).
The Role of Stresses. Hydrogen atoms interact
with any anisotropic strain field, similar to its
interaction with dislocations. If concentration of
hydrogen atoms is insignificant, then distribution
of the dissolved ones in a strain field of a crystal
lattice can be found using:
C C0 exp (U/kT)
(Eq 7)
where C is a concentration of hydrogen in a certain point of the field, C0 is an average concentration, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the kelvin temperature, and U is the interaction energy
of hydrogen atoms with the strain field in the
place of a defined concentration, C.
Accounting for only hydrostatic components
of the field, the interaction energy, U, makes:
U p dV
(Eq 8)
(Eq 9)
where A kT/dV.
According to (Eq 9), hydrogen in the crystal
lattice is redistributed under stress influence.
These deductions were confirmed with experiments (Ref 26, 27). It is settled that the effective
diffusion coefficient of hydrogen essentially decreases, and its solubility increases under loading the metal in a macro-elastic interval (below
yield strength). Thus, stresses promote nucleation of new reversible hydrogen traps, disappearing after elimination of an external stress.
Similar sites arise near the crack tip, in a several
crystalline structure
Adsorbing one on the surface of micropores
T, C
107
800
400
200
100
25
D, cm2/s
107
107
107
107
0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6
1000/T, K1
Fig. 2
H
H2
HH
H2
H2
H
HH
HH
H
HH
H
H
H2
H2
H2
H
H
Fig. 3
(Eq 10)
H
H
H
pores
Forming hydrides
Interacting with alloying elements and second
phases
When hydrogen solutes in transition metals,
its s-electrons transfer to a vacant d-shell of a
metal with the lower energy level. The free proton of hydrogen is partly screened by electrons,
which as electronic gas can be involved in its
moving in the metal lattice (Ref 28). Hydrogen
reduces a shear modulus of -iron; at 100 K temperature, this is approximately an 8% decrease
per 1% of hydrogen atoms (Ref 30). At a room
temperature and standard atmosphere pressure
the solubility of hydrogen in steel is insignificant; its supersaturated solid solution is unstable
and decomposes over time. One part of hydrogen
dissolves into the atmosphere and another is
caught by crystalline lattice imperfections. It is
necessary to distinguish two types of defects active in relation to hydrogenpores (or collectors) and traps. Collectors represent volumes
where hydrogen molization is observed and a
considerable hydrostatic pressure develops.
Traps represent defects of smaller sizes than collectors, such as vacancies, substitution and interstitial atoms, edge dislocations, its pile-ups
and thresholds, high-angle boundaries, and fields
of a volume tension (i.e., near the crack tip).
There is a principle difference between traps and
collectors. Transition of hydrogen from a crystal
lattice into traps is reversible, while transition
into collectors is accompanied by formation of
H2 molecule and is nonreversible. The considered features depend on a steel structure.
Ferrite-Pearlite Steels. Nonmetallic inclusions, such as manganese sulfides, are traps of
hydrogen in these soft steels. The maximum solubility of hydrogen in such steel depends not
only on the content but also on the shape of manganese-sulfide particles. The rolled-out prolonged ones increase hydrogen solubility and decrease its effective diffusion coefficient in
Fig. 4
with precipitation of an atomic hydrogen during corrosion reactions, its adsorption on the
surface and dissolution in metal with development of hydrogen embrittlement
Main Aspects of the Hydrogen Embrittlement Theory. Definite kinds of HE involve two
basic aspectsthe mechanism of hydrogen
transfer to a fracture place, and 2-H influence on
the steel fracture toughness.
Usually hydrogen is transported by moving
dislocations or diffuses (itself) through the crystal lattice under inhomogeneous fields of elastic
stresses (Ref 3740). Being in steel, hydrogen
decreases the fracture work by influencing mechanisms of plastic deformation and reducing the
energy of disruption of interatomic bonds near
the crack tip.
In ferrite-pearlite steels, HE is accompanied
by nonreversible structural damages in the form
of micropores containing molecular hydrogen
under high pressure. Those conditions, however,
are not enough for steel fracture that occurs due
to hydrogen migration together with moving dislocations into the zone of deformation near the
tip of a developing crack. Fracture of soft steels
is always accompanied by a considerable plastic
deformation essentially affected by hydrogen
(Ref 37) facilitating the beginning of plastic deformation of ferrite due to adsorption effects.
However, hydrogen increases the hardening coefficient at higher deformation degrees (Ref 41).
As a result, it localizes the plastic deformation
in the zone of fracture, essentially reducing the
plasticity of steel and diminishing the total fracture energy.
In steels with martensitic structure, hydrogen
migrates through the field of elastic deformations into the zone of three-axial stresses before
the front of a crack (Ref 42, 43). When the content of external and dissolved hydrogen reaches
a critical value, the crack immediately propagates by the mechanism of disruption of interatomic bonds (Ref 44). In this case, the basic
mechanism of HE is tied with breaking weakened bonds in grain boundaries and decreasing
the plastic deformation energy in local sites of
ductile fracture.
Forms of HE of steels are numerous, but only
in some cases (floccules, delayed fracture, and
stress corrosion) the role of macro and micro
stresses influencing hydrogen behavior is clearly
defined.
Floccules
Floccules are interior cracks (flaws) observed
in steel: in the central zone of deformed preforms and, as an exception, in some sites of
molded wares. In polished (not etched) cross
macro-grinds these defects look like hairline
cracks (Fig. 4) opened along a plastic flow direction of forged pieces and rolled products.
Only when considerable axial stresses are present in a pre-form, the orientation of floccules al-
The main factors determining the kinetic features of delayed fracture are the chemical composition and the structure of steel, a hydrogen
content, the presence of stress concentrators, the
test temperature, the amount and the distribution
of impurities and nonmetallic inclusions, and the
presence of inherent stresses (Ref 29). In this
case the delayed fracture can develop both under
the effect of external hydrogeneous media and
inherent hydrogen having entered the metal as
the result of melting, welding, etching, anticorrosive electroplating, and other production
operations. An example is in the formation of
so-called cold cracks in the heat-affected zone
while welding alloyed steels (Ref 51). The increased hydrogen content in the near-weld zone
is the result of hydrogen diffusion from the melt
where it enters due to dissociation of moisture
in electrode coating (welding flux) (Ref 52, 53).
The effect of the steel-strength level on the
resistance to delayed fracture has been supported
by many studies. It has been shown that at the
low-strength level (up to 750 MPa, or 110 ksi)
the influence of hydrogenation is comparatively
moderate. At strength more than 1000 MPa (145
ksi), the resistance to delayed fracture reduces so
that the value of the threshold stress, rth, decreases to 200 MPa (29 ksi) (Ref 53). It has
been found also that as to the high-strength
steels, especially in the presence of stress concentrators, delayed fracture can develop even
with the low-hydrogen content not exceeding approximately 10 4 at.% (1.1 cm3 per 100 g of
metal) (Ref 1). Numerous examples of delayed
fracture of products fabricated from highstrength alloyed steels (shafts made of Fe-0.45C2Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel, axles made of Fe-0.2C-2Cr4Ni steel in the carburized state, etc.) are
presented in a monograph (Ref 54). The presence
of internal hydrogen in association with high residual stresses with a value reaching 1000 MPa,
(145 ksi) is the most commonly occurring cause
for delayed fracture in the case under consideration.
A great deal of publications in which various
methods of hydrogenation are presented are devoted to the study of delayed fracture of steels.
A main body of experimental data has been obtained with the use of the cathode polarization
method. Therefore, in analysis of the influence
of chemical composition and structure, it is necessary to take into consideration that, because of
electrolytic hydrogenation of large-size samples,
the occurrence of nonuniform distribution of hydrogen over the section can give rise to the largescale effect (Ref 55). Hydrogenation from the
gas phase under conditions of elevated temperatures (above 473 K) may cause irreversible damages in the form of bulgings and pores appearing
because of high pressure during the formation of
inner molecular hydrogen or methane. Additionally, in this case the probable surface decarburization can also have an effect on the initiation
and growth kinetics of cracks (Ref 56). From a
practical standpoint, on the contrary, these im-
1
1
Stress,
th
Fig. 5
Stress, , MPa
900
700
3
4
500
300
1
100
0
1
20
10
30
40
50
Time to failure, , h
60
100
Fig. 6
IV
III
II
K1c
K1t
Fig. 7
Table 1 Influence of alloying elements and impurities on transition temperature, T50; work
of propagation of a ductile crack, A; plasticity loss after hydrogenation, Fw and resistance
to hydrogen embrittlement, s (chromium-molybdenum steel, 0.2% C)
Element (limits of
alloying, mass, %)
Optimal content of
the element, mass, %
T50, C
A, MJ/m2
Fw%
s, h
for such a strong influence of phosphorus, antimony, and tin segregation is a buildup of hydrogen concentration on the grain boundaries as a
consequence of the chemical interaction of hydrogen with these impurities (Ref 75).
The steel structure has a determining effect on
the resistance to delayed fracture. The least resistance is typical for the martensitic structure,
especially at low tempering temperatures. An increase of the tempering temperature to 420 C
(788 F) causes the value of rth to increase by
several times. The decrease of the volume fraction of martensite to 20 to 30% means to that
even in the hardened state delayed fracture does
not develop (Fig. 8) (Ref 78). In Ref 54 attention
is drawn to the increased sensitivity of steel Fe0.4C-Cr-Si with the lower bainite structure to delayed fracture, although this structure is characterized by high-impact toughness and adequate
plasticity. Unlike the martensitic structures,
whose failure process develops mainly along
boundaries of former austenitic grains, the bainite structure fails along the grain body (by mechanism of quasi-spall).
On evidence given in Ref 74 the resistance to
the hydrogen embrittlement of low-alloyed pipe
steels increases in the direction from normalization to the controlled rolling, but the best results are ensured by the thermal improving
(quenching high tempering) and quenching
from the intercritical temperature interval. A
comparison shows that the thermal improving
and quenching from the intercritical interval ensure about the sixfold enhancement of the longterm strength as compared with the normalization. Water quenching at 775 C (1425 F) when
the structure contains approximately 30% of
bainite affords the best combination of properties. The marked enhancement of the resistance
to delayed fracture is provided by the high-temperature thermomechanical processing of the
C (0.2 to 0.8)
0.20.3
20 to 60
0.1 to 0.2
32
Solid solution
Si (0.2 to 1.8)
0.40.7
4 to 6(a)
5 to 8(b)
3(a)
7 to 16(b)
4 to 10
1 to 1.5
9
0.12
0.05
0.05
0
0
0.17
3
2
2
7(a) to 1.3(b)
1.2
4
5
15
23
6.5
5.7
7.5
0.04
0.01
0
2.9
1.5
8
80
1
260
0
0
0
36(a) to 10(b)
12
10
250
250
400
0.04
0
35
70
2.4
1.0
2.5
2.5
0.04
0
80
360
500
32
1.2
Ni (0 to 3.0)
Co (0 to 3.0)
Al (0.03 to 0.7
0.51
0.5
0.25
Carbide-forming
Cr (0.5 to 3.0)
Mo (0 to 1.0)
0.4 to 0.5
Ti (0 to 0.15)
Nb (0 to 0.20)
V (0 to 0.4)
0.05
0.02 to 0.06
0.1
1(a)
2 to 5(a)
15 to 30(a)
3 to 5(b)
60(a) to 14(b)
0(a) to 40(b)
20(a) to 15(b)
Modifiers
Rare-earth (Ce)(0 to 0.5)
AIN, VN, NbN (0 to 0.2)
0.1 to 0.3
0.2
10
40
Impurities
S (0.015 to 0.045)
P (0.004 to 0.026)
Sb (0.0006 to 0.027)
Sn (0.0005 to 0.03)
Cu (0 to 1.5)
11.5
1400
5
1200
Stress , MPa
Mn (0.6 to 2.5)
1600
1000
800
600
2
200
1
0.01
0.015
0.01
0
0.5
0
230
180
180
1
(a) Alloying for optimal content. (b) Alloying over optimal content. Source: Ref 143
2
3
Time to failure , h
Fig. 8
80
3
, %
60
40
1
20
2
0
2500
3
B, MPa
2000
1500
2
1
1000
500
340
380
420
460
500
540
T, C
Nucleating grain boundary crack revealed at the
top of the stress concentrator on testings of
quenched steel Fe-0.3C-Cr-Mn-Si for delayed failure.
1100. Source: Ref 81
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
tion, the microstress relaxation process completes in a time of no more than 10 to 20 h since
quenching. In this state a material still possesses
the sensitivity to delayed fracture. In the process
of holding samples at room temperature, the evolution (desorption) of hydrogen from them into
the atmosphere has been found to occur. The
sensitivity to delayed fracture is just concurrently with termination of hydrogen desorption
(i.e., about 70 h after quenching has been
elapsed). According to the data of the laser spectroscopy, the amount of desorbent hydrogen over
the period of holding comes to approximately 2
106 at.% (Ref 84).
The source of diffusive-mobile hydrogen in
the structure of the quenched steel is inner hydrogen, whose amount at conventional process
of melting makes up no less than 2 to 3 104
at.%. The lattice solubility of hydrogen increases
from approximately 107 at 20 C (68 F) to 4.4
104 at.% at 860 C, (i.e., by about 3 orders
of magnitude), as a result of heating to the austenization temperature. A reverse decrease of
solubility in the process of the fast quenching
results in a part of hydrogen being kept for some
time in the oversaturated state in the -solid solution and has the increased diffusive mobility
and the property of localizing in the region of
maximal tensile stresses. High interior microstresses inherent of the quenched steel structure
make the process of the crack initiation and the
crack growth easier but are not the factors that
control kinetic parameters of delayed fracture.
Another interesting case is delayed fracture of
high-strength maraging steels, which develops
over the certain temperature interval of aging
400460 C (Ref 85). The development of delayed fracture in these steels requires no special
hydrogenation. Therefore, within a long period
of time this phenomenon was also connected
only with the peculiarities of the structure state
forming at indicated aging temperatures. Furthermore, this problem is urgent because aging
in the indicated interval provides for obtaining
the maximum elastic limit of steel. However,
owing to the low resistance to delayed fracture,
this mode of aging usually is not practiced. An
analysis of data in hand has shown that the key
question in explaining the phenomenon of delayed fracture of maraging steels is a question on
the role of the testing environment (air, vacuum)
as well as the role of titanium (Ref 85).
The investigations have been carried out with
steels Fe-16Ni-10W-Mo-Ti and Fe-18Ni-9Co5Mo-Ti (Ref 86, 87). The tests have been performed under static loading at the reduced rate
of e 2.8 105 s1. Dependencies of the mechanical properties of steel Fe-18Ni-9Co-5MoTi on the aging temperature when testing in the
air and in vacuum are presented in Fig. 10. A
crevasse in curves of the change of mechanical
properties on tests in the air (curves 1,1) corresponds to the aging temperature of 420 to 460
C. Plastic properties of steels in this range come
practically to the zero level. An effect of delayed
fracture for steel Fe-16Ni-Mo-10W-Ti is observed within a more narrow temperature inter-
Fig. 11
Mechanism of failure of steel Fe-16Ni-10W-Mo-Ti at crack initiation stage (aging at temperature of 420 C).
(a) Testings in the air. (b) Vacuum testings (P 1.3 Pa). 1050. Courtesy of A.I. Kovalev
H3O
102
H2O
10-20
Oxide-hydroxide layer
P
Grain 1
~10
H3O
Ni3Ti
Hads
Grain 2
Grain 1
Oxygenless zone
Grain boundary
(a)
Fig. 12
(b)
Grain 2
Ti segregation
Ni3Ti
H2O
Air
Habs
TiHx
Grain boundary
Mechanism of the crack growth on delayed failure of maraging steel. (a) Stage before crack initiation. (b) Stage
of crack growth. Source: Ref 87
100
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
80
60
40
20
1000
1400
B, MPa
1800
Strength level effect of steels Fe-0.3C-2Ni-CrMn-Si (1,2,3), Fe-0.4C-Cr-Ni-Mn (4,5), and Fe0.3C-Cr-Mn-Si (6,7) on value of threshold stress-intensity
factor KISCC in corrosion medium. 1,4,6,8, tests in water;
2,5,7, tests in H2S solution; 3, tests in gaseous H2S. Source:
Ref 93
Fig. 13
KISCC and KIC in the case of high-strength combined-alloy steels (when testing in the NaCl
3.5% solution), holds promise (Ref 117).
Quenching from the intercritical temperature interval can also be profitable. The formation of
the ferritic-martensitic structure as the result of
quenching from the intercritical temperature interval (740 C, or 1364 F) makes it possible to
enhance vastly the resistance of steel Fe-0.5CCr-Mo to the hydrogen SCC in salt water (Ref
118). The two-stage austenitization (high-temperature conventional one) forms a toothed
structure of grain boundaries, which also inhibits
the grain boundary failure by enhancing the resistance to SCC.
The effect of grain size on the resistance of
steels to SCC is then ambiguous. In many works
it was pointed out that the finer the austenitic
grain, the higher resistance to SCC is observed.
For example, on the data given in Ref 119 and
120 the time before failure in the NaCl 3.5%
solution increases by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude
with decreasing the austenite grain in the steel
Fe-0.4C-Cr-Ni-Mo from 172 to 12 mkm in size.
However, there is other evidence. For example,
overheating in the process of the austenitization
of the high-strength steel Fe-0.45C-2Ni-Cr-MoV favors a great increase of KISCC when testing
in distilled water (Ref 121). The high-temperature austenitization is most profitable for cast
steels in so far as they are less prone to the grain
growth as compared to hot-strained steels (Ref
122). Unlike quenching, the overheating in normalizing, as a rule, has a negative effect, especially in the case of low-alloy steels containing
manganese and vanadium (Ref 123).
The problem on the effect of initial structure
is of great importance. It is found that, compared
with hot-strained steels, cast steels have higher
values of the corrosion cracking resistance, although standard mechanical properties of cast
steels are much lower (Ref 122). Studied in Ref
124 is the effect of different methods of melting
(an electric furnace, an arc-vacuum furnace, a
vacuum induction furnace, electroslag remelt)
and their combinations on the corrosion mechanical properties of maraging steel. It has been
shown that combined methods of melting make
it possible to increase considerably (by 25%)
KISCC when testing in the NaCl 3% solution. The
analogous data have been obtained in work (Ref
110). Commercial Fe-0.4C-2Ni-Cr-Mo and Fe0.4C-2Ni-Cr-Mo-Si steels that have been melted
in the air and vacuum were tested in the chloride
medium at K 0.9KI. Vacuum-melted steels
possessed the enhanced SCC resistance, whereas
in air-melted steels, cracks developed practically
at once.
In corrosion-mechanical steel failure one of
the key problems is the problem of nonmetallic
impurities. In this case, both morphological
characteristics of impurities (the quantity, form,
sizes, and distribution) and their chemical activity in the given corrosion medium are of importance. The impurities of sulphides, silicates, and
oxides as well, which play the main role in the
process of the crack initiation, are the most ac-
tive (Ref 111). The local electrochemical corrosion processes developing in the corrosive medium around the impurities, resulting in
inevitable formation of aggressive medium-filled
microcavities. The role of MnS impurities in the
course of corrosion-mechanical failure of the Fe0.2C-Cr-Ni-Mo type reactor steel intended for
the production of high-pressure containers was
studied in (Ref 125). The suggested mechanism
of initiation and growth of cracks includes, as
the first stage, the appearance of a slot between
an impurity and a matrix owing to dissolving
MnS in the electrolyte. Atomic hydrogen is adsorbed at crack lateral surfaces, following which
it diffuses into the metal toward the crack top
and causes local cracking.
In acid media sulfide impurities dissolve and
yield H2S that greatly reduces the resistance to
SCC (Ref 126). Dissolution products of some
impurities enhance the adjacent metal corrosion
that also promotes the cracking process. The enhancement of cracking in dissolving nonmetallic
impurities is supported by the data given in Ref
127 devoted to the study of SCC of the Fe-0.2CMn-Ni-Mo steel in the medium intended for
cooling atomic reactors. As the medium has been
contaminated by dissolution products, the MnS
samples have broken down due to the development of the corrosion cracking process, whereas
in the medium free of the corrosion products, this
process has not occurred. At the same time, as
shown in Ref 128, with cathode deposits present,
the SCC process of pipe steels of Fe-0.1C-2MnSi-V-Nb and Fe-0.1C-2Mn-Si-V, and so on type,
which have been chosen from zones of main
pipeline failure cannot be explained in the context of the suggested model of the sulphide impurity dissolution (Ref 128). On authors data,
the negative effect of sulphides is connected
mainly with their role as concentrators of internal stresses (Ref 129). Nonetheless, in spite of
distinctions between interpretations, it is believed that the enhancement of the corrosion-mechanical steel strength can be attained by reducing the nonmetallic impurity content that is
achieved in part by rational deoxidizing and by
modifying the steels by the addition of rare-earth
and alkaline-earth elements.
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steels for
Main Gas-Pipe Lines. In many countries,
namely, the United States, Canada, Australia,
and Russia, there are recorded emergency failures of subterranean buried gas-pipe lines because of pipe steels SCC (Ref 130, 131). The
summary data displaying the time of trouble-free
operation of main gas-pipe lines used by three
major Russian companies are given in Fig. 14.
Pipes of different diameter (1020, 1220, 1420
mm) and different chemical composition have
been analyzed. It has been found out that pipes
put into service from 1967 to 1980 have the resistance to SCC much higher than those which
have been laid recently in a period from 1981 to
1989. The time of safe service of the former is
from 9 to 23 years, that of the latter is only from
2 to 14 years. It is significant that all the shortlived pipes have been fabricated from steels of
30
25
20
15
C
T
Y
T
10
T
5
0
1966
1971
1976
1981
1986
1991
Fig. 14
W0 WH
100%
W0
123. W. Radeker and B.N. Mishra, Werkst. Korros., Vol 21 (No. 9), 1970, p 692
124. F.W. Fraser and E.A. Metzbower, Fractogr. and Mater. Sci. Symp., 1979 (Williamsburg, VA), Philadelphia, 1981, p 51
125. K. Rippstein and H. Kaesche, Corros. Sci.,
Vol 29 (No. 5), 1989, p 517
126. Z. Szklarska-Smialowska and E. Lunarska,
Werkst. Korros., Vol 32 (No. 11), 1981, p
478
127. H. Hanninen, Corrosion, Vol 41 (No. 7),
1990, p 563
128. A.G. Gareev, I.G. Abdullin, and G.I. Abdullina, Gazovaja Promischlennost, (No.
11), 1993, p 29 (in Russian)
129. A.F. Matvienko, A.V. Baldin, A.P. Grigorjev, V.A. Kanaikin, V.G. Rjibalko,
V.V. Sagaradze, and Yu.I. Philippov, Fiz.
Khim. Mekh. Mater., Vol 86 (No. 2), 1998,
p 139146 (in Russian)
130. R.N. Parkins, Corrosion, (No. 50), 1994,
p 384
131. T.K. Sergeeva, E.P. Turkovskaja, N.P. Michailov, and A.I. Tchistjakov, State of
Problem of Stress-Corrosion in SNG
Countries and Abroad, IRZ RAO, Gazprom, Moscow, 1998 (in Russian)
132. R.N. Parkins, C.S. Dell, and R.R. Fessler,
Corros. Sci., Vol 24 (No. 4), 1984, p 343
374
133. Public Inquiry Concerning Stress Corrosion Cracking on Canadian Oil and Gas
Pipelines, Report NEB, 1996, No. 11, MH295
134. M. Urednicek, S. Lambert, and O. Vosikovsky, Monitoring and Control Proc. Int.
Conf. on Pipeline Reliability (Calgary,
Canada), 1992, N VII-2
135. T.K. Sergeeva, Proc. Int. Symp. on Pipe
Line Safety and Aging, CNIICHERMET,
1995 (Moscow), Vol 1, p 139164
136. O.M. Ivantzov, Stroitelstvo Truboprovodov, No. 6, 1993, p 1016 (in Russian)
137. B.G. Mazel, Stroitelstvo Truboprovodov,
No. 7, 1993, p 3639 (in Russian)
138. D. Rudy, Prev. of Pipeline Corrosion
Conf., 1994 (Houston, TX), p 1721
139. V.V. Zabilsky and V.I. Lebedev, Tchernaja Metallurgija. Bjulleten NTI, No. 2,
1991, p 1329 (in Russian)
140. R.M. Nikonova and V.V. Zabilsky, Fiz.
Metal. Metalloved., Vol 76 (No. 8), 1993,
p 99106 (in Russian)
141. A.F. Matvienko, A.V. Baldin, A.P. Grigorjev, V.A. Kanaikin, V.G. Rjibalko,
V.V. Sagaradze, and Yu.I. Philippov, Fiz.
Khim. Mekh. Mater., Vol 86 (No. 2), 1998,
p 147155 (in Russian)
142. G. Libowitz, The Solid-State Chemistry of
Binary Metal Hydrides, Vol 6, 1965, p 11
143. V.N. Zikeev, Metal. Termoobrabotka, Vol
5, 1982, p 1823 (in Russian)
144. V.I. Shapovalov, Hydrogen Influence on
the Structure and Properties of Iron-Carbon Alloys, Metallurgia, Moscow, 1982, p
232 (in Russian)
145. R. Oriani, Acta Metall., Vol 24, 1977, p
979988
154. H. Gondo and M. Iino, Nippon Steel Corporation Studies on Materials for Steel
Pipes for Service in Wet Sour Gas Medium, Technical Report B2 (No. 11), Nippon Steel Corporation, 1979, p 71
155. E. Stephenson, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 11
(No. 3), 1980, p 517524
156. S. Shichi, M. Takeshi, and D. Utaka, Japanese Application kl 12A41 (C23Fg/02),
No. 54, 1979
Residual Stress
To understand the type of stress that is being
measured, a distinction first needs to be made
between microstresses and macrostresses extending over large volumes. Microstresses resulting from changes occurring at the atomic
level are equilibrated over very small volumes
and cannot be measured by use of deflection
methods. Macrostresses, on the other hand, are
primarily the result of forming operations or
thermal imbalances during casting, welding, heat
treating, and so on.
If the stress induced by nonuniform cooling
exceeds the yield strength of the material, plastic
deformation occurs. On cooling to a uniform am-
Fig. 1
stress
Manufacturing Implications of
Residual Stresses
There are many examples that show how relaxation or redistribution of residual stresses
contributes to high processing costs. One example is the need to use multiple grinding passes
to avoid distortion in thin section components.
A frequent problem often wrongly attributed to
the heat treatment department is heat treatment
distortion from prior residual stresses in the raw
material.
Premature failure due to harmful residual surface tensile stress in the manufactured product is
to be avoided at all costs.
On the other hand, the presence of residual
stresses may be advantageous, as in the example
of compressive stresses from case hardening and
shot peening.
Using residual stresses to intentionally deform
a component can be illustrated by the use of shot
peening to shape the aircraft fuselage, by using
a peen hammer to straighten a long shaft, or by
simply hot spotting to bend a simple bar of steel.
For example, a small area on one side of a
steel bar is heated rapidly to a temperature, T, of
approximately 600 C (1100 F) (Ref 2). If free
to expand, the heated disc-shaped region increases in length, l, by:
l T
14 600
Cooler outside
surface
Hotter core
Transformation
Consider a slice through half the thickness of a plate.
At the onset of the cooling, both the surface and
the core are austenitic and stress free.
Transformed
Not transformed
The surface will transform first, acccompanied by
an expansion. Restraint by the underlying material
will place the transformed element in compression "C".
Although the adjoining austenitic element "stretches"
and plastically yields, it will be in tension "T".
CT
TCT
Fig. 2
TCT
Ar3
Ar1
Austenite
Ferrite
Pearlite
Temperature
Core
Bainite
Surface
Martensite
Time, T
Schematic representation of the relative transformation at the surface and in the core of the mild steel plate. At
time, T, the core is still austenitic while the surface has already transformed to a ferrite-pearlite structure. Ar3
and Ar1, upper and lower transformation temperatures, respectively, on heating (refroidissant) a hypoeutectoid steel
Fig. 3
(Eq 1)
%C
Start of transformation
Even though the cooling rate is lower than at the
surface, the low carbon core will begin to transform,
starting first below the case and progressing inward.
The adjoining austenitic case element will plastically
expand outward to accommodate the resulting tensile
stress.
bt3
12
C CC T T
+tv
tv
Fig. 4
(Eq 2)
The development of compressive stress in the case of a quenched carburized steel. Source: Ref 1
pr 4
4
(Eq 3)
E
1 m2
(Eq 4)
Mc
I
(Eq 5)
Fig. 5
Schematic of the residual stress distribution in rings manufactured from tube before and after slitting. ID, inside
diam; OD, outside diam
bt3
12
(Eq 6)
t
2
(Eq 7)
so
rmax 6
M
bt2
(Eq 8)
EI
R
Table 1
(Eq 9)
Symbol
Description
M
I
Bending moment
Moment of inertia
r
c
Stress in material
Distance from neutral axis
E
R
L
r
t
d
c
Youngs modulus
Radius of curvature of beam or displaced section
Length of curved beam
Radius of round bar cross section
Thickness of beam/plate/tube wall
Measured deflection
Poissons ratio
SI
English
Notes
NM
m4
lbf in.
in.4
Pa
m
psi
in.
Pa
m
m
m
m
m
Dimensionless
psi
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
...
...
I bt3/12 for rectangle (where b and
t are the dimensions of the
cross section) I pr 4/4
for circle
...
In a symmetrical section this
is the distance from the midpoint or center of gravity
...
...
...
...
...
...
0.3 for steel
given that:
c
t
4
(Eq 10)
30 0.015 in.
where t is plate thickness, and assuming the distribution of the residual stress that resulted in the
fishtail varies linearly over the half-thickness of
the sheet, the maximum longitudinal stress at the
surface is given by:
r
Mc
I
(Eq 11)
0.0310.001 in.
Measuring dial
0.0510.001 in.
N strip
Peening nozzle
A strip
C strip
Almen strips
0.09380.001 in.
0.7450.750 in.
Shot stream
4-6 in.
Et
4R
Hardened
ball supports
10/32
screws
(Eq 12)
Arc height
3.0 in.
If the deflection, d, is small compared to the radius of curvature, R, R may be expressed in terms
of the deflection, d, and the length of the curved
surface, L, by:
R
L2
2d
3.0 in.
Holding
fixture
0.75 in.
Strip removed. Residual
stresses induced arching
Fig. 6
Use of Almen strips to monitor the degree of shot peening. Source: Ref 3
Fig. 7
(Eq 13)
L
d
(Eq 14)
or
R
Lm
d
(Eq 15)
Arc height
Strip mounted for
height measurement
1
L
2
(Eq 16)
L2
2d
(Eq 17)
(Eq 18)
it follows:
r
Etd
2L2
r Et
1
0
1
D1
parted from the tube or machined, is cut axially through the section.
If unknown, the saw curf width (width of saw
(Eq 22)
0.600
0
(Eq 19)
1
1
r Et
x
D0
D0
p
1.000
2.900
B
1.900
(Eq 23)
E
5.000
(a)
1.65 Erd
L2
(Eq 20)
Etd
L2
(Eq 21)
0.25 in.
0.50 in.
2.50 in.
0.5 in.
1.45 in.
(b)
2 in.
1/4 in.
1 1/4 in.
3/4 in.
2000:5:9
Peen stress
ENSAMMIC
5/8 in.
d = 5.198 mils
h = 0.294 mils
10 A
S 230 shot
V = 124 ft/s
HS/4320 CB/SP
100
(c)
Examples of C-ring test specimens used for
quench distortion studies. (a) Source: Ref 5. (b)
Source: Ref 6. (c) Source: Ref 7
Fig. 9
Dir. Z
x
s (ksi)
102
m (ksi)
203
Pm (in.)
0.001
P0 (in.)
0.008
B
d
A
l
200
W
M = Wx
Max. M = Wl at B
Fig. 8
Calculated residual stress distribution in a shot peened chromium-silicon spring wire. d, depth; h, height. Source:
Peen Stress, Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Fig. 10
E
28.57 106 psi
1 m2
Acceptability
5000 psi
500010,000 psi
10,000 psi
Acceptable
Borderline
Unacceptable
2d
Residual stress
distribution
(a)
2d + 2 r
(b)
Fig. 11
Determination of longitudinal residual stress by the deflection method. (a) Rolled sheet. (b) Drawn bar. Source:
Ref 14
t
d
L
(a)
D1
D0
x
(b)
Determination of residual stresses in thinwalled tube by deflection methods. (a) Longitudinal stress. (b) Circumferential stress. t, thickness; d, deflection; D0, initial diam; D1, diam after slitting; x, net
opening displacement. Source: Ref 14
Fig. 13
Fig. 12
Table 2 List of formulas used for calculating approximate levels of residual stress in simple
geometries by deflection methods
Method
Formulas
Etd
r 2
2L
Longitudinal stress in solid bar (Fig. 11b) where r is the radius of the bar
1.65 Erd
L2
Etd
L2
r Et
r Et
Table 3
1
0
1
D1
1
1
x
D0
D0
p
Shear modulus
Materials
GPa
106 psi
GPa
106 psi
Poissons ratio
Aluminum alloys
Copper
Steel (plain carbon and low alloy)
Stainless steel
Titanium
Tungsten
72
110
200
193
117
400
10.5
16.0
29.0
28.0
17.0
58.0
28
41
76
66
45
157
4.0
6.0
11.0
9.5
6.5
22.8
0.31
0.33
0.33
0.28
0.31
0.27
Source: Ref 16
Fig. 14
Simulation of the effects of residual stress on the net opening displacement of a cut 0.75 in. thick ring
Treuting and Read developed a method for determining the biaxial residual-stress state on the
surface of a thin sheet (Ref 24). The method assumes the metal behaves in an elastically homogeneous manner and that the stress varies, not
in the plane of the sheet, but only through the
thickness. To apply the method, the sheet specimen is cemented into a flat parallel surface, and
Fig. 15
Simulation of the effects of residual stress on the net opening displacement of a cut 0.75 in. thick ring
1
m
Rx
Ry
Py
1
m
Ry
Rx
rx
(t
t)2
ry
(t
E
6(1 m2)
dPx
4(t0 t)Px 2
dt
t0
Px dt
E
6(1 m2)
t)2
dPy
4(t0 t)Py 2
dt
t0
Py dt
Measurements of Rx and Ry are made for different amounts of metal removal, and Px and Py are
plotted against the sheet thickness, t. The residual stresses in the x and y directions of the sheet
are determined for any value of t by the following equations.
z
z
y
y
x
x
t0
(a)
Fig. 16
Rx
Ry
(b)
(a) Coordinate system for measuring biaxial stress in thin sheet. (b) Curvature produced by removing material
from top surface
MPa
Welding
d y
~ 200
dx
3 mm
650
MPa
Machining
d y
~ 3000
dx
y
0
0.1 mm
y
650
MPa
Drawing
d y
~ 600
dx
Drawn
cup
0
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
3 mm
x
x
Residual-stress magnitudes and distributions typical of a 650 MPa yield strength steel
Stress
(a) in
austenite
Stress
(a) in
ferrite
in.
mm
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
0.04
0.07
0.11
0.15
1
1.8
2.8
3.8
21
19
16
17
145
131
110
17
46
67
62
65
317
462
427
448
Note: The ferrite places tensile stresses on the lattice of the austenite,
while the austenite tends to compress the ferrite; therefore, the more
compressive the stress in the ferrite, the less compressive the stress in
the austenite. (a) The precision of these measurements was 3.0 ksi
(21 MPa).
literature and experts in the field of residualstress measurement and manufacturing processes.
Stress Measurement
A number of procedures and methods have
been applied to determine the residual stresses
Destructive Measurement
Procedures
The first concern in selecting a destructive residual-stress measurement procedure is whether
it is reasonable to destroy one or more components or samples in order to determine the residual stresses. Usually this implies that one or a
few of the components are a small portion of the
total number produced. Also coupled to this decision is whether the one or more components in
which the residual stresses are to be measured
are representative of all the others. In other
words, how great is the expected variation of the
residual-stress field from part to part?
As mentioned at the beginning of this article,
the need for the residual-stress information about
a component must be clearly understood. This
includes whether the triaxial stress field must be
established or if the uniaxial or biaxial condition
of the stress field along specific directions is sufficient. Examples of these three situations are
discussed in this section. However, in any case,
the fact that residual stresses are usually not uniform in any direction and show high stress gradients must be kept in mind when stress-measurement criteria are selected.
Destructive methods of residual-stress measurement are fundamentally stress-relaxation
procedures; that is, the information is obtained
by relaxing the residual stress in some finite-volume element of the component and measuring
the resulting strain change. The strain change is
then used, along with applicable assumptions
about the nature of the stress field, to reconstruct
the original stress field. Assumptions about the
nature of the stress field include the magnitudes
and gradients in the stress field and whether it is
sufficient to assume that the gradients are one-,
two-, or three-dimensional. In particular, the gradients that exist will dictate the size of the element that is to be isolated and made stress-free;
Table 2
Component shape
Cylinder, plate
Plate, weldment
Stress-field-condition assumptions
Method
Longitudinal
Longitudinal, radial
Longitudinal
Biaxial in the plane of the
component
Biaxial in the plane of the
component
Biaxial in the plane of the
component
Biaxial in the plane of the
component
Biaxial in the plane of the
component
All
Bauer-Heyn
Mesnager-Sachs
Stablein
Treuting and Read
Various
Triaxial
All
All
Gunnert
Gunnert
Rosenthal and
Norton
Moore and Evans
Chen
removing thin slices parallel to the original surface and from the bisected block as shown in the
upper part of Fig. 4.
The change in strain of the blocks is measured
using shallow holes or dimples in the original
surfaces of the component. These gage points are
located along the long axis of the block on the
original faces of the plate (see Fig. 4). The distance between these gage marks is measured before and after removal of the blocks from the
plate and after each sectioning of the block (Ref
33).
This procedure assumes a constant biaxial
stress field over the length of the blocks, which
is not the case in welded plates in the direction
transverse to the weld. The far side of the block
in Fig. 4 shows a sectioning procedure that
would reveal the stresses parallel to the weld
along a gradient transverse to the weld. The far
side of the block in Fig. 4 shows a sectioning
procedure that would reveal the stresses parallel
to the weld along a gradient transverse to the
weld. Also, electrical-resistance strain gages
could be used instead of measuring the distance
between shallow holes or dimples.
Another approach to a constant biaxial stress
field in a flat plate, varying only through thickness, was described by Moore and Evans (Ref
2). They relied on XRD for the measurement of
the strains from which the stress was calculated,
and the procedure consisted of removing layers
0
40
10 20 20 20
50
90
Initial
sectioning
270
Weld
45
10
Saw cut
180
Fine cutter
(i.e., green abrasive saw 0.5 mm thick)
10
Further
sectioning
5
10
Final
sectioning
Gage
Weld
10
10
10
Rosette gage
Residual-stress measurement of a girth-welded pipe by strain gaging and sectioning. Note that strain gages
shown in the final sectioning should be placed on the pipe prior to initial sectioning; and for a more complete
analysis several of the layer sections detailed in the final sectioning step should be strain gaged and sectioned. Dimensions
given in mm
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
(Eq 1)
S1 S* Ee1
E
mE
(e1 me)
(et me)
t
1
1 m2
1 m2
St
E
mE
(et me)
(e1 me)
1
t
1 m2
1 m2
(Eq 2)
S1
E
E
(e1 me)
t
1 m2
1 m2
me
t
m 2 b2
e1
1 b
E
E
St
(et me)
1
1 m2
1 m2
me1
m 2 b2
et
1 b
(Eq 3)
2 d (1 ) 2(e e )
(S)
a tE
1 det
et et
2 dl
0.5 (1 l)
0
3(1 )
(5 4)et (1 )eb0
0
(Eq 4)
eb eb0
2 dl
0.5 (1 l)
a
(5 4)eb0 (1 )et 0
(Eq 5)
(Eq 6)
St St St
Sw S v
2
(Eq 8)
Sy
sxy
syz
Y 0
y
x
z
(Eq 9)
Sz
sxz
syz
Z 0
z
x
y
(Eq 10)
0
x2
xy
xz
(Eq 11)
2Sy
2sxy
2syz
0
y2
xy
yz
(Eq 12)
2Sz
2sxz
2syz
0
z2
xz
yz
(Eq 13)
1 deb
(S)
(1 ) 2(eb eb0)
a bE
2 d
3(1 )
Sx
sxy
sxz
X 0
x
y
z
(Eq 7)
(Eq 14)
(Sy1 Sy0)
sx2y2
z2
Dy21
Dx2Dy2
(Eq 15)
r1
rhm(r)
dr
r
metric stresses
Hollow cylinder bar, rotationally symmetric
stresses
Flat plate, biaxial stresses
The Moore and Evans procedures were summarized in the Society of Automotive Engineers
Handbook (Ref 4) as described in the following
paragraphs.
Solid Cylinder Bar, Rotationally Symmetric
Stresses. It is presumed that the residual-stress
distribution has both rotational and longitudinal
symmetry, except near the ends where measurements are avoided. Stresses are therefore functions of the radius, r, and do not depend on the
angle, h, measured around the cylinder, nor on
the distance z taken parallel to the axis. By repeatedly removing thin concentric shells, the
stresses on the exposed surface in depth can be
obtained. The circumferential and longitudinal
measured stresses rhm(r) and rzm(r), respectively,
rzm(r)
dr
r
r1
rr(r1, h)
(Eq 17)
r1
g0(r)
2r1
2 g1(r)cos h dr
r
r
rh(r1, h) rhm(r1, h)
g0(r)
2r1
2 Re[g1(r)eih] dr
r
r
rh(r1, h) rhm(r1, h)
(Eq 19)
r1
g0(r)
6r1
2 Re[g1(r)eih] dr
r
r
(Eq 20)
(Eq 25)
2h0(r)
8r1h1
2 cos h dr
r
r
(Eq 26)
2r1
g1(r) sin hdr
r2
(Eq 27)
srh(r1, h)
r1
2r1
Im [g1(r)eih]dr
r2
(Eq 21)
(Eq 22)
rhm (r1, h)
gn(r)enih
rzm (r1, h)
hn(r)enih
r1
srh (r1, h)
r1
h 90
r1
2h0(r)
8r1
2 Re[h1(r)eih] dr
r
r
R
r1
g0(r)
6r1
2 g1(r) cos h dr
r
r
r1
(Eq 24)
(Eq 18)
rz(r1, h) rzm(r1, h)
rz(r1, h) rzm(r1, h)
stresses
(Eq 16)
rr(r1, h)
(Eq 29)
Subtracting the equations in pairs and then adding the results cancels the g0 and g1 terms, giving:
g1(r) 14{[rhm (r) rhm (r)]
0
(Eq 30)
(Eq 23)
(Eq 31)
1 r r
R21
2
1
r1
r2
rhm(r)
dr
R12
r
rz(r1) rzm(r1) 2
(Eq 32)
(Eq 33)
r21 R21
2
2 rr(r1)
1 R1
(Eq 34)
6z1
z1
z1
rxm(z)
dz
z
rxm(z)
dz
z2
(Eq 35)
in.
I
II
III
I
4 ft
2 ft
1 in.
Fig. 5
z1
z1
sxym(z)
z
sxym(z)
dz
z2
(Eq 36)
r1
rx(z1) rxm(z1) 2
r2
rzm(r)
dr
R12
r
rh(r1) rhm(r1)
1/ 2
sxy(z1) sxym(z1) 2
dz 6z1
rr(r1)
(Eq 37)
rx
2
y2
ry
sxym(z1) r45(z1)
12[rxm(z1) rym(z1)]
(Eq 38)
2
2
and sxy
x2
xy
(Eq 39)
(Eq 40)
(Eq 41)
y 0
sxy(x, 0) 0
(Eq 42)
sxy(a, y) 0
(Eq 43)
x a
rx(a, y) 0
(Eq 44)
(Eq 45)
Pickel (Ref 35) described a method for analytical solution of problems with this type of
boundary condition, using infinite, related series;
however, in this instance an approximate method
is used with trial solutions that are both more
convenient and numerically more stable.
r
The force T is divided into Tx(x) and Ty(x) (see
Fig. 6) and as a solution to Eq 45 to 47, u is
taken as u ux uy where ux is the solution
for the loading case where only Tx(x) differs
from zero (and therefore the boundary condition
ry(x, b) 0 must be applied), and uy is similarly
the loading case where only Ty(x) is not equal to
zero. This ensures that the trial solutions will be
sufficiently general and not involve any limitar
tions on T (x).
The solutions for ux and uy are then adjusted
so that they satisfy Eq 43 and as many of the
boundary conditions as possible. By direct substitution, it is easily verified that the trial solutions in the following satisfy all the boundary
conditions except rx(a, y) 0; however, this
2
6
2
n1 n
(Eq 46)
exy
2x
xy
Cnx[(nb(coth
n1
vx
y
(Eq 52)
one obtains:
(Eq 48)
v(1 v)
y2
Cx
C0xy
E
2
vx(x, y)
Cnx
n1
1v
E
(Eq 49)
n1
cosh ny
v
nby sinh ny
1v
(1 nb coth n y cosh ny
xz m(rx ry)
1
v
sinh ny
n
1v
(Eq 50)
2x
Cxy C0x
y2
rxx
2x
x2
n1
x(x, y) Cx
rxy
1 m2
m
ry
rx
E
1 m
(Eq 51)
cos x
sinh ny y cosh ny
(Eq 53)
6
2
y(x, y) Cy
Cny
n2
n1
(Eq 54)
2y
Cy C0y
y2
n1
Removed layer
ny cosh ny)]cos nx
x
x(x)
Ty (x)
yy
2y
x2
(Eq 55)
Cny
n1
T (x )
xy
2
Tx(x)
syxy
(Eq 56)
n1
x(x)
(1 nb coth nb) ny
sinh ny]sin nx
(Eq 57)
v(1 v)
y2
Ey
C0yy
E
2
vy(x, y)
1 v
E
Cny b sinh ny
n1
nby cosh ny
(x)
x(x)
v
1 v
Fig. 6
2
v
cosh ny
n
1 v
y sinh ny cos nx
(Eq 58)
(Eq 59)
i 1, 2,
(Eq 60)
r(z1) rm(z1) 2
using the exact equations of the previous sections. The method is summarized for two of the
previous cases as follows.
Flat Plate (see Flat Plate, Biaxial Stress). A
generalized solution is written:
i 1, 2,
(Eq 61)
Equations 53 to 61 form an overdetermined system, from which the unknown coefficients Cnx
and Cny can be determined using, for example,
the method of least squares. The desired correction of the stresses measured at the surface after
removing material can finally be expressed as:
rxcorr rxx(x, b) rxy(x, b)
(Eq 62)
z1
dz 6z1
z1
rm(z)
z
rm(z)
dz
z2
(Eq 64)
and
dz 6z1
z1
z1
m[rxcorr
b)
ryy(x,
b)]
(Eq 63)
Sikarskie (Ref 36) proposed a stress-reconstruction procedure (series method) when thin
layers were removed from the surface of a component. He described procedures applicable to
flat plates and solid cylinders. The procedure
works well for shallow depths (a few percent of
specimen diameter or thickness), or in instances
where the stress gradient over the total depth removed does not change too rapidly and is of essentially one sign. The practicality of this
method depends on the fit of the measured
stresses in depth by a Taylors series referred to
the surface values of stress and successive derivatives at the surface. When the method is applicable, very convenient relations are obtained,
which describe the stress correction in terms of
the influencing factors, for example, layer depth,
stress magnitude, stress gradient, and specimen
size. Judgment is necessary, however, in using
the series approximation that does not arise when
(Eq 65)
z1
Fig. 7
H z1
H
H z1
H
r1
rm(r) rhm(r)
(Eq 71)
(Eq 72)
(Eq 66)
(Eq 67)
(Eq 68)
(Eq 73)
R r1
1
R
2
c(r1) k rm(R)
R r1
R
[rm(R) Rrm(R)]
Dz1
H
(Eq 70)
rm(r)
dr
r
k 2
1
[2rm(H) Hrm(H)
3
2H 2rm(H)]
r(r1) rm(r1) k
rm(r) rzm(r)
[rm(H) 2Hrm(H)]
Dz1
Removed layer
The integrands are then expanded in a Taylors series referred to the surface values, after
which the integration is performed term by term.
The final form for the correction is:
H z1
c(z1) 4rm(H)
H
k 1
rzcorr
ryx(x,
(Eq 69)
rm(r1) 0
rm(z)
z
rm(z)
dz
z2
1
(0.05)H
4
Dz1
1
6
R r1
(Eq 74)
10
20
30
0
Fig. 8
piece
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
10
12
14
Fig. 9
100
80
20
Residual stresses, ksi
0
20
40
60
80
Strain-Measurement Methods
Abusively
machine
ground
Handheld grinder
60
40
Handheld
flapper
wheel
20
0
100
120
20
140
10
12
14
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Mechanical gages
Electrical-resistance gages
Optical gages
Birefringent methods
Diffraction methods (x-ray and neutron)
Ultrasonic methods
Magnetic methods
50), and others. Vikram and others (Ref 50) suggested that a small volume of the material could
be stress relieved by heating via a laser to induce
a change in the stress field and the strain change
measured by an optical technique to reveal the
residual stresses existing in the volume before
heating. However, it must be recognized that
heating a volume of steel sufficiently to change
the residual-stress field will result in tensile residual stresses in the heated volume (Ref 51),
and this would likely be detrimental to the component in which stresses were being measured.
Birefringent Methods. Under the action of
stresses, transparent materials become doubly refracting (birefringent), and if a beam of polarized
light is passed through a model (under stress)
made of such a material, a colored picture is obtained from which the stress distribution can be
determined. This technique is called the photoelastic technique (Ref 46). The actual component
in which the stresses are to be measured is coated
with a photoelastic polymer. When residualstress changes are induced in the component,
strain changes are caused and transmitted to the
polymer coating, which then becomes birefringent. This can be observed and measured using a reflection polariscope (Ref 14). Instructions
for analyzing fringe patterns in this application
(nearly the same as those obtained in ordinary
photoelasticity) are provided by the manufacturer.
The photoelastic coating may be applied by
brushing a liquid polymer on the surface of the
specimen and polymerizing it by applying heat.
Alternatively, a prefabricated flat or contoured
sheet of polymer may be bonded to the part at
room temperature (Ref 52). The maximum strain
that can be measured ranges between 3 and 50%,
depending on the type of polymer used; the
strain sensitivity usually decreases with the increase in the maximum measurable strain.
Chemical Methods
A number of qualitative methods to detect residual stresses that may lead to stress-corrosion
hydrogen-induced cracking in steel have been
applied to specimens representing components
to be manufactured. Magnesium chloride solutions have been applied extensively to the study
of stress corrosion in austenitic stainless steels,
including some recent work by Bouzina et al.
(Ref 53).
Masabuchi and Martin (Ref 54) studied the
susceptibility of SAE 4340 steel weldments to
hydrogen-induced stress cracking. The test procedure was to immerse the weldment specimens
in a 4% H2SO4 aqueous solution charged with
H2 and to which two drops of a 5% P solution
of CS2 was dissolved. A direct current (dc) was
applied between a specimen and a lead anode to
provide a current density of 0.35 to 0.8 A/in.2
The crack patterns that developed were related
to the surface tensile residual-stress distribution
in each specimen.
Stress-corrosion cracking induced by residual
stresses in carbon and low-alloy high-strength
steels has been investigated by several researchers (Ref 5456). One procedure consisted of immersing the specimens in a boiling aqueous solution of 60% Ca(NO3)2 and 4% NH4NO3 for 31
h. The crack patterns that developed were related
to the surface tensile residual-stress distributions
in the specimen.
A number of standard practices for testing the
susceptibility of metals to stress-corrosion cracking have been published by ASTM, including:
ASTM G 38 Standard Recommended Prac
tice for Making and Using C-Ray Stress Corrosion Test Specimens, 1979
ASTM G 58 Standard Practice for the Preparation of Stress Corrosion Test Specimens
for Weldments, 1978
ASTM G 39 Standard Practice for Preparation and Use of Bent-Beam Stress Corrosion
Test Specimens, 1979
ASTM G 30 Standard Recommended Practice for Making and Using U-Bend Stress
Corrosion Test Specimens, 1979
ASTM STP 425 Stress Corrosion Testing,
1967
Semidestructive Procedures
Nondestructive methods of residual-stress
measurement are characterized as methods that
in no way affect the serviceability or reduce the
mechanical strength or other properties of the
component in which stresses are measured. Between the nondestructive and destructive methods, which have a severe effect on the serviceability, strength, and properties, are the
semidestructive methods. These are methods
that have a small to negligible effect on the components in which stresses are measured, or methods in which the component may be repaired after the measurement.
The methods that are considered semidestructive are those that require small holes to be
drilled or rings to be trepanned in the component
or indentations to be made in the surface. The
first two methods provide quantitative data and
the third only qualitative data.
Indentation Methods
Engineers and scientists have proposed the
use of indentors, such as those used to perform
hardness measurements, as a means to measure
or detect surface-residual stresses since the
1930s. Kokubo in 1932 reported that stresses applied under bending load changed the apparent
Vickers hardness values in carbon-steel rolled
sheets, both as-rolled and annealed (Ref 70). He
showed that tensile stresses tended to decrease
the apparent hardness and compressive stresses
tended to increase the hardness. The stresses applied in tension and compression were sufficient
to cause 0.3% strain.
In the 1950s, Sines and Carlson (Ref 71) proposed a method that required various amounts of
external loads to be applied to the component in
which residual stresses were to be measured
while hardness measurements were made. The
loads were made to cause both tensile and compressive applied stresses. The quality, that is,
whether the residual stress was compressive or
tensile, was then revealed by comparing the effect of the applied stress, and whether it was tensile or compressive, on the hardness measurement. At about the same time Pomey et al. (Ref
72) proposed that residual stresses could be measured by pressing a ball-shaped penetrator into
the component in which residual stresses were
to be measured and establish the relationship between the pressing load while it was progressively increased, and the electrical resistance at
the interface between the penetration and the
component. He maintained that a smaller decrease in electrical resistance indicated that portions of material under the ball were plastically
yielding and that the corresponding load on the
ball could be related to the existing residual
stress.
Later, Chiang et al. (Ref 73) provided a critique of several existing indentation analyses and
proposed an interpretation of indentations exhibiting hemispherical plasticity. Nevertheless, the
applications illustrated in this paper focused on
brittle materials and not metals.
There have been numerous papers published
proposing various approaches to interpreting the
indentation loads and shapes so as to estimate
the residual-stress field on the surface and nearsurface regions of materials. However, indentation methods have not earned the degree of confidence of XRD or hole-drilling methods for
general applications and thus are rarely applied.
Spot Annealing
Another method that has been proposed to
measure residual stresses in metal surfaces is to
reduce the residual stresses in a small volume by
annealing the metal in the volume. It has been
proposed that this annealing be performed by intense laser light (Ref 50). This technique was
envisioned to be similar to residual-stress relief
by removal of the material as accomplished in
the hole-drilling techniques. However, as Cullity
discussed in Ref 51, such localized heating
would induce high surface residual tensile
stresses in the heat-affected region.
Nondestructive Procedures
The methods described in the section StrainMeasurement Methods all measure the change
in some dimension (strain) of the component
produced by the removal of a finite volume of
stressed metal from that component. Thus, they
measure the strain induced by removing material
so as to perturb the residual-stress field. On the
other hand, nondestructive procedures measure
a dimension in the crystal lattice of the metal or
some physical parameter affected by the crystal
lattice dimension. Whenever a mechanical force,
resulting in stress that is less than the yield
strength, is placed on a solid metal component,
that component distorts and strains elastically.
That elastic strain results in a change in the
atomic lattice dimension, and this dimension, or
change, is measured by the nondestructive
stress-measurement procedures. For example,
the diffraction methodsx-ray and neutron
measure an actual crystal dimension, and this
X-ray diffraction
Neutron diffraction
Ultrasonic velocity
Magnetic Barkhausen noise
X-Ray Diffraction
X-ray diffraction techniques exploit the fact
that when a metal is under stress, applied or residual, the resulting elastic strains cause the
atomic planes in the metallic crystal structure to
change their spacings. X-ray diffraction can directly measure this interplanar atomic spacing;
Ns
X-ray source
S1
Film
Np1
Np2
S2
Specimen
surface
O
2
Fig. 12
Miniature x-ray diffractometer for the one-angle technique arrangement of XRD stress measurement. This device incorporates a Ruud-Barrett Position-Sensitive Scintillation Detector and is capable of being
inserted in a 4 in. (100 mm) inside diameter and measuring
residual stress (Ref 22).
Fig. 13
cot h1
E
1
p
2
1 m sin2w 180
(Eq 75)
where h1 is the Bragg angle of the planes diffracting at w1 and h2 is the Bragg angle of the
planes diffracting at w2. As h1 increases, its cotangent decreases; therefore, a larger difference
(2h1 2hw) would result from a given ru to
maintain an equality.
For a residual-stress measurement, the diffracting angle, h, of interatomic planes of at least
two different psi (w) angles with respect to the
surface normal must be measured (Fig. 12).
These planes are crystallographically equivalent
(same Miller indices, hkl ) and in the unstressed
state of the metal would have the same interatomic (d) spacing for the planes labeled 1 and
2 in Fig. 12 (Ref 51, 75, 76). In a stressed material, however, the two or more orientations of
diffracting planes are selected so that they are at
different angles to the surface; thus their normals
are at different psi (w) angles to the surface normal. Then, depending on the angle of these
planes to the stress vector, their interplanar
atomic spacing is increased or decreased by
varying amounts.
The most common sources of errors and misapplications in stress measurements by x-rays
are related to stress constant selection, focusing
geometry, diffracted peak location, cold-working crystallography, texture, grain size, microstructure, and surface condition. The source, significance, and correction techniques for these
errors will not be elaborated upon here; details
may be found in Ref 77.
A point of interest in the error sources concerns cold working and microstresses. As stated
previously, microstresses are usually considered
to be those manifested by strain variation across
single metallic grains. This strain variation is detected in XRD as broadening of the x-ray peak
a distinctly different phenomenon from the peak
shift caused by residual stresses. However, microstrain variation can be measured simultaneously with stress. This microstrain phenomenon has been proposed as a means of judging
cold work, dislocation density, and fatigue damage (Ref 78).
Despite the facts that x-rays provide stress
readings only to a depth of less than 0.001 in.
(0.025 mm) and that the error sources listed previously must be considered, the noncontact XRD
method is presently the only time-proven, generally applicable, truly nondestructive method
for measuring residual stresses. Its reliability has
been proved and documented by thousands of
engineers and scientists since the 1960s, beginning with Bolstad et al.s classic work at Boeing
using x-ray film cameras (Ref 79). This documentation includes measurement of stresses in
the Brooklyn Bridge (Ref 20) and tempering
evaluation of carburized steels. The Society of
Automotive Engineers considers the method of
sufficient practical importance to have printed
three handbook supplements on the subject (Ref
4), and another is under revision.
Even so, this nondestructive technology has
been largely restricted to the laboratory because
of the general lack of knowledge regarding the
state-of-the-art instruments and the limitations of
the more widely known and available conventional scanning XRD equipment. Instrumentation for bringing this technology into the field
and manufacturing area has advanced rapidly
since the 1980s, especially toward increased
portability, compactness, and speed of operation.
As shown in Fig. 13 and 14, instrumentation
has been developed and is commercially available for stress measurement in situ on the inside
diameter of 10 mm (4 in.) diam pipe, and soon
for 5 mm (2 in.) diam steel tube (Ref 22, 23).
Position sensitive x-ray detectors have been
largely responsible for these improvements to
both laboratory-based and field-deployable residual-stress-measuring instruments (Ref 9, 19,
2123, 8082). Also, with the speed of data collection being less than 0.1 s with conventional
x-ray tube sources, XRD stress measurement can
be performed on moving components (Ref 11).
Nevertheless, many engineers have been frustrated in applying XRD to residual-stress measurement. This has been largely due to crystallographers inexperienced in residual-stress
Neutron Diffraction
Neutron diffraction (ND) is capable of measuring the elastic strains induced by residual
stresses throughout the volume of relatively
thick steel components with a spatial resolution
as small as 1 mm3. Such capabilities provide for
residual-stress measurement inside components
without sectioning or layer removal. Principal
ND methods, as with XRD methods, measure the
spacing between crystallographic planes in a
component, and this spacing is affected by residual and applied stress. The spacing between a
selected set of crystallographic planes (u) is related to the angle of incidence and diffraction of
(Eq 76)
d do
sin h0
do
sin h sin h0
(Eq 77)
E
(1 m)
m
(eA eB eC)
(1 2m)
(Eq 78)
within the phase (e.g., martensite, austenite, ferrite) of the alloy at various locations. Additional
limitations are that the component must be
brought to a nuclear reactor, each strain measurement requires over an hour, a single stress
determination in one small volume of the component requires at least three strain measurements, and the measurements are very costly.
Nevertheless, the ND methods have been applied
to residual-stress measurements in steel weldments (Ref 85), cylindrical steel forgings, plastically deformed steel plate (Ref 86), steel rocket
case forgings (Ref 87), and many other types of
components.
Ultrasonic Velocity
The principle underlying the measurement of
stress and thus elastic strain by ultrasonic (acoustic) techniques is the phenomenon of an approximately linear change in ultrasound velocity with
applied stress. In addition, it has been shown that
under certain narrow conditions residual stress
can be measured by exploiting this phenomenon.
Stress is measured by inducing a sound wave in
the frequency of several megahertz into the
metal specimen and measuring the time of flight
or some other velocity-related parameter. Since
many other characteristics of metals besides
stress-induced elastic strain affect velocity, these
must be sorted out; however, neither the technology nor the fundamental knowledge for such
sorting is usually available. The great interest in
ultrasonic techniques for residual-stress measurement stems from their promise for three-dimensional nondestructive measurements within
the material.
Principle. A number of velocity-related phenomena have been used in various methods to
measure stress effects by ultrasound. All utilize
the deviation of the reaction of the metal from
the linearity of Hookes law of elasticity, r
Me, where r is stress, e is strain, and M is elastic
modulus. This has been referred to as the anharmonic property of the solid and may be represented by a power series r Me Ce2 De3
, where C is the third-order anharmonic
constant, D is the fourth, and so on. Most research done for stress measurement has used expressions in which terms past the third-order
constant, C, are dropped. Of the several anharmonic property effects that may be used to measure stress, the following are probably the most
exploited:
Velocity dependence on the elastic modulus
Dispersion of frequency amplitudes in sur-
face waves
11/ 4 in.
(3.3 cm)
waves
Fig. 14
Engineering drawing of the miniature XRD stress measurement head showing major dimensions
q 1 2M e
M
(Eq 79)
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
REFERENCES
1. R. Gunnert, Method for Measuring TriAxial Residual Stresses, Document No.
X-184057-OE, Commission X of the International Institute of Welding, 1957;
Weld. Res. Abroad, Vol 4 (No. 10), 1958,
p 1725
2. M.G. Moore and W.P. Evans, Mathematical Corrections in Removal Layers in XRay Diffraction Residual Stress Analysis,
SAE Trans., Vol 66, 1958, p 340345
3. A. Constantinescu and P. Ballard, On the
Reconstruction Formulae of Subsurface
Residual Stresses after Matter Removal,
Fifth Int. Conf. Residual Stresses, Vol 2,
Institute of Technology, Linkopings University, Sweden, 1997, p 703708
4. Residual Stress Measurement by X-Ray
Diffraction, SAE J784a, Handbook Sup-
14.
15.
16.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
(Eq 1)
coating
in the coating
(Eq 2)
where c and s are the thermal expansion coefficients for the coating and the substrate, respectively, and Ec and mc are the Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio of the coating,
respectively. A coating deposited at an elevated
temperature exhibits compressive stress if s
c, but tensile stress if s c. In the case of s
c, the substrate shrinks more than the coating
does during cooling from the deposition temperature and compresses the coating to maintain
dimensional compatibility.
In some cases, thermal stress is the primary
residual stress of the coating. For example, a titanium nitride coating can be deposited on a cemented carbide substrate (tungsten carbide-1
wt% Ta-10 wt% Co) via a CVD process at 1000
C (1830 F). With the values of s 5
106 /K, c 9.54 106 /K, ETiN 411 GPa
(60 106 psi), and mTiN 0.24, the stress in
the coating, as calculated from Eq 2, is 2.39 GPa
(0.35 106 psi) in tension at 25 C (77 F).
Deflection Method
ing growth
Lattice misfit between the substrate and the
growing coating
*This article is adapted from Stress Determination for Coatings by J. Albert Sue and Gary S. Schajer in Surface Engineering, Volume 5, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1994, p 647
653.
(Eq 4)
where
C [Ec(1 ms)]/[Es(1 mc)]
H ds /dc
R L2 /8f L2 /2d
(Eq 5)
(Eq 3)
or, in general:
(Eq 6)
Fig. 1
(Eq 7)
Ref 6
Eq 4
ds /dc
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
200
100
50
20
10
1143
571
286
114
57
165.7
82.8
41.5
16.5
8.3
1137
565
280
109
52
164.9
81.9
40.6
15.8
7.5
Fig. 2
where Ddx and Ddy are deflection changes measured before and after coating deposition, and r
is the radius of the disk. Whether the stress is
tensile or compressive, it is determined by the
curvature of the disk before and after coating
deposition, as determined by a depth microscope. When the change in curvature is upward
(concave), viewed from the coating side, the
stress in the coating is tensile. The opposite
change in curvature indicates a compressive
stress in the coating.
Typical interference fringe patterns are shown
in Fig. 2. Figures 2(a) and (b) correspond to
Typical microstylus trace on titanium nitridecoated AISI 304 stainless steel disk before and
after coating deposition
Fig. 3
where ru rx cos2 u ry sin2 u is the macrostress in the coating parallel to its surface at
an angle u with the principal axis of the sample.
For a biaxial stress state, rx ry ru, and
at w 0:
hkl
hkl
hkl
hkl
(d hkl
u,w0 d 0 )/d 0 2m ru/E
(Eq 10)
(Eq 12)
(Eq 8)
(rx ry rz)
(Eq 13)
(rx ry rz)}
(Eq 14)
(Eq 15)
hkl
a2 (euw
ehkl
uw)/2
hkl
hkl
(d uw
d uw
)/2d 0hkl
hkl
The stress-tensor components can be calculated from the slopes of linear plots of a1 versus
sin2 w and a2 versus sin2 w. For a1 versus sin2
w, (rx rz) is obtained at u 0, (ry rz)
at u 90, and sxy at u 45, whereas rz is
evaluated from the intercept if d hkl
0 is known.
Similarly, sxz and syz are obtained when u 0
and u 90, respectively, from the slope of a2
versus sin2 w.
Stress Measurement. Modern diffractometers are fully automated and equipped with computer software for performing numerically intensive analyses. Diffractometers are capable of
measuring residual stresses efficiently and economically. Typically, the measurement can be
completed in several hours. The following examples illustrate some stress measurements using Cu K radiation on cathodic arc PVD titanium nitride coatings on a substrate with various
stress states.
Biaxial. An approximately 10 lm (400 lin.)
thick coating of highly (111) oriented titanium
nitride was deposited on AISI 304 stainless steel
at 500 C (930 F). The x-ray diffraction sin2 w
technique was applied to determine the residual
stress in the (333)/(511) reflection of the coating.
Figure 4 shows the linear distribution of d hkl
uw versus sin2 w, indicating typical biaxial stress in the
coating. As shown, the slope M 1.1933
103 nm (4.698 1011 in.) and the intercept
I d hkl
uw0 0.082123 nm (0.003233 lin.).
Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio for titanium nitride in (333)/(511) are 364 GPa (52.8
106 psi) and 0.245, respectively (Ref 13). The
calculated residual stress for titanium coating is
4248 MPa (615 ksi) in compression. For
highly (111) oriented titanium nitride film, (511)
contribution is negligible. This is addressed in
Ref 13. The (422) reflection has 2h 130,
which is not desirable.
Triaxial without Shear Stress. To exemplify a
triaxial stress distribution, without shear stresses,
triaxial stress analysis was applied to a titanium
nitride coating deposited on Inconel 718 sub2
strate at 550 C (1020 F). The d hkl
uw versus sin
w distributions were obtained from (333)/(511)
for u 0 and u 90 (Fig. 5). The slopes
Mu0 and Mu90 are 0.96782 and 1.01415
103 nm (3.8103 and 3.9927 1011
in.), respectively, and the intercept I is 0.082083
nm (0.003231 lin.). The strain-free interplanar
spacing for (333)/(511) is 0.08160 nm
(0.003213 lin.). Based on Eq 14, the stress tensor (rij) from this analysis, in units of MPa, is:
rx sxy sxz
rij syx ry syz
szx szy rz
2653 151
0
0
0
2819 150
0
0
0
815 140
2699 148
1 181
110 32
1 181
2776 148 34 34
110 32
34 34 833 148
Practical Considerations. First, a W-diffractometer is preferable for conducting stress measurements. The X- and W-diffractometers are defined on the basis of the sample axis for w tilt
perpendicular or parallel to the plane of the incident and detected x-ray beam, respectively. A
W-diffractometer gives symmetric irradiated areas in w and w tilted angles at a given (hkl)
reflection line and a greater range of sin2 w (from
0 to 0.95 for a W-diffractometer and 0 to 0.5 for
an X-diffractometer).
Second, the diffractometer should be mechanically aligned and calibrated using a stress-free
standard sample (NIST SRM 660 lanthanum
hexaboride powder or SRM 640 silicon powder)
to obtain the peak position of the (hkl) reflection
line within 0.01 at Bragg angles 2h in the
range of w 0 and w 0.
Third, an appropriate x-ray wavelength should
be selected to achieve the desired sampling volume (penetration depth) for a particular set of
(hkl) planes. The penetration depth, which is defined as the distance from the surface to the depth
with 63% or 1/e of the intensity of the reflection
line, is calculated for X- and W-diffractometers,
respectively:
sX (sin2 h sin2 w)/[2l(sinh cosw)]
sW (sinh cosw)/2l
Fig. 4
flection
hkl
Linear distribution of d uw
as a function of sin2 w
of titanium nitride coating from (333)/(511) re-
hkl
Linear distribution of d uw
as a function of sin2 w
of titanium nitride coating from (333)/(511) reflection at u 0 and u 90
Fig. 5
(1
l
)/E
,
can
be
calculated
from
2
single-crystal compliance, according to an appropriate model (Ref 11, 12), or measured experimentally in uniaxial tension or bending tests
with a series of loads (Ref 13, 18, 19). X-ray
elastic constants and applied loads (ra) obey
these equations:
hkl
d uw0
/[1 S hkl
1 (rx ry rz)
(S hkl
2 /2)rz]
hkl
hkl
S hkl
2 /2 (1 m )/E
hkl
2
(1/d hkl
0 )[/ra(d uw/sin w)]
Hole-Drilling Method
Fig. 7
Fig. 6
hkl
Typical ellipse distribution of d uw
as a function of sin2 w of titanium nitride coating from (333)/(511) reflection at varying angles. (a) u 0. (b) u 45. (c) u 90
(Eq 17)
D0 /D
0.30
0.31
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
Through-thethickness hole(a)
a
b
0.089
0.095
0.101
0.108
0.114
0.121
0.128
0.135
0.143
0.150
0.158
0.166
0.174
0.183
0.191
0.200
0.209
0.218
0.228
0.237
0.247
0.278
0.295
0.312
0.329
0.347
0.364
0.382
0.400
0.418
0.436
0.454
0.472
0.490
0.508
0.526
0.544
0.562
0.579
0.596
0.613
0.629
Blind hole(b),
depth 0.4D
a
0.111
0.118
0.126
0.134
0.142
0.150
0.158
0.166
0.174
0.182
0.190
0.199
0.208
0.217
0.226
0.236
0.246
0.255
0.265
0.275
0.285
0.288
0.305
0.322
0.340
0.358
0.376
0.394
0.412
0.430
0.448
0.466
0.484
0.503
0.521
0.540
0.558
0.576
0.594
0.612
0.630
0.648
B b/2E
(Eq 19)
Depth
rx
ry
sxy
rmax
rmin
smzx
mm
in.
e1
e2
e3
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.28
0.36
0.000
0.004
0.008
0.011
0.014
0
56
116
163
210
0
52
107
155
200
0
52
109
168
218
271
39.3
275
39.9
13
1.9
260
37.7
286
41.5
13
1.9
41
Note: Rosette type, EA-XX-062RE; Youngs modulus, 172.0 GPa (25 106 psi); Poissons ratio, 0.3; hole diameter, 2.440 mm (0.0961 in.); and rosette mean diameter, 5.13 mm (0.202 in.)
Method Comparison
The mechanical-deflection method is capable
of measuring the average stress throughout the
coating thickness, but requires the stress to be
uniform over large distances in the in-plane directions. In contrast, the x-ray diffraction and
hole-drilling methods can make a much more localized measurement in-plane, but they have a
significantly more limited depth capability. A
good agreement in stress measurements between
the deflection and x-ray diffraction methods has
been demonstrated (Ref 13). With the extrapo-
AMONG NUMEROUS PROBLEMS encountered by mechanics of nonrigid solids, analysis of residual stress presents one of the most
challenging tasks because it involves the analysis of physical-mechanical processes and structural changes in the material under various mechanical and heat impacts. Although methods of
analyzing residual stress have been under development since the 1930s, this field still presents
quite a number of problems to be solved. Development of experimental techniques providing
for large amounts of strain field data suitable for
later mathematical processing gave impetus both
to the beginning of new and the development of
already available approaches to residual stress
analysis, this fact significantly expanding the
range of solvable applied problems. The objective of this chapter is to present results from new
developments in methodology and applied techniques for solving problems in the field of residual stress analysis.
Residual stresses can be subdivided provisionally into two classes: macrostresses (stresses of
the first type) and microstresses (stresses of the
second type). Microstresses are stresses that actually exist directly in the crystalline grain and
experience changes within the crystalline aggregate (grain) due to crystal inhomogeneity, different alignment of crystallographic planes, and
some other factors. Macrostresses can be regarded as averaged microstresses on some finite
base. It must be noted that to determine macrostresses by microstress averaging is possible
only if microstress distributions comply with
consistent patterns of statistics.
Most methods for determining residual stress
aim at obtaining values of macrostresses. This is
because the majority of modern approaches to
stress-state evaluation are based on continual
models of material whose deformation and destruction are described on the basis of continua
mechanics. It might be well also to point out
considerable difficulties in experimentally determining the microstress due to minuteness of
crystal grains characterized by arbitrary irregular
form and generally being inhomogeneous.
At the same time, for example, the x-ray study
of residual macrostress (the so-called sin2 w
method) is based on measuring changes in distances between atomic planes of metal grain lattice (i.e., microstrains).
With regard to problems considered in domains of strength evaluation, reliability, and optimal structure design, different methods and respective experimental techniques have been
developed to solve typical problems of residual
stress analysis for most practical cases.
Efficiency of one or another method is determined by the studied object geometry, type of
stress state, nature of residual stress distribution,
and materials properties. Methodology of research, including distinctive features of experimental techniques and facilities are given in
Ref 8.
Classical methods of residual stress research
used nowadays, both destructive and nondestructive, provide no opportunity to reliably determine residual stresses in terms of their high
gradients when a pronounced change of stress
occurs on the gage length in the order of 1 mm
(0.04 in.). At the same time, determining residual
stress on this gage length is necessary when analyzing strength, integrity, and durability of
structures with welded joints, welded deposits,
and other inhomogeneities.
Special methods that provide for analysis of
high-gradient (up to breakage) fields of residual
stress in parts made of homogeneous and bimetallic materials have been developed to analyze
such problems.
This chapter is dedicated to methodology developments that accompany experimental determination of significantly inhomogeneous fields
of residual stress. It presents a systematic outline
of modern methods for determining residual
stress fields characterized by significant inhomogeneity, including theoretical foundations of
respective methods as well as aspects of their
application. These methods are based on mathematical processing of extensive experimental
data obtained when notches of various types are
made in the part under investigation. Here, the
procedure for obtaining stresses from experimental data is based on the fact that residual
stress determination is posed as an inverse problem from the mechanics of nonrigid solids.
0nx L
(Eq 1)
B(x,n)r
x
y(n)dn l(x)
(Eq 2)
When applying the method of the Volterra integral equation, the following important fact
should be considered. While preparing the experiment, account is taken of its conditions and
measuring tool sensitivity in choosing the value
of a step in expanding the notch and taking measurements. In this case, the discrete character of
obtained information is in no way connected to
the nature of measured distributions. From this
factor develops the task of subjecting the initial
data to preliminary processing and that of creating some continuous and differentiable analogues from discrete data and within error limits
comparable to experiment errors. Particular patterns for processing initial data can be designed
in various ways, including regularization methods.
Method of Fredholm Integral Equation of
the First Type. A line running close to the notch
tip is selected (Fig. 2). Due to the linearity of the
problem under consideration, the relationship
between the required residual stress ry(n) along
the notch with length L and the values of the
measured parameter l(n) on this line is:
L
y()
(Eq 3)
The kernel of integral operator H(s,n) is determined in the region S L and corresponds
to measured parameters l(n) on line S from d
impacts at points n L. From the point of methodology, reducing the problem to solving the
Fredholm equation of the first type is very important. First, conducting an experiment is relatively simple compared with the approach that
uses the Volterra equation because in this case,
all experimental data are obtained from the single length notch. Second, when solving Eq 3 numerically, creating a matrix analogue of an integral equation would require (under equal
discrete values) significantly fewer boundary
problems to be solved in comparison with the
first approach, which allows for the changing
boundary of the notch tip area.
Solutions of equations of the first type (Eq 1,
3) are unstable toward variations of initial data
(right side) and call for regularizing methods.
The indicated distinctions in experiment arrangement determine specific features in the
mathematical structure of these equations. Thus,
the Volterra equation (Eq 1), all other factors
being the same, is conditioned with regard to ry
to a greater degree (i.e., has wider information
possibilities than Eq 3). According to the regularization principle (Ref 1), information possibilities of considered computational/experimental procedures can be evaluated by the
maximally admissible degree of smoothness in
solving respective integral equations. Information capacities are largely determined by
smoothness of integral equation kernel. The
higher the kernel smoothness, the higher is the
smoothing (averaging) effect of the integral operator, and consequently, the less distribution ry
manifests itself in peculiarities of measured distributions l(s). Accordingly, the considered approaches provide for a preliminary computa-
x,
(a)
x
(x)
x
l
(b)
Design diagram of Volterra integral equation
method. (a) Residual stress relieved at notching.
(b) Measured parameters of stress state at the notchfollowing point
Fig. 1
(S)
y(x)
+
Fig. 2
L)r ay
H *l
dn
dry
l2
d
dry
p
dn
dn
that solving Eq 1 and 3 by reducing them to Eulers equation provides for transition to a respective self-conjugate operator (H *H or B*B), this
resulting in the loss of Volterra property. There
are ways of regularization to retain this property
(Ref 4), but they are more complex and effort
consuming. To construct matrix analogues for
operators of Eq 1 to 3, grid quantizing is selected
for the area, including a created notch where the
grid becomes dense. Kernels of integral operators B(x,n), Bx(x,n), and H(s,n) are calculated by
solving a set of boundary value problems, with
d impacts being reproduced by applying a uniform load ry(n*) const in the region of notch
edge formed by one or several grid steps, where
n* is the center of such region. Elements of kernels B(x,n) and H(x,n) are parameters of the
stress-strain state analogous to measured parameters l(x) and l(s), respectively. The kernel
Bx(x,n) is constructed by B(x,n) values with the
aid of respective difference formulae.
Solutions of boundary-value problems for
two-dimensional elasticity theory can be obtained easily on the basis of software complexes
ANSYS, NACTRAN, and the like, which provide high accuracy of results for complex geometric parts with high-stress gradients.
Calculation of residual stress on the basis of
solved integral Eq 1 and 3 is implemented with
the smoothing functional method grounded on
programs developed by the authors.
Evaluation of Method Accuracy. As an example of residual stress restitution in flat parts,
consider results of the numerical experiment
based on reducing the problem to the Fredholm
integral equation of the first type (Eq 3). Such
an experiment aims at demonstrating efficiency
of proposed approaches because Eq 3, all other
conditions being the same, is less conditioned
compared with the Volterra equation of the first
type (Eq 1). A square plate with the side 2l0 (Fig.
3), where a thin notch with the length l0 was cut
along the axis n, was chosen. Residual stress distribution was specified on edges of this notch,
and distribution of the stress state parameter l(s)
on the line s parallel to the axis y was found by
solving a boundary value problem of elasticity
theory (direct problem).
Values of tangential stress sny(s) were calculated as l(s) with a bearing on photoelastic coatings. These values were used as exact initial data
into which random disturbances were introduced
with a normal law of distribution, the level of
disturbances comprising about 5% from the
maximum values sny(s) over the notch length.
The disturbance data were used in residual stress
restitution (inverse problem).
Solution of direct and inverse problems as
well as construction of the matrix analogue for
the integral operator of Eq 3 was made on the
grid crowded in the vicinity of 0.2l0 notch tip.
Figures 3 and 4 present restitution results for
two variants in distribution of residual stress
with different stress gradients.
Solution of direct and inverse problems as
well as construction of the matrix analogue for
y
s
1.0
l0
0.2
0.6
s/l0
(a)
y
12
8
4
0.6
0.2
x/l0
(b)
Problem 1. Determining residual stress by Fredholm integral equation (computation experiment). (a) Initial data. (b) Stress along the notch line: full
lines, exact values; dotted line, restituted stress for two variants of random disturbance in initial data
Fig. 3
1.0
0.2
0.6
s/l0
(a)
y
12
8
4
0.2
0.6
x/l0
(b)
Problem 2. Determining residual stress by Fredholm integral equation (computation experiment). (a) Initial data. (b) Stress along the notch line: full
lines, exact values; dotted line, restituted stress for two variants of random disturbance in initial data
Fig. 4
other, can be established after analytically solving the problem of SIFs in the inner crack (Fig.
5), whose edges experience arbitrarily distributed loads ry ry(x) and sxy(x) (Ref 6, 7):
x
[ r (n)n/(x n)]dn
K (x) 2/(px) [ s (n)n/(x n)]dn
KI(x) 2/(px)
II
xy
x n
2
[]dn
d/dx
ry(x) 2(px)1/2d/dx
(Eq 4)
sxy(x) 2(px)1/2
[K (n)n/(x n)]dn
[KI(n)n/(x n)]dn
II
(Eq 5)
These expressions are main-calculated relationships for the built-up crack procedure used
to determine residual stresses in the inner regions
of homogeneous plates. From Eq 5 follows the
correctly set task of calculating residual stress on
the basis of experimental data, this fact, in turn,
ensuring consistency of obtained results against
measurement errors. On the other hand, applying
this method requires more effort-consuming experiments as compared with the general method
considered in the article Measurement of Residual Stresses in this Handbook.
It should be noted that in contrast to the methods of successive grinding, the method of builtup crack is applicable for the study of two-dimensional fields of residual stress. Moreover,
since the indicator crack is a more intense stress
concentrator in comparison with the circular
hole (let alone the methods that require the part
to be cut completely), this provides for its higher
susceptibility.
y
(x )
x
(x)
xy
x,
Fig. 5
y(x, 0) = (x, y)
E1,v1
E1,v2
y(x, 0)
sponsible for emergency of residual stress is represented by the difference in elasticity moduli of
materials with two-layer composition. In this
connection, the research (Ref 9) obtained analytical relationships of Eq 5 type in the event of
edge crack in a bimetallic band (Fig. 6). These
relationships made it possible to determine stress
on crack edges ry(x) and sxy(x) (residual stress)
on the basis of known relations KI(x) and KII(x),
which correspond to behavior on crack edges x
[0,a] (E1, E2 and l1, l2 represent Youngs
moduli and Poissons ratios for materials of the
first and second layers, respectively). When deriving respective relationships, the solution involving calculation of SIFs for an edge crack in
the band whose edges experience arbitrary loads
ry ry(x) and sxy sxy(x), obtained in
Ref 10, was used.
If the tip of the indicator crack is in the first
layer, the expressions for calculating residual
stress are of the following form (Ref 9):
KI paW1(a) KII paW2(a)
[W1(u)m1(x,u)]du
sxy(x) (d/dx)
[sW2(s)/(x 2 s 2)]ds
[W2(u)m2(x,u)]du
(Eq 8)
m(x,u)
x [0,a] (Eq 7)
ry(x) (d/dx)
+xy(x, 0)
[sW1(s)/(x 2 s 2)]ds
[sW1(s)/(x 2 s 2)]ds
Fig. 6
ry(x) (d/dx)
(Eq 6)
[W1(u)m(x,u)]du
n(au) 2/p
y(x) =
a/2
a
3
2
+(x) = 25
Fig. 7
cessing
+
(x) =
y(x)
y
r
2rx/a
0
5r
(0 x
(0 x
(0 x
(a/2
a)
a)
a/2)
x a)
dicator-crack tip zone on the determining accuracy. On the other hand, presence of local plastic
strain to some extent influences the stress-strain
state of the object surfaces relieved on object cutting. It is determined experimentally (on the basis of strain field results) whether local plastic
strains are present or absent. Each specific case
calls for assessment of their impact on residual
stress to be found with due consideration to their
actual level and peculiarities of the problem
solved. Still, it should be pointed out that development of secondary plastic strains is not limited
to the method of built-up crack. This phenomenon may well attend any destructive method
for example, in the widely used method of circular hole drilling when, due to stress
concentration in the contour zone, there may develop stresses that exceed the yield point of the
material under investigation.
The problem of determining SIF from processed results of polarization-optical measurements at combined loads is that there is a pronounced experimental error (Ref 8, 14, 15, et al.)
in the crack tip zone (Fig. 9), where the stressed
state is assumed, from the standpoint of fracture
mechanics, to be described by Vestergards asymptotic relationships:
rij(x,y)
2pr
KN FN (h)
k1
(Eq 10)
mental information (Ref 1618 et al.). Therefore, for the measurement of strains and displacements fields in the area of the crack
indicator, the optical-geometrical methods
should be used in the first place, as well as the
methods of holographic interferometry and electronic digital speckle interferometry, and also the
method of photoelastic coatings (Ref 8). In considering the holographic methods, the scheme of
the receiving of real-time hologram (Ref 19) can
be used for the receiving of the interferencion
pictures.
The modern methods for SIF determination
under combined loading require only the determination of the function coefficients. This function describes the field of stresses in the crack
zone on the basis of the experimental information. The function of stresses in the form of the
series can be used for the analytical representation of the field of stresses in the crack zone. The
terms of the series are the own functions (Williams functions) of the solution of elastic theory
problem for the regions with the wedge cutouts:
U(r,h)
r n/21f (h)
n1
(Eq 11)
rr rh
2
sr h
(Eq 12)
where:
F1n (s
(s
F2n (s
(s
F3n (s
(s
F4n (s
(s
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
sin[(s 1)h]
sin[(s 1)h]
cos[(s 1)h]
cos[(s 1)h]
cos[(s 1)h]
cos[(s 1)h]
sin[(s 1)h]
sin[(s 1)h]
(Eq 13)
lt
r n/212n
E n1
{an sin[(s 1)h] bn cos[(s 1)h]
Fig. 8
(Eq 14)
G1, 1
G2, 2
r
Fig. 9
As the crack tip nears the boundary of heterogeneous materials, the singularity degree of k*
stress changes depending on elastic properties of
materials and the distance from the crack tip to
[sW1(s)/(x2 s2)]ds
[W1(u)m1(x,u)]du
x [0,a]
(Eq 17)
where
m1(x,u)
u[A1()(xch x sh x)
A2()(2ch x sh x)
M(u)ch ax]da
k
0.366
0.450
0.5
0.575
0.654
0.699
0.754
ry(x) (d/dx)
(Eq 16)
Ai fji qj
i1
( j 1,4)
q2 Y2 MC2
q3 Y3 MC2
q4 Y4 MS2
at g 4, C 2
[sW2(s)/(x2 s2)]ds
[W (u)m (x,u)]du
m (x,u) au[M(au)ch ax
On the basis of the analytical relations between the contour residual stresses and the
stresses (or strains, displacements) arising in the
specimen, and which can be measured on the
cut-out contour, the residual stresses can be determined. The previously mentioned stages of
the proposed approach were put to the base of
all the rupture methods of the residual stresses
measured. However, a main feature of the cutout indicator method consists in the suggestion
about arbitrary distribution of the residual
stresses on the contour, on which the cut is carried out.
General Relations. To define the residual
stresses by use of the cut-out indicator method,
it is necessary to receive the contour residual
stresses by some characteristics of stress-strain
state, which were obtained with the help of the
experimental methods in some area adjoining the
contour of the cutting, without its inclusion. That
means the task inverse to the first general boundary problem of the elastic theory is solved.
As a basic relation, the Muskhelishvili equation of the elastic theory can be used in the view:
0
A2()(axch ax sh ax)
A1()ax sh ax]da
(Eq 19)
d1 Y 1* MC2 d2 Y 2* MS2
d3 Y *3 MS2
d4 Y *4 MC2
Y *1 Y *4 Y0 Y *2 Y *3 Y0
Y *4 Y0/2(1 l1) Y3
Y0 2(1 l1)I0(u)eah
Y3 [hI0(u) uI1(u)]eah
f1 if2 i
t0
(Xn iYn)dS
(Eq 22)
A1 fji dj
i1
(Eq 20)
u(f)
0 ak f k
w(f)
k
0 af
k
(Eq 23)
x(r)/x(r)
bkrk
(Eq 24)
f1 f2
Akrk
(Eq 25)
[C]a A
(Eq 26)
(Eq 27)
(Eq 28)
Fig. 10
13
12
11
10
max, %
8
7
6
5
4
0
0.2
0.3
0.4
6 7 8 9 10
h/c
where (e1 e2)0 is the difference of main deformations, which was found after solving the
problem analytically.
Gradients of main deformation difference are
determined from the following expression:
max = 3%
1.0
(r/c 1)
4%
5%
6%
8%
11%
0
10
(h/c)
Fig. 12
(Eq 29)
where (e1 e2)T is the difference of main deformations in the crack zone. For the circular
hole with radius c in the unlimited size plate under infinite all-directional tension r at r c:
Fig. 11
r1 r2 2KI /8pr
For the inner crack with length 2a in the unlimited size plate being stretched and under infinite
tension stress r, KI rpa. With regard to the
photoelasticity law for the photoelastic coating
method, the following equation is obtained (Ref
1):
14
complexes that allow computation of stressstrain state for bielastic parts using the leastsquare method.
Selecting the Thickness of Photoelastic Coating while Determining the SIF. Results given in
Fig. 11 and 12 can be used to determine the optimal thickness of coating when the indicatorcrack method is applied. This is possible because
the recommended technique for determining SIF
from measurements made on the coating excludes from consideration the zone closest to the
crack tip and makes it possible to reliably determine KI and KII from processed results of measurement in the range r/a 0.05/0.1.
Stress distribution in the zone of crack tip,
which corresponds to an asymptotic solution,
takes the following form at h p/2:
Domains of relationship for parameters r/c and h/c where value dmax does not exceed the specified value
(Eq 30)
5
4
CCD
10
12
y
1
7
13
11
Optical design for the special speckle interferometer. 1, glass prism; 2 and 10, semi-transparent mirror; 3,
object; 4, reflecting base surface; 5, lens; 6, charge-coupled device; 7, diffracting screen; 8, 9, 11, and 12,
mirrors; 13, rotated parallel-sided plate
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Interference patterns in the zone of hole-indicator. (a) Normal displacement w. (b,c) Tangential displacements u and v
B(x, )
1
A
B
0.5
A D
C
D
0.5
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
(Eq 31)
MPa
y
x
7h
100
max(x)
y(x)
max, y, MPa
200
x/h
100
Determining residual stress in the hull plate still
specimen with corrosion-preventive facing.
Data points indicate optical measurements in the photoelastic coating taken at notch-tracking points, with the
notch being expanded stepwise, through 1 m steps
Fig. 18
42
2
42
Fig. 20
1
50
40
(a)
30
r (x)
K I , MPa
20
10
0
6 8
10
12
100
200
300
400
y(x)
500
x , MPa
Fig. 19
Fig. 21
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
either one (almost always the die) to the stationary bed and the other to the reciprocating ram.
The pressure can be applied rapidly by a sharp
blow, as in a crank press or header (impact extrusion), or more slowly by a squeezing action,
as in a hydraulic press.
Rolling is a process in which the thickness of
the material is reduced by passing between a pair
of revolving rollers, which are generally cylindrical in shape for producing flat products such
as sheets or strip. Their surfaces can also be
grooved or textured in order to change the profile
as well as the emboss pattern of the products.
Specifically, cold rolling is carried out for special purposes such as the production of good surface finish or special mechanical properties. According to statistics, more materials are rolled for
further manufacturing applications than are
treated by all other processes.
Forging, Deep Drawing, and Pressing.
Forging compresses metal between a hammer
and an anvil or in a pair of dies. Large-size materials such as castings and ingots are usually
forged at high temperatures at which the yield
strength is reduced as far as possible. Cold forging, often combined with cold extrusion, is mainly
used for smaller-size stock. Deep drawing is an
extension of pressing in that the metal blank is
given a substantial third dimension after flowing
through a die (Fig. 4). Simple pressing is carried
out by loading a blank between a punch and a
Fig. 1
Fig. 4
Fig. 2
Tube elongation by drawing with internal support by (a) mandrel, (b) plug, (c) floating plug, and (d) without
internal support by sinking
Fig. 5
Fig. 3
h
L
Bending with superimposed tension. With sufficient tension, the neutral axis moves out of the sheet so that the
strain is tensile across the entire section (a). With the stress-strain curve shown in (b), the stress distribution in
(c) results. After removal of the moment, elastic unloading leaves very minor residual stresses, as shown in (d). Source:
Ref 5
Fig. 6
(Eq 1)
(Eq 2)
sin (1 (1 r)1/2)2
r
(Eq 3)
(2 r)(h0 /rR)1/2
r
(Eq 4)
In the formulas for drawing and extrusion, D increases with decreasing reduction and increasing
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Influence of area reduction on residual stresses after drawing with one die. Source: Ref 6
Fig. 9
Residual stresses after drawing with different area reduction in the second die. Source: Ref 6
Fig. 10
CK15 steel
2 25
d1 15mm
eA
Residual stresses after drawing, with three different distances between the two dies. Source: Ref 6
the primary die is not only affected but also controlled completely by the secondary die (Ref 6).
The residual stress pattern in multistage colddrawn steel wire is quite similar to that of singledie drawing. Figure 11 shows the distribution of
longitudinal residual stresses in 1H18N9 wire, a
high-chromium, high-nickel alloy steel, from
center to surface (Ref 8). Chemical composition
of the steel is similar to that for 300 series stainless steels according to the SAE specification
(0.12% C, 9.0% Ni, 2.0% Mn, 0.3% Mo, 18.0%
Cr, 0.3% W, 0.15% V). The 1H18N9 steel wire
was drawn through six or eight passes from 2.0
to 1.0 mm (0.08 to 0.04 in.), with a total reduction in area of 75%. The tensile strength after
drawing is 1540 MPa (220 ksi), and the yield
stress is about 1380 MPa (200 ksi). Residual
stresses, measured using the electrolytic etching
method, were very high (close to the yield stress)
both at the wire surface and in the interior. To
relieve these high residual stresses, two destressing operations were tried: multiroll straightening
and additional light deformation drawing
(3.8%). Figure 11 also shows the influence of
these two methods. It is apparent that additional
light drawing can significantly reduce residual
stresses.
The pattern of residual stresses in cold-drawn
tubes, on the other hand, seems sensitive only to
the area reduction. Figure 12 shows axial and
tangential residual stresses at the outer surface
of tubes before and after cold drawing (Ref 9).
The tubing was made from ferritic steel (DIN St
35) with an initial outer diameter of 28 mm (1.1
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Comparison between residual stresses after open-die extrusion without ejection and after drawing with one
die. Source: Ref 6
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Table 1
Original tube
Die
Lubricant
Drawing speed
Condition
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
Parameter
Value
Table 3
ditions
Element/parameter
Table 2
Fig. 19
Geometry
Workpiece geometry
Outside radius
Inside radius
Mandrel radius
Outside radius of forged tube
Reduction in area
Die configuration
Length of die land
Die inlet angle
Process conditions
Friction
Friction
Contact stiffness
Value
33 mm (1.3 in.)
7.94 mm (0.31 in.)
7.94 mm (0.31 in.)
30 mm (1.2 in.)
18.3%
12.7 mm (0.5 in.)
6
Rigid Coulomb friction
0.05
4.0 106 N mm2
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
therm
Residual stress
0
res
mech
Grinding power
Contributions to the residual stress after grinding
as a function of the grinding power. rtherm is the
thermoelastic part, rmech is the mechanical part, and rres is
the total residual stress. In region a, only elastic deformation occurs; in region b, thermoplastic deformation; in region c, thermoplastic plus thermomechanical deformation;
and in region d, rehardening occurs. Source: Ref 2
Fig. 1
200
200
Ck 45 Surface ground with CBN
as-quenched 700 HV10
To the grinding
Parallel
direction
Transverse
400
600
1000
To the grinding
direction
Parallel
Transverse
800
25
50
75
100
125
150
Fig. 2
Residual stress distributions in the longitudinal and transverse directions after CBN grinding of steel SAE 1045
(Ck 45) in two heat treatment conditions: as-quenched and quenched and tempered. Source: Ref 5
500
Neutron
X-ray
400
300
200
100
0
100
100
100
200
300
Depth, m
400
500
500
Neutron
X-ray
400
300
200
100
0
100
100
100
200
300
Depth, m
400
500
The residual stress distributions in the longitudinal and transverse directions after grinding of
steel AISI 1055 using grinding wheel speed 40 m/s and
depth 3.8 lm. Both neutron and x-ray diffraction were
used. Source: Ref 8
Fig. 3
process is a direct plastic deformation of the surface as indicated on the right side of Fig. 8. Thus,
plastic elongation of the surface layers occurs.
The former effect is more pronounced for a hard
workpiece material, and the latter for a soft one.
A few examples of residual stress profiles are
shown in Fig. 9(a) and (b). It is obvious that the
depth of the affected layer increases with the radius and speed of the shot balls. Depths approximately equal to the ball diameter have been reported in steel. The magnitude of the stresses is
less than the yield stress. Work hardening can
cause the residual stresses to exceed the yield
stress of the unpeened material. The largest compressive residual stresses can be achieved by
strain peening when the workpiece is strained in
tension during the peening.
Shot peening also causes shape changes,
which can be considerable for thin sections. This
effect is used in a manufacturing process known
as peen forming in the aeronautical industry. It
also is used to monitor the shot-peening intensity
by help of so-called Almen strips. The bending
of standardized steel strips then is measured.
Pressure rolling is another mechanical
strengthening process with some similarities to
shot peening. It usually is applied to workpieces
with cylindrical symmetry. A roll is pressed
against the workpiece to obtain high-compressive residual stresses. Very deep affected zones
can be obtained, more than 1 mm (0.04 in.) (Fig.
10).
Straightening of bars, tubes, and plates often
is carried out to meet the requirements of
straightness tolerances. The methods for
straightening are described in Ref 17 and 18. Examples include stretching, pressing, rolling,
peening, heating, or other deformation methods.
These procedures involve plastic deformation in
local areas of the part and bring about the generation of residual stresses and sometimes work
hardening of the steel. Figure 11 illustrates how
after bending partially into the plastic regime,
residual stresses are generated due to elastic recovery. During subsequent machining and/or
heat treatment, the residual stresses can become
released and cause distortions. Normally, the
plastic deformation goes fairly deep into the material. The most common straightening methods
depend on bending and usually are carried out
in several small steps, either by pressing or rolling. Stretching of bars and shapes is less frequent
because it is difficult to get the same productivity
as for bending (Ref 19). However, stretching is
attractive because it introduces less residual
stresses than bending does. For strips, a combination of bending and stretching frequently is
applied.
Face-milling
Residual stress
Down-cut milling
Cutting axis
perpendicular
Up-cut milling
Cutting axis
perpendicular
6 1 m h
h2sub
film
1
R
+
r
r
Fig. 4
Characteristic residual stress distributions in steels due to different milling processes. Longitudinal (solid line)
and transverse (dashed line) residual stresses are shown. Source: Ref 1
400
400
200
Longitudinal
0
Transverse
200
400
0
Fig. 5
SAE1045, normalized
Up-cut milling
SAE1045, normalized
0.02
0.04
0.06
Distance from the surface, mm
Down-cut milling
200
Longitudinal
0
Transverse
200
400
0
0.08
0.02
0.04
0.06
Distance from the surface, mm
0.08
Residual stress distributions in longitudinal and transverse directions after up-cut milling (left) and down-cut
milling (right). Source: Ref 1
800
f = 0.18 mm/r
f = 0.36 mm/r
f = 0.71 mm/r
400
400
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
r
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Fig. 6
(Eq 2)
Inserting Eq 2 into Eq 1:
r
(Eq 1)
Residual stresses in the parallel (solid line) and transverse (dashed line) directions caused by turning of SAE
1045 for different cutting feeds. The cutting speed is 90 m/s and no cooling. Source: Ref 1
3(1 m)
E
hsub
r hfilm
(Eq 3)
The important quantity when comparing the effect of different manufacturing processes, is the
product r hfilm. The stress, r, cannot exceed the
yield stress of the workpiece material. In principle, it should be considered that work hardening in the affected layer could increase the stress
value. It is also obvious that the thickness of the
workpiece has a strong effect because d depends
on the inverse square of the substrate thickness,
hsub.
According to this analysis, grinding should be
the least risky operation to cause distortion and
straightening, shot peening, and pressure rolling
the most risky, with milling and turning in-between. Shot peening, however, rarely is followed
by heat treatment because the beneficial effect
against fatigue or SCC may be lost due to residual stress relaxation.
Some careful studies about distortion due to
prior final shaping are reviewed next.
Experimental and computational studies of
distortion of some components have been performed.
Bearing rings are an example of a product that
is extremely sensitive to distortion and for which
distortion-related costs can be very high. It is the
background to some very careful studies about
the origin of distortions (Ref 2123).
Reference 21 points out that one source of distortion is the presence of uneven residual stresses
that have been generated and stored in the material during the manufacturing route. Although
the rings are perfectly round after turning or cold
rolling, they will become distorted during heating to the austenitizing temperature due to the
release of the residual stresses. This is exemplified in Fig. 13, which shows the residual stress
variation around a ring made of SAE 52100 and
the yield stress at different temperatures. At
room temperature no plastic deformation due to
the residual stresses is expected, but at 600 C
(1112 F) it will occur at certain positions, causing out-of-roundness.
In another example, rings were manufactured
from cold-rolled, straightened, and peeled tubes.
1000
200
Residual stress N/mm2
800
Radial
Tangential
600
400
200
400
600
800
1000
0
200
1200
0
400
0.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
160
140
Residual stresses in the radial (transverse) and tangential (longitudinal) directions caused by face grooving of IN
718. The cutting speed is 1200 m/s and the feed, 0.5 mm/revolution. Source: Ref 10
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
a
po
Elastic
deformation
of surface
Unpeened
Shot velocity = 23 m/s
Shot velocity = 81 m/s
Coverage = 100%
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distance from surface, mm
0.5
Fig. 9
Plastically
extended
layer
y
H
0.47 a
200
Residual stress
Residual stress
pl
Tangential
400
Axial
600
37CrS4
800
0
Fig. 8
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.1
Distance from surface, mm
200
800
Fig. 7
400
600
1000
Schematic illustration of the formation of residual stresses as a consequence of two different processes in shot
peening: Hertzian pressure and direct stretching of the surface. Source: Ref 16
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Distance from surface, mm
1.0
Residual stress distributions in tangential (rolling direction) and axial directions in a pressure-rolled round bar with 20.7 mm diam made of SAE
5132 (37CrS4) steel. The x-axis shows the distance from
the surface in mm. Source: Ref 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 13
Influence of the temperature on the yield strength on the occurrence of plastic deformations during heating
of rings from hot-rolled tubes of SAE 52100, soft annealed condition. Source: Ref 21
Reference line
250 rings measured in total
DH
10
Compression
Tension
1
B
C
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
Ss
Sy
Ring No.
3
2
The principal stress distribution in a rectangular bar during loading to plastic yielding to the
depth, DH (curve A); the elastic recovery (curve B); and the
resulting residual stress (curve C)
Fig. 11
Fig. 14
Changes in the orientation of the maximum ovality in relation to a reference line of rings parted-off from a
cold-rolled tube of SAE 52100. Source: Ref 21
300
300
2l
hsub
200
100
0
120
0
240
100
200
200
Distance from surface, m
Fig. 12
Fig. 15
Worst case
Tangential residual stress, MPa
hfilm
Best case
400
200
240
100
120
0
0
100
200
200
400
Tangential residual stress distributions under the surface in soft machined rings from different manufacturing
routes. Source: Ref 21
70
Cold rolled
peeled, straightened
Calculated outer profile at top
60
After turning
Cold rolled,
straightened
Cold rolled
peeled
50
50 m
50 m
After turning
50 m
Cold rolled,
as-rolled
Hot rolled,
peeled
40
Hot rolled,
as-rolled
30
50
150
200
100
Range of measured residual stress, MPa
Fig. 18
Calculated accumulated distortion of the outer ring profile at three positions. The distortion is given after
turning from bent tube and after soft annealing. Source: Ref 23
Fig. 16
Stress relaxation
during normalizing
40.0%
Maximum
(total: 126 m)
Soft
machining
46.0%
Stress relaxation
during normalizing
26.0%
150
200
Out-of-roundness, m
Average
(total: 50 m)
Out-of-roundness, m
200
Simulation
100
50
Hardening
14.0%
Soft
machining
47.0%
Hardening
27.0%
Fig. 17
Simulation
100
50
Experiment
150
Before soft
annealing
Experiment
After soft
annealing
Experiment
Experiment
Before soft
annealing
After soft
annealing
Measured and calculated peak and valley out-of-roundness distortion of bearing rings made from tubes deformed in three-point bending. The distortion is given after turning and after soft annealing. a) Outer radius.
b) Inner radius. Source: Ref 23
Fig. 19
Trailer table
Treatment
Residual stress,
MPa (ksi)
Maximum difference,
MPa (ksi)
Residual stress,
MPa (ksi)
Maximum difference,
MPa (ksi)
Hot rolled
Hot rolled roll straight
Hot rolled press straight
45 (6.5)
32 (4.6)
68 (9.9)
28 (4)
50 (7.3)
102 (14.8)
49 (7.1)
41 (5.9)
84 (12.2)
43 (6.2)
81 (11.7)
123 (17.8)
Cooling after hot rolling has been carried out on a ballring bed or a trailer table and subsequent straightening in a press or parallel roll machine.
Accuracy of measurements, 30 MPa.
Source: Ref 26
Magnetoelastisk parameter
140
120
100
80
60
40
Over before
Over after
Under before
Under after
20
0
Left end
Center
5
Right end
Out-of-roundness, mm
Fig. 20
0.5
0.4
Ring thickness 2 mm
1
2
3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1: radius
40 mm
2: radius
34 mm
3: radius
28 mm
Fig. 21
Height, mm
40
8.
20
0
20
40
0.004
0.012
0.02
9.
60
80
100
200
Fig. 22
200
400
600
Axial position, mm
800
1000
1200
10.
The calculated plastic deformation in the depth of flat bars with thickness 30 mm and length 2500 mm. The
legend shows the effective plastic strain. Source: Ref 27
11.
12.
Conclusions
A survey has been presented about the generation of residual stresses due to machining
such as grinding, milling, and turning, and surface deformation processes such as shot peening,
pressure rolling, and straightening. The text illustrates by typical examples of residual stress
profiles. The so-called Stoneys formula is used
to show that due to the thin affected layers after
machining only small distortions are expected
after relieving the residual stresses when a machined component has a dimension (thickness)
much larger than a few hundred microns. Shot
peening and, in particular, straightening should
give more distortion when relieving the residual
stresses due to larger affected depths. These conclusions are supported by careful studies on
manufacturing of bearing rings and straightening
of bars. It is also pointed out that preceeding heat
treatments and straightening operations could
give much more substantial distortions due to the
presence of deep and irregular residual stress
fields. A modeling study of stress relaxation of
shot-peened material demonstrates that severe
distortions can occur when a relatively thin part
REFERENCES
13.
1. B. Scholtes, Residual Stresses Introduced
by Machining, Advances in Surface Treatments, Vol 4, A. Niku-Lari, Ed., Pergamon
Press, Oxford, U.K., 1987, p 5971
2. E. Brinksmeier, Process Near Control of the
Residual Stress State of Ground Workpieces
with Magnetic Methods, Residual Stresses,
V. Hauk, H. P. Hougardy, E. Macherauch,
and H.-D. Tietz, Ed., DGM Informationsgesellschaft Verlag, Oberursel, Germany,
1993, p 863872
3. J. Grum and P. Zerovnik, Residual Stresses
in Steels after Different Heat Treatments
and Grinding, Fifth International Conference of Residual Stresses, Linkoping University, Linkoping, 1997, p 250255
4. E. Brinksmeier, A Model for the Development of Residual Stresses in Grinding, Advances in Surface Treatments, Vol 5, A.
Niku-Lari, Ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford,
U.K., 1987, p 173189
5. R. Herzog, A. Sollich, and H. Wohlfahrt,
Residual Stresses of Heat Treated Steels
with Different Hardness after Grinding with
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN), International
Conference on Residual Stresses, ICRS-2,
G. Beck, S. Denis, and A. Simon, Ed., Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1989, p
740746
6. A. Sollich and H. Wohlfahrt, Residual
Stresses in Quenched and Tempered Steels
after CBN-Grinding with and without Prestress, Advances in Surface Treatments, Vol
5, A. Niku-Lari, Ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1987, p 919926
7. P. Belardi, E. Capello, and Q. Semeraro,
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
distortion relates to the ratio of length to diameter (L/D), size, quenching condition, heating
temperature, the composition of the steel, and so
on. Thus, the quantity and direction of the distortion under various conditions are quite different. Some examples are listed in Table 3.
For a medium-carbon cylindrical component,
the length will increase while the diameter will
decrease after being quenched. The distortion
will increase with the heightening of the quenching temperature (Fig. 6). The distortion is also
sensitive to the ratio of L/D (Fig. 7). If the medium-carbon steel cylinder has not been fully
hardened, the distortion will decrease with the
increasing of the diameter (Fig. 8). The distortion of 1045 steel after being heated to 840 C
(1540 F) and quenched in nitrate bath is less
than that in water (Table 6).
Carbon content greatly influences the distortion of cylindrical carbon steel components (Fig.
9). The distortion of medium-carbon steel is
greatest, while the distortions of both low-carbon
and high-carbon steels are relatively small. For
T12 steel after being quenched from 780 C
(1430 F) and 1015 steel after being carburized
and then quenched in water from 850 C (1560
F), the length decreased and the diameter increased.
If the cooling condition is different between
the two sides of the cylindrical component during the quenching process, there will be bending
deflection. The face with a higher cooling rate
will protrude in a longitudinal direction due to
thermal stress, but will be concave because of
transformational stress. The direction of the
bending is dependent on the relative amount of
thermal stress and transformational stress.
Asymmetry. The asymmetrical axle component will experience bending deflection caused
by uneven cooling of the two sides during
quenching. If there were only thermal stress, the
component would protrude to the side with the
faster cooling rate when quenched. But, because
of transformation stress, the component protruded to the side with the slower cooling rate
when quenched. The amount of final distortion
depends on the relative amount of these two
stresses:
The axle with keyslot (Fig. 10) is the most
The technological
process
Forging
The manufacturing
methods of the blank
Rolling
Casting
Weldment
Cutting
Heating
Heating rules
Control of heating
Equipment
Heat treatment
Composition
Cooling (quenching)
Quenching medium
Temperature
The design of fixture
Agitation
Cooling methods
Alignment during quenching
Fig. 1
35
2
48
4
25
Fig. 2
Table 1
Quenching technology
External radius, 48
Internal radius, 36
49 to 53
0.15 to 0.25
0.30 to 0.40
42 to 43
0.08 to 0.11
0.10 to 0.15
Source: Ref 1
Table 2
80(D)
39(d)
3
2
67
1
30
39(d1)
57(D1)
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Initial state
L
L
Thermal
stress
Structural
stress
(a)
Fig. 5
Table 3
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Steel No.
1045
4140
0.65% C, 0.85% Mn
1.52% C, 0.37% Mn
1.2% C
52100
Carburized 1015
Top
Medium
Bottom
0.11 (0.0043)
0.0075 (0.0003)
0.013 (0.0005)
0.007 (0.00028)
0.016 (0.0006)
0.022 (0.00087)
0.033 (0.0013)
...
0.045 (0.0018)
0.020 (0.00079)
0.025 (0.00098)
...
...
0.005 (0.0002)
0
0.004 (0.00016)
0.01 (0.00039)
0.018 (0.0007)
0.020 (0.00079)
0.050 (0.0020)
0.048 (0.0019)
0.052 (0.002)
0.025 (0.00098)
0.030 (0.0012)
0.041 (0.0016)
0.038 (0.0015)
0.005 (0.0002)
...
0.008 (0.0003)
0.01 (0.00039)
0.023 (0.0009)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
0.535 (0.0211)
0.097 (0.0038)
0.135 (0.0053)
0.104 (0.0041)
0.206 (0.008)
0.025 (0.00098)
0.110 (0.0043)
0.078 (0.003)
0.015 (0.0006)
0.1 (0.0039)
0.19 (0.0075)
0.010 (0.0004)
0.105 (0.0041)
Ellipses, no experimental data. (a) D 25 mm (1 in.). (b) L 125 mm (5 in.), Source: Ref 1
L
D
0.5
0.4
burized and quenched in oil, its internal radius shrinks, while the external radius and
height have no obvious change.
, %
0.3
%
Deformation in length
Deformation in diameter
Sample size: 25, L/D = 5 ~ 6
0.43
0.2
0.1
+
0.206
0.208
0.10
0.00084
0.1
0.2
700
750
800
850
900
Quenching temperature, C
950
0
0.000014
Fig. 6
0.024
0.012
0.15% C
0.45% C
1.0% C
1.2% C
0.45
L
D
0.4
Fig. 9
0.35
0.3
, %
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
Fig. 10
0
0.05
3
L/D, mm
Table 4
Fig. 7
0.7
Middle carbon steel: water
oil
0.6
0.4
L,%
Deformation of keyslot
Medium-carbon steel
quenched in water
High-carbon steel quenched
in water
0.3
Width of keyslot
dwindles
Width of keyslot
dwindles or expands
slightly
0.2
0.1
0.0
Fig. 8
Width of keyslot
expansion
20
40
60
D, mm
80
Width of keyslot
expansion
3.2
20
20
10
220
355
Fig. 11
Bend distortion after marquenching of 52100 steel axle with keyslot. Source: Ref 2
20
12
Fig. 12
DD
DL
1050
U28 119
(U1.102 4.685)
1050
U28 119
(U1.102 4.685)
0.03
(0.0012)
5140
U22 120
(U0.866 4.724)
0.02 to 0.03
0.63 to 0.69
(0.0008 to 0.0012) (0.0248 to 0.0272)
U22 120
(U0.866 4.724)
0.08
(0.0032)
5140
0.27 to0.32
(0.0106 to 0.0126)
0.18 to 0.15
(0.0071 to 0.0059)
d(50)
D(70)
0.13 to 0.18
(0.0051 to 0.0071)
Fig. 14
Source: Ref 3
25
60
50
+b
Fig. 13
Fig. 15
Ref 1
B-B
DD, mm (in.)
Dd, mm (in.)
DD, mm (in.)
Dd, mm (in.)
DD, mm (in.)
Dd, mm (in.)
0.36 (0.014)
0.44 (0.017)
0.22 (0.0087)
0.35 (0.0138)
0.30 (0.012)
0.36 (0.014)
0.29 (0.011)
0.39 (0.015)
0.24 (0.009)
0.35 (0.0138)
0.37 (0.015)
0.43 (0.017)
Source: Ref 1
0.4
0.4
a(D)
b(d)
0.3
0.3
0.2
D, mm
0.2
0.1
1
0.0
0.2
10
25
0.2
30
10
25
15
20
, mm
30
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.04
3
0.02
0.02
4
, mm
D, mm
0.1
15
20
, mm
0.06
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.02
8
C(D)
0
10
0.04
0.04
0.06
0.1
0.0
0.1
Influence of Asymmetry
C-C
D, mm
dius shrinks. The shrinking deformation decreases with the increase of wall thickness.
When the external radius is smaller than the
height, the deformation of height is larger
than that of diameter. Otherwise, the deformation of height is smaller than that of diameter.
Influence of Keyslot on the Distortion of a
Hollow Cylinder after Quenching. The
change of keyslot width is the same as internal
radius, observed with the inside radius in the tubular example just discussed. The keyslot becomes wide if the internal radius swells. On the
other hand, the keyslot becomes narrow if the
internal radius shrinks (Fig. 17). The smaller the
wall thickness is, the larger the distortion of
keyslot will be.
Uneven Distortion of Internal Radius. For
hollow cylinders with keyslot, the distortion of
internal radius is uneven. The shape of the inner
hole after being quenched becomes elliptical.
Eccentric Hollow Cylinder. Because the
wall thickness of an eccentric hollow cylinder is
quite different in various directions, the deformation is different after being quenched, as
shown in Fig. 18.
Component with Different Cross Sections.
The deformations of internal and external radii
at both ends of the component are different because of the difference in wall thickness. Meanwhile, the adjoining parts restrict each other, thus
the deformation is as shown in Fig. 19.
15
20
, mm
25
d(d)
0.06
30
10
15
20
D, mm
25
30
Fig. 16
Effect of wall thickness on the distortion of hollow cylinder after quenching, U70 35 mm (U2.756 1.378
in.). 1: 5140, heated at 840 C (1544 F), quenched in oil; 2: 5140, heated at 840 C (1544 F), quenched in
oil, tempered at 410 C (770 F); 3: 5140, heated at 840 C (1544 F), quenched in 140 C (284 F) nitrate bath; 4: 5140,
heated at 840 C (1544 F), quenched in 140 C (284 F) nitrate bath tempered at 410 C (770 F); 5: 1045, heated at 840
C (1544 F), quenched in 5% NaCl water; 6: 1045, heated at 780 C (1436 F), quenched in 5% NaCl water; 7: 1045,
heated at 840 C (1544 F), quenched in 150 C (302 F) nitrate bath. Data Source: Ref 1
The residual stress caused by the cutting process causes distortion in the subsequent heating
process due to stress relaxation.
Residual stress will be high and the distortion
will increase if the front rake angle and inner
angle of the tool edge are not up to the standard
or the cutting load (depth of cut and feeding) is
too large. Long and thin components are especially sensitive to these factors. Improper clamping of the component also can cause more residual stress.
For example, there is a gear wheel made of
18Cr2Ni4W steel. Its external radius is 240 mm
(9 in.), internal radius is 224 mm (8.8 in.), modulus is 4 mm. The ovality is more than 4 mm
(0.16 in.) after the component is nitrided at 500
C (930 F) for 40 h. It has been found that the
four-jaw chuck used for clamping during heating
caused greater residual stress. The following
measures should be employed to keep the ovality
at less than 0.04 mm (0.002 in.):
Use plastic clamping apparatus, bring pres-
ting depth
ting process
Larger expansion
2
35
48
Height, h = 25
(a)
Fig. 17
(b)
Distortion of a hollow cylinder with inner keyslot, after quenching. (a) The keyslot becomes wider with the
increase of internal radius. (b) The keyslot becomes narrower with the decrease of the internal radius.
Fig. 18
in water
Fig. 19
Table 7
Fig. 20
Condition
Bending direction
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
quenching
Fig. 24
Quenching direction
30
Fig. 25
70
Fig. 23
Fig. 26
220
Fig. 27
1.75
25
Fig. 28
Influence of banded segregation of carbide on quenching distortion of workpieces made of high-carbon and
high-alloy tool steel. Arrows indicate the direction of carbide segregations.
28.5
Fig. 29
Fig. 30
Power frequency
quenching
Mid frequency
induction
hardening
Flame quenching
Ultra-high
frequency hardening
Electrical heating
and quenching
High frequency
hardening
Laser quenching
Electron beam
hardening
Big
Fig. 31
Small
Metallic cementation
Boriding
Solid quenching
Carburizing quenching
Nitrocarburizing
Chemical vapor deposition
Local quenching
Induction heating-surface quenching
Flame heating-surface quenching
Nitriding
Nitrocarburizing of austenite
Electron beam heating-quenching
Physical vapor deposition
Nitrocarburizing of ferrite
(Tufftride, TruTec, Springfield, OH)
Nitrocarburizing
Short-time nitriding
Laser heat treatment
Ion implantation
Ion implantation enhanced vapor
phase deposition
Carburizing at low temperature
Deformation
tendency
Very big
Big
Medium
Small
Very small
Slight
Temperature of the
component going
into the furnace
The influences of
heating rules
Fig. 32
The control of
heating rate
Holding temperature
Keeping warm
Holding time
Pre-heating
Pre-heating temperature
Heating temperature
and keeping
warm time
Pre-heating time
Table 9
Medium
Heating rate
Heating uniformity
Slow
Liquid
Fastest
Melting metal
Fastest
Faster
Fluidized bed
Fast
Vacuum
Slowest
Comments
2
3
Unreasonable
Fig. 33
Unreasonable
Reasonable
Influence of loading pattern on heating uniformity. (1) Workpiece. (2) Heating elements. (3) Refractory materials
Medium-carbon
High-carbon
Low-carbon (carburizing)
Medium-carbon low-alloy
High-carbon low-alloy
High-alloy
Expand
Contract
Expand
Expand
Expand
Contract
respect to the uniformity of heating. It is necessary to have a circulating fan with enough power,
an air duct, and a conducting plate to guarantee
uniformity of air flow around the component
during heating.
Racking. The loading pattern (racking) will
promote the uniformity of heating, as shown in
Fig. 33 and 34. The loading pattern that best reduces distortion caused by the weight of the
component should be used. Random loading
leads to poor heating uniformity. For long and
thin components, vertical loading should be used
in a pit furnace. Meanwhile, movement of the
heated parts should be smooth and steady when
removing the component from the furnace to reduce distortion caused by swaying and colliding.
Charging basket and fixtures should have
enough rigidity and hot strength so that their distortion, caused by their repeated operation, does
not distort the component. The selection of the
supporting point also has a great influence on the
distortion of the component, as shown in Fig. 34.
Smooth running of the machine driving system
for uploading and downloading. The machine
driving system for transmitting the component
into or out of the furnace must start and brake
steadily to avoid moving up and down and colliding.
size of quenching tank, fluid flow and agitation condition of quenchant, and fluid maintenance
Gas quenching equipment: cooling gas and
pressure, flow rate of gas, design of dynamics
of flow field, and heat transfer
Gas jet and fog jet cooling equipment: structure of nozzle, site and arrangement pattern
of the nozzles, water pressure and flux, air
pressure and flux, and adjusting and controlling system for pressure and flux
Quenching tanks, including water-based polymer quenching tanks, oil-quenching tanks, stepquenching tanks, and isothermal-quenching
tanks, are the most popularly used quenching
equipment.
The volume of the quenching tank directly affects the heat dissipation. If the tank is too small,
the quenchant temperature will vary considerably, leading to nonuniform temperature distri-
Incorrect
Correct
Incorrect
Incorrect
Correct
Incorrect
Correct
Unreasonable
Reasonable
Unreasonable
Fig. 34
Reasonable
Reasonable
(a)
(c)
(b)
Fast cooling
2
1
5
C
(d)
P
(e)
1. cylindric tank
2. mixer
3. flow-guiding pipe at side
4. flow-guiding pipe at bottom
5. thermocouples
Fig. 35
Structure of quenching tank on the cooling uniformity. C, heat exchanger; P, pump. (f) Source: Ref 6
(f)
1. slipping slot connected with furnace
2. high pressure nozzle
3. quick cooling mesh belt
4. slow cooling mesh belt
5. liquid surface
air flux change at different positions. This design can meet the requirement for quenching
of a large batch of small parts.
Computer simulation may be used to optimize
the jet-hardening and fog-quenching process and
equipment design.
Influence of Quenchant
Cooling characteristics of various quenchants
and their influence on quench distortion are dis-
(a)
(b)
cussed in other chapters of this book. The cooling intensity of the quenchant is not only related
to the physical and chemical properties of the
quenchant, but also related to some outside factors, as shown in Table 11. The comparison of
several major quenchants is shown in Table 12.
Generally, the greater the cooling intensity,
the deeper the hardened layer, the greater the distortion will be. However, there is no exact relationship between these variables. This is due to
the influence of the fastest cooling rate, the relative degree of the cooling rates within pearlite
(c)
Degression of pressure
(d)
(e)
Fig. 36
Fig. 37
Effect of site of spray nozzle on the distortion of axle component after quenching
(a)
(b)
(c)
Factor
Function(s)
The cooling intensity of water solution drops intensively with the increasing of the
temperature and the temperature corresponding to the fastest cooling rate obviously
moves to lower. However, the cooling rate of oil increases slightly with the increase
of temperature due to the decreasing of the viscosity of oil.
Agitation can drop down the stability of vapor film and thus increase the cooling
intensity of quenchant. The higher the flow rate is, the greater the influence. The
uniformity of fluid flow around component has great influence on distortion.
The higher the gas pressure is, the bigger the heat of vaporization, and therefore the
faster the cooling rate.
For spray hardening, the higher the pressure is, the more powerful the cooling intensity.
When component is cooled in cycling gas, its cooling intensity increases with the
increase of gas pressure.
The cooling rate of coarse surface is faster than that of smooth surface. The salt or
borax sticking to component surface can promote the burst of vapor film.
Table 12
Quenchant
Cooling rate
transformation period and martensite transformation period, or strictly speaking, the cooling
curve. There is a strong relationship between surface heat transfer coefficient, surface-to-arc temperature gradient, and distortion. For example,
the cooling intensity of 10% NaOH solution or
10% NaCl solution is much higher than that of
water and, therefore, the hardened layer is also
much deeper. However, the distortion of the
component being quenched by 10% NaOH water
solution or 10% NaCl water solution is just
slightly less than that of water because the cooling rates of those quenchants within martensite
transformation period are similar. The depths of
hardened layers after being quenched in 50%
NaOH water solution is greater than that of water
but the distortion is less. The reason is that the
viscosity of NaOH water solution with high concentration is large and its cooling intensity
within martensite transformation period is only
1
6 of the cooling intensity of water. The maximum cooling rate and characteristic temperature
of high-speed quench oil with additives are obviously higher than that of straight unaccelerated
oil, while its cooling rate within a low-temperature range is slower than that of ordinary mechanical oil due to the greater viscosity. Therefore, although the depth of hardened layer
quenched by high-speed quench oil is deeper
than that of unaccelerated quench oil, the distortion is similar.
The distortions of a C-ring test specimen made
of 5140 steel (Fig. 38) quenched in various quenchants are shown in Table 13.
Distortion
Large
Large
Large
Large
Water
Large
Polymer quenchants
Medium
Medium
Small
Very small
Nitrate bath
Very small
Small
Air
Very small
037
Table 13
Quenchant
Water
10% NaCl
1% NaOH
50% NaOH
75% NaOH
Source: Ref 1
Cycling rate,
m/s (ft/s)
Hardness after
quenching, HRC
Gap opening,
mm (in.)
20 (68)
20 (68)
20 (68)
20 (68)
15 (59)
0.5 (1.6)
0.5 (1.6)
0.5 (1.6)
0.5 (1.6)
0.5 (1.6)
5660
5760
5759
5860
5557
0.39 (0.015)
0.18 (0.007)
0.22 (0.009)
0.12 (0.005)
0.05 (0.002)
12
051
Fig. 38
C-style samples
Quenching
medium
Mediumcarbon
steel
Highcarbon
steel
Carburized
low-carbon
steel
Carburized
low-alloy
steel
Medium-carbon
low-alloy
steel
Low-alloy
tool steel
Mediumalloy
steel
Highalloy
steel
Saline water
Oil
Alkaline salt
Nitrate bath
Air
Expand
Shrink
Expand
Expand
Shrink
Shrink
(b)
Expand
Shrink
Shrink
Shrink
Shrink
Shrink
Shrink
Shrink
Shrink
Expand
Expand
Expand
(a)
Expand
(b)
Expand
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(a) For alloy tool steel, hot oil can increase the expanding trend, while cold oil can increase the shrinking trend. (b) Too much water in alkaline salt
or nitrate bath, decreasing the bath temperature, and short keeping time will result in the expanding trend of cavity. Source: Ref 4
No agitation
Mild agitation
Moderate agitation
Good agitation
Strong agitation
Violent agitation
Air
Oil
Water
Saltwater
Nitrate
0.008
0.2
0.250.30
0.30.35
0.350.40
0.400.50
0.500.80
0.801.00
0.91.1
1.01.1
1.21.3
1.41.5
1.62.0
4.0
2.0
2.2
45
0.5
2.25
Source: Ref 5
Table 16
Factor
Function(s)
Table 17
Factor
Function
Water pressure
Water flow
Injector or nozzle design
Spray hole or nozzle position
Component shape and relative movement against nozzles
Table 18
Addendum circle
diameter
Bore diameter
Temperature, C
Ms
2
1
Time, lg
Fig. 39
Before tempering
After tempering
Internal stress
before nitriding.
Distortion of
nitrided workpiece.
Shape factor
The worse shape symmetry, the
larger deformation during nitriding.
The worse rigidity, the larger
deformation due to creep.
Fig. 41
Fig. 42
tration distribution of carburized layer: Surface layer with high-carbon content has a
lower martensite-transition point, greater
amount of retained austenite, and larger volumetric increase during martensite transformation. Transformation stress of carburized
parts varies with case carbon content and carbon concentration distribution in the carburized layer.
Case depth of carburization: The deeper the
case depth of carburization, the greater the
(a)
Fig. 43
ing: Heterogeneous case depth or local carburizing will result in nonsymmetrical distribution of structural stress and, therefore, lead
to distortion.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Comparisons of the distortion of slender shaft resulting from gravity. (a) Large distortion. (b) Medium distortion.
(c) Little distortion. (d) Illustration of universal joint hanger
16
100
12
Effects of loading tools and arrangement patterns on the final heat treatment distortion are
20
90
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 44
(d)
Do
Di
3 120
Incorrect
Fig. 45
Correct
80
30
1
30
67
2
57
Fig. 48
Auxiliary sleeve used for reducing quenching distortion. (1) workpiece, (2) auxiliary sleeve
(a)
Fig. 46
(b)
(c)
Loading method of ring-shaped parts with a large hole in the center (a) circumferentially hanging, (b) centrally
hanging, and (c) horizontally placed
4
5
2
1
Fig. 47
Schematic layout of basket and parts. (1) pedestal, (2) basket, (3) cramp bar, (4) locating pedestal, (5) parts
NH3
3
1
2
4
A-A
Fig. 49
Schematic of the unimproved layout of bolt nitriding. (1) furnace chamber, (2) ammonia inlet, (3) parts, (4)
heater
3
6
These improvements greatly improve atmosphere and heating uniformity, and therefore, the
distortion is controlled within the tolerance limit.
Function of Forced Distortion Devices in
Heat Treatment. Some devices employed in
quenching can control the workpiece distortion
by use of internal stress emerged in heat treatment, though they exert no external force on the
workpiece. For example, in Fig. 13, a workpiece
with a groove in the end face was quenched with
the groove upward, and groove width shrank evidently. If a smooth steel block is plugged in the
groove, which is heated and quenched with the
parts, and then taken out after subsequent tempering when stress relaxed, distortion can be
greatly reduced.
In actual production processes, to avoid bending distortion, quench press machines are used
to quench parts such as gears, friction plates, and
even butterfly springs formed during quenching.
Moreover, for mass production of disk gears,
quench press machines are also applied to the
quenching treatment.
The disk gear shown in Fig. 51 was quenched
in a pulsating quench press machine. At the same
time, end face warpage and bore distortion were
corrected. The compressive forces were (Ref 4):
Ring pressure at position B: 11,740 N (2,639
lbf)
Fig. 50
Schematic of the improved layout of bolt nitriding. (1) guide flow tank, (2) furnace chamber, (3) guide flow
ring, (4) annular ammonia inlet, (5) furnace lid, (6) fan
(879 lbf)
32
REFERENCES
18
110
220
Fig. 51
Table 19
Disk gear quenched in pulsating quench press machine. (A) pressure from outer hold-down ring, (B) pressure
from inner hold-down ring, (C) pressure from expansion heap, (D) pressure from bottom die ring
Factor
Unsuitable fit between conical expansion rod and cone face of central die
Untidy work surface of central die or gear bore surface
Inadequate dimension of central die and limiting ring or inappropriate dimension of limit
ring
Insufficient pressure of central die
Excessive pressure of central die or oversized inner diameter of limiting ring
Insufficient pressure of inner hold-down ring
Excessive pressure of outer hold-down ring
Excessive taper of lower mold surface
Insufficient pressure of outer hold-down ring
Excessive pressure of inner hold-down ring
Inadequate taper of lower mold surface
Source: Ref 4
Influence
Elliptical bore
Elliptical bore
Elliptical bore
Elliptical bore
Nonsmoothness of inner end surface
Nonsmoothness of inner end surface
Nonsmoothness of inner end surface
Nonsmoothness of inner end surface
Nonsmoothness of outer end surface
Nonsmoothness of outer end surface
Nonsmoothness of outer end surface
Therefore, to minimize distortion, the whole production process has to be observed. In the following chapters, the heat treatment process, and
especially the influence of process equipment,
are discussed
Identification of Distortion
Generating Process Equipment
Distortion can be increased by different steps
of heat treatment processes. In the majority of
cases, quenching steps are brought into connection with the generating of distortion because
quenching is the last step of the process. However, a high amount of distortion will be generated before quenching or cooling is started. To
avoid or to minimize distortion, it is important
that the parts being heat treated are heated and
cooled uniformly so that a homogeneous temperature distribution results over all the cross
sections. On the other hand, if cooling and heating are as homogeneous as possible, but the
component is very inhomogeneous (chemical
composition, microstructure, residual stress state
before heat treatment) or the shapes of the parts
show very different transverse sections, bores,
holes, and so on, distortion will not be avoided
without using special methods such as press
quenching. Therefore, if there are problems dealing with distortion and there is the presumption,
that distortion could have been released by
equipment, it should be checked simultaneously
if material or shape could also be responsible for
the failure.
With respect to the process and the equipment,
a general remark is that heating and cooling must
be done as uniformly as possible.
rmax
rmin
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Distortion Minimizing by
Quenching in a Hardening Press
In actual industrial practice, the heat treatment
process frequently is carried out with large
charges. In such operations, many workpieces
are simultaneously heated, then simultaneously
cooled. Such multiple-workpiece treatment procedures have the obvious advantage of substantially increasing output rate; however, the cooling curves of each individual workpiece are
different. Thus, in order to ensure that the required minimum effective cooling rate is
achieved, it is necessary, in such cases, to orient
the procedure on the basis of the slowest-cooling
section of the processed charge.
A corresponding selection of quenching conditions (involving, for example, the use of a
high-efficiency quenching oil) leads, in such
cases, to the cooling of all other portions of the
charge at an excessively high rate. Therefore, in
such a situation, it currently is impracticable to
establish an optimal charge-processing procedure. In cases in which the workpieces undergoing treatment are distortion sensitive (such as,
thin-walled roller-bearing rings), extreme deformation may occur (Fig. 1).
In the current state of industrial technology,
workpieces of such sensitive types can be treated
successfully only through the use of expensive
and time-consuming grinding operations, which
produce workpieces with the required end dimensions. However, some workpieces may be in
such bad shape that they cannot even be subjected to post-production treatment, and in such
cases, the benefits of any previously applied
treatment procedures are lost. One potential solution to this problem is the use of hardening
fixtures.
An essential feature of such an installation is
that each workpiece is subjected to an individual
cooling regimen, while the deformation is maintained at a very low level by applying external
forces. A comparison between Fig. 1 and Fig. 2
shows the accuracy (roundness) generated
through the use of this procedure and clearly indicates the high level of effectiveness of the
hardening fixture installation in procedures of
the type in question.
The primary goal of the fixture-hardening procedure is the enhancement of end-product quality, through achieving a uniform hardness distribution for the processed workpieces, minimal
level of deformation, as well as a substantial reduction in the need for the use of supplemental
finishing procedures, such as grinding.
Smooth mandrel
Fixed mandrel
Expanding mandrel
Toothed mandrel
Basic fixing
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Flank fixing
Synchronizing cone
Fixed mandrel receptacle with
retention and mandrel
ejection device
Ring gear
Expanded mandrel receptacle
with separated retention
Synchronizing ring
Receptacle on conical fixed
mandrel with retention, conical
outer retracing, and
mandrel ejection device
Sliding sleeve
Fixed mandrel takeup,
with retention, mandrel
ejection device, and optional
external pressing
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
1060 F), the increase in hardness is less prominent even for special alloy steels, as the precipitates are coarser and less uniformly distributed
(Fig. 2, 3).
The interdependence of tribological/mechanical parameters and chemical composition of the
compound layer is not completely elucidated.
The nitrogen/carbon ratio in the e-type layer has
been extensively investigated (Ref 6, 8, 9), but
it remains difficult to provide accurate parameters for industrial processes. The presence of oxygen is also of utmost importance, increasing the
layer growth rate due to increased surface activity (Ref 5, 10, 11).
The problem of residual stresses is more sophisticated in this case, because consideration
must be given not only to stresses in the compound layer or in the substrate, but also to some
particular phenomena that appear in the interface
between the compound layer and the substrate.
Another important factor is the dissolution of
carbide particles in the e compound layer from
the pearlite grains of the substrate (Fig. 4).
Salt bath nitrocarburizing results basically in
the same structure discussed above, but due to
the dissolution phenomenon in the bath an equilibrium in the layer growth process will occur
one that is dependent not only on the bath active
composition but also on its contamination, especially with iron (Ref 12). Usually extremely
fine salt inclusions also can be found in the compound layers outmost film, as it may be observed in studying the fracture toughness of
compound layers (Ref 13). This dissolution process modifies not only the stress state in the
Fig. 4
Dissolution of carbide particles in the compound layer from the pearlite grains of the substrate. Transmission
electron micrograph (TEM)
stresses as compared to those in carburized layers. Due to the complex mechanism of hardening in nitriding (the presence of a compound
layer), investigations are more difficult and the
mathematical modeling must consider numerous
factors.
Most of the data in the literature are connected
to the residual stresses in the diffusion layer, and
generally relate to gaseous nitriding. Surprisingly few data can be found on residual stresses
in nitrocarburizing, especially for compound
layers. From the experimental data on tribological and fatigue properties it is obvious that not
only the compound and the diffusion layer play
Fig. 5
Compound Layer
Several theories related to the origin of residual stresses in nitrided layers associate these
stresses mostly with the diffusion layers (Ref
2225). The main causes of the residual stresses
are considered to be:
Changes in chemical composition in the dif-
fusion zone
Fig. 6
Modified interface between the compound layer and substrate as result of carbide dissolution. TEM
0 (0)
0.005 (0.0002)
0.01 (0.0004)
0.015 (0.0006)
0.02 (0.0008)
0.03 (0.001)
54 (8)
492 (71)
594 (86)
590 (86)
c-Fe4N
48 (7)
264 (38)
432 (63)
587 (85)
327 (47)
624 (90)
721 (104)
705 (102)
393 (57)
528 (77)
764 (111)
724 (105)
640 (93)
(a) The residual stress values given for the same layer structure were measured for layer thicknesses of 22 and 25 lm on 31CrMoV9 steel treated at
570 C (1060 F) for 16 and 32 h, respectively. Source: Ref 27
Fig. 7
Plasma nitrocarburized EN-9 (070M55) steel. (a) Microstructure. (b) GDOS carbon and nitrogen profile. (c) X-ray diffraction pattern at the surface (showing almost pure ephase). 570 C (1060 F), 3 h, 4 mbar. Source: Ref 16
compound layers has been little studied. Computer modeling of compound layer formation,
which is of crucial importance for the mathematical formulation of stress patterns, was initiated in a few investigations (Ref 32, 41), but
the results fail to answer a number of basic questions. Both the kinetics of surface reactions in
nitriding and the thermodynamics of Fe-N-C
have not yet been satisfactorily elucidated. The
very good model proposed by Sun and Bell (Ref
42) for the diffusion of nitrogen and the formation of nitride precipitates in the matrix also
gives only a few indications for the compound
layers.
Diffusion Layer
As was discussed earlier, a number of studies
present different aspects of the residual stresses
in nitrided layers (Ref 14, 2224, 26, 28, 31, 32,
37, 4349). The mechanism of nitriding causes
practically no differences in the phenomena in
the diffusion layer function of the applied technology. Due to its low solubility in the ferrite
matrix, nitrogen will form Fe4N-type nitride needles or precipitates in the diffusion layer substrate. The presence of alloying elements will
modify the composition of the nitrides, resulting
in nitrides and carbonitrides of the alloying elements (Ref 44, 45). The treating temperature
strongly influences both the structure and composition of the nitrides, but basically the kinetics
of diffusion layer formation will remain the same
for different industrial processes. Thus, the main
causes of the residual stresses are connected to
volume changes in the layer due to:
layer
Dissolved nitrogen in the ferrite matrix of the
layer
Precipitation of different nitrides in the dif-
fusion layer
Decarburization in the diffusion layer
Differences in thermal contraction between
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Dissolution of carbides from pearlite grains of the subsurface region in the e-type compound layer. TEM
Ferrite, 0.1N
Fe4N
AlN
CrN
Cr2N
Dissolving Fe3C
Residual stress
(b)
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
820
440
210
120
65
30
2700
2600
1600
1700
1600
1250(c)
390
375
230
245
230
180(c)
taniumform a high-hardness case and high residual stresses in the layer. A direct correlation
seems to exist between the microhardness of the
diffusion layer and the residual stress level (Ref
49). Also, the higher the carbon content of the
steel, the higher the compressive residual stress
level (Ref 28). This is illustrated in Fig. 10 (Ref
45).
The process temperature has an important effect on the residual stresses, by its influence both
on the diffusion rate and on differences in precipitate formation during cooling. In situ measurements of residual stresses during the nitriding process revealed important data on not only
stress relaxation by plastic deformation during
nitriding, but also the influence of process parameters on induction of residual stresses in both
the compound and the diffusion layers (Ref 28).
The cooling process can be considered the most
important step in generating residual stresses in
the compound layer, whereas stresses are created
in the diffusion zone mostly during nitriding and
only a very slight change occurs in cooling. Figure 11 shows the general influence of treating
Fig. 12
K-oxygen
K-no oxygen
5
Reaction rate, k 107
0
0
Fig. 11
Decrease of residual stress level with increasing nitriding temperature. Source: Ref 45
Fig. 10
10
20
30
40
50
Undissociated ammonia, R, %
60
Fig. 13
nitrided and nitrocarburized layers, using the reverse impending method (Ref 51). Figure 14
shows clear evidence of these differences, but
unfortunately no residual stress measurements
were performed on the test samples.
The influence of nitriding and carbonitriding
on bending fatigue properties was investigated
for different steels and different process parameters (Ref 36, 5254). The fatigue resistance of
both unnotched and notched samples depends on
the value and distribution of the residual stresses
in the diffusion zone. This is practically correlated with the hardness and its distribution in the
layer. For the same hardness values, a deeper
nitride case will increase the residual stresses in
the diffusion zone, thus causing an increase in
long-cycle fatigue strength (Ref 54). According
to Spies et al. (Ref 52, 54), an e-type compound
layer results in higher residual stresses in the diffusion layer and in a higher fatigue limit (Tables
3 and 4).
There is no doubt that all the data from the
technical literature outline the efforts for a more
fundamental, mathematical approach to the
problem of residual stresses in nitrided steels and
their influence on fatigue behavior. Though nitridingwith all its industrial versionsis a
well-established and widely applied technology,
the mathematical description of layer growth and
the formation of local strength and macrostresses
is far from that of carburizing. The explanation
may be connected to the more sophisticated kinetics and thermodynamics of the process, but
also to the practical fact that the prediction of
residual stresses in nitrided components is less
critical than for carburized components.
Fig. 14
TEMs showing typical crack pattern of surface layer. (a) Gaseous nitrocarburizing. (b) Salt-bath nitrocarburizing. (c) Plasma nitriding. (d) Plasma nitrocarburizing
Table 3
Influence of steel grade on residual stresses and fatigue life of structural steels
Compound layer
Steel
Type
Thickness, lm
45MnV3BY
c
e(c)
c
e(c)
c
e(c)
e(c)
810
2022
810
2224
10
2225
25
535550
135 (20)
185 (27)
300 (45)
350 (50)
255 (35)
315 (45)
260 (40)
499 (72)
528 (77)
574 (83)
593 (86)
608 (88)
670 (95)
615 (90)
15.8
19.9
19.3
29
11.2
15.8
15.3
20MnCr5N
20MnCr5QT
660680
640650
640650
600
(a) rE, residual stress; depth below surface, 50 lm. (b) rAD, fatigue, when a nominal mean stress or residual stress is applied (long life alternating
strength); bending fatigue test, P 50%. (c) The Wohler line exponent was calculated for long-cycle fatigue. Source: Ref 52
trided/nitrocarburized layers, but only a few attempts have been made to develop a mathematical description of the layer-growth mechanism
and the formation and distribution of residual
stresses. Probable explanations for this situation
may be connected to the complexity of the parameters to affect the process itself, and to the
less critical effect on deformations and service
behavior. No practical attempts have been made
to mathematically model the compound layer
formation and residual stress distribution. In
contrast, a few remarkable studies may be found
on modeling the formation and stress-state of the
diffusion layer. A model elaborated by Buchhagen and Bell (Ref 32) for the simulation of
residual stress development in the diffusion layer
of low-alloy plasma-nitrided steels considers the
thermally controlled creep process, with the residual macrostress being the driving force for
stress relaxation.
According to this model, the thermally induced stress was the temperature-dependent volume part of the constituents and their volumes
per metal atom. These volumes were considered
separately for heating to the process temperature
and for cooling. Due to the missing quantitative
R T
C aN C a0,N exp
r
4G
eM
4
1 GK
3
C a0,N A exp
Fig. 15
Calculated nitrogen concentrations for iron and FeCr alloys. 550 C (1020 F) 10 h. Source: Ref 50
Table 4
(Eq 1)
(Eq 2)
R T
(Eq 3)
rE (c)
Ncd (b)
Stress-intensity
factor
rAD (d)
Steel (a)
Case
Core
mm
in.
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
20MnCr5N
20MnCr5QT
630
600
600
590
470
190
260
250
250
250
0.42
0.24
0.44
0.56
0.60
0.017
0.009
0.017
0.022
0.023
365
360
430
235
140
53
52
60
35
20
490
640
670
745
760
70
90
100
108
110
14.1
13.0
9.3
9.2
18.5
1.55
1.22
1.28
1.49
1.60
15.7
16.7
18.9
21.9
23.7
2.3
2.4
2.7
3.2
3.4
C45QT
(a) Neds nitrided case depth. (b) Pretreatment: N, normalized; QT, quenched and tempered. (c) rE, residual stress; depth below surface, 50 lm. (d) rAD, fatigue, when a nominal mean stress or residual stress is applied (long
life alternating strength); rotating bending test: P 50%; diameter, 7 mm. (e) For high-cycle fatigue: P 50%; (f) rAD nitrided/rAD unnitrided for P 50%. Source: Ref 52
(Eq 4)
Assuming homogeneous nucleation and spherical particles, the precipitation rate constant is
given by:
s
cP c0
r2e
cm c0 2 DMe
(Eq 5)
where DMe is the diffusion coefficient of the alloying element; re is the equilibrium radius of
precipitates; and cm, cP, c0 are the alloying element concentration in the matrix, in the precipitate, and at the phase boundary of the precipitate
respectively.
Assuming that the z-axis is perpendicular to
the surface, the diffusion and precipitation process can be described using the following onedimensional inhomogeneous diffusion equation:
dW
k dt
dC
d2C
DN
dt
dz2
(Eq 6)
(Eq 7)
E
eel
x (z)
1 m
(Eq 8)
i (CME)i 3 V i
1 DV
(Eq 9)
Fig. 16
Measured residual stresses in an FeAlC alloy with 0.6 wt% Al and 0.15 wt% C. 590 C (1095 F) Source:
Ref 50
G dt
r
r (z)dz 0
el
x
Fig. 17
Calculated residual stresses for an FeAlC alloy with 0.6 wt% Al and 0.15 wt% C, 590 C (1095 F). Source:
Ref 50
(Eq 10)
(Eq 11)
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Layers, Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Heat Treatment of Materials of IFHT, 1st National Conference on
Metallurgical Coatings of AIV (Florence, Italy), Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia,
1982, p 973982
H.-J. Spies and H. Cramer, Influence of the
Structure of Nitridred Layers on Their
Toughness, Mat. Wiss. Werkstofftech., Vol
24, 1993, p 320326 (in German)
Sz. Farkas, E. Filep, and Z. Kolozsvary,
Plasma Nitriding Improves Service Behaviour of Textile Machine Components, J.
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C. Ruset, A. Bloyce, and T. Bell, Recent
Investigation into the Mechanisms of the
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Treatment, 2325 April 1997, Tg. Mures,
Romania
S. Janosi, Z. Kolozsvary, C. Ruset, T. Bell,
and Y. Sun, Consideration on Plasma Nitriding of the 30 C 130 Martensitic Stainless
Steel, presented at National Conference on
Heat Treatment, 2325 April 1997,
Tg.Mures, Romania
S. Janosi, Z. Kolozsvary, V. Sandor, and C.
Ruset, Consideration on Plasma Nitriding
Austenitic and Martensitic Stainless Steel,
presented at Seminar on Surface Engineering, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw,
1997, unpublished
M.F. Danke and F.G. Worzala, The Structure and Properties of Ion Nitrided 410
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102104, 1992, p 259270
W.L. Wang, Y.T. Chou, and S. Lee, Chemical Stresses Induced by Grain-Boundary
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1998, p 21212125
M. Samandi, B.A. Shedden, T. Bell, G.A.
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W. Darbinjan, H. Oettel, and G. Schreiber,
Comparison of Mechanical and X-ray
Methods for Measurement of Residual
Stresses on Nitrided Steels, Residual
Stresses: European Conference on Residual
Stresses, Frankfurt, 1992, p 565574
G. Schreiber and H. Oettel, Modeling of
Precipitation and Relaxation Process: Diffusion Layers, Nitrieren und Nitrocarburieren, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, p 167
175 (in German)
H.-J. Spies, H. Berns, A. Ludwig, K. Bambauer, and U. Brusky, Hot Hardness and
Residual Stresses in Nitrided Steels, TU
Bergakademie Freiberg, unpublished (in
German)
M. Oden, C. Persson, and T. Ericsson, Measurement and Calculation of Internal
Stresses in CMC and MMC, Residual
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
Variables on the Fatigue Resistance of Nitrided Steel, Heat Treatment 79, The Metals Society, London, 1979, p 169177
H.C.F. Rozendaal, P.F. Colijn, and E.J. Mittemeijer, Morphology, Composition and
Residual Stresses of Compound Layers of
Nitrocarburized Iron and Steels, Proceedings Heat Treatment 1984, The Metals Society, London, 1984, p 31.131.6
G. Schreiber and H. Oettel, Modeling of the
Precipitation and Relaxation Processes: Diffusion Layers in Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing, Nitrieren und Nitrocarburieren, Weimar, 1996, p 167175 (in German)
Y. Sun and T. Bell, Proceedings of 9th International Congress on Heat Treatment
and Surface Engineering, 2628 Sept 1994
(Nice, France), F. Moreaux, Ed., PYC Edition, Ivry-Sur-Seine Cedex, France, 1994, p
385394
G. Schreiber, H. Oettel, W. Darbinjan, and
R. Wiedemann, Residual Stresses in the Precipitation Zone of Nitride Layers, Residual
Stresses, European Conference on Residual
Stresses, Frankfurt, 1992, p 965974
H. Oettel, G. Schreiber, Residual Stresses in
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
Nitriding of Steels, 6th Konferenz Metallkundl. Probleme d. Werkstoffentw., TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 1989, p 194199 (in
German)
H. Oettel and G. Schreiber, Formation of
Residual Stresses in the Diffusion Layer,
Nitrieren und Nitrocarburieren, AWT Tagungsband, 1991, p 139151 (in German)
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of Residual Stress in Case Hardening, Heat
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957964
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ASM International, 1995, p 213217
N.L. Loh and L.W. Siew, Residual Stress
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
Induction Hardening
J. Grum, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
104
Strip
Strip heating,
heating
contour
contour hardening,
hardening
single-shot hardening
Power (P), kW
103
Preheating
102
Tempering
Scan hardening
10
1
102
101
10
102
103
Frequency (f ), kHz
Fig. 1
surface layer resulting from the machining process under given machining conditions. The second level of the surface-integrity description includes studies of residual stresses in the surface
layer and of mechanical properties of the given
material. The third level of the surface-integrity
description includes tests making clear the behavior of the given part during machining. More
detailed information on the levels of surface integrity description may be obtained in Ref 9 and
10.
The previous paragraphs indicate that the
knowledge of residual stresses in induction hardening alone does not permit a reliable assessment
of the influence of the sum of the residual
stresses present on the behavior of a machine
part in an assembly under given thermomechanical loads.
Characteristics of Induction
Hardening
Induction heat treatment is a segment of the
much larger technical field of induction heating,
which combines many other industrial processes
using the phenomenon of heating by induction
(Ref 1114).
Induction heating is often one of the most effective heat treatment processes available for a
variety of applications including surface hardening, through-hardening tempering and stress
relief, annealing and normalizing, grain refinement, precipitation hardening or aging, and sintering of powdered metals.
In most of these applications, induction heating is used to selectively heat only the portion
of the workpiece that requires treatment (Ref 1,
15, 16). This usually means that the process can
be accomplished in a relatively short time and
with high efficiency because energy is applied to
the workpiece only where it is needed.
One of the main features of induction heating
compared with conventional heating procedures
is that heat is generated in the workpiece itself.
In conventional heating procedures the heat input achieved is only 5 to 200 kJ/m2 s energy,
whereas in induction heating this energy input is
300 MJ/m2 s. In induction heating, heat penetrates the workpiece with the aid of highfrequency alternating current; the choice of frequency depends on heating requirements.
Induction heating power supplies are frequency
changers that convert the available utility-line
frequency power to the desired single-phase
power at the frequency required by the induction
heating process. They are often referred to as
converters, inverters, or oscillators, but they are
generally a combination of these. The converter
portion of the power supply converts the linefrequency alternating-current input to direct current, and the inverter or oscillator portion
changes the direct current to single-phase alternating current of the required heating frequency.
Many different power supply types and models are available to meet the heating requirements of a nearly endless variety of induction
heating applications (Ref 13). The specific application will dictate the frequency, power level
(Fig. 1), and other inductor parameters such as
coil voltage, current, and power factor (cos u) or
Q factor.
In induction surface hardening, it is necessary
to carefully plan individual characteristic phases
of manufacture of machine parts, which are:
Design of a machine part from a blank to its
tion heating
ing
The selection of a blank is related to various
steel semi-finished products or various primary
forming processes such as casting, working, and
so forth. Various shapes of blanks do not influence the selection of the conditions of induction
heating, but they result in different variations of
residual stresses, which have to be considered
together with quenching residual stresses.
Because of the character of the forming process itself, particularly the prescribed thermomechanical conditions of forming the blank, the
expected stress state is obtained. Further forming
of blanks by cutting also produces changes in the
stress state depending on the machining process
applied and the machining conditions. Very often with very complex workpieces, the thermomechanical conditions can cause a certain distortion of workpiece dimensions in addition to
residual stresses. No studies treating a relationship between the stress state in the workpiece
after primary forming and that after secondary
forming could be traced. The primary reason is
that the primary forming, that is, blank shaping,
is usually carried out in one company and the
secondary forming, that is, manufacture of a final
product, in another. It has also been proved that
with suitable heating conditions in different heat
treatment processes, certain heat effects characteristic of a certain annealing process that affect
the range of residual stresses can be obtained.
The difference between induction heating and
furnace heating is related to considerable
changes of heating times and rates up to the hardening temperature and, consequently, to heating
costs. Induction hardening is most often used for
surface hardening of machine components and
has the following advantages over other procedures (Ref 1, 5, 11):
Heating times are relatively short.
Heating procedure is not strictly governed by
103
f = 104
102
f = 105
f = 5 105
10
f = 106
f = 5 106
1
102
103
104
Fig. 2
Power
density
curves
100
20
3 kHz
450 kHz
0.5
10
Heating
time
curves
10 kHz
5
3 kHz
50
Heating time (t H ), s
200
10
0.2
10 kHz
0.1
0.2
0.5
450 kHz
5
10
2
20
Hardened depth (z ), mm
Influence of high-frequency generator on selection of power density and heating time with
given thickness of surface induction hardened layer.
Source: Ref 1
Fig. 3
terial
Time/Temperature Dependence in
Induction Heating
The time variation of temperature in induction
heating of the thin surface layer depends on the
type and shape of the induction coil used,
alternating-current frequency f (Hz), and power
density Q (W/cm2). Power density is defined by
the selected power of the high-frequency (HF)
generator and the surface layer of the workpiece.
Surface heating depends on the coupling between the induction coil and the workpiece. Figure 2 shows the influence of the selected power
density and frequency on the reference depth of
the skin effect in a ferromagnetic material. A
higher power density results in a greater reference depth of the skin effect and a greater depth
of the heated layer with the same maximum temperature obtained at the workpiece surface. (Ref
1). Figure 3 shows the interdependence between
the heating parametersthat is, power density
and generator frequencyas a function of the
specified depth of hardened layer and the heating
time required for single-shot techniques of surface induction hardening (Ref 1). Although the
data supplied by the diagram provide basic in-
a given moment are the greatest during the heating process, DTmax 600 C. During the
quenching process, however, they can reach up
to 360 C. Temperature gradients change much
more in heating than in quenching. In material
heating, there is also a great difference in yield
stress of the material, which can produce plastic
deformation of the material. Another very important finding of the authors (Ref 18) is that the
theoretical model is appropriate since the results
obtained were confirmed by the standard experimental methods such as temperature measurement with thermocouples, diamond pyramid
hardness test, and measurement of residual
stresses with x-ray diffraction. The difference
between the measured and the calculated temperature cycles is very small. It occurs mostly in
heating and reaches up to 60 C at maximum not
taking into account the losses due to eddy currents.
Figure 6 shows two temperature cycles. One
of them takes account of the influence of the enthalpy of phase transformations in the physical
model of surface induction heating and quenching for the surface and the core, and the other
does not. A comparatively small influence of the
enthalpy of phase transformations on the thermal
cycles, however, confirms the small influence on
the changes of the stress state of the cylindrical
specimens during the process of surface induction hardening (Ref 18).
Bruckner and coauthors (Ref 19) determined
the through-thickness temperature variation for
a thin cylindrical plate with a diameter of 120
mm and made of steel Ck45 for hardening and
tempering and for surface hardening with the finite element method. Figure 7, which shows the
temperature changes from the surface toward the
core, also shows that after 14 s a maximum temperature of 870 C is reached at the surface. It is
higher than the temperature of magnetic transformation, which is around 750 C. The through-
1000
900
Power off
Temperature (T ), C
800
Cooling time
Center
Surface
z = 1 mm
Temperature (T ), C
Heating time
Calculated
Measured
Surface
700
600
500
Center
400
300
Surface
200
100
Center
0
Time (t ), s
10
Time (t ), s
Fig. 4
Ref 17
Fig. 5
Comparison of variations of calculated and measured temperatures cycles for cylindrical specimens 16 mm in
diameter. Source: Ref 18
1000
With enthalpy
Without enthalpy
Surface
Temperature (T ), C
800
600
Center
400
200
10
Time (t ), s
Fig. 6
Variations of temperature cycles of surface and core considering enthalpy of phase transformations and without
it. Source: Ref 18
1000
Ck45 N
120
1000
1000
9s
800
800
TAC
800
TAC
t H =14 s
400
Tmax
Temperature (T ), C
600
7s
600
5s
400
3s
200
200
TAC
Q1
Temperature (T ), C
Temperature (T ), C
Q2
600
Q3
400
Q, W/m3
200
10 s
t =1s
6s
0
2s
0
20
40
60
10
15
Radius (r ), mm
tH,s
0.4 109
57.4
1.2 109
18.8
2.4 109
9.0
10
15
Radius (r ), mm
Radius (r ), mm
Calculated time variation of through-thickness
temperature in surface induction heating by the
finite-element method. Source: Ref 19
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
t =9s
t = 12 s
t = 14 s
800
TAC
Temperature (T ), C
600
400
200
Material: Ck45
Q = 2.4 109 W/m3
0
15
30
45
60
75
Radius (r ), mm
Calculated variation of temperature through
specimen cross section in induction heating of
specimens of different masses up to given hardening temperature. Source: Ref 19
Fig. 10
1000
Surface
Depth 2.0 mm
Depth 4.0 mm
Depth 10.0 mm
Temperature (T ), C
800
600
1
Magnetic field
analysis
Eddy current
400
Temperature
2
11
200
3
10
5
9
20
40
60
80
Phase
transformation
Time (t ), s
Fig. 11
Ref 20
Time/temperature cycle during single-shot surface induction heating and quenching. Source:
Fig. 12
12
Material
Mechanical properties
Internal stresses
Residual stresses
Strain
Langeots method of mathematical modeling of surface induction heating and quenching. Source: Ref 23
the selection of an appropriate preheating procedure with a current having a mean frequency
of 3 to 10 kHz and very fast further heating with
a high frequency of 100 to 250 kHz, which
should be followed by suitable spray quenching.
Practical results confirmed that such a surface
induction hardening process permits, in surface
hardening, the best properties of machine parts
in terms of hardness magnitude and variation in
the hardened layer, high compressive residual
stresses in the surface layer with a minimum distortion of machine parts, and a sufficiently tough
core to be obtained.
The authors had already reported on simulation of dual-frequency induction hardening
based on a metallothermomechanical model (Ref
24). With this model, the influence of the magnetic field on heat generation in the workpiece
due to eddy currents in relation to analyses of
mechanical fields and microstructural changes
was analyzed. Such an approach was needed
since Joule heat is generated in the workpiece
material during induction heating due to eddy
currents, which depend on the current supplied
to the coil, and the temperature dependence of
permeability of the workpiece material should be
taken into account as well. The numerical calculations were related to the formation of the
magnetic field in the workpiece material; thus, it
was necessary to elaborate a comprehensive
electrothermomechanical model to relate electrical quantities to material heating and then, at the
second stage, to relate temperature to the mechanical calculations required. The authors,
therefore, suggest the establishment of a complete relationship between the magnetic and thermomechanical fields in the workpiece material.
The thermomechanical analysis takes as a basis
the temperature field formed due to the action of
the magnetic field and relates to the temperature
dependence of magnetic properties. The heat
Magnetic field
Temperaturedependent
electric conductivity
and magnetic
permeability
Heat generation
due to
induction heating
Thermal stress
Stress
Strain
Temperature
Mechanical work
Latent
heat
Temperaturedependent
phase transformation
Transformation
stress
Stress-induced
transformation
Microstructure
Fig. 13
Relationship between magnetic field and thermomechanical state of workpiece material in numerical modeling of surface induction hardening. Source: Ref 24
generated in the workpiece material by a temperature field permits establishment of a numerical relation between the formation and development of the microstructure, internal residual
stresses, and distortion. In Fig. 13, the authors
show the principle of relationship between the
magnetic field generated in the workpiece material and the changes of thermomechanical
properties of the material (microstructure, yield
stress) for the determination of the stress-strain
state of the workpiece material (Ref 24).
A technique of numerical calculation consists
of two separated analyses shown in Fig. 14the
metallothermomechanical analysis and the electromagnetic analysis to establish heat generation
during heating and calculate thermomechanical
fields for the characteristics selected (Ref 24). A
heat increase in the workpiece was simulated by
the electromagnetic analysis of the field for each
step, taking into account momentary temperatures obtained in the material, its permeability,
and conductivity. These data were then transferred to another group of analyses based on a
description of the state of microstructure for the
determination of stress-strain state of the machine part. The whole procedure was iterated
starting with calculations of the ambient temperature and ending with a maximum temperature of induction heating, which was followed
by quenching. Magnetic permeability generally
depends on magnetic field intensity as well as on
a momentary temperature of the material of the
machine part at the spot considered. In the calculation, a constant permeability of the workpiece material is assumed in the first approximation. In heating, for each iteration change
permeability and electric conductivity are taken
as a function of temperature.
Figures 15(a) and (b) show two different ways
of induction heating of the gear wheels, dual frequency and single frequency (Ref 24). In both
cases the heating process ends up in almost the
same time, around 2.8 s. In dual-frequency heating, heating takes place in two phases, first with
a power of 293 kW and the lower frequency, 3
kHz and then with a power of 339 kW and the
higher frequency, 150 kHz. In the first phase,
which takes 1.8 s, the edge of the gear wheel
warms up to a temperature of 740 C, and after
a pause of 0.9 s follows heating in the second
phase, which takes 1.18 s, up to a final temperature of 858 C, which is followed by quenching.
The entire heating cycle including the pause in
between takes 2.88 s.
In single-frequency heating, heating with a
power of 165 kW and frequency of 25 kHz takes
place without the pause and takes 2.8 s. It is followed by quenching. The maximum temperature
obtained at the surface of the gear wheel at the
end of heating was much higher than in dualfrequency hardening and amounted to 970 C.
Figure 16 shows the measured and calculated
temperature cycles in dual-frequency induction
heating of gear wheels (Ref 24). The measured
and calculated temperatures refer to the tip of
tooth, the plane of division of the gear wheel,
and the root of tooth. The temperature cycle of
dual-frequency heating including the pause in-
Temperature (T ), C
Magnetic field
anaylsis
Eddy current
150 kHz
339 kW
858 C
740 C
3 kHz
293 kW
1.8
Heat generation
2.7 2.88
Time (t ), s
(a)
Electromagnetic
properties
Temperature
microstructure
stress/strain
Temperature
Temperature cycle
Heat distribution
Temperature distribution
Volume fraction of martensite
Residual stress distribution
Distortion after hardening
Temperature (T ), C
970 C
Thermomechanical
analysis
25 kHz
165 kW
2.8
Permeability
Conductivity
Fig. 14
(b)
Fig. 15
Time (t ), s
Dual-frequency (a) and single-frequency (b) induction heating of gear wheel. Source: Ref 24
well as quenching. The simulation can be enhanced by a denser grida greater number of
calculated values, for example, of temperature,
distribution of microstructural phases, and so
forth, at the same area of the gear-wheel tooth.
The paper treats a simulation with a very coarse
grid, which provides a less accurate image of the
heating process and the final result of quenching,
that is, of reliability of the assessment of volume
distribution of martensite after quenching, respectively.
Figure 22 shows the temperature distribution
transverse to the half-cut of the gear-wheel tooth
in dual-frequency induction heating of the gear
wheel, and Fig. 23 shows the same in singlefrequency induction heating (Ref 24). In the parallel figure, a gray scale indicating the time variations of power density per volume unit in
individual fields of the gear-wheel tooth or the
amount of heat generated in the gear-wheel tooth
is shown. The greatest amount of heat generated
at the end of heating (legend) was 96,500 MW/
cm3 with the dual frequency and 81,320 MW/-
C 103
Max 0.9372
20 mm
Fig. 18
C 104
Max 0.1042
1200
20 mm
Simulated Measured
Temperature (T ), C
1000
Tip
PCD
800
t = 2.88 s
0.9600
0.8800
0.8000
0.7200
0.6400
0.5600
0.4800
0.4000
0.3200
0.2400
0.1600
0.0800
Min 0.0399
0.1100
0.1000
0.0900
0.0800
0.0700
0.0600
0.0500
0.0400
0.0300
0.0200
0.0100
0.0000
Min 0.0030
Bottom
Fig. 19
600
400
Max 0.9970
1.0000
0.9000
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
Min 0.0000
200
0
Time (t ), s
Fig. 16
Measured and calculated time variations of temperature in dual-frequency induction heating of teeth followed
by quenching. PCD, pitch circle diameter. Source: Ref 24
1200
Fig. 20
Simulated Measured
Temperature (T ), C
1000
Tip
PCD
800
Bottom
Max 0.9970
1.0000
0.9000
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
Min 0.0000
600
400
200
0
Time (t ), s
Fig. 17
Measured and calculated time variations of temperature in single-frequency induction heating of teeth followed by quenching. PCD, pitch circle diameter. Source: Ref 24
Fig. 21
[W/m3]
structure can be analyzed and hardness measured. The authors decided to measure hardness
along the tip, the middle, and the root of tooth.
Because of different tooth widths at different locations, namely, radii, a greater number of measurements with the same distances between the
measuring points were made. Figure 24 shows
the hardness variation at the tip, the pitch circle
diameter (PCD), and the root of gear-wheel tooth
after dual-frequency induction hardening (Ref
24). Along the entire tooth surface from the tip
to the root of tooth the same hardness, 750 HV,
1011
Max 0.0965
t = 2.88 s
800
Hardness, HV
20 mm
0.1100
0.1000
0.9000
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
0.100
600
400
Tip
PCD
Root
200
0
1010
Max 0.8132
0.9000
0.8250
0.7500
0.6750
0.6000
0.5250
0.4500
0.3750
0.3000
0.2250
0.1500
0.0750
0.0000
Min 0.0000
Generated heat distributions in the tooth gear
at t 2.8 s induction heating (single frequency). Source: Ref 24
Tip
PCD
Root
400
200
1.0
Tip
PCD
Root
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Fig. 26
Hardness, HV
800
Fig. 23
[W/mm3]
600
20 mm
Fig. 22
t = 2.8 s
Min 0.0000
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Tip
PCD
0.2
0
Fig. 24
Fig. 27
25 mm
3
Fig. 28
Temperature (T ), C
1000
suring points 1 and 2, somewhat lower at measuring point 3, and the lowest at measuring point
4, where after 40 s of quenching it still amounted
to around 350 C.
Figure 31(b) shows the calculated time variation of temperature at the same measuring
points of the gear-wheel tooth during quenching
taking into account selected heat transfer coefficients 0 of 5000 and 10,000 kcal/m2Ch (Ref
25). The calculated time variations of temperature differ from the measured ones only at those
measuring points with higher cooling rates. The
time variation of temperature refers only to the
selected measuring points; therefore, assessment
of the stress state during the quenching process
and of distortion of gear-wheel teeth or of a tooth
is very difficult.
The authors focused on an analysis of the conditions during the quenching process using a calculated distribution of temperature shown as isotherms (0 5000 kcal/m2Ch) at the half-cut
of the gear-wheel tooth. Figure 32 shows the
variation of isotherms during the quenching process after 0.1, 1.0, and finally 10 s of cooling
(Ref 25). In quenching it is very important that
the temperature gradients are high enough to prevent plastification, that is, distortion, of the gear
wheel during quenching. Such quenching conditions including high-temperature gradients result in decrease of favorable compressive residual stresses after hardening. It follows that a
sufficiently high cooling rate has to be ensured
at the tooth surface as well as to the required
depth of hardening. That means that temperature
gradients in the gear-wheel tooth have to be attained so that gear-wheel teeth are hardened with
the minimum cooling rate required, thus ensuring the required martensite transformation in it.
A sequence of images showing isotherms in very
short time intervals from the beginning of
800
1
2
600
3
4
400
200
0
80
120
Time (t ), s
40
860 C
C
780 C
C
End of
induction heating
600 C
C
840 C
C
160 187200
500 C
C
(a)
Temperature (T ), C
820 C
C
700 C
C
1000
400 C
C
800
1
800 C
C
600
3
4
400
q
q
200
01
02
= 75 W/cm2
300 C
C
= 10 W/cm2
600 C
C
780 C
C
40
80
120
Time (t ), s
760 C
C
160 187200
200
200 C
C
500 C
C
740 C
C
(b)
Temperature profiles of tooth gear during induction surface heating process. (a) Measured.
(b) Calculated. Source: Ref 25
20 s
Fig. 29
Fig. 30
60 s
187 s
negligible influence on the results of heat treatment. The quenching system for induction hardening is defined by eight parameters (Ref 26):
heat time/scan rate, power level, power frequency, part position/rotation, quench flow,
quench temperature, quench time, quench concentration.
Important simultaneous changes of one or
more of these parameters can produce unwanted
effects on the workpiece, which in extreme cases
result in an unsuitable microstructure, deviations
in the depth of hardened profile, unsuitable hardness variation (too low hardness, soft spots), and
exceeding distortion of the machine element.
In practice, there are machine parts of different shapes and size, requiring different depth of
hardened layer. In these cases, the type of material chosen and its through-hardenability
should be considered.
Thus, with alloyed steels having good
through-hardenability and/or machine parts with
a comparatively thin hardened surface layer, the
martensite microstructure can be obtained without the application of a quenchant. In such cases,
heat sinks from the surface into the cold workpiece core so that the critical self-cooling rate
obtained at the surface is higher than the critical
cooling rate.
500 C
C
100 C
1000
C
600 C
C
850 C
C
700 C
C
200 C
C
800 C
C
300 C
C
750 C
C
400 C
750 C
C
500 C
C
Temperature (T ), C
1000
800
0.1 s
600
Stop of
spouting water
under a pressure 3
400
200
0
10
Fig. 32
1s
10 s
4
2
20
Time (t ), s
30
Martensite
volumetric
fraction, %
40
90-100
50-90
0.1-50
0-0.1
(a)
1000
Temperature (T ), C
800
4
600
3
400
200
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
Time (t ), s
0 = 5000
(b)
(a)
Temperature profiles of tooth gear at given
measuring points during cooling process. (a)
Calculated. (b) Measured. Source: Ref 25
Fig. 31
Fig. 33
0 = 7500
(b)
Martensite distribution of hardened gear. (a) Measured. (b) Calculated at the maximum cooling rate. Source:
Ref 25
60
Ratio (inlet:outlet)
1:1
Flow (q ), gpm
50
1:1.7
40
hardening)
1:3
30
hardening)
20
1:5
10
0
10
20
40
30
60
50
Fig. 34
3/16
Flow (q ), gpm
4
5/32
3
1/8
2
1.45
3/32
1/16
0.5
0
10
20
30
Fig. 35
40
50
60
70
80
15
1000
Curve 1:10%
800
Temperature (T ), C
Curve 3:20%
600
Curve 2:15%
400
Curve 4:25%
200
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Fig. 36
1000
Figure 38 shows a distribution of the individual components of the residual stresses, that is,
the axial component rz, the tangential rT, and
the radial rr (Ref 21). The axial and the tangential components of the residual stresses were
compressive at the surface and amounted to
1600 N/mm2. Then they gradually reduced so
that at a depth of 5.0 mm, the residual stresses
changed their sign to become tensile stresses. A
maximum value of the residual stresses was up
to 1000 N/mm2. The radial stress at the surface
was 0, but it gradually increased to a depth of
5.0 mm to attain 500 N/mm2.
Denis et al. (Ref 18) calculated and measured
the distribution of residual stresses through the
entire radius of a cylindrical specimen of 16 mm
in diameter and 48 mm in length. The specimen
was made of carbon steel with 0.45% C and of
pearlitic-ferritic composition.
500
60
1000
50
Pearlite
Surface
Depth 2.0 mm
Depth 4.0 mm
Center
1500
2000
20
40
60
80
Time (t ), s
500
Axial stress distribution at various depths below the surface during single-shot induction
surface hardening. Source: Ref 21
Fig. 37
High-carbon
martensite
Ferrite
40
Low-carbon
martensite
30
20
10
Austenite
Fig. 39
0
1000
500
500
1000
z
T
r
1500
2000
200
0
200
20
40
60
600
T
1000
1400
0
600
80
Calculated
Measured
Fig. 38
Fig. 40
The cylindrical specimen was surface induction heated to a temperature of 980 C and then
quenched in salt water. Figure 39 shows the calculated distribution of individual microstructural
phases from the surface to the center of the cylindrical specimen at the end of cooling (Ref 18).
The initial microstructure was preserved to a radius r of 5.5 mm. In the radii between 5.5 and
6.6 mm, the pearlitic-ferritic microstructure and
low-carbon martensite appeared. With the radii
exceeding 6.6 mm, a fine martensitic microstructure with around 6.0% residual austenite was obtained due to intensive cooling. With the selected
conditions of induction heating and fast cooling
of the specimen, no homogeneous martensite
was formed in the surface hardened layer. Figure
40 shows the calculated and measured variations
of individual components of residual stresses
(Ref 18). The calculated variations of residual
stresses represent high compressive stresses at
the surface, that is, the axial component of residual stresses rz amounting to 803 N/mm2 and
the tangential one rT amounting to 588 N/
mm2. On the contrary, the tensile residual
stresses were calculated after hardening in the
core, that is, with the preserved pearlitic-ferritic
microstructure. Thus the axial component of residual stresses rz calculated for the core
amounted to 370 N/mm2 and the tangential
component rT to 62 N/mm2. The diagram in
Fig. 40 indicates that the maximum tensile
stresses were attained in the transition zone between the hardened and the unhardened layer
(Ref 18). At a greater depth, very low stress gradients occurred and in the opposite direction,
that is, in the thin surface layer to a depth of 2.5
mm, very high gradients of residual stresses occurred. The variations of residual stresses were
determined experimentally by x-ray diffraction.
The great changes of the gradient of the measured residual stresses in the thin surface layer
can also be confirmed by the measurements
made. The results of the measured and calculated
variation of residual stresses in the surface hardened layer agree sufficiently with small local deviations. In order to determine the local deviations of the variation and of residual stresses,
numerous calculations were made with varying
physical parameters of the material and taking
account of different process parameters, too.
A particular problem with steels having
ferritic-pearlitic and pearlitic-ferritic microstructure is that heating of short duration does not
ensure complete homogenization of austenite.
Figure 41 shows the influence of inhomogeneity of austenite on the level of residual
stresses, which is particularly noticeable in the
martensite zone (Ref 18). The initial inhomogeneous austenitic microstructure resulted in the
appearance of the martensitic transformation
with a small fraction of residual austenite. With
regard to the volume fraction of martensite and
residual austenite, plastification of the material
occurred, which produced internal stresses and
the variation of residual stresses, particularly in
the thin surface hardened layer.
residual stresses with the favorable rate of surface induction heating VH1, 200 C/s, which
gives the maximum temperature obtained at the
surface Tmax, 1050 C (Ref 18). This was followed by quenching with two cooling rates,
1500 and 300 C/s.
The variation of the tangential and axial components of residual stresses permits the following findings:
1000
2
Residual stress RS
, , N/mm
600
r
200
0
-200
-600
T
-1000
-1400
Heterogeneous austenite
Homogeneous austenite
6
3
4
5
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
Calculated residual stress profile of particular components after induction surface hardening for heterogeneous
and homogeneous austenite at austenitizing temperature. rz, axial component; rT, tangential component; rr,
radial component. Source: Ref 18
Fig. 41
1200
z
Residual stress RS, N/mm2
800
400
400
800
1200
Tmax = 1050 C
Heating rate 200 C/s
Heating rate 800 C/s
Cooling rate1500 C/s
3
4
5
Depth below the surface (z ) , mm
Simulated residual stress profile of particular components at maximum surface temperature (Tmax 1050 C)
with various heating rates vH1 200 C/s and vH2 800 C/s) and at given cooling rate vc of 1500 C/s. rz,
axial component; rT, tangential component; rr, radial component. Source: Ref 18
Fig. 42
Bruckner et al. (Ref 19) discussed their investigations conducted on residual stresses due to
surface induction hardening as well as the time
variation of internal stresses. They applied the
finite-element method to the calculation of the
time variation of individual components of internal stresses rz, rr, and rt. Figure 44 shows the
time variation of all these components after heating times of 1, 4, 6, and 9 s in the cylindrical
specimen with 30 mm in diameter, which was
heated with a heat flow Q3 of 2.4 106 kW/m3
(Ref 19).
Radial stresses rr vary with time. They are
always 0 N/mm2 at the surface. Then they gradually increase toward the center of the cylindrical specimen. After the heating time t of 4 s they
reach the highest value in the core, 210 N/mm2,
and after the heating time of 9 s they reach the
value of 100 N/mm2. The radial stresses during
heating and cooling may be critical if they essentially exceed the yield stress, which may produce lamination of the surface from the core.
Axial stresses rz vary with time as well. They
are the highest after the heating time t of 4 s, 500
N/mm2 in the core and around 130 N/mm2 at
the surface. The time variation of temperature
through the radius of the cylindrical specimen
indicates that these stresses occur at around 500
C at the surface and at around 150 C in the
core. It can be concluded that because of high
axial internal stresses in the core and considerably lower ones at the surface, they rarely produce distortion of a machine part or even its fail-
1500
1000
r
500
500
1000
1500
Tmax = 1050 C
Heating rate 200 C/s
Cooling rate 1500 C/s
Cooling rate 300 C/s
T
0
3
4
6
5
Depth below the surface (z ) , mm
Simulated residual stress profile of particular components at maximum surface temperature (Tmax 1050 C)
with heating rate of 200 C/s, and at various cooling rates (vC1 200 C/s and vC2 800 C/s). rz, axial
component; rT, tangential component; rr, radial component. Source: Ref 18
Fig. 43
4s
200
500
r , N/mm2
Material: Ck 45
Q = 2.4 109 W/m3
4s
400
6s
1s
Surface
100
9s
Surface
0
6s
300
5
10
Radius (r ), mm
10.5 s
Material: Ck 45
Q = 2.4 109 W/m3
200
4s
Internal stress (T ), N/mm2
Surface
100
1s
100
9s
0
100
100
200
200
10
5
Radius (r ), mm
15
300
100
12.5 s
9.1 s
0
9.0 s
100
200
300
18 s
400
0
10
5
Radius (r ), mm
53 s
0
15
Internal stress time distributions in particular components during surface induction heating process. rz, axial
component; rT, tangential component; rr, radial component. Source: Ref 19
Surface
6s
300
Fig. 44
300
15
200
9s
200
T , N/mm2
1s
10
15
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 45
Tangential internal stress component distribution during quenching process. Source: Ref 19
curve (B-H)
Curie temperature TA2, surface magnetic field
strength H0(T), and frequency f
Surface heat flux q(T)
Material properties: thermal conductivity
kk(T), specific heat c(T), density q, heating
diagram (ITh diagram), and cooling diagram
(ITc diagram), latent heat L
1000
r = 18.5 mm
800
Temperature (T ), C
r = 14.5
r =0
600
400
200
0
101
102
10
Time (t ), s
Fig. 46
800
400
The computer program for solving the temperature field and phase content consists of heating and cooling phases:
1. During heating, the eddy current loss is responsible for the temperature field rise. The
heat flux through the surface is due to the
surrounding air. The phase transformation
into austenite is calculated using a heating diagram (ITh diagram). When the steel part has
been heated for a given time or to a desired
temperature, heating is switched off.
2. Water quenching can be preceded by air cooling for some seconds or vice versa or other
quenchants can be used. The material that
transformed into austenite during heating is
now transformed into ferrite, pearlite, bainite,
or martensite depending on the cooling diagram (ITc diagram). The material untransformed during heating is assumed to remain
untransformed during quenching. Throughout the calculations, material parameters are
chosen from the input curves at the temperature at hand.
3. Temperatures and phase content as a function
of time in every point in the body are the
results obtained. These values together with
mechanical data are used as input data to the
stress program. Stresses are calculated by the
finite element method.
Figure 46 shows the measured and calculated
temperature cycles in the middle of the cylindrical specimen with 40 mm diameter and 120 mm
length (Ref 20). In the middle of its length, that
is, at a distance of 60 mm, two thermocouples
are mounted in the radial direction. They measure the temperature during heating and cooling.
The first thermocouple is located at a radius r of
11.5 mm and the second at a radius of 18.5 mm.
In the figure the temperatures measured are indicated by a dotted line and the calculated ones
at the same measuring points by a solid line. The
differences obtained at the given time t are surprisingly small, namely:
400
z
T
r
800
1200
0
5.0
Table 1
10.0
15.0
20.0
Radius (r ), mm
Calculated residual stress in particular components after surface induction surface hardening. rz, axial component; rT, tangential component; rr,
radial component. Source: Ref 20
Fig. 47
Radius (r), mm
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Mean value
20.03
20.00
19.96
19.59
19.91
858
1019
1443
1109
1315
779
1278
1250
1204
1423
920
1156
1292
1206
1394
852
1151
1328
1173
1377
Source: Ref 20
0.3
0.2
0.1
Gear No. 2
0
0.3
0.2
0.1
Gear No. 3
0
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Gear No. 4
114
316
57918
20
22
Tooth number
1124
1326
Experimental
Theoretical
Fig. 48
Gear No. 2
0.2
Change of whole depth (WD ), mm
0.1
Gear No. 3
0.2
0.1
Gear No. 4
0.2
0.1
0
10
15
20
25
Tooth number
Experimental
Theoretical
Fig. 49
Tooth tip
Gear No. 2
0.1
Gear No. 3
0
0.1
Gear No. 2
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
Gear No. 3
Tooth root
0.2
(a)
(b) Left
Tooth No. 1
Right (b)
(a)
(a)
(b) Left
Tooth No. 1
(a)
(b) Left
Tooth No. 14
Right (b)
(a)
(a)
(b) Left
Tooth No. 14
Right (b)
(a)
0.1
0
Gear No. 4
0.1
0.2
1,214,15
4,517,18
7,820,21
10,1123,24
13,1426,1
Tooth number
Experimental
Theoretical
Fig. 50
Fig. 51
Right (b)
Tooth profile error curves after induction surface heating (a) and after quenching (b). Source: Ref 25
(a)
The magnitude of residual stresses was measured with x-ray diffraction and strain gages.
Figure 53 shows the results of measurement of
stresses in the pitch circle, that is, at the middle
of the tooth surface for both teeth and in the root
of tooth where critical residual stresses occur
(Ref 25). Using x-ray diffraction, the authors
found that:
The highest residual stresses occur in the root;
20 s
60 s
100 s
187 s
(a)
1s
0.1 s
Stress
0
(b)
10 s
300 s
daN/mm2
50
Principal stress during induction surface heating and quenching process. (a) Heating process. (b) Quenching process. Source: Ref 25
Fig. 52
A general conclusion can be drawn that the experimental as well as theoretical results agree
very well and provide a lot of useful information
especially to a technologist in manufacture of
gear wheels.
In Ref 24, Inoue et al. treated the variation of
tangential residual stresses in the root of tooth
after single-frequency and dual-frequency surface induction hardening. Figure 54(a) shows the
variation of the tangential residual stresses in the
tooth root where usually the highest residual
stresses in gear wheels are found (Ref 24). The
calculated residual stresses and the measured
ones after dual-frequency hardening refer to the
root width of gear-wheel tooth. The residual
stresses are measured with the x-ray diffraction.
Individual measurements are marked by points.
The calculated residual stresses at the root surface of tooth show the same values as the measured stresses, but the variations of the two differ
strongly, particularly at a depth greater than 0.5
mm. The calculated variation of stresses in the
root cross section of tooth shows a linear dependence to a depth of 2.0 mm. At the surface, the
calculated tangential residual stresses amount to
650 N/mm2, and, with a small stress gradient,
they change so that at a depth of 1.2 mm there
is a transition to tensile stresses, which at a depth
of 1.9 mm attain around 400 N/mm2. The calculated variation of tangential residual stresses
is ideal since the stresses are compressive and
show a sufficiently high value at the surface,
slowly decreasing with depth. Such a variation
ensures high fatigue strength of the material, and
the latter ensures, in turn, a longer life of a machine part.
Figure 54(b) shows the variation of tangential
residual stresses after single-frequency induction
surface hardening (Ref 24). Resulting from a better and a more uniform heating of the central part
of the gear wheel across the tooth height, a
martensite-bainite microstructure forms after
quenching, and very low compressive residual
stresses are obtained through root depth of tooth.
The tangential compressive residual stresses are
very low and amount to around 200 N/mm2.
Because of a very small stress gradient, they
change to give, at a depth of 0.25 mm, the transition of the compressive residual stresses into
the tensile ones reaching 100 N/mm2. Such a
variation of the residual stresses is unfavorable
because it does not provide sufficient compressive residual stresses in the surface layer, which
produces a decrease in fatigue strength of gearwheel teeth. Because of a symmetric variation of
the residual stresses at both sides of the tooth,
that is, the left and the right tooth surfaces, and
a symmetric load state of the gear-wheel tooth
in operation, the tooth may often be subjected to
a considerable tensile load, which results in damage to the tooth root or even a tooth failure.
Figure 55 shows shape distortion after singlefrequency and dual-frequency induction surface
hardening in the half-cut of the gear-wheel tooth
(Ref 24). Figure 55(a) shows simulation of distortion by showing first the initial shape of the
tooth half-cut prior to hardening (dotted line) and
the modified shape after dual-frequency induction surface hardening (continuous line). Figure
55(b) shows simulation of distortion in the same
way as Fig. 55(a), but for the conventional
single-frequency induction surface hardening.
In the figure the calculated actual size of distortion is shown to be 50 lm with an equivalent
geometrical scale of 2.0 mm. A comparison of
100
80
Root point
60
40
Pitch point
20
0
30
60
Distance from tooth profile (z ), m
90
Fig. 53
800
Residual stresses (RS), N/mm2
400
0
400
Calculated
Measured
800
1200
2.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Distance from surface (z ), mm
3.0
(a)
Residual stresses (RS), N/mm2
800
400
0
400
800
Calculated
Measured
0
2.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Distance from surface (z ), mm
3.0
(b)
Measured and calculated residual stress distributions below the surface for dual (a) and single (b) frequency. Source: Ref 24
Fig. 54
5 102 mm
(a)
of gear-wheel teeth. For testing of surface durability of surface induction hardened machine
parts, specimens with 60.3 mm in diameter and
made of steel S45C with 0.45% C were selected.
The steel was hardened from an austenitizing
temperature of 850 C for 1 h and then quenched
in water by high tempering at 650 C for 2 h.
Finally, the surface layer was induction hardened
under different conditions so that the depths of
hardened layer were 1.75, 2.95, and 5.00 mm.
After surface hardening, tempering at a temperature of 150 C was carried out for 2 h. Figure 56
shows the hardness distributions of induction
surface hardened roller specimens IA, IB, and IC
(Ref 28). The surface hardnesses of roller specimens are designated HVIA, HVIB, and HVIC, respectively. The hardness of induction surface
hardened layer is about 750 HV, and the core
hardness is 200 HV in any specimen. The case
depth is greatest in specimen IA and followed
by specimens IB and IC. The variations of hardness under different conditions of induction surface hardening show almost the same hardness
at the surface and a very similar throughthickness variation of hardness of the hardened
layer.
Figure 57 shows the residual stress distributions of induction hardened rollers. The variation
of the calculated tangential residual stresses
agrees with the expectations based on the variation of hardness and the hardened-layer thickness (Ref 28). The influence of the variation of
residual stresses on surface durability depends
on the load applied to the machine part concerned. With a continuous compressive load,
plastification of the subsurface can occur; therefore, it is necessary to ensure a sufficient thickness of the hardened layer and a sufficient
strength of the subsurface layer. The sufficient
thickness of the hardened layer can be achieved
by selecting appropriate conditions of induction
Table 2
Specimen
mark
Effective case
depth zef, mm
Total case
depth zT, mm
1.32
2.20
3.02
1.75
2.95
5.00
IA
IB
IC
Source: Ref 28
200
5 102 mm
100
(b)
800
IA
IB
IC
600
0
Residual stress (T ), N/mm2
Distortion of tooth gear after induction hardening with dual (a) and single (b) frequency.
Source: Ref 24
Fig. 55
Vickers hardness, HV
446 HV
100
200
300
400
500
Heat treatment
conditions
600
700
800
400
1.75
2.95
900
5.0
1000
200
0
Fig. 56
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Distance from roller surface (z ), mm
Hardness distribution of induction surface
hardened roller specimens. Source: Ref 28
Fig. 57
Tangential component of residual stress distributions of induction surface hardened roller specimens. Source:
Ref 28
10
700 HV at subsurface hardened layer
210 HV at core
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
Relative radius of curvature (R ), mm
Fig. 58
50
Hardness
Martensite
800
700
600
500
4
400
300
200
Microhardness, HV0.5
10
100
0
0
1
2
3
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
Measured hardness (dotted line) and calculated martensite distribution (dashed line) after
induction surface hardening. Source: Ref 27
Fig. 59
400
200
0
200
400
600
800
Calculated
Measured
1000
1200
0
1
2
3
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
tH, s
Heating time
tH, s
Heating time
tH, s
tH, s
Ac3
Ac7
25
7
15
20
4.5
20
7
30
2.5
15
10
10
Fig. 61
7
15
4.5
(a)
Measured axial stress distribution (dotted line)
and calculated (solid line) after induction surface hardening. Source: Ref 27
Fig. 60
Heating time
Heating time
Temperature (T ), C
600
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
16
24
4.5
32
0
(b)
4.5
2.5
16 24 32 0
8
16
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
(c)
24
32
16
24
32
(d)
Time/temperature variations in single-shot heating at various HF generation powers. (a) P1 40 kW. (b) P2
60 kW. (c) P3 100 kW. (d) P4 180 kW. Source: Ref 30
Figure 64 shows the variation of rate of induction heating of the surface layer (dotted line)
(Ref 31). At the beginning of heating, that is,
after 0.02 s, the heating rate at the surface
amounts to 12,500 C/s and at the end of heating, that is, after 0.1 s, decreases to 6800 C/s.
The cooling rate at the surface and in the subsurface is around 3700 C/s after 0.15 s and then
gradually decreases so that after 1.0 s it amounts
to only 200 C/s. It is very important that in the
depths greater than 0.8 mm heating of the subsurface occurs. It reaches a maximum rate, that
is, around 2300 C/s, just before surface cooling
with the quenchant (water). After 0.1 s of heating
and additional 0.05 s of cooling, cooling of the
surface layer to a depth of 1.2 mm and then heating in greater depths are obtained. Heating in the
greater depths occurs due to heat convection
from the thin surface layer toward the cooler core
material.
One method of induction surface hardening
appropriate for large gear modules is known as
tooth gap hardening, a progressive hardening
method. In this case, the coil is placed so that it
ensures uniform gap between the coil and the
flanks of two adjacent teeth. The tooth gap hardening method is very demanding and requires a
lot of experience and knowledge to achieve the
desirable properties of the gear. This method is
also known as contour hardening. It is an ideal
method for heat treatment of gears as it increases
the hardness on the surface of the tooth while
only slightly decreasing the load-bearing capacity in the root of the tooth. Gears heat treated in
this way exhibit very good behavior in operation
as compressive residual stresses are present in
the root of the tooth. Gears with induction hardened flanks, given that the dimensioning is carefully carried out, can achieve highest fatigue
1300
1200
74
1100
1000
56
900
Temperature (T ), C
78
112
Power kW
35
TAC
59
800
700
TAC
92
600
151
500
80
140
400
60
39
300
128
92
81
60
40
200
40
100
0
(a)
Fig. 62
12
16
0
(b)
8
12 16 0
4
8
12
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
(c)
16
115
12
16
(d)
Time/temperature variations in scan hardening at various traveling speeds and various HF generation power. (a) v1 140 mm/min. (b) v2 220 mm/min. (c) v3 370
mm/min. (d) v4 680 mm/min. Source: Ref 30
1200
1000
Profile before
hardening
Temperature (T ), C
0.1 s
Profile after
hardening
800
0.08
0.2
600
0.3
0.06
0.4
400
0.5
0.7
200
1.0
0.02
0
0
0.04
1
2
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
3
Distortion of individual tooth shape after induction surface hardening caused by volume
changes. Source: Ref 32
Fig. 65
Fig. 63
12,500
0.1
6000
4000
2000
1.0 0.5
0.3
0
2000
Compression
0.02 s
0.04
Tension
10,000
8000
0.2
0.15
4000
0.12
6000
0.7
8000
0
Fig. 64
Ref 31
1
2
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
Fig. 66
Ref 32
Residual stress distribution in the induction surface hardened layer of the gear tooth. Source:
Heat treatment engineers have to be very careful in choosing the conditions of induction surface hardening to benefit from the distribution of
residual stresses achieved in dynamically loaded
parts. In industrial practice, induction surface
hardening should satisfy the requirement of fatigue resistance of machine components. This
worsening of the properties of the machine part
is mainly attributed to tensile residual stresses in
the hardened layer and undesirable hardness distribution in the transition zone from the hardened
into the unhardened part of the subsurface. These
effects are quite natural and are in the first phase
a result of very rapid local heating of the thin
surface layer while in the second phase this is
accompanied by forced quenching, which ensures a critical cooling rate and the occurrence
of martensite microstructure. Both phases in the
induction surface hardening can increase the risk
of fatigue especially if the latter is assessed only
from the point of view of surface hardness. For
successful estimation of the quality of the hardened layer, it is thus recommended one selects
the optimal synergistic effects between the input
electric energy and the interdependence between
the induction coil and the workpiece surface,
(a)
Residual stress
+RS
Tension
Martensite
RS
Compression
Tempered
structure
Residual
stress
(b)
+
Tension
Compression
(c)
Tension
Resultant stress
Compression
Resultant
stress
(d)
Stress profile in a round bar in the loaded state
where residual stresses after induction surface
hardening and loading stresses add up. See text for details.
Source: Ref 34
Fig. 67
70
ence in the achieved fatigue strength is minimal. This can be attributed to a very desirable
distribution and size of compressive residual
stresses throughout the hardened layer. Since
the depth of the slot reaches only one quarter
of the hardened surface layer, the size of compressive residual stresses at the slot is still
very high, so that the weakening due to the
slot and stress concentration along the slot
does not cause any essential drop in fatigue
strength.
In quenched-and-tempered specimens with
no earlier prestressing of the surface layer ensured, the fatigue strength was considerably
lower than in surface hardened specimens.
Also remarkably lower was the fatigue
strength of quenched-and-tempered specimens with a slot. The results in the graph
show that the difference in fatigue strength in
slotted surface hardened specimens and slotted quenched-and-tempered specimens is 5 to
1.
Smooth cemented specimens displayed 25%
lower fatigue strength than the surface hardened specimens of the same shape, whereas
the cemented specimens with a slot displayed
50% lower fatigue strength than the same surface hardened specimens.
1400
1200
1000
800
400
300
200
40
Surface-hardened (notched)
(a)
Carburized (smooth)
50
wb, daN/mm2
104
105
106
107
60
30
Carburized (notched)
20
10
0
600
103
Surface-hardened (smooth)
Confidence limit
according to DIN 3990
Fatigue strength of surface hardened and carburized specimens. Curves: 1, surface hardened (smooth); 2, surface hardened (notched); 3, carburized (smooth); 4, quenched and tempered (smooth); 5,
carburized (notched); 6, quench and tempered (notched).
Source: Ref 11
Fig. 68
1400
1200
1000
Confidence limit
according to DIN 3990
800
600
Shot peened
400
300
200
103
104
105
106
107
Fig. 69
For manufacturing crankshafts, a heat treatable 4140 AISI steel was used. This steel is very
appropriate for statically and dynamically loaded
parts of car engines and machines, especially because of its high hardness achieved after hardening (57 HRC). The steel is characterized by
good hardenability and is thus suitable for manufacturing machine parts with large cross sections
in which after refinement a very high strength
can be obtained. After tempering the steel does
not show a tendency to brittleness, and therefore
no special heat treatment procedures are required. This steel is also suitable for surface
hardening (flame hardening, induction surface
hardening) and displays a very good resistance
to wear. However, special attention has to be
paid during product design, and great care
should be given to the design of radius and transition areas to prevent notch effects under dynamical loads. The steel is adapted for the use
in a wide range of temperatures and preserves
high toughness even at low temperatures (Ref
17, 36).
Figure 70 shows residual stress distribution
after induction surface hardening in the central
bearing location (A) and on the extreme left-side
0
Bearing location A;
Specimens A1, A2
200
400
A1
600
C2
800
Bearing location C;
Specimens C1, C2
1000
1200
A2
C1
1
2
3
4
5
6
Depth below the surface (z ), mm
Residual stress profiles after induction hardening on the specimens A1 and A2 of the mean
bearing location in the middle of the crankshaft and on the
specimens C1 and C2 on the extreme left-side bearing location. Source: Ref 37
Fig. 70
0
Bearing location A:
specimens A2: Normal
grinding conditions
200
400
Bearing location C:
specimens C2: Gentle
grinding conditions
600
800
1000
1200
50
100
150
200
250
300
Fig. 71
carbide, after grinding a finer martensite microstructure with a higher carbon content obtained at the expense of cementite-carbide
phases and with a possibility of a lower residual austenite content may be expected in
the thin surface layer. The modified content
of the cementite-carbide phase depends on the
heating conditions, whereas the content of the
residual austenite depends on the cooling
conditions. Such a microstructure is still a
typically quench microstructure, only in the
very thin surface layer between 50 and 200
lm first austenization and then requenching
occurred. The thickness of the requenched
layer depends on the grinder, the grinding
conditions, and the state of the grinder (sharp
or used grains). Such a microstructure is still
adequate and ensures the working life of the
machine part. The only risk is too high a content of the residual austenite formed or various damages such as cracks, grooves, and
galling to the surface and the surface layer.
The maximum temperature in the contact
zone is lower than the temperature required
for the beginning of austenitization and
higher than the lower temperature, which is
limited by the temperature of steel tempering
and amounts to approximately 200 C. In this
case, the grinding conditions are very mild so
that with the selection of the right kind of
grinder neither major nor important changes
are expected either at the surface or in the
surface layer. In the surface layer only martensite tempering may occur if it was not performed already during the heat treatment of
the workpiece. Such grinding conditions are
very welcome in the cases that the distortion
of the workpiece is relatively small, and the
additions for final fine grinding of the surface
are quite small.
The volume changes that may occur in the surface layer after steel grinding are thus:
Formation of the residual austenite contrib-
Summary
Induction surface hardening of machine components and especially gears is a very complex
process involving a whole range of possible heat
treatment methods, which are all reflected in either good or bad serviceability of machine components. The heat treatment engineer has to be
aware of the different effects of particular design
shapes of induction coils, to be familiar with
electromagnetic phenomena and eddy currents,
and to have some experience in the right choice
of energy inputs necessary for heating. The energy needed for heating can be provided by
changing the generator power as well as by
changing the frequency of the current. In progressive hardening, to achieve a suitable energy
input, the workpiece feed rate or the rate at which
the coil is moved has to be adjusted, whereas in
single-shot hardening suitable energy input is
achieved by adjusting the heating time with a
high-frequency current. An essential advantage
of induction surface hardening is that it is possible to achieve a sufficient repeatability of the
hardened layer thickness on the workpiece as
well as a desirable or even prescribed hardened
layer profile, ensuring sufficient hardness and favorable distribution of residual stresses in the
hardened layer. A variety of steels and a whole
0
200
400
Bearing location G
Abusive conditions
600
800
Bearing location F
Normal grinding conditions
1000
1200
Fig. 72
50
100
150 200
250
Depth below the surface (z ), m
300
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
power
Effect of process variables on cooling behavior and heat transfer
Effect of cooling characteristics on residual
stress and distortion
Methods of minimizing distortion
Tempering
Prediction of residual stress and distortion
Steel Transformation
Properties such as hardness, strength, ductility, and toughness are dependent on the microstructures that are present in steel. The first step
800
A3
700
A1
Pearlite start
Temperature, C
600
Pearlite end
Bainite
Bainite start
end
500
Bainite end
400
300
Martensite
200
100
0
101
102
103
104
105
Seconds
1
4
Time
Fig. 1
8
15
Minutes
30
60
1
4 68
Hours
16 24
Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram of an unalloyed steel containing 0.45% C. Austenite temperature 880 C. Courtesy of Verlag Stahlessen mbH Dusseldorf
(Ref 2). Typically, when a carbide-ferrite mixture is converted to martensite, the resulting expansion due to increasing carbon content is approximately 0.002 in./in. at 0.25% C and 0.007
in./in. at 1.2% C (Ref 2). The fractional increase
in size when austenite is converted to martensite
is approximately 0.014 in./in. for eutectoid compositions. This illustrates the effect of carbon
structure and steel transformation on residual
stresses and distortion, which leads to dimensional changes.
Estimation of Volumetric Change. In the
previous discussion, it is shown that there are
various microstructures possible upon quenching of steel and that the potential microstructural
transformations that are possible for a given steel
are shown by their CCT or TTT diagrams. Furthermore, dimensional changes are possible, depending on the carbon content and microstructural transformation product formed. Table 1
summarizes the atomic volumes of different microstructural components as a function of carbon
content (Ref 3). Table 2 provides an estimate of
volumetric changes as a function of carbon content for different metallurgical transformations
(Ref 4).
Thelning reported that volumetric expansion
that occurs as a result of quenching could be estimated from (Ref 5):
800
A3
700
A1
Temperature, C
600
Pearlite start
Pearlite end
500
Bainite start
400
(b)
Bainite end
Martensite
300
200
100
0
0.7
102
10 60
103
104
105
Seconds
1
4
Time
Fig. 2
8
15
Minutes
30
60
1
4 68
Hours
16 24
(c)
Fig. 3
Temperature, F
1.4
200
1.2
Austenite
1.0
Linear expansion, %
High-temperature
transformation
0.8
Very slow
cooling
3
Apparent atomic volume, A
Phase
Ferrite
Cementite
Ferrite carbides
Pearlite
Austenite
Martensite
0.6
Rapid
quenching
Pearlite
0.4
Martensite
forms
large effects on the start and stop times for pearlitic transformation (Ref 7).
Cooling and Steel Metallurgical Transformation. The following paragraphs discuss cooling of steel both with and without metallurgical
transformation.
Cooling without Transformation (Ref 8, 9). If
steel is cooled sufficiently fast, cooling will not
be accompanied by microstructural transformation changes. Under these conditions, the surface
of the component cooled much more quickly
than the core at first, as illustrated in Fig. 10 (Ref
10). At this point, the specific volume in the core
is greater than that of the surface, and the reduction in volume at the surface (due to lower temperature) is resisted by the greater volume in the
core, resulting in the surface being in tension and
the core in compression.
11.789
12.769
11.786 0.163 C(a)
11.916
11.401 0.329 C(a)
11.789 0.370 C(a)
Austenite
(a) C, % C
0.2
Ms
0
0
Fig. 4
Steel transformation
Pearlite austenite
Austenite martensite
Austenite acicular lower bainite
Austenite feathered upper bainite
4.64
4.64
4.64
4.64
2.21
0.53
1.43
2.21
C
C
C
C
(a) C, % C
1.080
Austenite, A
3.61
3.59
a
0.132
1.060
3.57
c/a
3.55
3.04
c
2.96
1.020
2.88
0
0
a
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.000
1.6
Martensite, A
1.040
c/a
0.130
Martensite
Martensite
Retained
austenite
Tempered
martensite
0.128
Ferrite + carbide
0.126
Austenite
0.124
0.122
Carbon, wt%
Carbon content versus lattice parameters of (retained) austenite and martensite at room temperature. a at the top of the graph is the lattice parameter
of fcc austenite. a and c in the lower half of the graph are
the two lattice parameters of tetragonal martensite. The ratio of c/a for martensite as a function of carbon content is
also given.
Fig. 5
0.120
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
Carbon content, %
Fig. 6
200 C
At the point of maximum temperature difference between the surface and the core (point T),
the core cools (shrinks) more quickly than the
surface, leading to an elastic dimensional reduction of the surface until a point of stress conversion is obtained, at which point the surface is in
compression relative to the core. After cooling
has been completed, the residual stress distribution, between the surface and the core shown
at the bottom right in Fig. 10 (Ref 10), will be
obtained. If the surface stresses exceed the hot
yield strength of the material, it will plastically
deform, resulting in thermally induced dimensional changes.
Cooling with Transformation (Ref 8, 9). When
steels that may undergo transformational
changes are quenched, the possibility of the formation of both thermal and transformational
stresses must be considered. Figure 11 illustrates
three different examples of this process (Ref 9).
Example 1, illustrated in Fig. 11(a), occurs
when phase transformation of both the surface
and the core occurs before the thermal stresses
change sign. Above the Ms transformation temperature, the stresses that are formed are thermal.
Upon further cooling, the stresses in the core exceed the yield strength and plastic deformation
(elongation) occurs. Subsequent martensitic
transformation at the core provides a substantial
stress component due to volumetric increases
from martensitic phase transformation. This
causes the core to be in compression and the surface to be in tension simultaneously.
Example 2 (Fig. 11b) illustrates the case that
begins after the thermal stresses change sign.
The transformation-induced volume increase of
the surface layer adds to the compressive stresses
at the surface. Since the stresses are balanced,
there is a corresponding increase in the tensile
stresses in the core.
Example 3 is a case where, although the transformation of the core starts later, it finishes before the surface (Fig. 11c). During cooling, the
sign of the stresses changes three times. There
are important consequences whether the core
transforms before or after the stress reversal because thermal stresses may be counteracted, and
tensile surface residual stresses may result (Ref
8).
This is illustrated in Fig. 12(a) where it is
shown that if the steel transformation occurs before the thermal stress maximum, the ferrite/
pearlite structure of a cylindrical test specimen
will be distorted into a barrel-shape (Ref 6). If
the transformation occurs after the thermal stress
maximum, the austenite is pressed into a barrel
shape followed by a volumetric increase due to
martensitic transformation as shown in Fig.
12(b). This will result in high tensile residual
stresses on the surface. If the steel transformation
occurs simultaneously with the maximum thermal stresses, as shown in Fig. 12(c), transformation in the core will occur prior to surface
transformation, and a barrel shape will appear
with high compressive stresses on the surface. If
the surface is transformed prior to the core, the
transformational stresses will decrease, or pos-
Tempering
The tempering process involves heating hardened steel to some temperature below the eutectoid temperature in order to decrease hardness
and increase toughness. In general, tempering is
divided into four stages, which are summarized
in Table 4 (Ref 10). These include:
Tempering of martensite structure
Transformation of retained austenite to mar-
tensite
Tempering of the decomposition products of
martensite and at temperatures 900 F (480
C)
Decomposition of retained austenite to martensite (Ref 11)
Figure 13 illustrates the effect of microstructural
variation during tempering on the volume
3
285 MPa
Strain (L/Lo), %
Relief of Residual Stress. If a part has lockedin residual stresses, these stresses can be relieved
by heating the part until the locked-in stresses
exceed the strength of the material. A typical
stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test
is shown in Fig. 15 (Ref 12). Initial changes in
shape are elastic, but under increased stress they
Fig. 8
2
209 MPa
107 MPa
1
18 MPa
100
200
300
Temperature (), C
Dilatometer curves for a 0.6% C
(60NCD11) for different applied stresses
steel
200
1000
900
Tim e ( t ) , s
800
1 atm
Temperature, C
700
F.P. =(12
12kbar)
kbar
F.P. =(23
23kbar)
kbar
600
500
B =(11atm)
atm
tF
400
300
200
100
0
1
B =(12
12kbar)
kbar
Mss =(11atm)
atm
B =(23
23kbar)
kbar
12kbar)
kbar
Mss =(12
tD
0
Mss =(23
23kbar)
kbar
20
40
60
80
102
103
104
105
Time, s
Fig. 7
100
Effect of hydrostatic pressure on the transformation kinetics of 50CV4 steel. B, bainite; F.P., ferrite-pearlite
transformation; Ms, martensitic start temperature. Source: Ref 7
Fig. 9
There are various factors that can affect distortion and growth of steel heat treating. These
include: component design, steel grade and condition, machining, component support and loading, surface condition, heating and atmosphere
control, retained austenite, and the quenching
process (Ref 18).
Parts that are long (L) with thin (d) cross sec-
Component Design
One of the overwhelming causes of steel
cracking and unacceptable distortion control is
1000
Center
Temperature, C
section is heated so that a portion of the component becomes hotter than the surrounding material, the hotter material expands and occupies
a greater volume than the adjacent material and
will thus be exposed to applied stresses that will
cause a shape change when the material strength
is exceeded. These movements can be related to
heating rate and section thickness of the component.
Volume Changes during Phase Transformation. When a steel part is heated, it transforms to austenite with an accompanying reduction in volume as shown in Fig. 4 (Ref 14).
When it is quenched, the structure transforms
from austenite to martensite and its volume increases. If these volume changes cause stresses
that are constrained within the strength of material, a residual stress system is created. If the
stresses cannot be contained, then material
movement will occur, which will cause cracking
under extreme conditions. The expansion is related to the composition of the steel. Fig. 17
shows the relative volume increase of two steels
as a function of austenitizing temperature and
specimen dimensions.
While all of these phenomena are well-known
physical changes, the situation is made more
complex when all three events occur simultaneously. In addition, other events such as heating
rate, quenching, and inconsistent material composition further complicate the process.
Surface
0
500
10
100
1000
Residual stress
Time, s
Tension
Tension
B
Center
B
Surface
0
Surface
Fig. 10
Development of thermal stress on cooling in steel specimen. T, time instant of maximum temperature difference; O, time instant of stress reversal; curve A, stress variation at the surface under elastic condition. B and
C are actual thermal stress variations at the surface and the core under elastic-plastic conditions.
Temperature
TA
Core
TA
Core
Surface
Surface
Surface
Ms
Core
TA
Ms
Ms
RT
+
Stress, z
Compression
Surface
Center
tu
tu
(a)
(b)
Surface
tu
Time
Time
Time
(c)
Core
Thermal stress
Total stress
Fig. 11
Comparison of thermal and transformational stresses for three different quenching conditions. See text for
details. tu, time instant of stress reversal
Table 3
Fig. 12)
Size change and residual stress caused by heat treatment of prismatic parts (see
(DT)2
(DV/V)3
Dimensional
dependency
(De)
Change of microstructure
Small
e1 e11 e111
Thermal stress
Big
e1 e11 e111
0
Thermal and
transformation stress
Transformation R K
after thermal stress
maximum
Transformation R
before K after thermal
stress maximum
Transformation K
before R after thermal
stress maximum
Transformation R K
before thermal stress
maximum
(rE)
Small
Big
0
0
e1 e11 e111
e1 e11 e111
00
0
0
Big
0
e1 e11 e111
Big
e1 e11 e111
Small
Big
0
0
e1 e11 e111
e1 e11 e111
0
0
00
Example
Tempering, precip.
Hardening,
isotropic material
Quenching of
austenitic steels
In air
Full hardness
penetration
In water
Medium hardness
penetration
Shallow hardness
penetration (shell
hardening)
Normalizing,
quenching
without hardening
R surface; K core; DT (TK TR); DV/V relative volume change; Convexity De ek em; em and ek dimensional change in middle
of the plane, respectively, at the edge; rE residual stress at the surface (remaining stress)
Table 4 Metallurgical reactions occurring at various temperature ranges and related physical changes of steel during tempering
Transformation for 2
Temperature
range
K
C
F
Metallurgical reaction
0200
200300
230350
350700
32392
392572
446662
6621292
1
2
3
4
Expansion/contraction
Contraction
Expansion
Contraction
Expansion
Tmax
B
M
log t, s
1 Tmax
Barrel
Fig. 12
UR
UK
UR
Tmax
UK
UK
Tmax
UR
UR
UK
Decomposition of
martensite to
ferrite and cementite
Increase in volume
Temperature , C
Stage
Retained austenite
to martensite
Retained austenite
to bainite
Carbide
precipitation
Tmax
0
Spool
Size change due to thermal changes and phase
transformation. K, core; R, surface
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Tempering temperature, C
Fig. 13
900
0.4
Dimensional alteration
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
Austenitizing temperature
800 C
850 C
910 C
1.6
the ideal condition (Ref 18). Subcritical annealing is performed to relieve stresses incurred during normalization without softening or homogenizing the steel. The subcritical annealing
process reduces the carbon content and alloy carbide content in the austenite allowing the production of more lath martensite in the microstructure, which provides higher fracture
toughness and higher impact toughness (Ref 22).
Machining
Material removal during machining can result
in high residual stress levels and ultimately unacceptable distortion (Ref 18). When excessive
machining stresses are imparted, the process
may require modification to include a rough machining and stress relieving followed by fine machining. This subject is covered in the article in
chapter 5 and is not discussed in detail here.
16
Temperature, F
200
800
8
4
0
RT
180
220
240
Tempering temperature, C
Dimensional variation and retained austenite
content of 100Cr6 steel as a function of tempering temperature
Fig. 14
400
600
800
1000
1200
50
Low-alloy steel
600
40
Creep-resistant
austenitic steel
400
30
20
200
10
Carbon-managanese
Carbon-manganese steel
steel
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
12
0.2% proof stress, MPa
Retained austenite
20
700
Temperature, C
Fig. 16
P
Stress, =
Ao
Elastic
Variation of yield strength with temperature for three generic classes of steel
Plastic
90MnV8
Ultimate
tensile
strength
760 C
800 C
145CrV6
870 C
830 C
Yield
stress
Uniform
elongation
Necking
Volume increase, %
0.6
Fracture
0.4
0.2
0
Offset
Fig. 15
50 50 10
L Lo
Strain, =
Lo
50 50 20
50 50 50
50 50 250
Specimen dimension, mm
Fig. 17
Volume increase of steels 90MnV8 and 15CrV6 as a function of austenitizing temperature and specimen
dimensions
Surface Condition
Quench cracking may be due to various steelrelated problems that are only observable after
the quench, but the root cause is not the quenching process itself. Many of these have been reviewed earlier and include: prior steel structure,
stress risers from prior machining, laps and
higher temperature than the core (the Ms temperature decreases with carbon content). This
leads to high residual tensile stresses at the
decarburized surface or a condition of unbalanced stresses and distortion.
Since the surface is decarburized, it will exhibit lower hardenability than the core. This
will cause the upper transformation products
to form early, nucleating additional undesirable products in the core. The decarburized
side will be softer than the side that did not
Oil
quench
A
0.1 mm
A
+0.1
Diameter change, mm
Diameter change, mm
Water
quench
0
Change in length: 0.17 mm
0.1
250
500
+0.1
250
500
Change across
midsection (A-A)
Fig. 19
(b)
(a)
680C/water quench.
No transformation.
Thermal strain only.
850C/quench.
Thermal and
transformation strain.
+0.1
Diameter change, mm
Diameter change, mm
Outer-face
change
0.3 mm
0
Change in length: 0.15 mm
0.1
250
500
+0.1
OQ change in length: +0.8 mm
0
WQ change in length: 2.45 mm
0.1
250
500
Dimensional variation of a medium-carbon (0.4%) steel bar (200 mm diam by 500 mm) after the indicated
heat treatments. These bars were quenched vertically with one end down (marked 0 in the figure). (a) and (c)
show no transformation, thermal strain only after water quenching from 680 C. (b) and (d) show thermal and transformation strains after quenching from 850 C. OQ, oil quench; WQ, water quench
Fig. 18
Fig. 20
Fig. 25
Fig. 21
Carbon, % max
Furnace hardening
General usage
Simple shapes
Very simple shapes, for example, bars
0.30
0.35
0.40
Induction hardening
Simple shapes
Complex shapes
0.50
0.33
100 diam
80 diam
140 diam
385
1775
2260
5
Shallow round
bottom groove
Fig. 22
Bending, mm
4
3
2
1
0
Fig. 26
Harden
this
length
WT
ID
A satisfactory design if
hub must be offset
L
Usual design
(poor)
OD
Fig. 23
Better
Design solutions to the quench-cracking problem often encountered in shaft hardening over
a cross hole
Fig. 24
Dimensions of a ring gear shape. Shape limitation: length/wall thickness 1.5; ID/OD
0.4. Minimum wall thickness (WT) is defined by WT 2.25
module 0.4 5mod L OD3
Fig. 27
Retained Austenite
Dimensional changes may occur slowly or
quickly and are due to the volume composition
of the transformation products formed upon
quenching. One of the most importantwith respect to residual stress variation, distortion, and
crackingis the formation and transformation
of retained austenite. For example, the data in
Table 7 illustrate the slow conversion of retained
austenite to martensite, which was still occurring
days after the original quenching process for the
two steels shown (Ref 15, 16). This is particularly a problem when dimensional control and
stability are the primary goals of heat treatment.
Quenching Process
1.00
WT
Thin-walled tube
(annulus)
0.80
Boundary A
Ratio ID/OD
ID
Example
Outside
diameter: 200 mm
Length: 1500 mm
Typical distortions
and growths
OD
0.60
Out-of-straightness:
1000-2000 m
Ring
OD shrinkage at
center: 300-500 m
0.40
Tube
Wheel
0.20
Fig. 28
Increase in length:
1000-1500 m
Pinion
Classification of shapes
3
4
5
6
Ratio length/wall thickness, L/WT
Retort
wall
Fig. 29
Center
pole
Retort
wall
should be possible.
Excessive distortion was also obtained with an
agitation system shown in Fig. 33 when the
quenchant flow was either in the same direction
relative to the direction of part immersion or in
the opposite direction (Ref 31). The solution to
this problem was to minimize the quenchant
flow to that required for adequate heat transfer
during the quench and to provide agitation by
mechanically moving the part up and down in
the quenchant.
Even though agitation is a critically important
contributor to the performance of industrial
quenching practice, relatively little is known
about the quality and quantity of fluid flow encountered by the parts being quenched. Recently, agitation in various commercial quenching tanks has been studied by computational
fluid dynamics (CFD), and in no case was optimal and uniform flow present without subsequent modification of the tank (Ref 28). Thus,
identifying sources of nonuniform fluid flow
during quenching continues to be an important
tool for optimizing distortion control and minimizing quench cracking.
The second source of nonuniform thermal gradients during quenching is related to interfacial
wetting kinematics, which is of particular interest with vaporizable liquid quenchants including, water, oil, and aqueous polymer solutions.
Most liquid vaporizable quenchants exhibit boiling temperatures between 100 and 300 C at atmospheric pressure. When parts are quenched in
these fluids, surface wetting is usually time dependent, which influences the cooling process
and the achievable hardness.
Leidenfrost described the wetting process in
the 1750s (Ref 32). The Leidenfrost Temperature is defined as the surface temperature where
the vapor film is ruptured and the surface wetted
by the liquid. Literature describes temperature
values for this event for water at atmospheric
pressure between 150 and 300 C (Ref 3336).
1000
1400
1200
600
1000
No scale
800
400
600
400
200
Medium scale
0.08 mm (0.003 in.)
0
(a)
800
Temperature, C
Temperature, C
Heavy scale
0.13 mm (0.005 in.)
18-8 strainless
1B-B
strainless steel
steel
1600
Temperature, F
1095
800
10
20
30
Time, s
1400
1200
No scale
600
1000
800
400
600
400
200
Light scale
0.013 mm (0.0005 in.)
200
40
50
1600
Temperature, F
1000
10
20
30
Time, s
200
40
50
(b)
Centerline cooling curves showing the effect of scale on the cooling curves of steels quenched in fast oil
without agitation. (a) 1095 steel, oil temperature 50 C (125 F). (b) 18-8 stainless steel, oil temperature
25 C (75 F); test specimens were 13 mm diam by 64 mm long (0.5 by 2.5 in.)
Fig. 30
For nonsteady-state cooling, the surface temperature is not equal to the Leidenfrost Temperature when the vapor blanket (or film boiling)
collapses and wetting begins by nucleate boiling
because of the influence of lateral heat conduction (relative to the surface) (Ref 37). This is due
to the simultaneous presence of various heattransfer conditions during vapor blanket coolingor film boiling (FB), nucleate boiling
(NB), and convective heat transfer (CONV) with
significantly varying heat-transfer coefficients
FB (100250 W/m2 K), NB (1020 kW/
m2 K), and CONV (700 W/m2 K). Figure
34 shows the different cooling phases on a metal
surface during immersion cooling (Fig. 34a)
with the so-called wetting front w (separating the
film-boiling phase and the nucleate-boiling
phase) and the change of the heat-transfer coefficients, , along the surface coordinate, z, (mantle line). In most cases, during immersion cooling (Fig. 34a) the wetting front ascends the
cooling surface with a significant velocity, v,
whereas during film cooling (Fig. 34b) the wetting front descends in the fluid direction (Ref 35,
38).
An example of wetting heated cylindrical and
prismatic probes that are submerged in water is
shown in Fig. 35(a) and (b), respectively (Ref
35, 39). Because of the different wetting phases
on the metal surface (and the enormous differences of their values of FB, NB, and CONV), the time-dependent temperature distribution within the metal probes will also be
influenced by the velocity of the wetting front as
well as geometry.
Figure 36 illustrates different types of wetting
behavior under different conditions (Ref 40). By
changing a quenching parameter, for example
the chemical composition of the fluid, the period
of wetting (tW) can be reduced over one magnitude.
To quantitatively define the change of the wetting behavior, for example, to determine the
cooling process or to develop or analyze quenching fluids, the measurement of the electrical conductance between the submerged sample and a
counterelectrode is helpful (Ref 35). During the
film-boiling phase, the hot metal is largely insulated by the vapor film surrounding the metal
and conductance between the metal and the
counterelectrode is low. When the vapor blanket
Condition
Nonresulfurized
Resulfurized
Turned on centers
Centerless turned
or ground
3% of diameter
2.6%
3.8 % of diameter
3.4%
x
5.0
2.0
H value
1.5
1.0
0.70
0.50
0.35
0.20
6
Fig. 31
12
15
18
J distance (1/16 in.)
21
24
37(c) illustrates rapid wetting followed by insulation by bubbles adhering to the metal surface, and Fig. 37(d) illustrates rapid wetting with
repeated new formation of film boiling, a process
that occurs with many aqueous polymer quenchant solutions. In all four diagrams, the temperature, TC, is shown that is measured in the
center of the probes. The TS point characterizes
the temperature and the time when wetting begins. This shows that temperature measurements
in the center of probes provide poor information
about the real quenching process that is insufficient to adequately characterize the hardening
process. This is also illustrated in Fig. 38 (Ref
30).
The influence of the physical properties of the
quenchant and the probe on the wetting process,
and the heat-transfer coefficients (FB, NB, and
CONV) and therefore on the quenching results is
very strong. The wetting kinematics are identified as the starting time, tS, of wetting, the finishing time, tf, of wetting, and the difference between tf and tS is the wetting time tW. The effect
of variation of these parameters on the quenching process is summarized in Table 10.
The influence of a wetting process occurring
over a long time (non-Newtonian wetting) on the
temperature distribution in quenched parts is
shown in Fig. 39 (Ref 23), where the temperatures measured near the surface of a submerged
cylindrical probe at different distances z from its
lower end are shown. The wetting front requires
about 18 s to arrive at a height of 80 mm. If there
is an explosionlike wetting of the probe (Newtonian wetting), the five temperature slopes are
Quench cracks
Table 7 Dimensional variation in hardened high-carbon steel with time at ambient temperature
Change in length, % 103
Steel type
Tempering
temperature, C
Hardness,
HRC
After
7 days
After
30 days
After
90 days
After
365 days
None
120
205
260
None
120
205
260
66
65
63
61.5
64
65
62
60
9.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
18.0
0.6
0.2
0.2
4.2
0.5
0.1
0.1
27.0
1.1
0.3
0.3
8.2
0.7
0.1
0.1
40.0
1.9
0.7
0.3
11.0
0.6
0.1
0.1
Grossmann H value
0.20
0.35
0.50
0.70
1.00
1.50
2.00
5.00
Tray
Quenchant flow
Fig. 32
Still air
Nitrogen (1 bar)
Salt bath or fluidized bed
Nitrogen (10 bar)
Helium (10 bar)
Helium (20 bar)
Still oil
Hydrogen (20 bar)
Circulated oil
Hydrogen (40 bar)
Circulated water
Quenchant
flow
5080
100150
350500
400500
550600
9001000
10001500
12501350
18002200
21002300
30003500
Quenchant
flow
Fig. 33
Steam
Film boiling
Nucleate boiling
Fluid
Convective
heat transfer
Heat transfer
coefficient
(a)
Film of liquid
Convection
boiling
Sputtering
Mist cooling
Fluid drops
(b)
Fig. 34
vorable if parts are immersed into the quenchant so the perimeter of the stress riser (PSC)
simultaneously touches the liquid along the
entire length.
In the case where the perimeter of the stress
riser touches the quenchant at the moment of
immersion slowly in individual regions,
quench cracking will be reduced substantially.
Air
Gas
Wetting front w
Quenchants
z
Wetting front w
Wetting behavior and change of heat-transfer coefficient along the surface. (a) Immersion cooling. (b) Film
cooling. Source: Ref 14, 26
Perhaps the oldest, most common, and certainly least expensive quenching medium is air.
Air, being a gas, cools the heated part by a filmboiling cooling mechanism. (See Fig. 34 for a
schematic of different cooling mechanisms.) The
relative quench severity offered by still air relative to other quench media is shown in Table 9.
As with other quenching media, the heattransfer rates of air cooling are dependent on the
Gas Quenching
Process of transition between the three cooling phases: film boiling (FB), nucleate boiling (NB), and convective
cooling (CONV) during immersion cooling of CrNi-steel specimen with a cylindrical geometry 25 mm diam
by 100 mm (a) wetting process of a cylindrical CrNi-steel specimen being quenched from 850 C into water at 30 C, an
agitation rate of 0.3 m/s curves and (b) prismatic geometry (15 by 15 by 45 mm) in water of 60 C without forced
convection; immersion temperature of 860 C. Source: Ref 14, 27
Fig. 35
Molten Metal
One of the more common metals used in molten form as a quenchant is lead. Lead exhibits a
melting point of 327 C (621 F) and is typically
used at 343 to 927 C (6501700 F). Below 343
C (650 F), the lead is too mushy (Ref 49).
Molten lead is used for patenting of steel wire
and for austempering. Due to the toxicity and
disposal problems with lead, it is seldom used in
the thermal processing of steel. However, because lead possesses a high thermal conductivity
and no film-boiling stage, it provides relatively
rapid cooling rates in a high-temperature range
not easily achievable with other quenching media.
Salt-Bath Quenching
Fig. 36
agitation.
Transition from film boiling (FB) to nucleate boiling (NB) during immersion of cylindrical silver specimen (15
mm diam by 45 mm) quenched from 850 C into a 10% aqueous polymer quenchant solution at 25 C without
Conductance, G
Temperature, Tc
Conductance, G
Tc
ts
Temperature, Tc
placed molten lead in most heat treating processes and are usually the medium of choice for
high-temperature quenching. The advantages of
salt quenching include:
Tc
range from 140 to 600 C (2851110 F). However, melting points as low as 85 C (175 F) are
attainable by the addition of up to 10% water.
Salt-baths are susceptible to potential explosive
degradation at temperatures greater than 600 C
(1110 F).
The selection of a martempering or austempering process depends on the steel being
quenched. Salt-bath temperatures in the range of
195 to 350 C (385660 F) exhibit only a minimal effect on the Grossmann H value (Ref 50).
However, like all quenchants, heat-extraction capabilities depend on the agitation rate, as shown
in Fig. 49 (Ref 50).
The quench severity of a molten-salt bath may
be substantially affected by the presence of water
as shown in Fig. 50 (Ref 51). Variations in both
agitation rate and water addition can profoundly
affect the depth of hardening of AISI 4140 steel,
as shown in Fig. 51 (Ref 51). Therefore, control
of water content is important to achieve the maximum benefit of the increase in quench severity.
However, automated monitoring equipment to
ts = tf
tf
Time, t
Time, t
(b)
(a)
Conductance, G
Tc
Temperature, Tc
Temperature, Tc
Conductance, G
Effect on
property variation
Tc
ts
ts = tf
Time, t
tf
Fluid property
ts, tf
Dtw
Fluid property
Type of quenchant
Addition of additives
Increasing agitation (v)
Increasing bath temperature (Tb)
I, D
I, D
D
I
I, D
I, D
D
I
I, D
I, D
I
D
Metal property
Increasing thermal diffusivity (a)
Increasing cross-section size
Increasing surface roughness
Increasing surface oxidation
I
I
D
D
I
I
D
D
I
D
I
D
Time, t
(c)
ts, starting time; tf, finishing time; tw, wetting time; , heat-transfer coefficient; I, increasing; D, decreasing
(d)
Temperature decrease, TC, and increasing electrical conductance, G (proportional to the wetted surface) during
quenching in different quenchants. (a) Slow wetting. (b) Rapid (explosive-type) wetting. (c) Rapid wetting
followed by isolation of bubbles adhering to the metal surface. (d) Rapid wetting with repeated formation of film boiling
after this process. See also Fig. 35 and 36. Source: Ref 14, 28
Fig. 37
1000
1000
750
Temperature, C
Temperature, C
750
800
3
2
1
Water
500
Polymer
250
z = 80 mm
Wetting
front
600
Temperature, C
1000
500
3
250
60
R
z
40
400
20
0
200
1-3
0
0
0
10
20
30
40
Time, s
(a)
10
15
20
Time, s
10
15
20
25
30
35
Quenching time, s
(b)
Comparison of cooling curves measured at different positions in a cylindrical CrNi-steel probe (25 by 100
mm) during slow wetting (water) and sudden wetting (aqueous polymer solution) at (a) center (indicated by
C) and (b) close to the probe surface at three indicated heights (1,2, and 3)
Fig. 38
Temperature drop on the surface of a cylindrical steel probe (25 mm diam by 100 mm) at
various distances z from the lower end. Source: Ref 39
Fig. 39
800 C
600
400
200 C
200 C
200 C
t =5s
t = 10 s
t = 15 s
(a)
825 C
725 C
700 C
250 C
600
200
500
150 C
750
800
775 C
200 C
775 C
t =5s
t = 10 s
t = 11 s
t = 15 s
(b)
Fig. 40
Time-dependent temperature distribution during cooling of cylindrical steel probes (25 mm diam by 100 mm)
in the case of slow non-Newtonian wetting and explosive Newtonian wetting
Pull stress
TA
Push stress
TA
B
Disturbance
A
B
Interior
M1
B
Fast
Exterior
B
M1
B
Slow
Quench Oils
Stretch
A1
Elongation
Elongation
A1
Fluidized Beds
oils
Temperature
C
Pull cracking
Push cracking
Interior A
Stretch
Disturbance
Pull
Exterior B
Fig. 41
C
Ms
Ms
Fast
A
Temperature
Push
Mechanisms that explain the generation of (a) pull stress and pull cracking and (b) push stress and push
cracking
Accelerated oils
Marquenching oils or hot oils
Water
Water is a relatively inexpensive and available
quenchant that has been used for many years.
The quenching properties of water are shown in
Fig. 60, which shows (Ref 50):
Cracks are
not formed
Cracks are
formed
PSC
PSC
temperature.
The maximum cooling rate decreases with increasing water temperature.
The temperature where the maximum cooling
rate occurs decreases with increasing bath
temperature.
Although the quenching properties of water
are highly variable and very sensitive to thermal
gradients in the water surrounding the cooling
metal, particularly at areas of varying cross-section size and other stress risers, what is not seen
in Fig. 60 is the fact that the film-boiling process
is unstable and highly variable and that water
does not rewet steel in a uniform manner during
the quench. These variations produce high surface thermal gradients and often increasing distortion and cracking. It is interesting to note that
the addition of 5 to 7% of an aqueous polymer
quenchant will provide more uniform wetting
properties without a significant decrease in cooling rates, which will result in great reductions in
cracking and distortion (Ref 50).
A
B
PSC
AA BB
Rotate
B
AA
View A
PSC
A
PSC
PSC
Immersion of cylindrical parts in a quenchant.
The dashed horizontal lines indicate the level
of the liquid; the vertical arrows indicate the direction of
immersion of the part. PSC indicates the perimeter of the
stress concentrator.
Fig. 43
Compressed air
800
Temperature, C
Aqueous polymer quenchants are aqueous solutions of a water-soluble polymer, the most
common examples of which include: polyalkyleneglycol, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyethyloxazoline, polysodium acrylate, and an additive to
provide corrosion protection. Quenchant performance is due to polymer selection and solution
viscosity. These quenchants are being used increasingly to replace conventional and accelerated oils because of their reduced cost, fire
safety, and relatively low environmental impact.
Typically, quench severity decreases with increasing quenchant concentration, increasing
bath temperature, and decreasing agitation rates.
This is shown in Fig. 57 for a polyalkylene glycol quenchant (Ref 56). As shown in this figure,
it is possible to obtain quench severities analo-
600
Still air
400
(a)
200
10
20
30
40
Fig. 42
Fig. 44
(b)
Two forms of quench cracking: (a) pull cracking and (b) push cracking
H h/(2k)
Bi HD hD/(2k) hR/k
h Q/[A(Tp T1)]
Grossmann Number
In steel quenching, the Grossmann number
(Ref 26) is used more widely than the heat-trans-
Water
Cooling-Curve Analysis
The cooling-curve tests with some metallic
probes have been used as the most useful means
of testing the cooling power of liquid quenchants
such as oils, water, and polymer quenchants. The
cooling curves are usually obtained by quenching a test specimen instrumented with thermocouples and measuring the temperature as a
function of time at specific points within the
specimen. The testpieces used are cylinders,
plates, and spheres; the most common is a cylinder with a length three to four times its diameter and with a thermocouple located at its geometric center. There are several standard
cylindrical specimens (standard probes).
From the time-temperature curve of the standard probe, one can calculate the temperature/
cooling rate curve, the heat-transfer coefficient
curve, and the heat flux curve. Several characteristic parameters that can be obtained from
these curves are the maximum cooling rate, the
cooling rate at 300 C (572 F), the characteristic
temperature (the minimum temperature of film
boiling), the temperature at the maximum cooling rate, cooling time from 800 to 400 C, and
so forth. In order to harden steel, the maximum
cooling rate and the temperature must be sufficiently high to minimize ferrite and pearlite
transformation. The cooling rate at 300 C (572
F) can be used to indicate the probability of distortion and cracking because it is near the martensite temperature of most carbon and low-alloy
steels.
Fluids
Polymer
Oil
Salt
Nitrogen
Helium
40 bar
20 bar
Gases
10
6
1000
30
20
10
Single component
Nitrogen
Helium
6 bar
3
1
Temperature, C
Load
10 bar
5
1200
Hydrogen
6 bar
3
2
1000
600
6 bar
Argon
400
3
2
2000
800
Helium
200 Hydrogen
Hydrogen
3000
4000
Fig. 45
Nitrogen
Comparison of the heat-transfer coefficients achievable with different gas quenching media for bulk-loading
and single-component quenching
12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
Time, min
Fig. 46
Cross-section
size
Steel type
mm
in.
Hardness,
HRC
Martempering
Austempering
3565
3565
63
3555
3555
100
100
80
80
60
40
Diameter, in.
(by 3 diameters long)
3
3000 rpm
2
2000 rpm
1000 rpm
400
400 F
F (205 C)
C)
0
0
10
Time, min
3
Diameter, in.
(by 3 diameters long)
3000 rpm
2000 rpm
1000 rpm
1
500
500 F
F (260 C)
C)
0
0
10
Time, min
3
Diameter, in.
(by 3 diameters long)
3000 rpm
2000 rpm
2
1000 rpm
1
600
600 F
F (315 C)
C)
0
0
10
Time, min
60
Fig. 49
40
20
20
50
0
4000
8000
12000
16000
20
40
60
80
(a)
(a) Effect of volumetric flow rate at constant density on cooling time. (b) Effect of chamber pressure at constant
volumetric rate on cooling time
Areas of low
heat transfer
Cold spots formed
360
cooling
45
Fig. 47
1 vol% water
added
40
Without water
addition
35
30
(a)
(b)
Effect of gas flow pattern on quench uniformity. (a) Gas-injection nozzles with flow perpendicular to the
workpiece. (b) Gas-injection nozzles with flow horizontal to the workpiece. (c) Combination of horizontal
and vertical flow
Fig. 48
(c)
0.3
0.6
Fig. 50
55
55
With water
addition
Without water
addition
5
50
50
16 mm
45
2
40
40
35
35
1
30
30
3/ 4 R 1/ 2 R 1/ 4 R
1/ 4 R 1/ 2 R 3/ 4 R
H2
(Eq 2)
He
200
10
12
14
16
Fluidizing flow
Minimum fluidizing flow
Fig. 53
(Eq 3)
N2
50 mm diam
300
Heat transfer (600 C), Btu/h ft2 F
47 HRC
4 mm
45
(Eq 1)
1600
1400
1200
5
Cooling rate
800 500 C
Temperature, F
3
2
Cooling rate
800 300 C
100
Fused salt
500 F
F
Martempering oil
500 F
F
1000
Molten
metal
500 F
F
800
600
1
0
100
Conventional
quench oil
150 F
F
200
300
400
500
Accelerated
quench oil
150 F
F
400
Fig. 52
200
0.7
1.0
1.5
10
15
20
30
40
Time, s
Fig. 54
60
16
Strong agitation
Moderate agitation
No agitation
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
Fig. 55
8
12
16
20
24
Distance from surface, mm
28
probe. The values of the heat-transfer coefficients in the convection-cooling stage (the
lower-temperature region) are almost the same
for each quenchant, despite the differences of the
sizes and the materials of these probes. However,
the values in the higher-temperature region are
very different for each probe. This is caused by
the difference of the thermal properties between
the JIS probe and the ISO probe.
140
900
0.4
0.6
135
800
0.4
700
Temperature, C
600
15.7 HRC, 43 C (110 F), FPM = 0
31.5 HRC, 43 C (110 F), FPM = 100
16.6 HRC, 88 C (190 F), FPM = 0
32.1 HRC, 88 C(190 F), FPM = 100
500
400
Bath temperature, F
130
0.6
125
0.8
120
0.6
115
0.8
1.0
110
300
Flow rate = 0
200
1.0
Flow rate = 100
100
15
100
0
1E 2
1E 1
1E + 0
1E + 1
1E + 2
1E + 3
1E + 4
1E + 5
1E + 6
1E + 7
Time, s
Fig. 56
0.8
105
Relative insensitivity of the ability of a quench oil to harden steel with respect to varying bath temperature.
FPM, flow rate
Circ rate = 50
Circ rate = 75
Circ rate = 100
17
19
21
23
Polymer concentration, %
25
Fig. 57
Conductance
Measurement.
Another
method for determining the wetting process is to
measure the electrical conductance between the
specimen and an electrode immersed in the
quenchant (Ref 69) (Fig. 70). When a vapor
blanket forms around the entire specimen surface, the conductance between the specimen and
the electrode is low. When the vapor blanket collapses on the specimen surface, the conductance
increases as shown in Fig. 71. The increase in
the conductance is approximately proportional to
the wetted portion of the specimen surface. The
conductance is at its highest value when the entire sample surface is completely wetted. Conductance-time curves provide the time when
wetting starts (ts) and the time when wetting is
finished (tf).
1000
1000
30 C
C
800
40 C
C
Temperature, C
Temperature, C
800
600
50 C
C
400
30 C
C
200
Fig. 58
50 C
C
600
40 C
C
400
750
0 m/s
500
0.3 m/s
0.6 m/s
250
200
20 C
C
C
20 C
Temperature (TC), C
1000
quenched in various quenchants without agitation. Different cooling curves were obtained for
each quenchant. A lumped-heat-capacity method
was used to estimate heat-transfer coefficients
from these cooling-curve data. These coefficients are shown in Fig. 72(b).
In general, the cooling curve during water,
polymer, and oil quenching has three stages
(stage A: vapor blanket cooling (film-boiling)
stage, stage B: nucleate-boiling stage, and stage
C: convection-cooling stage). Heat-transfer coefficients in the high-temperature region (vapor
blanket stage) are relatively low. Cooling curves
of workpieces quenched into nonvolatile quenchants such as molten salt, liquid metal, and gas,
do not exhibit vapor blanket cooling or nucleate
boiling.
The wetting behavior in the quenching of hot
metal is affected by quenchant properties such
as the type of quenchants, quenchant temperature, and so forth. As shown in Fig. 67, in water
and oil quenching, the vapor blanket was formed
around the entire surface of the specimen immediately after immersion and then ruptured
progressively from the sharp edges to the center
of the flat surface of the disk specimen. The progressive collapse of the vapor film begins immediately after immersion in water. The progressive collapse starts after the formation of a
stable vapor blanket stage in oil quenching. The
time of duration varies according to the oils used.
The starting time of the wetting during polymer
quenching depends on the type of polymer used,
polymer concentration, and liquid temperature.
Wetting starts immediately upon immersion for
some aqueous polymer solutions and after the
formation of a stable vapor blanket stage for
other polymer quenchants.
The wetting velocity (the propagation velocity
of wetting front) during water or oil quenching
is significantly slower than during polymer
quenching. Such a slow wetting velocity could
cause a nonuniform surface cooling in the specimen, because the heat-transfer coefficient on the
nonwetting surface is significantly lower than
that on the wetting surface. Figure 68(a) shows
the cooling curves at representative positions
0
10
Time, s
15
20
50
100
150
Cooling rate, C/s
200
Fig. 59
15
30
Time (t ), s
45
60
In the vapor blanket stage during water, polymer, and oil quenching, heat is transferred across
1000
1800
Temperature, C
800
600
NaOH
14
NaCl
2.8
2.5
12
2.1
10
1.8
Fig. 61
10
15
20
Salt concentration, %
1.4
25
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
400
16
Temperature, F
Water temperature:
40 C
50 C
60 C
70 C
80 C
90 C
fer depends on the temperature difference between the quenchant and the surface of the
workpiece. It also depends on quenchant viscosity, which governs the convection flow of the
quenchant around the workpiece.
The effect of water temperature on cooling
curves of a 12.5 mm diam by 60 mm Inconel
600 probe is shown in Fig. 60. By decreasing
the surface through the vapor blanket by conduction, radiation, and convection. When the
surface temperature of the workpiece decreases,
the thickness of the vapor blanket is reduced until the liquid contacts the hot surface of the workpiece. This is the start of the wetting process. By
direct contact with the surface, the vapor film
begins to collapse, dramatically increasing the
heat flux and the cooling rate. By increasing liquid temperature, the energy required for evaporation is reduced and the thickness of the vapor
film increases. As a result, both the cooling rate
and the heat-transfer rate decrease. In addition,
by stabilizing the vapor blanket, the transition
temperature from lower to higher cooling rate
(the minimum temperature required for film
boiling) decreases.
Once wetting has begun, heat transfer by nucleate boiling controls the cooling rate. This
stage is also dependent on quenchant temperature. In the convection-cooling stage, heat trans-
Termination
12.5
9.5
600
400
200
Support
tube
200
0
10
20
30
Time, s
40
50
60
1.5
(a)
1000
100
150
250
200
30
1800
1000
800
Water temperature:
40 C
50 C
60 C
70 C
80 C
90 C
200
20
40
60
80
100
Cooling rate C/s
120
140
200
r 0.75
600
400
30
400
1.5 mm
sheathed
thermocouple
160
1200
Temperature, F
Temperature, C
1400
600
30
1600
800
Probe
200
160
(b)
Fig. 60
Effect of water bath temperature on heat removal using a 12.5 mm diam by 60 mm Inconel 600 probe with
a flow velocity of 0.25 m/s (50 ft/min)
Fig. 62
Insulating
tube
Supporting
rod
Silver
wire
Silver
pipe
30
Heatresistant
insulator
10
M6 1
5
Almel
wire
3
15
Silver
rod body
15 0.1
Insulation
tube
10 0.1
Fig. 63
Effect of Agitation
In addition to quenchant temperature, vaporfilm stability is greatly affected by quenchant agitation. A high flow velocity increases the heat
transfer by convection and reduces the thickness
of the vapor film. Furthermore, agitation of the
liquid reduces the stability of the vapor/liquid
interface by disturbing the liquid flow adjacent
to the vapor film. Therefore, agitation reduces
the duration of film boiling. Heat transfer in the
convection-cooling stage directly depends on agitation. The effect of agitation on the heat transfer by nucleate boiling is not significant because
nucleate boiling agitates the liquid adjacent to
the boiling surface by itself (self-agitation effect).
Figure 73 shows the effect of selected flow
velocities (00.4 m/s) on cooling curves of a
cylindrical silver probe (10 mm diameter by 30
Supporting
rod
105
M6
5
5
5
15
Silver
rod body
Water, 30 C
10% polymer quenchant (PAG), 30 C
10% brine, 30 C
Oil (JIS1-2), 80 C
Oil (JIS2-1), 120 C
Molten salt, 230 C
105
5 104
Heat-transfer coefficient (h ), W/m2 K
1.0 sheathed
thermocouple
106
104
103
2 104
104
5000
2000
1000
500
200
15
100
0
102
61
400
600
800
1000
Surface temperature, C
10
Fig. 64
200
Fig. 65
200
400
600
800
Surface temperature (T ), C
1000
Fig. 66
30 C still water
TA TB
TB TC
TB TD
TB (surface: B)
600
TC (surface: C)
400
TD (edge: D)
200
10
800
600
400
A
B
C
D
15
7
7
1
200
800
0
30
20
TA (center)
TD (edge: D)
200
10
400
A
B
C
D
15
7
7
1
200
0
30
20
Time (t ), s
TA TB
TB TC
TB TD
TA (center)
TB (surface: B)
600
TC (surface: C)
TD (edge: D)
400
200
10
20
30
A
B
C
D
40
800
600
400
15
7
7
1
50
200
800
Temperature (T ), C
Temperature difference (T ), C
(b)
800
Temperature (T ), C
600
TC (surface: C)
400
Time (t ), s
0
60
600
TD (edge: D)
400
A
B
C
D
15
7
7
1
800
600
400
200
200
Time (t ), s
Fig. 68
800
TA TB
TB TC
TB TD
TB (surface: B)
600
(a)
(c)
20
10
Time (t ), s
(d)
Cooling curves and variation of temperature difference during (a) water, (b) and (c) polymer, and (d) oil quenching of stainless steel disk
0
30
Temperature difference (T ), C
Temperature (T ), C
TA (center)
Temperature (T ), C
800
Temperature difference (T ), C
Change of wetting length with time on the surface of stainless steel disk specimen during water, polymer, and
oil quenching. Quenchants: city water, PAG polymer aqueous solutions, and quenching oils. Source: Ref 68
Temperature difference (T ), C
Fig. 67
10
1.5
1.6 sheathed
thermocouple
Specimen
30
B
7
14
D
3
Fig. 69
Fluid
Unwetted
Wetted
Sample
surface
(a) Cooling curve of center of sample and variation of wetted surface area as a function of
time during cooling of cylindrical chromium-nickel steel
sample (15 mm diam by 45 mm long). (b) Photographs
show the wetting behavior at times A, B, and C. TS and tS,
respectively, are temperature and time of starting wetting;
Tf and tf, respectively, are temperature and time of finishing
wetting. Source: Ref 69
Fig. 71
Backplate
electrode
Fig. 70 Measuring principle for determination of percentage of sample surface wetted during cooling of immersion-cooled samples. Source: Ref 69
Effects of Geometry
Edge Effect. The shape of steel parts is a very
important factor for water and aqueous polymer
quenchants, but it is not as important for oils (see
Fig. 8890) (Ref 71). The initial rupture of the
10 30 mm silver probe
80 C quench oil (JIS 12)
800
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Fig. 73
Temperature (T ), C
600
Fig. 72
10
30 C 10% brine
230 C
molten salt
30 C water
104
120 C oil
JIS 2-1
103
30 C, 10%
polymer
102
200
400
600
800
Surface temperature, C
Time (t ), s
(a)
Effect of agitation on cooling curves in oil quenching. Probe: cylindrical silver probe (10 mm diam by 30 mm
long). Quenchant: 80 C quench oil (JIS 1-2 type)
800
200
Time (t ), s
105
400
Still
0.1 m/s
0.2 m/s
0.3 m/s
0.4 m/s
700
Material Effects
Heat-resistant materials such as silver, gold,
platinum, stainless steel, nickel, Inconel alloy,
and so forth are used as specimens for cooling-
conductivity of specimen. If the thermal conductivity of the specimen material is lower, destabilization and premature collapse of the vapor
film occurs at a higher temperature because of
the increase of the surface temperature drop by
the intermittent liquid-metal contact during the
vapor blanket stage.
Steel chemical composition determines the
thermodynamic parameters of the material,
transformation behavior of austenite, and surface
oxidation. Therefore, it affects cooling behavior
during quenching. Latent heat of transformation
from austenite into ferrite/pearlite bainite, or
martensite also influences the cooling rate. The
transformation temperature and the amount of latent heat depend on the chemical composition of
the steel and the cooling rate. Thermodynamic
properties of the material also have an effect on
cooling behavior.
900
Temperature (T ), C
(b)
Cooling curves of a silver probe and heat-transfer coefficients in quenching in representative quenchants. (a) Cooling curves of a 10 mm diam by 30 mm long silver probe.
(b) Heat-transfer coefficients estimated with lumped-heat-capacity method
Effect of Agitation
As discussed in the section Effect of Materials and Quench Process Design on Distortion
in this article, quench nonuniformity can arise
from nonuniform flow fields around the part surface during the quench or nonuniform wetting of
the surface. In addition, poor agitation design is
a major source of quench nonuniformity. The
purpose of the agitation is not only to increase
cooling power of quenchant, but also to provide
uniform cooling in order to suppress the excessive distortion and stress of quenched steel parts.
Nonuniformity of the surface cooling during
water quenching is decreased significantly by the
30
Still
0.3 m/s
0.7 m/s
20
10
Lf
tf
1
ts
0
0
0
Time (t ), s
(a)
Fig. 74
0.3
0.7
Effect of (a) agitation and (b) flow velocity on wetting process on the surface of stainless steel disk specimen (30 mm diam by 10 mm thick) during water quenching.
Quenchant: 30 C city water. , diameter. Source: Ref 68
10
Time (t ), s
20
600
TB (surface: B)
400
400
TC (surface: C)
TD (edge: D)
200
200
10
Time (t ), s
20
800
TA T B
TB T C
TB T D
Temperature difference (T ), C
Temperature (T ), C
TA (center)
600
Lf
600
TB (surface: B)
400
400
TC (surface: C)
TD (edge: D)
200
200
10
Time (t ), s
20
TA (center)
800
TA T B
TB T C
TB T D
TA (center)
600
800
T A TB
T B TC
T B TD
600
TB (surface: B)
400
400
TC (surface: C)
TD (edge: D)
200
200
10
Time (t ), s
20
(b)
800
tf
TA (center)
600
T A TB
T B TC
T B TD
800
600
TB (surface: B)
TC (surface: C)
400
400
TD (edge: D)
200
200
ts
20
Time (t ), s
(a)
Temperature difference (T ), C
Temperature (T ), C
10
15 400
7
7
1 200
10
Time (t ), s
800
600
600
(a)
Still
Still
0.3 m/s
0.7 m/s
20
(b)
800
200
30
(a)
800
400
TC (surface: C)
TD (edge: D)
A
B
C
D
Temperature difference (T ), C
200
400
15
7
7 200
1
600
800
Temperature difference (T ), C
TD (edge: D) A
B
C
D
400
TB (surface: B)
TA TB
TB TC
TB TD
0.3
Flow velocity (v ), m/s
0.7
10
Time (t ), s
20
Temperature difference (T ), C
TC (surface: C)
TA (center)
800
Temperature (T ), C
600
Figures 100 and 101 show the effect of agitation of quenchants on the residual stresses on
the side surface of 20 mm diam, 60 mm long
carbon steel bars quenched in water and a polymer quenchant. Figure 100 shows that nonuniform surface cooling in still water quenching results in uneven residual stress distribution on the
surface of the steel bar. Agitation of water results
in even stress distributions except near the ends.
In addition, the submerged and open spray cooling result in high compression stresses. Figure
101 shows the effect of agitation on stress distribution after polymer quenching. Agitation of
polymer quenchant results in even stress distribution and high compression stresses except
near the ends. However, still polymer quenching
can also make even and high compression stress
Temperature (T ), C
Temperature (T ), C
TB (surface: B)
800
TA TB
TB TC
TB TD 600
Temperature (T ), C
TA (center)
800
Temperature difference (T ), C
(c)
(b)
(c)
Effect of agitation on cooling curves and temperature differences of stainless steel disk specimen during water quenching. Quenchant: 30 C city water. Flow velocity: (a) still, (b) 0.3 m/s, (c) 0.7 m/s. Source:
Ref 68
Effect of agitation on cooling curves and temperature differences of stainless steel disk specimen during polymer quenching. Quenchant: 30 C 10%
PAG polymer aqueous solution. Flow velocity: (a) still, (b)
0.3 m/s, (c) 0.7 m/s
Fig. 75
Fig. 76
Fig. 77
A
B
C
D
200
400
200
15
7
7
1
10
Time (t ), s
20
600
800
TB (surface: B)
TC (surface: C)
TD (edge: D)
400
600
400
200
200
10
Time (t ), s
20
Temperature difference (T ), C
400
600
T A TB
T B TC
T B TD
TA (center)
800
Temperature (T ), C
800
TB (surface: B)
TC (surface: C)
TD (edge: D)
600
TA T B
TB T C
TB T D
TA (center)
800
Temperature (T ), C
Temperature difference (T ), C
(b)
(a)
Fig. 79
Effect of agitation on cooling curves and temperature differences of stainless steel disk specimen during oil
quenching. Quenchant: 80 C quenching oil (JIS 1-2 oil). Flow velocity: (a) still, (b) 0.3 m/s
30
800
Still
0.1 m/s
0.2 m/s
0.3 m/s
20
Stainless steel
cylinder
Nickel
cylinder
Temperature (T ), C
600
400
Silver
cylinder
3
2
200
2
1
3
0
0
2
1
3
20
10
30
40
50
60
70
Time (t ), s
Effect of surface oxidization on cooling curves of cylindrical silver, nickel, and stainless steel specimens in
water quenching. Quenchant: 30 C still water. Specimen shape: cylinder with hemispherical ends (10 mm
diam by 30 mm long). Heating conditions: 1, 5 min up to 800 C in argon; 2, 5 min up to 800 C in air; 3, 8 h at 800 C
in air. Source: Ref 70, 71
Fig. 80
10
Lf
0
Time (t ), s
(a)
800
50 C
tf
Temperature (T ), C
2
1
ts
600
Water temperature = 95 C
5 min
in argon
400
10 min
in air
200
5 min
in argon
10 min
in air
0
0
0.1
0.2
Flow velocity (v ), m/s
0.3
0
0
(b)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Time (t ), s
Effect of (a) agitation and (b) flow velocity on
wetting process on the surface of stainless steel
disk specimen (30 mm diam by 10 mm thick) during oil
quenching. Quenchant: 80 C quenching oil (JIS 1-2 oil)
Fig. 78
Effect of surface oxidization on cooling curves of cylindrical pure iron specimens in water quenching. Quenchant: 50 and 95 C still water. Specimen shape: cylinder with hemispherical ends (10 mm diam by 30 mm
long). Source: Ref 70, 71
Fig. 81
20
5 m
10 m
15
50 m
10
0
100
300
200
400
500
600
700
800
Surface temperature, C
Fig. 82
Effect of surface scale on heat-transfer coefficient during spray cooling of a hot steel plate. Source: Ref 72
1000
Flaking of scale
Temperature (T ), C
800
Fall of scale flake
600
Fall of scale flake
400
Flaking of scale
Heavy scale
200
No oxide scale
0
0
10
Time (t ), s
Fig. 83
Unstable cooling phenomena due to surface oxidization during water quenching of steel specimen. Quenchant: 30 C still water. Specimen: JIS S45C cylinder (10 mm diam by 30 mm long)
Minimizing Distortion
Distortion can be controlled by appropriate selection of component design, steel grade, quenchant, agitation, and quenching method.
800
1000
Without coating
800
600
Temperature (T ), C
Temperature, C
Without coating
600
Clay coating
15
5 m
mthick
thick
400
15 m
40 m
200
25 m
80 m
100 m
400
10
Time, s
Fig. 84
200 m
25 m
50 m
0
0
0
0
150 m
10 m
200
Effect of clay coating on cooling curves of steel specimen in water quenching. Quenchant: 30 C still water.
Specimen: JIS S45C steel cylinder (10 mm diam by 30 mm long)
2
Time (t ), s
Effect of clay coating on cooling curves of silver specimen in water quenching. Quenchant:
30 C still water. Specimen: silver cylinder (10 mm diam
by 30 mm long)
Fig. 85
20
Water flux = 0.6 m3/m2min
15
13.2
9.5
7.5
5.5
1.8
1.0
10
60
120
1000
0
100
Fig. 86
Surface roughness
Rz,
Paper
m
No.
300
Surface temperature, C
200
400
500
Effect of surface roughness on heat-transfer coefficient during spray cooling of a hot copper plate. Source:
Ref 72
areas
holes
low shapes
components
Emery No. 800
Emery No. 320
Temperature (T ), C
800
Avoiding Sharp Corners and Edges. Distortion and cracking are encountered when quenching a part with sharp corners and edges, which
increase cooling nonuniformity and act as stress
risers. Therefore, it is effective to round corners
and edges or to employ a tapered shape.
600
0
0
4
5
Time (t ), s
10
1000
800
800
Temperature (T ), C
1000
Temperature (T ), C
Fig. 87
Effect of surface finish on the cooling curves of a S45C steel specimen during polymer quenching. Quenchant:
30 C 15% polymer (PAG ) quenchant. Specimen: JIS S45C steel cylinder (10 mm diam by 30 mm long)
600
400
R0
0.2 m/s
600
JIS
200
C1
200
R5
R3
1.0 m/s
R3
R0
JIS
C1
R5
400
R3
C1
JIS
Cracking propensity increases as the Ms temperature and the carbon equivalent increase.
Quench cracks were prevalent at carbon equivalent values above 0.525, as shown in Fig. 103.
R5
R0
0
0
(a)
10
Time (t ), s
15
20
8 10 12
Time (t ), s
14 16 18
20
(b)
Effect of specimen shape on the cooling curves of cylindrical silver specimen cylinder (10 mm diam by 30
mm long) during quenching in 30 C water. Specimen shape: JIS, JIS silver probe type; R0, with flat ends and
sharp edges; R3, with rounded edges of 3 mm radius; R5, with hemispherical ends of 5 mm radius; C1, with chamfered
edges of 1 mm by 45
Fig. 88
Quenchants must be selected to provide cooling rates capable of producing acceptable microstructure in the section thickness of interest.
However, it is not desirable to use quenchants
with excessively high heat removal rates. Typically, the greater the quench severity, the greater
Quenching Methods
Part design, material selection, quenchant selection, and so forth. are the most important factors to suppress the quench distortion and cracking of steel parts. In addition, several methods
for minimizing distortion and eliminating cracking are employed, for example, interrupted
800
Temperature (T ), C
600
R3
R5
JIS
R0
400
C1
200
0
0
6
8
Time (t ), s
10
12
Fig. 90
Still
600
C1
400
R5
JIS
200
1.0 m/s
0.2 m/s
800
Temperature (T ), C
Temperature (T ), C
800
600
R0
C1
R5
R3
JIS
R0
R0
0
R3
0
0
(a)
C1
R5
JIS
400
200
R3
104
8 10 12
Time (t ), s
14 16 18
20
(b)
8 10 12
Time (t ), s
Stainless steel
cylinder
Nickel cylinder
Silver cylinder
2000
1000
500
200
100
50
14 16 18
20
Effect of specimen shape on the cooling curves of cylindrical silver specimen cylinder (10 mm diam by 30
mm long) during quenching in 30 C 15% polymer (PAG) quenchant. Specimen shape: JIS, JIS silver probe
type; R0, with flat ends and sharp edges; R3, with rounded edges of 3 mm radius; R5, with hemispherical ends of 5 mm
radius; C1, with chamfered edges of 1 mm by 45
Fig. 89
5000
200
400
600
Tl = TW Tl, (K)
800
Fig. 91
toughness, and wear resistance. However, austempering is applicable to a limited steel and
parts size. Important consideration for the selection of steel parts for austempering are:
The location for the nose of the TTT curve
0.05
0.025
0
0.025
0.05
10
15
(Left side)
10
Radius horizontal (l s ), mm
15
(Right side)
t = 10 mm
ds
ls
o
o
2r = 30 mm dia.
ls
(a)
5
2.5
0
2.5
5
0.1 0.05 0 0.05 0.1
Change of radius (r), mm
(b)
Fig. 92
distortion
Effect of quenchants on quench distortion of JIS S45C carbon steel disk quenched in still quenchants. Specimen
dimensions were 30 mm diam by 10 mm thick. (a) Distribution of axial distortion. (b) Distribution of radial
Tempering
Steel parts are often tempered by reheating after quench hardening to obtain specific values of
mechanical properties. Tempering of steel in-
Effect of quenchants on residual stresses on side surface of JIS S45C carbon steel disk quenched in still
quenchants. Specimen dimensions were 30 mm diam by 10 mm thick. (a) Circumferential stress on end
surface. (b) Radial stress on end surface
Fig. 93
800
0.4
1.2
2.0
4.0 115
600
400
60
200
30
Axial stress distribution during water quenching for various AISI 1045 steel cylinders diameter D, at selected
times (in seconds) after the start of quenching from 850 C (1560 F) in 20 C (70 C) water. The final microstructure of the 10 mm (0.4 in.) diam cylinder is completely martensite, while the others have a ferritic-pearlitic core.
Source: 78, 79
30
200
60
400
Water quench, surface
600
85
800
115
1000
Fig. 94
10
30
50
Cylinder diameter, mm
100
145
Dependence of axial residual stresses on cylinder diameter. Same steel as in Fig. 94. The
core is martensite for 10 mm (0.4 in.) diameter, but is
ferrite-pearlite for larger diameters. Source: Ref 78, 79
Fig. 95
100 m
(a)
(b)
Fig. 96
creases ductility and toughness of quench-hardened steel and also relieves quench stresses and
ensures dimensional stability.
As mentioned in the section Phase Transformation during Heat Treating, the tempering
process is divided into four stages:
100 m
100 m
(c)
Effect of agitation of water on quench distortion of JIS S45C carbon steel disk. Specimen dimensions were 30
mm diam by 10 mm thick. Quenchant was 30 C city water. Flow velocity: (a) still water, (b) 0.3 m/s, and
100 m
100 m
(a)
100 m
(b)
(c)
Effect of agitation of polymer quenchant on quench distortion of JIS S45C carbon steel disk. Specimen dimensions were 30 mm diam by 10 mm thick. Quenchant was 30 C 10% polymer (PAG) quenchant. Flow
velocity: (a) still polymer solution, (b) 0.3 m/s, and (c) 0.7 m/s
Fig. 97
Water, 30 C
Still
Upward (0.3 m/s)
Upward (0.7 m/s)
Submerged spray
Open spray
0.05
0.05
0
0.4
0.2
0.2
20
40
Change of diameter, mm
0.1
Open spray
(lateral)
Submerged
spary (lateral)
Upward
(0.7 m/s)
Upward
(0.3 m/s)
Still
60
0.05
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
Change of length, mm
(a)
Fig. 98
0.10
(b)
Effect of agitation methods on distortion in water quenching of JIS S45C steel rod (20 mm diam by 60 mm long). Quenchant was 30 city water. Agitation methods were
still, 0.3 m/s upward flow, 0.7 m/s upward flow, and lateral submerge in immersion quenching, and lateral open spray quenching in air. (a) Change of diameter. (b) Change
of length
0.05
0.05
0
0.4
0.2
0.2
20
40
Change of diameter, mm
0.1
Submerged
spray (lateral)
Upward
(0.7 m/s)
Upward
(0.3 m/s)
Still
60
Fig. 99
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Change of length, mm
(b)
Effect of agitation methods on distortion in polymer quenching of JIS S45C steel rod (20 mm diam by 60 mm long). Quenchant was 30 C 10% polymer (PAG) quenchant.
Agitation methods were still, 0.3 m/s upward flow, and 0.7 m/s upward flow in immersion quenching. (a) Change of diameter. (b) Change of length
60
4
10
10
A
20
B
600
400
200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
0
Still water
0.3 m/s upward
0.7 m/s upward
10
20
30
40
50
60
(a)
600
400
200
0
200
400
800
1000
0
Still water
0.3 m/s upward
0.7 m/s upward
10
30
40
50
60
Fig. 100
Governing Equations
600
vI nI and I1
nI 1
I1
(Eq 4)
q l n 0
60
4
10
10
(Eq 5)
I I I
where k and lI denote the coefficient of heat conduction and the latent heat produced by the progressive Ith constituent.
The boundary conditions of heat transfer on
the outer surface are assumed to be:
20
B
600
400
200
0
T
ni h(T Tw)
xi
(Eq 6)
200
400
600
800
1000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
D C
C
xi
xi
(Eq 7)
(a)
600
400
200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig. 101
C
ni hc(Ce Cs)
xi
(Eq 8)
where hc and Ce are the surface reaction rate coefficient and the known content of the external
environment, respectively.
Constitutive Equation. Total strain rate e ij is
assumed to be divided into elastic, plastic, and
thermal strain rates and those by structural dilatation due to phase transformation and transformation such that:
e ij e eij e pij e Tij e m
tp
ij e
ij
(Eq 9)
1 m
m
rij (rkk)dij
E
E
(Eq 10)
Table 12 Effect of agitation on quench cracking in water and polymer quenching of steel
disks shown in Fig. 100
Steel materials are Japanese standard S45C, SK4, and SCM435.
10
S45C
0.45%C-0.67%Mn
SK4
0.98%C0.77%Mn
SCM435
0.35%C-0.76%Mn1.06%Cr-0.20%Mo
100
70
100
100
7
10
30
60
0
Disk specimen for quench-cracking test.
Specimen dimensions were 30 mm diam by
10 mm thick; specimen contains an eccentrically located
10 mm diam hole.
Fig. 102
1 m
l1
m
E
(C C1)
mI2
EI 2
(Eq 12)
N
(Eq 11)
eTij (T T0)dij
(Eq 13)
Table 13 Effect of surface texture and roughness on quench cracking in water quenching
of steel disks shown in Fig. 100
Steel materials are Japanese standard S45C and SK4. Quenchant: water (30 C) agitated by upward nozzle jet (1 m/s)
S45C
0.45%C-0.67%Mn
Surface finishing
and roughness
I {(C2 C)I 1
I1 C2 C1
n
The thermal strain is the function of initial temperature of material T0 and thermal expansion
coefficient :
nI
(C2 C)
C2 C1
1 mI 1
1 mI2
(C C1)
EI 1
EI 2
I (C2 C) EII11
I1 C2 C1
SK4
0.98%C-0.77% Mn
Frequency of
occurrence of
quench cracking, %
Surface finishing
and roughness
Frequency of
occurrence of
quench cracking, %
20 (flat surface)
80 (hole surface)
0 (flat surface)
100 (hole surface)
20
0 (flat surface)
100 (hole surface)
20
80
30
0
0
60
(C C1)I 2}
(Eq 14)
F
rij
(Eq 15)
F rkl F T
k G
rkl
T
N
F
F
nI
C
C
I1 nI
1
F
F
F
epmn j rmn rmn
G
(Eq 16)
(Eq 17)
(Eq 18)
Table 14 Effect of surface oxidation on quench cracking in water quenching of steel disks
shown in Fig. 100
Steel materials are Japanese standard S45C and SK4. Quenchant: water (30 C) agitated by upward nozzle jet (1 m/s)
S45C
0.45%C-0.67%Mn
Surface condition
(heating condition)
SK4
0.98%C-0.77%Mn
Frequency of
occurrence of
quench cracking, %
Surface condition
30
No-scale
(heated in argon)
Light scale
(heated in air, 3 min)
Heavy scale
(heated in air, 20 min)
Frequency of
occurrence of
quench cracking, %
20 (flat surface)
80 (hole surface)
80 (flat surface)
20 (hole surface)
0
Table 15 Effect of clay coating on quench cracking in water quenching of steel disks shown
in Fig. 100
Steel materials are Japanese standard S45C, SK4, and SCM435.
Frequency of occurrence of quench cracking, %
Surface condition (coating condition)
No coating (bare)
Clay coating (0.3 mm thick)
S45C
0.45%C-0.67%Mn
SK4
0.98%C-0.77%Mn
SCM435
0.35%C-0.76%Mn1.06%Cr-0.20%Mo
100
10
100
0
100
0
Fig. 103
steels
Fig. 104
Comparison of cooling curves as workpieces pass into and through martensite transformation range for a conventional quenching and tempering process and for interrupted
quenching processes. (a) Conventional quenching and tempering. (b) Marquenching. (c) Modified marquenching
Deformation of medium-carbon and hardenable steel bars by quenching from below and above transformation temperature and by stress relieving. lC, change of length.
(a) and (d) Quenched from 650 C. (b) and (e) Quenched from 850 C. (c) and (f) Tempered at 680 C (a) to (c) JIS S38C steel (0.38%C). (d) to (f) JIS SNCM 439 steel
(0.39C-1.80Ni-0.80Cr-0.20Mo).
Fig. 105
150
150
150
T = 400 C
t =2h
100
T = 400 C
t =
100
50
50
Fig. 106
10
15
Radius (r ), mm
50
50
z
100
100
150
50
z
100
50
100
150
20
10
15
Radius (r ), mm
20
(a)
Fig. 107
150
(b)
Stress distribution in cylinder during tempering
10
15
Radius (r ), mm
20
e m
ij
bI n I dij and
I1
e tp
ij
3
2
KI h(nI )n I sij
I1
(Eq 19)
w32 J 21/2
w4
(Eq 20)
np 1 exp
t
0
(Eq 21)
e tp
ij
(Eq 22)
(Eq 23)
and
[K(ui)]{Dui} {DF(T,nI)}
(Eq 24)
{}dT
(Eq 26)
and
([De]1{r}) b {1}
{b}
I
nI
(Eq 27)
I and bI are the coefficients of thermal expansion and dilatation due to Ith phase transformation, respectively. [De] denotes the elastic matrix
of materials.
In order to treat unsteady coupled equations
depending on time, a step-by-step time-integration method and Newton-Raphson method
are introduced in numerical calculation, while an
incremental method is used for deformation and
stress analysis. Because heat-transfer coefficient
depends on variation of the temperature on the
boundary of heat transfer, one also uses the nonuniform time step to calculate temperature,
phase transformation, and deformation fields
(Ref 89).
I1
30
{b}dn
I
I1
3d e c
{s}
2r
I1
I
I I
([De]1{r})
T
n {1} T n dT{1}
I ij
{}
2 K h(n )n s and
N1
3
1
KI h(nI )dnI {s}
2
S0
r 2
dT
T
I1
r 2
dnI {s}
nI
(Eq 25)
10
Thermal stress
Temperature
Stress/strain
Carbon content
Latent
heat
Stress-induced
transformation
Metallic structure
Temperature-dependent
phase transformation
Fig. 108
Elements: 136
Nodes: 162
Fig. 109
hside
104
5000
2000
1000
hend
hend
500
200
100
50
hside
20
10
0
(hside = hend)
200
400
600
800
Even
Temperature (T ), C
Heat-transfer coefficients used for the simulation. These coefficients were estimated by using the lumpedheat-capacity method program LUMPPROB and the cooling-curve data of the JIS silver probe, or by using
the inverse method program InvProbe-2D and the cooling-curve data of the ISO Inconel 600 alloy probe, and modified
by a trial-and-error method by repeating the calculation of cooling curve and the modification of the surface boundary
condition.
Fig. 110
Fig. 111
Calculated volume fraction of martensite after water quenching of S45C steel disk used for surface boundary
conditions in simulation of 1/4 F M model of disk specimen shown in Fig. 109
Radius (horizontal)(ls), mm
Change of thickness (t ), mm
(Left side)
0.075
15
10
cross section of the ring at final step. Experimental results of distortion are plotted as solid
marks in the figure. Changes in the distortion
with time with and without transformation plasticity are shown in Fig. 123. The most remarkable difference between the two lies in the mode
of distortion. Transformation plasticity gives
convex shape on all surfaces, but concave without the effect. Experimental data agree well with
simulated distortion with the effect of transformation plasticity in both carburized and normal
quenching.
Computer Simulation of Residual Stresses/
Distortion in Scanning Induction Hardening
(Ref 99). Ikuta et al. (Ref 99) carried out a coupled metallothermomechanical analysis using
heat treatment simulation code HEARTS for a
Summary
(Right side)
10
15
0.05
0.025
0
0.025
0.05
0.075
0.1
20
Measured
Horizontal
Vertical
15
10
10
Radius (vertical)(ls), mm
(Upper)
15
(Lower)
(a)
30
ds
ls
10 mm
0
2.5
5
0.1
Fig. 114
400
200
200
Residual stress, MPa
Calculated and measured distortion after water quenching of S45C steel disk. (a) Distribution of axial distortion. (b) Distribution of radial distortion
400
0
200
400
600
800
1000
15
Measured
Calculated
Heat-transfer coefficients
JIS probe + LUMPPROB
ISO probe + InvProbe-2D
Modified (even on all surfaces)
10
Finite difference mesh for steel cylinder specimen (20 mm diam by 60mm long)
0
200
400
600
800
10
1000
15
15
Radius, mm
(a)
r
Elements: 300
Nodes: 341
0.1
Change of radius (
r ), mm
(b)
Fig. 113
60
2.5
30 mm diam
Fig. 112
10
10
15
Radius, mm
(b)
Calculated and measured residual stress distribution after water quenching of S45C steel disk. (a) Radial stress distribution on end surface. (b) Tangential stress distribution
on end surface
Measured
Calculated
Heat-transfer coefficients
JIS probe + LUMPPROB
ISO probe + InvProbe-2D
Modified (even on all surfaces)
200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
10
20
30
40
50
60
200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig. 115
Fig. 117
Boiling behavior and distortion during quenching in still city water at 30 C. Keyway is on left side of
specimen. Source: Ref 97
After quenching
Before quenching
t=2s
t=4s
t=6s
t=8s
Before heating
o
(a)
0.5 s
0.8 s
1.0 s
1.2 s
1.7 s
2.0 s
2.4 s
3.3 s
4.0 s
(b)
Simulated shape change history of a S45C steel cylinder (1/4 shape of cylinder, 20 mm diam by 60mm
long) during water quenching (a) and polymer quenching (b). Quenchants were 30 C city water and 30 C
10% polymer (PAG) quenchant without agitation. Distortion is enlarged by 100 times.
Fig. 116
0.3 s
Fig. 118
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
(a)
75
11.
25
12.
10
13.
(b)
Fig. 119
14.
Fig. 122
15.
1
2
Time
10 s
60 s
2400 s
With transformation plasticity
Fig. 120
930 C
4h
850 C
1h
1 h 30 min
Cp
1.2%
Fig. 121
0.85%
OQ
(130 C)
Comparison of simulated results depending on the effect of transformation plasticity in course of quenching.
Distortion is enlarged by 100 times. Central axis is the left side. (a) Carburized quenching. (b) Normal
quenching. Source: Ref 98
Fig. 123
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Finite-element mesh
Cooling zone
Heating zone
25.
r
D
A
26.
z
54
110
27.
54
55
70
300
100
70
440
Fig. 124
Finite-element mesh and boundary condition of scanning induction quenching system. Source: Ref 99
28.
100
Martensite fraction (M ), %
90
80
29.
70
60
30.
50
40
31.
30
20
10
0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
32.
Depth (d ), mm
(a)
100
33.
90
Hardness (H ), HV
80
70
34.
60
50
40
35.
30
20
10
0
10
Depth (d ), mm
(b)
Fig. 125
Simulated volume fraction of martensite (a) and measured hardness (b) for scanning velocity v 10 mm/s
36.
Improvement
and
Low-Temperature
Quenching of Dies Made of Cr12-Type
Steel, Jinshu Rechuli, No. 8, 1992, p 3941
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6063
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W.B. Albert, Ed., ASM International, 1997,
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R.B. Duffly and D.T.C. Porthouse, The
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Th. Kunzel, Einfluss der Wiederbenetzung
auf die Allotrope Modifikationsanderung
tauchgekuhlter Metallkorper, Dr. Ing. Dissertation, Faculty for Mechanical Engineering of the Technical University of Munich,
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D. Hein, Modellvorstellung zur Wiederbenetzung durch Fluten, Doctoral Thesis
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47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
300
0
100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
900
1000
400
Distance (z ), mm
(a)
60.
z calculated
calculated
z measured
measured
200
Residual stresses (z,), MPa
100
Fig. 126
59.
300
z calculated
calculated
z measured
measured
200
900
1000
58.
50
100
150
200
250
Distance (z ), mm
(b)
Residual stresses along the surface of SAE1055 steel cylindrical specimen. Scanning velocity v (a) 10 mm/s and (b) 5 mm/s
300
350
400
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
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D.Y. Ju, M. Narazaki, H. Kamisugi, and H.
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(Shanghai), 2000, p 165172
C.L. Magee, Nucleation of Martensite,
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W.A. Johnson and R.F. Mehl, Trans. AIME,
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D.Y. Ju and M. Narazaki, Simulation and
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Metallo-Thermo-Mechanics
Application to Quenching
T. Inoue, Kyoto University, Japan
phase changes, such as solid-solid transformation in quenching, tempering, and other heat
treatments of steels, and also solid-liquid transformation in welding, casting, continuous casting, and so on. In such cases, three kinds of parameters are dominant: phases of metallic
structures, temperature field, and elasticor in
many cases, inelasticstress and strain. A variation in any of the three parameters will have an
effect on the others, and the interaction is properly termed a metallo-thermo-mechanical coupling (Ref 17).
Figure 1 depicts a schematic diagram for these
parameters and the effect of their interaction (Ref
16). When the temperature distribution in a material (and in some cases the heating and cooling
rate) is uniform, thermal stress:
Is caused in the solid and the temperature-
Metallo-Thermo-Mechanics
Materials often behave in a complicated manner during engineering processes incorporating
Fig. 1
Metallo-thermo-mechanical coupling
v
vI nI
I1
(Eq 1)
where
N
nI 1
(Eq 2)
I1
(Eq 3)
t0
where Ve
f (T) (t s) ds, are employed
as a basis. Here, Ve is the extended volume at
time, t (0 s t).
The existing stress, or sometimes strain, is
known to accelerate the reaction, as experimentally observed by many authors (Ref 2228).
3
by use of the function w(rij) representing the effect of stress in the form:
nP 1 exp(Ve)
J2
Ve
f (T, r ) (t s)3ds
ij
(Eq 4)
(Eq 5)
since
the
time-temperature-transformation
(TTT) diagram under the applied mean stress rm,
with some extent p, on a logarithmic scale deviates from one without stress and since Eq. 5
expresses the normal TTT diagram by applying
the function f (T).
The same type of kinetic equation (Eq 4)
might be adopted for the reaction of austenite
from pearlite during heating process, when necessary.
Diffusionless Transformation. The other
type of phase transformation is the diffusionless
one, or martensite reaction. In this reaction, volume fraction of martensite nM is just the function
of temperature, but not of the history as seen in
diffusion-type reaction, and the equation proposed by Magee (Ref 31).
1.00
nM 1 exp[u(T Ms)]
(Eq 6)
(Eq 7)
0.75
0.25
0.00
10
Fig. 4
104
0.8
Fracture of martensite, M
103
1.0
150
100
50
Tension
0.6
0.4
Compression
0.2
102
Time (t ), s
Start time
Finish time
Fig. 2
, MPa
,0
, 72
, 144
, 226
, 316
, 412
0.50
250
Time (t), s
(Eq 9)
200
(Eq 8)
Fracture of pearlite, P
Fig. 3
20
40
60
Stress (), MPa
80
100
0
0
500
1000
Fig. 5
1500
H
e iij q
j q
lI nI
j
I1
2T
xi x i
(Eq 10)
T
xi
(Eq 11)
with heat conductivity k is adopted, and the latent heat lI when producing the Ith constituent:
H
lI
nI
derive the constitutive equation. Readers are requested to refer to monographs on thermodynamics (Ref 32) for detailed discussion, but here
the authors simply utilize some results for the
application.
The Gibbs free energy G in the thermodynamic state is assumed to be the function of
stress rij, temperature T, and other internal variables related to inelastic deformation such as inelastic strain eiij, hardening parameter j, and
back stress ij as well as the volume fraction nI
of each constituent or phase:
G G(rij , T, eiji , ij, j, nI)
C
C
D
t
xixi
D exp[a(C b)]
(Eq 17)
2I3
1 mI
EI
Now the restriction of the second law of thermodynamics, called Clausius-Duhem inequality
is adopted, indicating that the internal dissipation is nonnegative, or that the inequality (Ref
32):
2I2
mI
EI
gT)
r ij eije rij e iji
q(G
when, EI, mI and I are Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, and thermal expansion coefficient of
the constituent, respectively, and 3bI is volumetric dilation due to phase change in this case.
Then, one has:
(Eq 18)
1
T
qi
0
T xi
(Eq 19)
(Eq 20)
Ge
rij
I4 I
I1 bI
e
eIij
G
G
r ij q g
rij
T
1
T
T qi
0
T xi
(Eq 21)
(Eq 15)
(Eq 25)
eije q
nI
I1
GeI (rij, T)
rij
(Eq 27)
1 m
m
rij rkkdij
E
E
(T T0)dij bdij
(Eq 22)
(Eq 26)
1 mI
mI
rij
rkkdij
EI
EI
I(T T0)dij bIdij
1
N
nI
EI
nImI
EI
I1
e ij e eij e iij
(Eq 24)
It is already confirmed in the framework of infinitesimal strain theory that the Gibbs free energy is divided into recoverable and inelastic
parts:
nIeIije
I1
eije
(Eq 23)
where uI0, uI1, uI2, uI3 and uI4 are the polynomial
function of stress invariants and temperature and
fI (T T0) is the function of temperature rise.
Then, Eq 22 reads:
eeij q
(Eq 13)
(Eq 14)
with
(Eq 12)
is adopted.
The third term on the left hand side of Eq 10
denotes the heat generated by inelastic dissipation, which is significant when compared with
the elastic work represented by the second term,
and the fourth term arises from the latent heat by
phase change. Equation 10 is easily reduced to
the original equation of heat conduction, provided these terms are neglected.
As for the case of carburized quenching, one
needs the distribution of carbon content diffused
from the surface of the body. This process is generally performed before quenching, so the coupling with stress and structural change is not to
be considered. Then, the normal type of diffusion equation for carbon content C takes:
(Eq 16)
I1
N
I
I1 EI
(Eq 28)
nI I
I1
nIbI
I1
(Eq 29)
Yield Function and Plastic Strain Rate. Subsequent yielding as well as initial yielding of material with plastic strain epij, hardening parameter
j at temperature T under multiaxial stresses is
controlled by a criterion using the yield function
expressed in stress space as:
F
F(rij, epij,
j, T, nI) 0
(Eq 30)
with existing plastic strain epij, hardening parameter j, to be discussed later, temperature T, and
volume fraction of phases nI.
The yield function F necessitates a simple
mathematical structure and is adequately capable
to fit the experimentally observed yield condition. One of the most widely used yield functions
in engineering practice is the von Mises type,
taking the form:
F
1
1
sijsij r 2(j, T, nI)
2
3
(Eq 31)
1
dijrkk
3
(Eq 32)
and r(j,
T, nI)
(Eq 33)
200
150
100
50
(Eq 34)
3 e e
2
p p
ij ij
(Eq 35)
where epij is plastic (or inelastic) strain. The parameter defined by Eq 34 is sometimes called the
work-hardening parameter, while the one by Eq
35 is the strain-hardening parameter.
How the subsequent yield surface develops
during the course of successive plastic loading
is called the hardening rule. Experiments determining the surface show that the yield surface
expands its diameter accompanying the shift of
center position in stress space (see Fig. 6, Ref
33). For simplicity, however, two characteristic
types of hardening rule are used.
Isotropic-Hardening Hypothesis. The yield
surface is assumed to expand isotropically in
size, keeping the center by this hypothesis,
which gives the yield function in the form:
F F(rij, j, T, nI) f (rij)
r(j,
T, nI)
(Eq 36)
0
50
200
0
1
(a)
50
100
150
200
250
Fig. 6
(Eq 38)
with a parameter C. Since the plastic strain occurs perpendicular to the normal of the yield surface as is discussed later, the direction of ij by
this model is parallel to the normal surface (see
Fig. 9).
The Ziegler model (Ref 35) to determine the
back stress rate is expressed as:
ij l(r
ij ij)
(Eq 39)
which follows that the center moves in the direction connecting the stress point and the back
stress as seen in Fig. 9.
Now, the normality of the plastic strain rate
vector induced at the regular point of the yield
surface leads to the flow rule for plastic strain
rate:
e pij K
F
rij
(Eq 40)
A
0
A
Y
T C
20
150
400
450
0
(Eq 37)
3
Y
150
100
(b)
0
1
(a)
2
(b)
300
Fig. 7
curve
Representation of yield hypothesis of isotropichardening type. (a) Yield surface. (b) Stress-strain
Fig. 8
curve
Representation of yield hypothesis of kinematichardening type. (a) Yield surface. (b) Stress-strain
F
nI 0
nI
I1
(Eq 41)
1 F F T
(ekl dklT)
S0 rij T
(Eq 47)
where
S0
2GG
F F
rmn rmn
(Eq 48)
(Eq 42)
1 F F
T
S0 r T
0 0}
0
0
0
ij
F F
nI
nI
rij
1.0
1.5
ij
(Prager)
ij
2.5
(Ziegler)
ij
1/2
F
j
(Eq 45)
1
m
r ij
dijr kk
2G
1 m
dijT dijb
(Eq 46)
where G, m, and stand for shear modulus, Poissons ratio, and linear expansion coefficient, respectively, in the global forms in the sense of
Eq. 29. Substituting Eq 44 and 47 into Eq 46,
Fig. 9
Equivalent stress,
mn
F
rmn
800
0
169 MPa
137
92
55
0
1
F F
p
rmn emn
G
2 F
600
0.5
ij ij
3 r
400
(a)
ij
(Eq 44)
200
Temperature (T ), C
1
F
F
F
p
rmn
emn
j
rmn
G
1
2
0 12
0 0 12
(Eq 52)
0
0
0
(Eq 43)
0
0
0
F r kl F
e pij G
rkl
T
I1
sym
(Eq 49)
and finally:
1 m
1 2m
m
1 m
1 2m 1 2m
m
m
1 m
[De] 2G
1 2m 1 2m 1 2m
{r}
[Dep] ({e} {}T)
{}T { 0
with
For further application of the constitutive equation in the finite-element method, it is useful to
present the relation in the matrix form (Ref 36):
(51)
0.5
F
nI
nI
I1
F r mn F T
KG
rmn
T
N
m
1 F F
r ij 2G dikdjl
dijdkl
1 2m
S0 rij rkl
F
T
T
0.5
1
41
82
137
164
1.5
d
H =
d
p
2
200
400
600
800
Temperature (T ), C
0
0
Fig. 10
(b)
Experimental data of the effect of applied stress
on induced strain. (a) Pearlitic transformation.
(b) Martensitic transformation
Fig. 11
2G
[D ]
S0
p
F
r
sym
F F
rx ry
r
F
F F
rx rz
F F
ry rz
r
1 F F
2 rx sxy
1 F F
2 ry sxy
1 F F
2 rz sxy
1 F
4 sxy
1 F F
2 rx syz
1 F F
2 ry syz
1 F F
2 rz syz
1 F F
4 sxy syz
1 F
4 syz
1 F F
2 rx szx
1 F F
2 ry szx
1 F F
2 rz szx
1 F F
4 sxy szx
1 F F
4 syz szx
F
1
1
sijsij r(
ep, nI)2
2
3
(Eq 54)
1 F
4 szx
1
2
smnsmn
3
G
dr
(Eq 55)
3 e p
sij
2 r
(Eq 56)
e pij
3 r
sij
2 rH
(Eq 57)
2G
S0
0.2
Transformation plastic strain (tp), %
4 r 2r
p
3 e
[Dp]
z
s2x
sxsy
sxsz
sxsxy
sxsyz
sxszx
s2z
2
szsxy sxy
szsyz sxysyz s2yz
szszx sxyszx syzszx s2zx
(Eq 58)
with
S0
0.1
1
3
2
1 r
r 1
3
3G e p
0.2
7
8
Experimental
25
25
sym
s2y
sysz
sysxy
sysyz
syszx
0.1
0.3
50
2
H
r 1
3
3G
(Eq 59)
50
(a)
0.5
Transformation plastic strain (tp), %
1/2
3 r de
Pre/postprocessor
2
18
10
0.4
3
19
Intermediate
file
Intermediate
file
14
13
0.3
7
21
11
0.2
12
1
17
5
Interface
15
4
0.1
Experimental
0
16
Post-treatment
file
20
25
50
75
100
Control/analytical
condition file
List image
data file
Solver
Final
results file
(b)
Fig. 12
Node/element
file
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Material
database
Structure of HEARTS
e iij
e pij
e cij
(Eq 60)
e pij
G
rij
(Eq 61)
is normally expressed as a linear function of applied stress, and the rate is expressed by:
e tp
ij
3
2
KIh(nI)sij
I1
(Eq 66)
0.8
Experimental
Calculated
Carbon content (C), %
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
(Eq 62)
Fig. 15
(Eq 63)
r
r kl
kl
G
G
T
T
G
n I rij
I1 nI
With
transformation
plasticity
400
200
Without
transformation
plasticity
0
0
1.0
3.0
2.0
Fig. 16
600
300
0
300
4.0
5.0
600
900
6.0
Time (t ), s
(Eq 64)
Fig. 18
2
3
1
Distance from center (r ), mm
c
e cij G
600
1.0
800
Temperature (T ), C
G rij G e ijc G T
G
rij
eijc
rT
N
G
0
I1 nI
Pearlite
0.8
0.6
0.4
Martensite
0.2
Austenite
0
Fig. 17
1
2
3
Distance from center (r ), mm
Experimental
With transformation plasticity
Without transformation plasticity
600
300
0
300
600
900
Fig. 19
2
3
1
Distance from center (r ), mm
Temperature (T ), C
S45C out-top
S45C out-mid
S45C in-mid
SUS304 out-top
SUS304 out-mid
SUS304 in-mid
(a)
10 20
Time (t ), s
50 100
250
strain problems are also available. This procedure is proposed for developing a program for
practical use that can analyze very large systems
and add some different types of elements and
kinds of functions without difficulty.
In the case of the coupled analysis of timedependent metallic structure, temperature, and
stress/strain, the step-by-step method with very
short time step is employed to avoid the increase
of necessary memory due to the nonsymmetric
matrix and also to reduce execution time.
The heat-conduction analysis is carried out by
considering the latent heat generation calculated
by microstructural evolution analysis followed
100
80
Martensite
60
40
Austenite
20
0
10 20
Time (t ), s
50 100
250
10 20
Time (t ), s
50 100
250
Radial displacement
(Ur), mm
(b)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
(c)
Axial displacement
(Uz), mm
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.05
10 20
Time (t ), s
50 100
Fig. 22
Fig. 23
250
(d)
Variation of temperature, structures, and distortions, at typical locations of a ring for carbon
steel and SUS304
Fig. 20
0.6
0.4
S45C
0.2
SNC815
0
SCM440
0.2
0.4
36
Fig. 21
SUS304
38
40
42
44
46
Radius (r ), mm
48
50
Fig. 24
5000
4000
3
3000
2
1
2000
4
1000
0
Fig. 26
200
400
600
800
Temperature (T ), C
1000
0.4
4
Radial displacement (ur), mm
Fig. 25
With TP Without TP
Outer
Inner
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
1
(a)
Fig. 27
10
102
Time (t ), s
103
104
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
1
(b)
10
102
Time (t ), s
103
104
Variation of radial distortion. TP, transformation plasticity. (a) Carburized quenching. (b) Normal quenching
t=8s
M, %
100
80
70
60
t = 30 s
50
40
30
t = 600 s
20
10
0
t = 2400 s
With TP
Fig. 28
Without TP
Successive change of cross section with martensite fraction (central axis on left). TP, transformation plasticity
(a)
(b)
With transformation plasticity
Without transformation plasticity
Iinitial
Experimental
90
t = 15 s
Fig. 29
Comparison of distorted cross section with experiment. (a) Carburized quenching. (b) Normal quenching
Fig. 30
Comparison of residual stresses with experiment. (a) Carburized quenching. (b) Normal quenching
Fig. 31
Fig. 32
1200
Simulated Measured
Tip
PCD
Bottom
Temperature (T ), C
1000
Tip
PCD
800
Fig. 34
Generated heat pattern. t (a) 0.0 s. (b) 1.8 s. (c) 2.7 s. (d) 2.88 s
tt=13,500 s
600
400
9,000 s
200
0
Fig. 33
3
Time (t ), s
Fig. 35
Fig. 36
In the case of carburized quenching, radial displacement both at outer and inner faces is moderate when considering the effect in comparison
with that without transformation plasticity. In the
case of normal quenching, on the other hand, the
effect on radial displacement is smaller, as
shown in Fig. 27(b).
Variations of the simulated cross-sectional
distortion with and without the effect are shown
in Fig. 28 with the volume fraction of martensite.
Outer sides of ring in different conditions at ap-
1.0
0.8
Tip
PCD
PCD
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
9,000 s
Tip
0
Fig. 37
Root
4
3
2
1
Distance from surface (d ), mm
proximately 8 s are similarly distorted to the bottom due to the difference of heat transfer coefficient among the surfaces. Since martensite
transformation starts around at 15 s from the corner for normal quenching (see Fig. 28b), the concave shape of cross section takes place, while a
similar shape is seen in the final stage for carburized quenching without transformation plasticity effect. The effect appears at 30 s in the case
of carburized quenching to give a convex shape
being kept until end of cooling at 2400 s.
Figure 29 illustrates the simulated distortion
of cross section at final step under both conditions. Solid lines in the figure represent the estimated pattern of distortion from initial shape
shown in thin dotted line when considering the
effect. Experimental results of distortion are
plotted in solid marks in the figure to compare
with simulated patterns. The most remarkable
difference between surfaces with transformation
plasticity and those without in carburized
quenching lies in the mode of distortion as depicted in Fig. 28 and 29. The transformation
plasticity gives a convex shape to all surfaces,
but surfaces without transformation plasticity are
concave. Experimental data agree well with simulated distortion with the effect in both carburized and normal quenching.
Residual stress distribution for carburized and
normal quenched ring are represented in Fig. 30.
It is concluded that the transformation plastic
strain contributes remarkable effects on distortion of ring-shaped models especially in the case
of carburized quenching.
Fig. 38
Fig. 39
Fig. 40
Fig. 41
Fig. 42
Fig. 43
Fig. 44
Fig. 45
sword master controls the initial heating temperature and that of water as well as the heat
transfer coefficient by pasting a kind of clay on
the surface. The blade pattern with martensite
structure, called hamon, and distortion or bent
shape, termed sori, are evaluated from artistic
viewpoint.
Most Japanese swords with some exceptions
are made of steel called tamahagane, or traditional Japanese steel, specially prepared by the
tatara system using iron sand, not normal iron
ore. The hammering process is repeated to obtain
a block, where about 15 folds, called orikaeshi,
are repeated to get laminated materials bonded
by the mechanism of mechanical alloying.
Before quenching, mixed clay with powders
of charcoal and whetstone, yakibatsuchi, is
pasted on the surface of the sword to control the
heat transfer coefficient depending on the thickness (see Fig. 39). The thickness on the back is
about 1 mm and 0.1 mm on the blade, as shown
in Fig. 40. Then, the sword is heated up to about
800 C in the furnace and quenched in water of
40 C. During this process, the tip is severely
cooled to be the blade made of martensite structure, while the other part is transformed into
pearlite and troostite. Very complicated deformation, or sori, is observed during the process
due to the time delay of cooling and phase transformation, and the stress changes to induce the
residual stresses.
Three-dimensional finite-element mesh division of the sword is represented in Fig. 41, which
shows the sword cut in half in the width direction
for symmetry. This model is supposed to consist
of two regions to which different material data
are applied and also two parts of the surface with
heat transfer coefficients of different values.
To investigate the effect of the clay thickness
on the martensite formation corresponding to the
width of blade, quenching simulations are made
with different patterns of pasting the clay. Figure
42 shows the volume fractions of martensite after quenching under different conditions. When
the sword is quenched without any clay, martensite hardly appears except for on the blade (Fig.
42a). However, almost the entire region becomes
martensite when thin clay is pasted on the entire
surface as shown in Fig. 42b. If the clay is pasted
thin on the blade side, and thick on other part,
an ideal pattern of martensite is obtained, where
martensitic hardened blade and ductile, pearlitic
main body are realized (Fig. 42c). The border of
the martensite structure in white color is termed
hamon.
Figure 43 shows the temperature distribution
of the sword with time variation from the beginning of the quenching, and the mode of enlarged
deformation is also depicted in the figure. The
thin part of the blade shrinks by thermal contraction due to severe cooling, which leads to
downward bending, termed as gyaku-sori, or reverse bending. However, when martensitic transformation starts to occur in that part, normal
bending, or sori, to the upper direction is observed due to the volumetric dilation by martensite formation. Gyaku-sori again appears, be-
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Distribution of residual stress along typical
three portions. (a) Hasaki, edge (b) Shinogi,
ridge (c) Mune, back surface
Fig. 46
9.
10.
11.
REFERENCES
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Monkawa, Description of Transformation
Kinetics, Heat Conduction and Elastic-Plastic Stresses in the Course of Quenching and
Tempering of Some Steels, Ing.-Archiv.,
Vol 50 (No. 5), 1981, p 315332
2. T. Inoue and Z.G. Wang, Coupling Phenomena between Stress, Temperature and
Metallic Structures in the Process with
Phase Transformation, Proc. of the Inter-
12.
13.
national Symposium on Calculation of Internal Stresses in Heat Treatment of Metallic Materials, Linkoping Univ. Press, 1984,
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T. Inoue, Metallo-Thermo-Mechanical CouplingApplication to the Analysis of
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Hetnarski, Ed., North Holland, 1988
T. Inoue, Metallo-Thermo-Mechanics
Application to Phase Transformation Incorporated Processes, Trans. JWRI, Special Issue on Theoretical Prediction in Joining and
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T. Inoue, Residual Stress and Distortion
Metallo-Thermo-Mechanics Simulation of
Engineering Processes Incorporating Phase
Transformation, Mathematical Modeling of
Weld Phenomena, H. Cerjak, Ed., IOM
Communications Ltd., Vol 4, 1998, p 547
575
T. Inoue and B. Raniecki, Determination of
Thermal-Hardening Stresses in Steels by
Use of Thermoplasticity Theory, J. Mech.
Phys. Solids, Vol 26 (No. 3), 1978, p 187
212
T. Inoue, K. Arimoto, and D.Y. Ju, MetalloThermo-Mechanical Simulation of Quenching ProcessTheory and Implementation
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Int. Conf. Quenching and Control of Distortion (Chicago, IL), ASM International,
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T. Inoue, K. Arimoto, and D.Y. Ju, Theory
and Implementation of Heat Treatment
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Eighth Int. Congress on Heat Treatment of
Materials (Kyoto), 1720 Nov 1992, Japan
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T. Inoue and K. Arimoto, Development and
Implementation
of
CAE
System
HEARTS for Heat Treatment Simulation
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Mater. Eng. Perform., Vol 6 (No. 1), 1997,
p 5160
T. Inoue, H. Inoue, T. Uehara, F. Ikuta, K.
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15 Oct 1998, ASM International, p 657
664
T. Inoue, H. Inoue, F. Ikuta, and T. Horino,
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Hardening Process of a Gear Wheel,
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26.
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Mechanical Engineering, 1997, p 137142
T. Inoue, The Japanese SwordThe Material, Manufacturing and Computer Simulation of Quenching Process, Mater. Sci.
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T. Inoue, The Japanese Sword in Comparison of Others, Proc. Eighth Int. Conf. Mechanical Behaviour of Materials (Victoria,
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F.G. Rammerstorfer, D.F. Fischer, W. Mitter, K.J. Bathe, and M.O. Snyder, On
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J.B. Leblond, G. Mottet, J. Devaux, and J.C.
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P.H. Shipway and H.K.D.H. Bhadesia, The
Effect of Small Stress on the Kinetics of the
Bainite Transformation, Mater. Sci. Eng.,
Vol A201, 1995, p 143149
T. Inoue, Z.G. Wang, and K. Miyao, Thermal and Phase Transformation Stresses in a
Carburized Quenched Gear Wheel, Proc.
32nd Japan Cong. Materials Research, Society Materials Science, Japan, 1989, p 21
26
E. Gautier, A. Simon, and G. Beck, Deformation of Eutectoid Steel during Pearlitic
Transformation under Tensile Stress, Proc.
Fifth Int. Conf. Strength of Metals and Alloys (ICSMAS), P. Haasen, V. Gerold, and
G. Kostorz, Ed., 1980, Vol 2, p 867873
S. Denis, A. Simon, and G. Beck, Estimation of the Effect of Stress/Phase Transformation Interaction when Calculating Internal Stress during Martensitic Quenching of
Steel, Trans. ISIJ, Vol 22, 1982, p 504513
M. Fujita and M. Suzuki, The Effect of High
Pressure on the Isothermal Transformation
in High Purity Fe-C Alloys and Commercial
Steels, Trans. ISIJ, Vol 14, 1974, p 4453
S. Bhattacharyya and G.L. Kehl, Isothermal
Transformation of Austenite under Externally Applied Tensile Stress, Trans. ASM,
Vol 47, 1955, p 351379
H. Onodera, H. Gotoh, and I. Tamura, Effect
of Volume Change on Martensitic Transformation Induced by Tensile or Compressive Stress in Polycrystalline Iron Alloys,
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Proc. First JIM Int. Symposium on New Aspects of Martensitic Transformation, Japan
Inst. Metals, 1976, p 327332
J.P. Patel and M. Cohen, Criterion for the
Action of Applied Stress in the Martensitic
Transformation, Acta Metall., Vol 1, 1953,
p 531538
S.V. Radcliffe and M. Schatz, The Effect of
High Pressure on the Martensitic Reaction
in Iron-Carbon Alloys, Acta Metall., Vol 10,
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Growth, Trans. AIME, Vol 135, 1939, p
416458
C.L. Magee, Chapter 3, The Nucleation of
Martensite, American Society for Metals,
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T. Inoue and K. Tanaka, Subsequent Yield
Conditions of Metal under Cyclic Loading
at Elevated Temperature, Ing. Archiv., Vol
44, 1975, p 5362
W. Prager, A New Method of Analyzing
Stress and Strains in Work-Hardening Plastic Solids, J. Appl. Mech., Vol 23, 1956, p
493496
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
T
div(k grad T) rij e ijp qI lI n I 0
s
(T Ts)|rR 0
r
k
T
bm
(T Ts)m|rR 0
r
k
T(r, sf) u(r)
(T Tc) 0
r
k
T(r, snb) w(r)
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 313
Metallo-Thermo-Mechanics: Application to
Quenching in this Handbook.
100
80
60
40
20
0
200
400
600
800
Fig. 1
Input
On the basis of numerous experimental studies, it has been established that with the cooling
rate increase within the martensite transformation range, the probability of quench-crack formation grows to a maximum value and then lowers to zero (Ref 1) (Fig. 1).
Substantiation of regularity is of great practical and scientific importance. To that end, the
calculation was performed for the thermal and
stress-strain states of steel parts on the basis of
finite-element methods (FEM) (Ref 6). For
mathematical simulation of part quenching, a
mathematical model was used that included a
nonlinear equation of nonstationary heat conduction, equations of the theory of thermal, elastic, and plastic flow with kinematic strengthening under the appropriate boundary conditions of
the first and third kinds (Ref 5).
The calculation process is divided into time
steps. At each time step, a heat-conductivity
problem is solved. The resulting temperature
field determines mechanical characteristics and
temperature load for the thermal plasticity problem. The initial conditions for thermal conductivity and thermal plasticity problems are taken
from results of solving the corresponding problems at previous steps. Besides, at each time step
the calculation results are compared with the
thermokinetic diagram of the supercooled austenite transformations, and new thermal, physical, and mechanical characteristics for the next
step are chosen depending on the structural components (Ref 7). In every separate region of the
diagram a specific transformation law is established, if necessary. The calculations are made
800
600
400
i
, MPa
200
r
0
e
200
400
0
Output
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
stress
1100
25%
0%
1000
3
100%
75%
50%
900
ments have been made in the search for intensively cooling quenchants, such as aqueous solutions of salts with special admixtures
preventing surface corrosion of quenched parts.
Optimal concentrations of aqueous polymer solutions have been found, which exhibit the inverse solubility. Such solutions provide intensive and uniform cooling of parts to be
quenched.
Circular residual stresses on the surface of cylindrical bodies versus generalized Biot number
are presented in Fig. 9. Intensive quenching
methods suppose that after quenching on the sur-
400
200
0
200
400
700
0%
600
600
1300
10%
0.2 s
800
400
0s
30%
500
50%
1100
1s
70%
400
90%
2s
900
102
10
103
104
, s
T, K
1
300
101
200
z, MPa
T, K
800
e, MPa
3s
0
200
700
400
Fig. 4
4s
600
500
300
0
1000
0
0
iment.
T, 106/K
0.2
400
400
3
200
400
4
2
200
300
2
200
400
300
, MPa
0
0
200
1
400
600
500
700
900
Residual stresses in the specimen. Solid lines relate to calculations; dotted lines relate to exper-
Fig. 8
0.3
y
1100
T, K
Isochronous curves exhibiting dependencies of
mechanical properties on temperature. Dashed
lines relate to handbook data; solid lines relate to data used
in experiments. ru, ultimate strength; ry, yield strength; T,
coefficient of linear expansion
Fig. 6
u
600
200
0.4
800
0.5
r, MPa
400
1200
800
102
101
10
102
103
, s
Fig. 5
Fig. 7
200
100
0
100
200
300
400
Fig. 9
2.5
5
7.5
Biot number
10
12.5
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 315
face residual compressive stresses always appear
(when Biv 4.5). Working within the range
where Biv 4.5, one can avoid cracking. Note
that between the generalized Biot number and
usual Biot number there is a link, which follows:
Biv
S
K
k V
1200
1200
T0
T0
TS
800
800
TS
400
400
0
S
Fig. 10
(Eq 1)
102
10
31
400
800
101
vri (1 v)r1 rf
Temperature, (T ), K
Stress ( ), MPa
Ms
11
12
13
75
6
5
4
3
2
1
14
15
8
7
16
1
10
Time (t ), s
102 102
101
1
Time (t ), s
87
10
Fig. 11
(a)
(d)
(b)
A record of changes in temperature at different points on the surface and the moment of failure was made for hardening an actual model. Ten
specimens were tested, and all of them were
heated to 1100 K, then cooled in water at 300 K.
As a result of this quenching, cracks of the upper
flange occurred in the radial direction (Fig. 12).
Average time from the start of cooling to the
moment of failure was 4.3. s.
Experimental data (see Table 1) were used as
boundary conditions in calculating the first-kind
thermal conductivity problem. Since it is known
that for the selected brand of steel through-hardening is specified over the entire cross section of
the bearing ringthat is, only martensitic transformation occursthen the dependence of material characteristics on time may be ignored and
only the dependence of thermal, physical, and
mechanical properties of steel ShKh15 on temperature is used in the calculation. In view of the
absence of an experimental temperature dependence of ultimate compressive strength for steel
ShKh15 during hardening, some simplification
was used. It was assumed that in the austenitic
condition and partly in the region of martensite
transformation (510480 K) the material is ideally plastic (v 1). Below 440 K, when more
than 50% of martensite forms in supercooled
austenite, the material becomes ideally brittle (v
0). In the range of 480 to 440 K it was assumed that the dependence of value v on temperature is linear. Consequently:
1 with T 480 K
v (T 440)/40 with 480 K T 440 K
0 with T 440 K
(Eq 2)
(e)
rf
with re 0, re vri (1 v)r1
re
with re 0
(f)
Structural composition and shape of the bearing ring profile during hardening. (a) Initial
(cold and heated) states. (b) After 0.8 s. (c) 1.6 s. (d) 2.2 s.
(e) 3.2 s. (f) 4 s. The unshaded area is austenite, single
hatching indicates the area up to 50% martensite, and cross
hatching indicates the area of failure
Fig. 13
Fig. 12
Table 1
s, s
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1023
773
623
498
413
393
378
348
1048
856
714
573
446
399
380
350
1098
1008
874
699
508
415
385
354
1100
1010
819
644
497
422
390
365
1100
1000
773
598
488
418
395
375
1120
993
848
673
503
428
393
373
1100
1026
898
723
513
413
388
361
1098
1020
897
727
515
415
383
350
1090
1025
902
748
518
417
384
352
1088
1038
925
769
543
428
389
363
1080
1044
937
794
619
447
393
369
1090
1051
951
791
700
469
397
376
1100
1053
953
775
674
664
394
371
1097
1050
949
723
385
445
387
355
1074
1022
898
694
513
413
382
352
1055
880
740
585
455
401
380
350
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 317
entire surface independently of the thickness of
the bearing ring, which is the main cause of the
reduction of bearing ring distortion. Thus, very
slow and very intensive cooling reduced the distortion of bearing rings. The advantages of intensive cooling are as follows: the increase in the
hardenability of steel parts and improvement of
mechanical properties of the material.
Thus, as a result of this calculation a complete
picture was obtained for the change in thermal,
structural, stress-strain, and strength states of the
bearing ring during hardening.
In order to build up the shape of the profile
from the original cross section (cold condition),
values of calculated displacements for points on
the contour were plotted for capacity at a magnification of 30 times. Figure 13(a) shows the
profile of the bearing ring cut section in the cold
condition and heated to the austenitization temperature (1130 K); Fig. 13(b) shows the bearing
ring profile after the start of cooling. This instant
corresponds to the set of phase transformation in
the coldest part of the bearing ring (lower
flange). In the time interval of 0 to 0.8 s, there
is only thermal contraction of supercooled austenite. Nonuniformity of temperature field connected with more rapid cooling of thin parts of
the bearing ring leads to very large thermal
stresses exceeding even the yield point and to a
change in cross-section configuration, in particular to the occurrence of bearing ring tapering at
the inner surface. Mainly tension stresses act
over the entire surface of the bearing ring. Starting from 0.8 s in the most highly cooled parts of
the bearing ring, martensite forms which, having
a greater specific volume, leads to material expansion. This involves an increase in diameter
400 K
100
100
100
440
0
420
200
400
100 MPa
400
300
(a)
(b)
200
200
1.5
100
, MPa
100
0
200
100
100
1.5
100
0
200
1.5
100
200 MPa
300
(c)
1.5
(d)
, s
Nature of change in principal stress rl, stress
intensity rI, equivalent stress re, and ultimate
tensile strength rf with passage of time
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
martensitic transformation had just begun. According to computations, the final position of the
generatrix corresponded to curve 5 (Fig. 19). The
transformation of austenite into martensite in the
upper portion of the bearing ring effected a
change in the slope of the generatrix.
The mean-statistical values of the displacements of the generatrix of the inner surface in
the case of broad and narrow bearing ring ends,
which were determined experimentally, are
given by the points in Fig. 19. It is apparent that
the computed and experimental displacement
values are very close: the maximum deviation of
the computed from the experimental data was 3
lm (1%). This suggests the correct selection of
the mathematical model of the process. In addition to the comparison of numerical and experimental data relating to distortions, the comparison has been also made for values of residual
stresses in cylinder-shaped samples treated by
induction heating and cooled in water. Reference
2500
100
2000
50
E
1500
Ultimate
strength ,u
Yield strength ,y
1000
50
100
500
0
T, 106/K
400
600
800
T, K
(a)
1000 1200
400
600
800
1000 1200
T, K
(b)
Variation in strength properties, elastic modulus E, hardening modulus E (a), and coefficient of linear expansion T of steel ShKh15 (AISI 52100) with allowance for increase in specific volume as austenite transforms
into martensite (b), as functions of temperature
Fig. 17
260
140
120
420
460
220
100
180
160
6000
380
, W/m2 K
5000
140
180
4000
100
80
3000
340
200
2000
60
220
1000
0
1000
500
T sf,K
Fig. 16
men
60
1500
(a)
240
260
(b)
280
300
20
(c)
(d)
Lines of equal displacements (indicated near curves in lm) in section of bearing ring. (a) and (b) Current radial
displacements after 30 and 39 s, respectively, of immersion in oil. (c) and (d) Residual radial and axial
displacements, respectively
Fig. 18
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 319
5 presents this comparison, which shows that
there is good agreement between such numerical
calculations and experimental data.
For mathematical modeling of the quenching
process, different intensities of cooling within
the martensite range were set by giving different
values of coefficients of heat transfer , selected
with regard to water flow rate, sprayer, mixing,
vibration, and so forth. There are formulas allowing determination of heat-transfer coefficients (Ref 14) for all these cases.
It appears that at very intensive cooling within
the martensite range, the conicity of the rings
being quenched is the least, while at moderate
intensity of cooling it is higher (Table 2). Bearing rings are cooled in two steps. The first step
is mineral-oil cooling until the minimum conicity is achieved. At the second step, different
cooling rates determined by the technology are
applied. A hard shell is formed over the entire
surface almost simultaneously at the maximum
cooling rate, and therefore the conicity is at the
minimum, since this shell hampers further deformation of the part through phase changes inside the rings.
Maximum compression and tensile residual
stresses observed over the ring cross section are
given in Table 2. While quenching in circulating
water and in a shower, the residual stresses are
low since the condition BiV 4.5 is satisfied
(Fig. 9). The decrease in conicity at intensive
shower cooling can be explained by simultaneous formation, over the whole surface, of the
martensite layer that fixes the ring initial form.
Under moderate cooling rates, a thin cross section of the ring is cooled at first in which martensite transformations begin that cause displacements and coning formation. By adjusting
the intensity of cooling, one can control the
Table 2 Residual stresses and bearing ring conicity depending on the cooling conditions
within the martensite range at the second stage of cooling
Stresses, MPa
Method of cooling
In air
In oil
In circulating water
Under intensive shower
r22
r33
rI
Conicity
90130
110130
75200
70130
130165
150180
180230
100180
70
180
240
170
0.044
0.045
0.051
0.005
35
30
Height of ring, Z, mm
25
20
15
10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Displacement, U, mm
Displacements of generatrix of inner surface of
bearing ring during hardening (lines denote
computed data, and points experimental data). 1, after turning on lathe; 2, after heating to quenching temperature; 3
and 4, after 30 and 39 s, respectively, of immersion in oil;
5, after quenching
Fig. 19
(a)
Fig. 20
(b)
190
1
700
Carburized layer
225
203.8
88.2
Tsurface
3
500
2
300
100
342.4
(a)
4
, min
(b)
Fig. 21
(a) Sizes of the carburized bushing. (b) Surface temperature in the carburized bushing during oil quenching
at 137 C
100
0 MPa
0 MPa
200
100
0
200
100
0
100
(a)
(b)
Fig. 22
30
1000
5000
Difference of radius
Dr, m
0.165
0.162
0.155
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 321
Generalization of Computational
and Experimental Results for
Heating and Cooling of Bodies of
Various Configurations
For bodies of a simple shape (plate, ball, cylinder, parallelepiped), solving the heating problem for the medium with constant temperature
(boundary condition of third kind) one can state:
Stage I
=0
ln(Tc T1)
=R
180
ln(Tc T2)
1
Fig. 24
180
2
350 MPa
50
100
550
850
950
50
1000
50
400
1050
350
350
350
100
900
1050
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
TC T
TC TO
300
250
200
150
100
300
1050
400
1400
50
1000
950
850
550
150
200
1350
250
1300
1250
150
1200
1150
100
1050
50
900
100
0
(a)
Fig. 23
(Eq 3)
TC TO
An,iUln,i Rii
i1
x
2
RV
FoV
R2i
when FoV Fo1
2
exp ln,i
(Eq 4)
Beginning from this value of Fo1, the time function of (TC T) is described by a simple exponent.
Applying the logarithm to Eq 4, one obtains:
200
1100
2
RV
FoV
R2i
1n
1450
100
350
50
1150
1150
An,iUln,i Rii
n1 i1
2
exp ln,i
0 MPa
1100
Stage II
ln[Tc T(,)]
(b)
Distribution of axial (a) and circumferential (b) residual stresses in the carburized bushing at the end of the
second cooling stage at 1000 W/m2 K. Deformation is enlarged by 25.
TC T
TC TO
i1
1n A1,iU ln,i
xi
RV
ln,i
Ri
Ri
2
V
(Eq 5)
m const
s2 s1
(Eq 6)
l1,t
i1
RV
Ri
a
R2V
(Eq 7)
Therefore, the value of m is determined by thermal and physical factors, size, and shape of the
body. On the basis of Eq 6 and boundary condition of the third kind, for body of any shape
one can state the following equation, which is
true at the stage of regular conditions of cooling
(heating):
ccV
dT
(Eq 8)
S TC TP
a
W 2 Kn
ccV TC T
kRV
RV
(Eq 9)
0.8
2
Kn BiVW
RVW
k
mR2V
l1,i
i1
RV
Ri
0.6
0.2
0
Fig. 25
8
12
Biot number, BiV
16
2.095 3.867Bi
kBiV
Kn WBiV
0.4
kBiV
1nh
or
where:
2.095 3.867Bi
dT
1
m const
ds TC T
1.0
Kondratiev number, Kn
1n
TO TC K
T TC aKn
(Eq 10)
where t is cooling time, FoV is generalized Fourier number, BiV is generalized Biot number, k
1, 2, 3corresponding to bodies of plate,
cylindrical, and spherical shape, K is Kondratiev
form factor, Kn is Kondratiev number, a is thermal diffusivity coefficient, TO is initial temperature of heated part, TC is temperature of the medium, and T is current temperature.
According to patented technology, the process
of intensive cooling should be performed in such
a way that the martensite transformations begin
uniformly at the entire surface simultaneously,
forming high compressive stresses which, as was
noted, achieve the maximum at a definite moment of time. This moment of time can be determined by Eq 10. For bodies with different
configurations, temperatures are found at points
the furthest from the surface that correspond to
the maximum compressive stresses at the surface. Using these data and Eq 10, one can easily
calculate time of achieving maximum compressive stresses without making expensive and
complicated calculations. The proposed approach is also correct for bodies of complex configurations.
The results of the above-stated generalization
have served as a base for the creation of new
technology of steel part heat treatment. The essence of the new technology is that alloy steel
parts are quenched in conditions of intensive
heat transfer until the moment when the maximum compressive stresses on the surface of the
part to be cooled are reached, and then intensive
cooling is interrupted and the part is kept at constant temperature of martensite start until full
transformation of the overcooled austenite in
central layers of the part (Ref 21). The moment
when maximum compressive stresses on the surface to be quenched are reached is determined
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 323
by generalized Eq 10. There is a database for the
determination of Kondratiev form coefficient K
and Kondratiev number Kn, which are present in
Eq 10. The values of Kondratiev number Kn for
simple bodies can be calculated by formulas presented in Table 4. The Kondratiev form coefficient characterizes the shape and size of parts to
be quenched, and Kn characterizes the cooling
capacity of the quenchant. There is an average
thermal conductivity a in the formula, which
characterizes thermal and physical properties of
the material. Thermal conductivity a of the material is a linear function of temperature. For this
reason, one can use the average value of the thermal conductivity and it will not add big errors
to calculations.
Knowing the temperature in the core of the
part when the compressive stresses are optimal
on the surface, one can calculate the time of intensive cooling by the generalized Eq 10. The
generalized data given previously can be used
for the computerization of industrial processes.
Link between Usual and Generalized Biot
Criteria. In analytical solutions, a usual Biot
number generally is used, which is, as known,
dimensionless (Ref 22):
Bi
R
k
V
S
Kn WBiV
Body shape
4R2
p2
R2
5.783
Infinite cylinder
R2
p2
Ball
Finite plate, dimensions of sizes:
L1, L2, L3
Cube
Finite cylinder, height: Z
1
1
1
1
p 2 2 2
L1
L2
L3
L2
3p2
1
5.783
p2
2
R2
Z
(Eq 11)
where Tsf is the average temperature on the surface of the body, Tm is the temperature of quenchant, and TV is the volume-average temperature.
On the other side, the criterion of temperature
field nonsmoothness W for bodies of arbitrary
shape can be expressed through the generalized
Biot number (BiV) as follows (Ref 22, 23):
1
(Bi 2V 1.437BiV 1)0.5
(Eq 12)
S
4R2 1
4
K
2 Bi
k V
k p2 R
p
R2
S
2
and
5.783
V
R
For a ball:
BiV
R2
2
2
Bi
k 5.783 R
5.783
S
L K
k k V
T sf Tm
W
TV Tm
BiV
since
S
K
V
R2
4pR2
3
2 Bi
k p2 4/3pR2
p
R2
V
3
and
p2
S
R
Discussion of Results
The studies made have shown that the values
of the current and residual stresses can be controlled by many methods. Making intensive and
uniform quenching, one can reach high compression stresses on the surface (see Fig. 9). It is
very important that selecting heat-transfer coefficient, one can reach even null residual stresses
on the surface, if necessary. Thus, increasing the
heat-transfer coefficient beginning from BiV
4.5, one can obtain high residual compression
stresses on the surface. These residual compression stresses are compensated by tensile stresses
in the core. It should be noted that residual compression stresses increase the service life of the
steel parts quenched.
It should be noted that intensive cooling has
the effect of not only the formation of high compression stresses on the surface of parts
quenched, but also the simultaneous reduction of
distortion of quenched parts. The reduction of
distortions and prevention of the formation of the
quench cracks are due to the formation of hard
martensite layer on all the surface, which fixes
the initial sizes of parts and forms high compressive residual stresses on the surface of
quenched parts. In addition, intensive heat transfer in the area of martensite transformations results in the improvement of mechanical properties of the material and makes the service life of
the parts longer. The generalization of the abovementioned is given in Ref 24.
It is especially important to discuss the process of two-stage quenching. This article considers the two-stage cooling process. During the
first stage, one arranges slow cooling in oils or
aqueous polymer solutions until the time of minimum distortions is reached, and then, at the second stage, one arranges intensive cooling and
washing of the parts. Intensive cooling at the second stage fixes the attained minimum distortion
Links between generalized Biot number (BiV), criterion of temperature field nonsmoothness (W), and Kondratiev number (Kn)
BiV
Kn
BiV
Kn
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.55
1.60
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.90
1.95
2.00
2.05
2.10
2.15
2.20
2.25
2.30
2.35
1.00000
0.99284
0.98574
0.97171
0.95791
0.94434
0.93101
0.91792
0.90507
0.89246
0.88009
0.86796
0.85607
0.84441
0.83298
0.82178
0.81081
0.80007
0.78954
0.77923
0.76913
0.75923
0.74954
0.74005
0.73076
0.72166
0.71274
0.70401
0.69545
0.68708
0.67887
0.67082
0.66294
0.65522
0.64766
0.16109
0.15981
0.15855
0.15732
0.15609
0.15489
0.15371
0.15254
0.15140
0.15026
0.14915
0.14805
0.14590
0.14382
0.14179
0.54484
0.53940
0.52622
0.51362
0.50157
0.49003
0.47898
0.46839
0.45823
0.44848
0.43911
0.43011
0.42146
0.41312
0.40510
0.39737
0.38992
0.38273
0.37580
0.36910
0.36263
0.35637
0.35032
0.34447
0.33880
0.33331
0.32799
0.32283
0.31783
0.00000
0.00993
0.01971
0.03887
0.05747
0.07555
0.09310
0.11015
0.12671
0.14279
0.15842
0.17359
0.18833
0.20266
0.21657
0.23010
0.24324
0.25602
0.26844
0.28052
0.29227
0.30369
0.31481
0.32562
0.33615
0.34640
0.35637
0.36608
0.37555
0.38476
0.39374
0.40249
0.41103
0.41934
0.42745
0.87796
0.87898
0.87998
0.88096
0.88193
0.88289
0.88383
0.88475
0.88566
0.88656
0.88744
0.88831
0.89001
0.89165
0.89325
0.53395
0.53940
0.55253
0.56498
0.57680
0.58804
0.59873
0.60891
0.61861
0.62787
0.63672
0.64517
0.65326
0.66100
0.66842
0.67553
0.68236
0.68892
0.69523
0.70129
0.70712
0.71274
0.71816
0.72338
0.72841
0.73328
0.73797
0.74251
0.74690
2.40
2.45
2.50
2.55
2.60
2.65
2.70
2.75
2.80
2.85
2.90
2.95
3.00
3.05
3.10
3.15
3.20
3.25
3.30
3.35
3.40
3.45
3.50
3.55
3.60
3.65
3.70
3.75
3.80
3.85
3.90
3.95
4.00
4.05
4.10
4.15
4.20
4.25
4.30
4.35
4.40
4.45
4.50
4.55
4.60
4.65
4.70
4.75
4.80
4.85
4.90
4.95
5.00
5.05
5.10
5.15
5.20
5.25
5.30
5.35
5.40
5.45
5.50
5.55
5.60
5.65
5.70
5.75
5.80
5.85
5.90
5.95
6.00
6.10
6.20
6.30
6.40
6.50
6.60
0.31298
0.30827
0.30369
0.29925
0.29493
0.29074
0.28665
0.28268
0.27882
0.27505
0.27139
0.26782
0.26434
0.26095
0.25764
0.25442
0.25127
0.24820
0.24520
0.24228
0.23942
0.23662
0.23389
0.23122
0.22862
0.22606
0.22357
0.22113
0.21874
0.21640
0.21411
0.21186
0.20967
0.20751
0.20540
0.20334
0.20131
0.19932
0.19738
0.19547
0.19359
0.19175
0.18995
0.18817
0.18644
0.18473
0.18305
0.18140
0.17979
0.17820
0.17664
0.17510
0.17359
0.17211
0.17065
0.16922
0.16781
0.16642
0.16506
0.16371
0.16239
0.16109
0.15981
0.15855
0.15732
0.15609
0.15489
0.15371
0.15254
0.15140
0.15026
0.14915
0.14805
0.14590
0.14382
0.14179
0.13981
0.13789
0.13603
0.75115
0.75525
0.75923
0.76309
0.76682
0.77045
0.77396
0.77737
0.78069
0.78390
0.78703
0.79007
0.79302
0.79590
0.79870
0.80142
0.80407
0.80665
0.80917
0.81162
0.81402
0.81635
0.81863
0.82085
0.82302
0.82513
0.82720
0.82922
0.83120
0.83313
0.83501
0.83686
0.83866
0.84043
0.84216
0.84385
0.84551
0.84713
0.84872
0.85027
0.85180
0.85329
0.85476
0.85619
0.85760
0.85898
0.86034
0.86167
0.86297
0.86426
0.86551
0.86675
0.86796
0.86915
0.87032
0.87147
0.87260
0.87371
0.87480
0.87587
0.87692
0.87796
0.87898
0.87998
0.88096
0.88193
0.88289
0.88383
0.88475
0.88566
0.88656
0.88744
0.88831
0.89001
0.89165
0.89325
0.89480
0.89631
0.89778
BiV
6.70
6.80
6.90
7.00
7.20
7.40
7.60
7.80
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
100.0
Kn
0.13421
0.13244
0.13072
0.12904
0.12580
0.12273
0.11980
0.11700
0.11434
0.10817
0.10263
0.09764
0.09310
0.08897
0.08519
0.08171
0.07851
0.07555
0.07280
0.07025
0.06787
0.06564
0.06356
0.06160
0.05976
0.05803
0.05639
0.05485
0.05339
0.05200
0.05068
0.04943
0.04824
0.04602
0.04400
0.04214
0.04044
0.03887
0.03741
0.03607
0.03481
0.03364
0.03255
0.02799
0.02456
0.02187
0.01971
0.01647
0.01414
0.01239
0.00993
0.00000
0.89920
0.90059
0.90194
0.90325
0.90578
0.90817
0.91045
0.91262
0.91468
0.91945
0.92371
0.92754
0.93101
0.93416
0.93704
0.93967
0.94210
0.94434
0.94641
0.94833
0.95012
0.95179
0.95336
0.95482
0.95620
0.95749
0.95871
0.95986
0.96095
0.96198
0.96296
0.96389
0.96478
0.96642
0.96792
0.96929
0.97055
0.97171
0.97278
0.97377
0.97470
0.97556
0.97636
0.97970
0.98221
0.98417
0.98574
0.98810
0.98979
0.99106
0.99284
1.00000
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 325
to the agreement between results of computations and results of experiments. The good
agreement between results of computations and
results of experiments is explained by physically
grounded selection of all parameters included in
the mathematical models and describing the
quenching process.
Thus, intensive steel-quenching methods have
great prospects; therefore the approach and calculation methods developed can be used for the
implementation of intensive steel-quenching
methods in practice. In practice it is important to
select proper boundary conditions. In practice
cooling properties of quenchants are determined
by tests of specimens, and on this basis heattransfer coefficients are determined. Unfortunately, one cannot always use these results when
the shapes and sizes of steel parts are changed,
that is, at the transition from specimen to real
parts (Ref 14).
The authors have suggested another approach
to the selection of boundary conditions based on
the conception of self-regulated thermal process.
The new approach lies in that it is possible to
forecast the character of changes in the temperature of parts that are to be quenched, in the process of nucleate boiling, and also to determine
the time of this process (Ref 1, 14, 25).
Previous sections of this article discuss ways
to reduce distortion and eliminate cracking during intensive heating and cooling of parts to be
quenched. This is highly important for technological processes, since the intensive heating followed by intensive cooling results in the improvement of mechanical properties of steels and
improvement of the material plasticity.
The main regularities of intensive steel heating are presented in extensive work (Ref 26), and
they can be briefly described:
When the heating rate increases, the critical
0.06
0.08
2
1
2
0.04
3
0.01
Size (d), mm
0.02
Size (d), mm
Size (d), mm
0.06
0.02
0.04
2
3
0.02
4
0
800
900
0
750
1000
Temperature (T ), C
(a)
850
950
1050
0
750
1250
1150
Temperature (T ), C
900
1000
1100
1200
Temperature (T ), C
(b)
(c)
Size of austenite grain versus temperature and heating rate. (a) Steel 40, the initial state is condition after burning (Ref 42). 1, 2, 3, and 4 are heating rates 0.03, 8, 200, and
1000 /s correspondingly. (b) Steel 40Kh2NgSM, the initial state is condition after burning at 650 C (1200 F) for 3 h and distortion of 50%. 1, without distortion, heating
rate of 2 /s; 2, 3, and 4 are 2, 25, 200 /s correspondingly. (c) Steel 35Kh2NgSM, the initial state is condition after intensive tempering and distortion of 50%, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are at
heating rates of 0.01, 2, 5, and 200 /s correspondingly.
Fig. 26
Intensive + intensive
A1
Temperature
Austenite
temperature
range
Ms
Martensite
temperature
range
Mf
Quench cracking
prevented
Susceptible
to quench cracking
Fig. 27
Scheme of several steel quench methods and their effect on the steels susceptibility to quench cracking
95
55
0.3
R60
15
8.5
45
1:15
Punch made of the molybdenum high-speed
steel R6M5 AISI M20. Punch length, 126 mm;
maximum diameter, 15.3 mm
Fig. 28
Fig. 29
0.3
Die made out of high-speed steel quenched intensively
microhammering by the martensite (this process can be compared to low-temperature thermomechanical processing, which also strengthens the material being processed) (Ref 44, 45).
A high dislocation density is produced, and,
because of the very rapid cooling, the dislocations are uniformly frozen in the quenched surface layer. This is what is believed to produce
the additional strengthening or superstrengthening. Very rapid quenching (intensive quenching)
in the martensite range and the formation of very
high surface compressive stresses are prerequisites. The superstrengthening effect produced by
intensive quenching has been used to enhance
the performance of punches and dies made of
high-speed steel (Fig. 28, 29) and of small dies
made of bearing steel.
The R6M5 punches are used at high loads in
automatic forming machines. Conventionally
quenched tools have relatively short lives, and
productivity suffers when machines are shut
down for tool changes. Punch life increased 2.5
times when tools were intensively quenched in
water solutions of chlorides. Special additives
were used to prevent corrosion. Performance
data for the punches are given in Table 6.
Dies for growing artificial diamonds must survive repeated cycles of high pressure and high
temperature. Intensive quenching of high-speed
steel dies increased their service life by 1.5
times. These dies are intended for growing artificial diamonds and work with heavy cyclical
temperature and pressure loads. Despite this, the
service life of these dies under such loads became greater by 1.5 to 2 times.
It should be noted that these dies were
quenched in water solutions of CaCl2 with special admixtures preventing the corrosion on the
surface. The intensification took place due to the
destruction of the steam film. Instead of aqueous
solutions of salts, one can use aqueous solutions
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 327
Table 6 Tool life of punches in automatic
forming machine (machine capacity: 175
strokes/min)
Durability(a), No. of strokes
Test
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Existing
technology
Intensive
technology
Increase in
tool life(b)
6,460
6,670
3,200
4,000
6,620
2,890
2,340
15,600
16,500
5,300
12,075
8,110
10,500
7,300
2.4
2.5
1.65
3.0
1.2
3.6
3.1
(a) Number of strokes until a tool wore out. (b) Increase in tool life is
due to intensive quenching
15
50
50
Fig. 30
Table 7
(Eq 13)
Applications
Gears, modulus, m 5 to 8 mm
Large-modulus gears, m 10 to 14 mm
Truck leaf springs
Rings and races of bearings thicker than 12 mm
18 KhGT
12 KhN3A
60 C2KhG
ShKh15CG and 20Kh2N4A
New steel
and process
58 (55PP)
ShKh4
45C
ShKh4
Advantages
Summary
It has been established that one can control
Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation during Rapid Heating and Cooling / 329
13. N.I. Kobasko, L.A. Kozdoba, and A.F.
Moshnyanskii, Solution of Inverse Nonlinear Problems of Non-Steady Thermal Conductivity on Electric Models, Teplofiz. Teplotekh., No. 31, 1976, p 256
14. N.I. Kobasko, Steel Quenching in Liquid
Media under Pressure, Naukova Dumka,
Kiev, 1980, 206 pages (in Russian)
15. V.S. Morganyuk, N.I. Kobasko, and A.N.
Kulakov, Predicting the Deformation of
Bearing Rings During Hardening, Metalloved. Term. Obrab. Metal. (MiTOM), No.
9, 1982, p 2224 (in Russian)
16. N.I. Kobasko, V.S. Morganyuk, and L.V.
Lushchik, Study of Thermal Stresses
Formed in Steel Products Due to High-Rate
Quenching, Sov. Mater. Sci. Rev., No. 1,
1987, p 2732
17. G.F. Golovin, Residual Stresses, Strength
and Deformation During High-Frequency
Surface Quenching, Mashinostroenie, Leningrad, 1973 (in Russian)
18. N.I. Kobasko, Intensive Steel Quenching
Methods, Handbook: Theory and Technology of Quenching, B. Liscic, H.M. Tensi,
and W. Luty, Ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
1992, p 367389
19. G.E. Totten and M.A.H. Howes, Steel Heat
Treatment Handbook, Marcel Dekker,
1997, 1192 pages
20. G.A. Temkin, Analytical Theory of NonStationary Heat and Mass Transfer in the
Process of Drying and Inverse Problems of
Analytical Theory of Drying, Naukai Tekhnika, 1964
21. N.I. Kobasko, No. 4448, Ukrainian Patent,
Bulletin 6-I, 1994
22. V.A. Lykov, Heat Conductivity Theory,
Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow, 1967
23. G.M. Kondratiev, Heat Measurements,
Mashgiz, Moscow, 1957, 244 pages (in
Russian)
24. M.A. Aronov, N.I. Kobasko, J.F. Wallace,
D. Schwam, and J.A. Powell, Practical Application of Intensive Quenching Technology for Steel Parts, Ind. Heat., April 1999,
p 5963
25. N.I. Kobasko, Intensive Steel Quenching
Methods on the Way of Automation, Proc.
First Int. Automotive Heat Treating Conf.,
R. Colas, K. Funatani, and C.A. Stickels,
Ed., ASM International, 1998
26. V.N. Gridnev, Yu.Ya. Meshkov, S.P. Oshkaderov, and N.F. Chernenko, Technological Fundamentals of Electrical Heat Treatment of Steel, Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1977,
204 pages
27. L. Bezdek, Castice AlN a mezni rozmer austenitickeho rzna, Kovove Mater., Vol 5 (No.
4), 1967, p 335344 (in Russian)
28. C. Dasarathy and R.C. Hudd, An Example
of Secondary Recrystallization Induced by
Aluminum Nitride Precipitation, Acta Metall., Vol 15 (No. 10), 1967, p 16651671
29. V.I. Psarev and Yu.I. Makovichuk, Coagulation of Dispersion Phases at Tempering of
Steel Quenched, Izv. Vuzov, Ferrous Met-
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
(Eq 1)
(Eq 2)
ent specific volumes, and thermal expansion coefficients of austenite and martensite below the
critical Ms temperature.
All of the theories given in literature agree that
martensitic transformation occurs in certain thermodynamic conditions by means of the nucleation and instant growth of martensite nuclei.
These theories, however, have different points of
view regarding the role of the thermal agitation
of atoms or of the stress fields within the martensitic transformation (thermal theoryG.V.
Kurdjumov, G. Fisher, et al. [Ref 1013]; stress
theoryA. Guleav, S. Crussard, et al. [Ref 4,
14, 15]; mixed theory, Bain distortion assisted
by dislocationsK.E. Easterling, A.R. Tholen
et al. [Ref 16]). Consequently, it is important to
settle whether it is the thermal agitation (oscillations) or the stress field that plays the major
role within the martensitic transformation in the
cryogenic field.
As previously mentioned, martensitic transformation also proceeds when the thermal oscillations are prevented in the highest degree, such
14531563
Temperature, K
803843
Air
203
153
77
C1
C2
C3
F1
F2
G1
G2
F3
D3
H
203
203
G3
203
D1
D2
203
Oil
Time, h
Fig. 2
203
203
40
Martensite, %
B
30
A
20
10
B
0
313
R
273
233
193
153
113
73
Temperature, K
Fig. 1 Transformation of austenite to martensite at cryogenic temperatures. Curve A, low cooling rate;
curve B, high cooling rate. Source: Ref 4
First-order stresses
(macrostresses)
Second-order stresses
Third-order stresses
Fig. 3
There are a multitude of methods for determining residual stresses, yet x-ray diffractometry
is the only one that allows an estimation of the
III
II
R
III
mG
II
III
Fig. 4
Retained stress, R
First-, second-, and third-order residual stresses overlapping in a single-phase material. Source: Ref 6
II
<Il>
<Il>
<>
<>
80
Martensite, %
Martensite, %
1
20
10
40
r
20
2
250
200
150
100
50
0
313
Temperature, K
Martensitic transformation curves of an alloy
steel 0.85% C, 14.8% Ni, 2.1% Mn, cooled
down to 4 K. Curve 1, slow cooling; curve 2, fast cooling.
Source: Ref 4
Fig. 6
293
0
300
60
273
233
193
153
113
E
p
[cot h0]
2(1 t)
180
(2h)
(2h)
K
(sin2w)
(sin2w)
(Eq 5)
73
Temperature, K
Martensitic transformation in AISI H12 steel,
quenched from 1423 K. Curve 1, ordinary polycrystalline specimen; curve 2, single-crystal powder.
Source: Ref 4
Fig. 7
(Eq 4)
First-, second-, and third-order residual stresses overlapping in a biphase material. Source: Ref 7
30
(Eq 3)
Ill
Fig. 5
where w is, according to Fig. 8(a), the angle between the normal of the reflecting planes and the
normal at the surface of the specimen, and h0 is
the diffraction angle for the unstressed specimen.
Equation 5 can also be written under the form:
(Eq 6)
where
K
B
E cot h0
p
2(1 t) 180
(2h)
(sin2w)
(Eq 7)
0.94k
b1 cos h
(Eq 8)
However, experimental results have emphasized that the above enlargements are proportional to tan h and are independent of k. This
disagreement could be explained if larger average crystallite sizes are taken into consideration
(about 104 cm) in order to avoid the enlargement of the diffraction lines and the deformation
of each crystallite due to the presence of secondorder stresses.
Assuming the existence of second-order residual stresses within the lattice of a stressed mosaic
block, then certain close-packed planes should
exist with altered interplanar spacing, under the
form dhkl a Da.
The nonhomogeneity degree of the interplanar
spacing, designated by g(gDd/d), can be determined by three methods known as direct
method, approximation method, and harmonic
analysis method.
The direct method allows evaluation of second-order residual stresses (rII) by means of the
nonhomogeneity degree of the interplanar spacing expressed as:
g B 2 B 20 /4R tan h
(Eq 9)
where B0 is the experimental width of the diffraction line of the standard specimen, B is the
experimental width of the diffraction line of the
analyzed specimen, is the photometer parameter, namely the ratio between the paper speed
and the counter speed, R is the radius of the cylindrical chamber, and h is the diffraction angle
corresponding to the diffraction line under study.
The approximation method considers that
both the second-order internal microstrains and
the breaking of mosaic blocks with dimension
Dhkl 10 lm cause a supplementary enlargement of the diffraction lines. When the physical
width b1, corresponding to dimensions Dhkl
0.1 lm, is influenced only by the microstresses
or only by the mosaic blocks, then one of the
following conditions must be true: b2 /b1 tan
h2 /tan h1 or b2 /b1 cos h1 /cos h2, respectively,
where h1 and h2 are angles and b1 and b2 the
widths corresponding to the diffraction lines
originating from the same reflecting plane but
obviously with different reflection orders, that is,
the planes (hkl) and (nh, nk, nl), respectively.
When the actual width of the diffraction line
is influenced both by the small size of mosaic
mn
M(x)N(x)dx
where M and N are any of the distribution functions associated with the widths m and n (m is
the physical width of the line caused by the influence of mosaic blocks; n is the physical width
affected by second-order residual microstress).
Considering a combination of the type L-C,
the size of the mosaic blocks may be expressed
according to Eq 8, and the nonhomogeneity degree of the interplanar spacing becomes g Dd/
d n2 /(4 tan h2), where h2 is the diffraction
angle corresponding to the large indices line (nh
nk nl). The determination of n2 is graphically
performed according to the constructive diagram
in Fig. 9, by means of the curves N f (b2 /b1).
Second-order residual stresses are evaluated
according to Hookes law with the relationship:
rII g E (in MPa)
=0
d1
d2
= 90
dmin
(a)
Fig. 8
Ref 5
d1
d2
d3
dmax
1
2
3
d4
(b)
2
3
sin2
(a) Variation of interplanar spacing, d, and the w angle according to the orientation of the reflecting closepacked planes with respect to the stress direction. (b) Dependence of 2hw diffraction angle on sin2 w. Source:
(Eq 11)
(Eq 12)
g
where AD
n and An are the Fourier coefficients revealing the influence of the presence of mosaic
blocks and the second-order microstresses, respectively, on the diffraction-line enlargement.
By the logarithmation of Eq 12, under the condition Agn exp(2n212Z n2), it follows that:
(Eq 10)
(Eq 13)
U 2d
3U , U
2
where U is the average of the square displacements of atoms on a given direction and U 2d is
the average of the square dynamic displacements
of atoms from their ideal positions at the temperature T, determined as:
2
U 4p hmh uT 4T
9h2T
2
d
(Eq 14)
1.0
M1 = m110/110
1
0.6
(111)
101
0.4
L = 60
AL
M1, N2
0.8
0.2
(333)
N2 = n220/220
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
102
2.5
10
2/1
Dependence of the distribution functions M(x)
and N(x) on the ratio of the physical widths of
diffraction lines (110) and (220), recorded for high-speed
steel by means of Mo K characteristic x-ray radiation (constructive diagram). Source: Ref 18
Table 1
20
30
(Eq 15)
50
Fig. 10
(Eq 16)
Values of the parameters requested for the evaluation of the first-order residual stresses in several technical metallic materials
Sample material
(the matrix)
Lattice
type
Lattice
parameter, 10 mm
Youngs
modulus (E), GPa
Poissons
ratio m
Characteristic
x-ray radiation
Diffraction
angle, 2h,
Coefficient
K(a) (Eq 7)
Cr K
Co K
Cr Kb
Mn K
Cr K
Co K
Co K
Co K
Cr Kb
Co K
Cu K
Co K
Co Kb
Co K
Co K
Co K
Co K
Co K
(211)
(310)
(311)
(311)
(222)
(420)
(331)
(333)
(311)
(400)
(420)
(400)
(331)
(321)
(400)
(331)
(400)
(121)
156.08
161.35
149.6
154.8
156.7
162.1
148.7
164.0
146.5
163.5
144.7
150.0
145.0
155.5
151.0
146.0
15.84
162.5
30.33
23.51
36.26
29.87
9.40
7.18
12.78
6.41
25.00
12.04
26.42
15.62
18.38
8.30
15.08
17.83
16.55
58.84
Co K
Co K
Cr Kb
Cu K
Cr K
Co K
Co K
Cr K
Co K
Co K
(114)
(222)
(311)
(420)
(222)
(331)
(420)
(211)
(310)
(531)
154.2
142.2
157.7
155.6
152.1
145.1
156.4
153.0
157.5
154.1
17.51
26.17
27.88
29.53
13.11
16.60
11.03
Fe (ferrite-martensite)
bcc
2.8664
20.621.6
0.280.3
cFe (austenitic)
fcc
3.656
19.22
0.28
Brass or aluminum
fcc
4.049
6.90
0.345
Copper
fcc
3.6153
12.73
0.364
Brass 4-6
bcc
fcc
9.045.45
0.380.27
Brass 7-3
fcc
9.04
0.38
Copper-nickel
Tungsten carbide
fcc
fcc
hcp
13.00
52.42
0.333
0.22
Titanium
11.35
0.321
Nickel
hcp
bcc
fcc
3.595
a 2.91
b 2.84
c 0.976
2.9504
3.5238
20.80
0.31
Silver
fcc
4.0856
8.11
0.367
Chromium
bcc
2.8845
Diamond
5.4282
Silicon
40
h2 + k2 + l 2
Fig. 9
8p
sin 2h
U 23
3
k2
L = 90
(222)
L = 120
0
1.1
4p2 2kk2
3a2 sin2h
fect of the diffraction lines, caused by the simultaneous existence of both compression and
tension in either the crystalline lattice or in mosaic blocks.
As mentioned in the section Evaluation of
Residual Stresses after Cryogenic Cooling, the
temperature drop within the cryogenic range is
expected to reduce the residual stresses. This effect has been emphasized in the research performed on high-speed steel SEW 320 S 3.3.2
(Fe-3Mo-2V-0.98C, wt%) (Ref 18), heat treated
according to the variants A to G shown in Fig.
2. Figure 11 shows the variation of second-order
residual stresses as a function of the cooling temperature in the case of S 3.3.2 high-speed steel.
It is obvious that second-order residual stresses
decrease from about 300 to almost 100 MPa,
while the temperature drops deeper within the
cryogenic field. Therefore, cryogenic cooling reduces these residual stresses to less than one-half
of their initial value. In fact, cryogenic cooling
has the same effect on the level of residual
stresses as does tempering when applied after
classical quenching.
The number of tempering treatments significantly reduces the magnitude of residual stresses
(compare, for instance, the variant B to the variants E or A), and if the effect of cryogenic cooling is also added, then the steel is almost completely stress relieved. The final stress value of
100 MPa is close to the usual value of the elastic
stresses within the equilibrium crystalline lattice.
The experimental values of the residual
stresses, evaluated in the steel that has been cryogenically cooled at 153 and 77 K, are not significantly different; therefore a cooling performed at a temperature close to the industrial
heat treatment temperature (203 K) appears to be
sufficient. Thus, after a treatment performed at
203 K the stress decreased from 1.33 (in the
case of variant D1) to 1.62 (variant G1). These
decreases range from 1.40 (variant D2) to
1.82 (variant G2) after a cooling performed at
153 K and from 2.03 (variant D3) to 2.47
(variant G3) after cooling to 77 K. It is obvious
that the heat treatment G variants, due to their
(Eq 17)
where M and M from Eq 16 are thermal coefficients previously determined by means of the
evaluation of Debye temperature.
A cryogenically cooled steel would certainly
contain third- and second-order residual stresses,
and first-order stresses might also exist. In this
case, for the evaluation of third-order residual
stresses, a rather large number of diffraction
lines will be chosen, corresponding to the values
of the sin2 h/k2 parameter that are less than 0.36
2 in such a way that second-order residual
A
stresses are neglected.
350
A
C1
E
250
C2
F1
B
F3
D2
150
G1
50
313
C3
F2
D1
D3
G2
G3
273
233
193
153
113
73
Temperature, K
Fig. 11
Dynamics of second-order residual stresses as a function of the cooling temperature, for the heat treatment
experimental variants from Fig. 2 applied to SEW 320 S 3.3.2 steel. Source: Ref 20
+20
A
+10
1%
1% C1.5%
C-1.5% Cr
Cr steel
steel
10
B
20
400
800
1260
1600
2000
Time, h
Dimensional variation of an alloy steel, with
1% C and 1.5% Cr, during a long period at 348
K, of a classically (A) and a cryogenically (B) heat treated
specimen. (The Mikus diagram). Source: Ref 21
Fig. 12
Table 2 Applied heat treatment variants and the resulting Vickers hardness, in the case of
several low-alloy steels
Steel
Austenitizing
Quenching
Cryogenic cooling
Tempering
Vickers hardness
A
B
C
A
B
C
D
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
448 K for 1 h
523 K for 1 h
523 K for 1 h
448 K for 1 h
523 K for 1 h
523 K for 1.5 h
448 K for 1 h
861
712
969
826
715
696
802
02 SAE
L2 AISI
Source: Ref 21
Table 3 Applied heat treatment, with the aim of improving dimensional stability, in the
case of several supercarburized high-speed steels
Austenitizing
Quenching
Cryogenic cooling
Tempering, K
Cryogenic cooling
Tempering, K
Vickers hardness
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Yes
Yes
No
No
823
873
873
873
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
823
823
823
823
888
897
914
905
Hardness, HV5
1000
900
860
820
780
200
400
600
800
1000
Fig. 13
Dependence of hardness on the relative shrinkage observed during tempering. Source: Ref 5
B
M1
Expansion (l / l ), m/mm
0.012 lm/mm
0.002 lm/mm
5
4
3
D1
2
1
0
1
10
20
50
Time, days
Dimensional variation in time, of AISI M1 steel, heat treated according to several variants. Source: Ref 23
Table 5 Variation of the h typical dimension of French specimens, made from AISI M1 heat
treated steel
Heat treatment
variant (Fig. 2)
B
D1
D2
D3
G1
G2
G3
D3
2
3
Fig. 14
80
D2
G1
110
G2
G3
Retained austenite
(Aret), %
(Dh/h)0(a),
lm/mm
(Dh/h)1(a),
lm/mm
(Dh/h)2(a),
lm/mm
(Dh/h)3(a),
lm/mm
(Dh/h)4(a),
lm/mm
(Dh/h)5(a),
lm/mm
51 (Dh/h)i(b),
lm/mm
14.6
7.5
6.8
3.9
5.1
4.6
3.82
52
77
81
90
81
109
120
3.9
1.9
1.05
0.27
0.36
0.25
1.7
1.1
0.54
0.25
0
0.26
0.18
0
0.76
0.28
0.28
0.25
0.12
0.2
0.18
0.52
0
0.16
0.11
0.1
0
0.08
0.38
0.16
0.1
0.074
0.085
0.16
0.082
6.66
2.56
0.836
0.164
0.555
0.75
1.878
(a) The relative expansions are measured: during the heat treatment [(Dh/h)0]; after 10 days [(Dh/h)1]; after 20 days [(Dh/h)2]; after 50 days [(Dh/
h)3]; after 80 days [(Dh/h)4]; and after 110 days [(Dh/h)5]. (b) Cumulative relative expansion, 110 days after the heat treatment
6 mm thick
Schematic of a French specimen, with standard
dimensions: D 50 mm, d 25 mm, h 6
mm. Source: Ref 5
Fig. 15
Temperature, K
1073
873
673
473
293
1123
473
373
203
Fig. 16
II
203
III
Time, min
503
423
203
IV
203
V
Specific heat treatment variants applied to French specimens made from UNS K19667 steel. Source: Ref 5
30
30
25
25
25
20
20
20
15
15
15
10
3-1, m
2-1, m
10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
II
III
373
IV
V
473
Temperature, K
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
0
10
15
15
20
20
II
III
373
IV
V
473
25
573
Temperature, K
10
30
30
II
III
373
IV
V
473
573
Temperature, K
Variation tendency of the differences of typical dimensions of French specimens as a function of the tempering within the specific heat treatment variants (Fig. 16) applied
to UNS K19667 steel. (a) After 20 days storage. (b) After 30 days storage. (c) After a short exposure at 373 K. Source: Ref 5
Microstructure of SEW 320 S 3.3.2 rapid steel. (a) Classically heat treated. (b) Cryogenically heat treated.
Micron bars 10 lm. Source: Ref 20
Fig. 19
0
5
25
573
10
4-1, m
variants designated by D, and under certain circumstances also the variants G, proved to have
the most homogeneous and uniform microstructures.
Similar microstructural aspects have been observed after the cryogenic cooling of plastic deformation tools manufactured from chromium
steels, plain-carbon tool steels, carburized or carbonitrided steels, or from ball-bearing steels. For
these steels, only the variants designated by D,
I, and K in Fig. 2 are applicable, for which cryogenic cooling is a continuation of ordinary
quenching.
The influence of cryogenic cooling on the
amount of retained austenite, after several heat
treatment variants (Fig. 2) applied to some tool
steel grades, such as SEW 320 S 3.3.2, AISI T1,
M1, M2, D2 is described in Table 6. Tempering
at 813 to 853 K, after cryogenic cooling, causes
martensite stress relieving as well as a slight increase of the martensite to the detriment of aus-
Table 6 Influence of the heat treatment variant on the retained austenite in several highalloy tool steels
Percentage of retained austenite (Aret), after:
Heat treatment
variant
Quenching
AISI T1 steel
B
G
H
I
K
M
AISI M2 steel
B
D
H
G
SEW 320 S 3.3.2 steel
B
D
G
AISI M1 steel
B
D
G
AISI D2 steel
E
D
I
Cryogenic
cooling to 203 K
First
tempering
Cryogenic cooling
to 203 K
Second
tempering
Cryogenic
cooling to 203 K
Third
tempering
10
1.65
3.6
27
27
27
27
27
27
12
12
24
23
24
9
9
24
19
18
7
16
9
10
0
5
16
21
21
21
21
7.5
17
2.25
17
17
13
13
11
3.64
3.6
29
29
29
8.23.3(a)
23
6.251.1(a)
23
8.33.5(a)
17
5.21.9(a)
10
20.1
20.1
20.1
7.25.4(a)
16.7
73.9(a)
16.7
8.54.8(a)
15
5.13.8(a)
14.6
3.9
3.3
10.1
10.1
00.1
6
6
7.2
4.2
4.2
12.44
40
11
Carbides contents, %
12
Matrix
10
9
8
7
6
273
Carbides
30
Cr
W
Mo
20
V
77 73
Fig. 20 Dynamics of the repartition of the most important carbide-forming alloying elements among
matrix and carbides as a function of the cryogenic cooling
temperature, in the case of M2 steel, heat treated according
to the variants D (open circles) and G (X data points).
Source: Ref 20
10
273
73
Fig. 21
0.14
30
D2
F3
D3
G3
D1
G1
20
15
0.12
F2
107, m
25
G2
B
10
0.10
C2
E
A
0.08
5
C1
D1
G1
0.06
313
0
0
0.5
2
4
8
16
Dimensional range, m
32
64
Fig. 22
Table 7
C3
F1
273
D3
D2
G3
G2
233
193
153
Temperature, K
113
73
Fig. 23
q 3n/(erhkl)2
(Eq 18)
Qualitative and quantitative parameters of the carbide phase in some high-alloy tool steels
Carbide number distributed according to the
dimensional range, mm2
AISI T1 steel
B
D
G
H
AISI M2 steel
B
D
G
H
SEW 320 S 3.3.2 steel
B
D1
D2
D3
G1
G2
G3
AISI M1 steel
B
D1
D2
D3
G1
G2
G3
AISI D2 steel
A
E
D
I
A, %
l, mm/mm2
lm, mm
Nc, mm2
00.5
0.51
12
24
4.48
8.10
7.52
9.39
55.12
71.26
74.48
83.35
0.0013
0.0010
0.0009
0.0010
49,215
72,520
83,619
85,601
8,003
12,032
17,100
16,822
29,004
41,639
47,036
46,719
6,609
13,358
14,280
15,945
4,418
4,806
4,717
5,361
2.9
5.14
4.90
5.19
30.16
35.59
46.28
60.86
0.0009
0.0007
0.0009
0.0011
31,358
40,898
56,466
83,530
15,136
19,372
29,322
58,101
8,274
11,556
13,548
11,545
5,707
6,858
9,692
10,247
2.35
3.07
3.08
2.59
4.41
3.35
2.98
20.13
26.87
29.35
21.97
39.02
27.07
23.07
0.0009
0.0009
0.0008
0.0009
0.0008
0.0009
0.0009
22,080
30,885
36,600
23,350
48,935
28,901
24,585
11,450
15,541
20,456
11,457
24,871
14,174
11,718
5,554
6,985
7,852
4,951
11,472
6,407
5,593
8.10
9.70
8.21
7.34
9.32
7.39
7.31
52.13
59.14
68.08
58.16
53.29
46.97
61.14
0.0022
0.0018
0.0012
0.0012
0.0013
0.0012
0.0013
23,797
32,773
55,071
47,068
42,032
38,506
45,448
13,014
19,870
28,537
25,042
18,032
13,860
21,776
6.02
4.88
5.72
5.97
11.45
10.25
9.98
11.41
0.0081
0.0072
0.0068
0.0068
1,405
1,424
1,470
1,678
58
66
72
81
816
1632
32
924
575
367
545
238
110
101
188
19
0
18
21
0
0
0
0
2,002
2,943
3,627
3,359
199
138
218
238
40
31
59
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3,387
5,465
5,664
4,544
8,370
5,122
4,401
1,253
2,177
2,038
1,852
3,298
2,395
2,220
407
692
575
935
860
746
632
29
25
14
11
64
57
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4,365
6,746
14,231
11,439
11,429
12,026
12,189
3,487
3,498
8,706
6,614
6,992
7,049
8,006
1,499
1,335
2,381
2,302
3,659
4,140
2,384
985
735
907
1,278
1,417
1,178
810
417
543
296
389
471
246
261
28
46
13
0
32
0
14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
110
126
170
203
270
274
292
283
378
401
400
454
293
284
250
317
202
193
185
244
83
72
89
85
9
7
10
80
48
1016 , m2
G1
G2
D1
C1
A
E
G3
D2
D3
C2
F1
C3
F2
F3
1
313
273
233
193
153
Temperature, K
113
73
Fig. 24
12
10
D1
8
6
G1
D2
the decrease in the cryogenic cooling temperature, as in the case of the variants F, C, D, and
G. Figure 23 also shows that the largest values
of the average sizes of the mosaic blocks have
been obtained in the case of the variants E and
F, which include tempering heat treatments after
ordinary quenching. The increase in the number
of tempers causes the decrease in the mosaic
block size due to the martensite refinement. Actually, the blocks are broken and their crystalline
lattice becomes stress relieved, as illustrated in
Fig. 23 for the variants B, D, and G, causing the
smallest sizes of the mosaic blocks. The deep
cooling of steel enables the coagulation of the
mosaic blocks, which therefore increase in size.
The linear aspect of the variation shown in Fig.
23 proves that the coagulation phenomenon is of
elastic type.
The last aspect of the cryogenic cooling effects on the substructure of the S 3.3.2 heat
treated steel is emphasized in Fig. 24, which
shows the variation tendency of the dislocation
density as a function of the final cooling temperature. After the first temper, a decrease of the
dislocation density is noticed, and this decrease
becomes more important after the subsequent
tempering due to the breaking of the mosaic
blocks. After cryogenic cooling, a marked decrease is noticed in the dislocation density,
which proves that the crystalline lattice becomes
more relaxed and the stress field diminishes, thus
coming closer to the normal state. Since a linear
variation is also noticeable in this figure, it is
obvious that the dislocation density decrease can
be related to the elastic phenomena produced
within the crystalline lattice.
G2
G3
0
D3
2
0
100
120 140
160
180
Fig. 25
PropertiesResidual Stresses
Structure and Substructure
Correlation for Cryogenically
Cooled Steels
The increase in the transformation degree of
retained austenite to martensite causes the de-
crease of second-order stresses that become favorably redistributed among the two phases.
Moreover, the structure becomes harder and
more uniform and finally durability increases.
The influence of cryogenic cooling on the formation, the amount, and the distribution of the
carbide phase is first revealed by the emergence
of the fine carbides, which usually have smaller
sizes compared with those occurring after classical heat treatments. The large number of extremely fine carbides, which has been experimentally determined after the cryogenic
treatment, represents an argument for the conclusions discussed previously. The increase in
both the surface occupied by the carbides and
the carbide density as well as the large number
of fine carbides measured after the cryogenic
cooling lead to the development of a hard, uniform, homogeneous structure that induces a
marked improvement of the properties of heat
treated steels.
As previously mentioned, cryogenic cooling
contributes as well to the decrease in the stress
state that largely assists the improvement in
properties. Thus, in the case of the tools and parts
made from S 3.3.2 steel, the decrease in the
stress state leads to a fair dimensional stability,
as shown in Fig. 25, where three heat treatment
variants (B, D, and G in Fig. 2) are considered.
Another effect of decreasing the stress state due
to the cryogenic cooling is shown in Fig. 26,
which shows the variation of the amount of retained austenite with the value of the secondorder stresses, for the same heat treatment variants. It is obvious that the lower the value of the
stress state the more reduced the amount of retained austenite.
It is well known that durability, which is the
basic criterion for the effectiveness assessment
of any heat treatment, is conditioned by the connection between the strength intrinsic characteristic of the material and the actual service conditions of the tools. Besides hardness and wear
resistance, the most important characteristic that
determines the durability is the structure quality.
100
G3
8
6
D1
G1
D2
G2
90
80
G2
D3
100
D3
D2
G3
G1
G2
D2
G1
70
60
D1
S 332 steel
D1
M1 steel
G3
0
0
D3
100
120
50
40
140
160
180
200
220
G3
G2
D2
80
D1
70
G1
G1
D2
D3
G2
D1
M1 steel
60
50
SS3.3.2
332 steel
steel
Fig. 26
G
D3 3
90
Durability (T), min
B
Durability (T), min
Retained austenite, %
10
40
3
5
6
7
8
Alloying elements sum, %
10
Fig. 28
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
REFERENCES
1. I. Alexandru, Gh. Ailincai, and C. Baciu,
Influence de traitements thermique a basse
temperature sur la duree de vie des aciers a`
outils a` coupe rapide tre`s allies, Rev. Metall., Vol 6, 1990, p 383388
2. V. Bulancea, I. Alexandru, and D. Bulancea,
Carburic Phase in Cryogenically Treated
Tools Steels, MATEHN 94, First Int. Conf.
Materials and Manufacturing Technology,
1820 May 1994 (Cluj-Napoca, Romania),
p 377380
3. V. Bulancea, I. Alexandru, and D. Bulancea,
The Substructure Elements Modification by
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Fig. 1
AL 2014 T6
(Z 400/0.020"A/100%)
AZ 31
(MI 330/0.016"A/100%)
100
SF-Cu F20
(Z850/0.012"A/200%)
(Z8500/0.012"A/100%)
200
300
400
50 CrV 4
(MI 780/0.010"C/100%)
500
600
700
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Depth, mm
Fig. 2
Typical stress profiles of soft metallic material. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
15 CrNi 6
(MI 230H/0.014"A/200%)
r(z)
500
x(z) = y(z)
max
r(z)
z(z)
ES(z)
ES(z)
1000
18 CrNiMo 5
(MI 230H/0.020"A/200%)
1500
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
(a)
Depth, mm
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
z
(b)
Residual stress formation. (a) Stretching surface layer. (b) Hertzian pressure. Courtesy of Metal Improvement
Company, Inc.
SS
TS(MAX)
100
0
2
CS(MAX)
4
6
8
12
Fig. 5
Tension
Compression
Tension
Compression
HS
HM
Tension
Compression
stress
Residual
stress
v, d, HS, HM
Fig. 7
Depth, in.
0
0.004
0.008
0.012
0
50
46 HRC shot
500
100
1000
61 HRC shot
0
Tension
stress
Compression
stress
Tension
stress
v , d , C, HS
HM
0.1
0.2
Depth, mm
150
50
0.3
Fig. 8
Peened surface
Surface metal
(a) Unloaded beam
Depth, in.
Compression
Residual
stress
M
Applied
load
Resultant
stress
Peened surface
(c) Shot peened beam under load
Tension
0.008
0.012
0
46 HRC shot
500
150
61 HRC shot
1500
Fig. 6
Fig. 9
0
50
100
1000
200
250
0
Comparison of stress distributions. (a) Typical stress distribution in surface of metal beam, unloaded by exhibiting
residual tensile stress from normal fabricating procedures. (b) Same beam after shot peening, still without external load. Surface stress is now compressive. (c) Beam, when subjected to design loading, still shows some residual
compressive stress at surface. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
0.004
0.1
+50
+100
()
Compression
(+)
Tension
Compression
0.2
0.3
Depth, mm
Fig. 10
0.010" A
0.0087" A
85
45
Fig. 11
Resulting
intensity
Nozzle
Workpiece
Tension
0.005" A
30
Impingment
angle
600
0.007" A
1350
700
200
0
0
60
200
Shot peened condition
400
600
Process Monitoring
Compression
800
Reciprocating
shot deflector
1000
M
1200
1400
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Depth, mm
Fig. 13
(a)
Shaded area
indicates
peened surface
Reciprocating
and rotating
peening lance
(b)
(b) Unacceptable "broken" shapes
Shot peening of bores. (a) Internal shot deflector. (b) Lance method. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Fig. 12
Fig. 14
The most important shot peening parameter relates to the microstructure, chemistry, shape,
size, material, and hardness of the peening material shot. All these variables are described in
Ref 42 as well as by the condition of the peening
material.
The peening material must be uniform in size
and fundamentally spherical in shape without
sharp edges or broken particles. Broken or sharpedged peening material can be potentially damaging to the surface of the component. Examples
of this are shown in Fig. 14 to 16. During the
automatic shot peening process, the peening material must be sieved and sorted continuously
(Ref 42).
Cast steel shot is available in two hardness
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
system.
Since 1976 the Dyescan fluorescent tracer liquids have been available as they are used in the
Peenscan process, an approved liquid tracer system.
The working principle of this process is similar to the dye penetration method to determine
cracks.
Prior to shot peening, an approved fluorescent
tracer liquid is brushed, sprayed, or dipped on
the component, and it is allowed to dry. This
forms a fluorescent elastic coating that is subsequently removed at a proportional rate to the
shot peening coverage. The fluorescent tracer
system reacts to deviations in shot peening intensity, incomplete coverage, and an excessively
low angle of impact. By inspection under ultraviolet (UV) light the Peenscan process provides
a practical method of determining the peening
coverage in terms of quantity and the uniformity
Shot peening media. (a) Unacceptable. (b) Acceptable. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
(a) Surface damage caused by poor shot control. (b) Acceptable surface. Courtesy of Metal Improvement
Company, Inc.
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
page. Figure 22 shows a sketch of a computercontrolled shot peening plant. A typical operational chart of a computer-controlled MIC shot
peening plant is shown in Fig. 23. Every working
step is completed by the printout as proof and
documentation. An interruption of the shot peening process and its causes are recorded on the
printout (ABORT in Fig. 24). The computer
printout provides the data which document that
every component was treated with the same shot
peening parameters as the sample component.
The shot peening plants are equipped with important additional functions, such as peening material sorting by size as well as by shape in order
to eliminate irregular or inadmissible particles.
Process Optimization
Optimization of the effects of shot peening is
achieved by a careful selection of the composition, hardness, and size of the peening material;
the transferred energy at impact (which controls
the depth of the compressive layer); and the percentage of coverage, in addition to component
material and geometry. The many possible com-
30 0.015 in.
0.031
0.001 in.
0.051
0.001 in.
0.0938
0.001 in.
N strip
Peening nozzle
A strip
C strip
Almen strips
Shot stream
46 in.
Measuring dial
0.745
0.750 in.
Hardened
ball
supports
Arc
height
3.0 in.
Holding
fixture
(a)
Arc height
0.75 in.
Strip removed. Residual
stresses induce arching
(b)
Peenstress Software
Peenstress (Ref 70) is a computer program
that is capable of modeling the residual compressive stresses that are introduced by controlled shot peening in most of the engineering
metals, mild and high-strength steels, stainless
steels, carburized and carbonitrided steels, aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, and nickel alloys
(Fig. 25).
The Peenstress program will print out a stress
curve that shows both the magnitude of the residual stress distribution and the depth profile
beneath the surface, for the material and the parameters of shot peening that were selected (Fig.
26). One can use the curve to read the magnitude
of the compressive stress at the surface and at
depth and use that magnitude in load calculations. One can see very graphically what would
be the resultant residual tensile stress on the opposite unpeened surface or in the core of a part
that is peened all over (Fig. 27) and then have
the opportunity to adjust the peening parameters,
if necessary. Most significantly, this can now be
done on a computer screen without having to
resort to very expensive and time consuming xray diffraction (XRD) measurements or even
laboratory and field testing of many variables.
Testing is still recommended, but can be reduced
to a few selected data points.
C.A.S.E. Process
10/32
screws
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Shot peening coverage. (a) Partial coverage. (b) Full coverage. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Fig. 21
The Peenscan system. (a) Coated unpeened. (b) Peened 15 s partial coverage. (c) Peened 60 s full coverage.
(d) Peened 60 s, improper nozzle angle in cavity. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Display
Display
Machine
terminal
Air
pressure
Master
terminal
Manual input
Manual
input
Production
data
Data
Product
data storage
Data
Shot
flow
New
procedures
Data
Input
Master
computer
Data
Instruction
Part
motion
Instruction
Nozzle
motion
Printer
Data
Data
Peening
machine
comput.
Procedures
from storage
Status
Data
collection
system
Instruction
Limit switches
and misc.
devices
Fig. 22
Fig. 23
Status
Status
Bulk shot
handling and
conditioning
system
Customer
Part number
:
:
Specification
operation
: AMS-S-13165
:
Mic procedure
Shot size
Intensity
Coverage
Saturation time
100% cover time
:
:
:
:
:
:
Nozz. 01
Fig. 24
Table 1
21-8592
Ml-170R
6-10A
100%
6 minutes
6 minutes
5
15
5
5
25
16.0
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Lbs
RPB
Mode
Cycle count
Cycle time
Horz
NA
6:00:00
Oscillation program
Pos In min Pos
Home 1 30.0 32.0 11 19.5
start 2 24.0 4.0 12 19.0
3 23.5 8.0 13 18.5
4 23.0 12.0 14 18.0
5 22.5 14.0 15 17.5
6 22.0 15.0 16 17.0
7 21.5 16.0 17 12.0
8 21.0 17.0 18 12.0
9 20.5 18.0 19 12.0
10 20.0 19.0 TA 12.0
Nozzle program
Nozz. Active
1 2:00:00 A
2 2:00:00 A
3 2:00:00 A
4 2:00:00 A
5 4:00:00 A
6 4:00:00 A
7 4:00:00 A
8 6:00:00 A
9 6:00:00 A
10 6:00:00 A
Hi limit
Air Shot
Psi lb M
60 18.0
Nozz. 02 Nozz. 03 Nozz. 04 Nozz. 05 Nozz. 06 Nozz. 07 Nozz. 08 Nozz. 09 Nozz. 10 Turntable
speed
Air Shot Air Shot Air Shot Air Shot Air Shot Air Shot Air Shot Air Shot Air Shot
Psi lb M Psi lb M Psi lb M Psi lb M Psi lb M Psi lb M Psi lb M Psi lb M Psi lb M
RPM
60 18.0 60 18.0 60 18.0 60 18.0 60 18.0 60 18.0 40 16.0 40 16.0 40 16.0
11.0
Data
55
16.0
Lo limit
55
14.0
SN001
50
14.0
SN002
SN002
56
16.0
Remaing
cycles
0
Oscill.
position
In min
2.0
Inches
6.0
9.0
2.0
10.0
6.0
9.5
5.0
Tue 5:19:47 PM
Feb 16, 1999
Oscill.
speed
10.0
Grounded
Parameter
Axial
Tangential
Axial
Tangential
Axial
Tangential
Rz
Ra
Rt
Rsk
0.36
0.04
0.59
0.83
1.52
0.21
1.96
0.23
0.68
0.10
0.87
0.19
0.69
0.12
0.85
0.18
0.57
0.07
0.85
1.22
0.66
0.07
0.96
1.35
Material Library
Material: Al/7010 * T7651/cysp
Review library
Monotonic
472
Cyclic
425
Elastic limit
(MPa)
(MPa) : 560
Elongation
(%)
Endurance limit
(MPa) :
Cancel material
Young's modulus
(MPa) : 71000
Poisson's ratio
k factor
n factor
Modify mater.
Run
: 0,300
(MPa)
Research mat.
New material
: 10,00
Monotonic
607,60
0,0272
Cyclic
641,20
0,0446
Help
Quit
ENSAMMIC
Material library. The selected material is aluminum alloy 7010 T 76. Screen printout shows the monotonic
strength coefficient k and the strain-hardening coefficient, n, as well as the cyclic strengths coefficient k and
the strain-hardening coefficient, n, which define the true monotonic stress strain curve and the cyclic stress strain curve,
respectively. Also shown are the ultimate and yield strengths, elongation, Youngs modulus, and Poissons ratio, for this
material. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Fig. 25
In min
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
that are 0.25 in. (6.5 mm) thick. The coupons are
designed to fit on a standard Almen block and
can therefore be used on an existing Almen fixture. In this way, the Milam coupons are placed
to represent the critical areas of the part to be
peened. The Milam coupons are made from the
same material (or even at the same temperature
at the customers option) as the parts and heat
treated along with the parts. They are shot
peened after the Almen strip verification and just
before the parts are processed and periodically
thereafter on request of the customer.
The second is an alternative to the Milam coupons but still part of the Milam system. MIC and
Lambda can handle small parts directly as long
as they are within the dimension of 2 by 2 by
1.5 in. (50 by 50 by 38 mm).
With the third alternative, larger parts can be
cut up so that the critical areas for XRD reading
are available, but Lambda must do the cutting.
After shot peening, the test parts are then sent
to the XRD laboratory; because of their standard
size, the coupons or the small parts can be etched
and x-rayed at successive depth levels for residual stress readings in a very expeditious manner.
This is a quick, economical method for measuring induced compressive stresses in components.
0.1
Depth, mm
F 15 A
S 400 Shot
V = 29 m/s
Al/7010 * T7651/C
100
Residual stress, MPa
1999:2:18
Peenstress
ENSAM-MIC
d = 0,092 mm
h = 0,005 mm
Dir. z
200
s, MPa
300
310
m, MPa
332
Pm, mm
0.005
PO, mm
0.210
400
Residual stress profile. Peenstress software calculates and displays the stress profile and the calculated shot
velocity. The separate panel indicates the surface stress s, the maximum stress m, the minimum depth of
the maximum stress Pm, and the depth of compression PO. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Fig. 26
1999:2:18
Peenstress
ENSAM-MIC
0.1
0.2
100
200
100
AL/7010 * T7651/C
200
300
300
400
400
Fig. 27
Negative skewness
Positive skewness
Ra = 2.4 m
Negative
Ra = 2.5 m
Ra = 2.4 m
Fig. 28
Positive
Fig. 29
Skewness of the amplitude distribution in C.A.S.E. processing. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
200
0
200
400
600
Lasershot Peening
800
1000
ES
Ground
Ground and shot peened
Ground and shot peened and C.A.S.E.
1200
1400
1600
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Depth, mm
Fig. 30
Stress profile (17 CrNiMo 6). Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
II
(a)
(c)
(e)
I
II
60
(b)
(d)
(f)
Crack arrest by compressive self stress. (a) Load stress. (b) Self stress. (c) Sum of (a) and (b). (d) Crack starts.
(e) Crack progressed to edge of former compressive zone. (f) Crack arrested. Courtesy of Metal Improvement
Company, Inc.
Fig. 31
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
0.0015
0.05
0.10
0.0045
Depth, mm
Depth, in.
0.0030
0.15
0.0060
0.0075
0.02
0.0080
0
500
1000
Compressive stress, MPa
Fig. 32
Stress profile of carburized gear tooth root, ground, then shot peened with special hardness shot. Courtesy of
Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
6000
Shot peened
Mean
1000
4000
None shot peened
Mean
3000
500 bevel gear
Spiral
3,625 D.P.
Material: 8620H bar stock
Heat treatment: carburized and hardened, 61 HRC
Load transmitted: 135 hp, 5000 rpm
Shot peening specifications:
Shot size: 170H
Intensity: 0.010-0.014 A
Coverage: 200%
2000
1000
500
0
104
105
106
107
Cycles to failure
Fig. 33
Increase in fatigue resistance of spiral bevel gear. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
5000
15.
16.
17.
18.
Table 2
19.
20.
21.
22.
60
1
135
320
380
Stress data of welded StE 460 (P 460 N). Stress:
location 1, 484 MPa; location 2, 515 MPa;
location 2.1, 171 MPa, 1 mm subsurface; location 5,
20 MPa; location 6, 389 MPa. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Fig. 35
At 50%
At 70%
At 80%
At 90%
11
1000
3.2
1000
17
11.3
1000
1000
7.5
1000
1000
5.3
3.3
1000
1000
1000
1000
1.3
2
5.3
Specimen tensile tested in 42% MgCl2 medium at 145 C and at a load of 50 to 90% of the 0.2% yield point
7
9
Grounded area
320
Stress data of repair welded StE 460 (P 460 N).
Stress: location 7, 357 MPa; location 7.1,
78 MPa, 1 mm subsurface; location 9, 434 MPa. Courtesy of Metal Improvement Company, Inc.
Fig. 36
90,000
80,000
100
700
600
80
500
70
Not peened
Peened
70,000
90
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
60
400
10,000
0
50
105
1.4541
106
Cycles to failure
Fig. 34
107
1.4571
1.4539
1.4462
Material
Fig. 37
Laser beam
Pressure
Tamping material
Protective overlay
for light absorption
Part to be
processed
Shock waves
Plasma
burst
causes
pressure
Fig. 38
0+
Pressure
wave
Residual
compressive
stress
Depth, mm
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
Shot peened
0.010 A
40
200
400
60
80
600
100
Lasershot peened
by MIC-LLNL
800
120
140
1000
160
1200
180
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Depth, in.
Fig. 39
1400
0.05
20
200
1.25
0
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
MOST FOUNDRIES have stories about castings that flew into pieces with a bang when being
machined, or even when simply standing on the
floor. It is easy to dismiss such stories, but they
should be viewed as warnings. They warn that,
in certain conditions, castings can have such high
stresses locked inside that they are dangerous and
unfit for serviceeven though they look perfect
(Ref 1). More than $50 million is attributed to thermal stress-generated casting defects. Such defects
can be essentially eliminated through the application of computer predictions.
If a casting were to be cooled at a uniform rate
and with a uniform constraint acting at all points
over its surface, then it would reach room temperature perfectly in proportionperhaps a little
large, or a little small, but not distorted. In practice, of course, the casting generally is somewhat
large, or somewhat small, and not quite accurate
in shape. Occasionally, it may be very seriously
distorted. Again, in an ideal world, if the constraint by the mold were either zero or infinite,
in both cases the casting would be of predictable
size and correct shape.
or
(a)
or
(b)
Fig. 1
(a) Thick/thin-section casting showing tensile stress in the thick section. (b) Even-walled casting showing internal
tensile stresses
Elastic
compression
Plastic
compression
Elastic
tension
Plastic
tension
(Time)0.5
Liquid
Distance
Plastic
Mold
Elastic
Plastic
Compression
Liquid
+
solid
Tension
Tensile
stress
0
Compressive
stress
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 2
90
80
70
60
50
40
Al alloy
30
20
10
0
Fig. 3
2
4
8
16
32
Time in mold before stripping
64
Heat-flow
analysis
Fluid-flow
analysis
Solidification
kinetics
Species flow
analysis
Prediction of macrosegregation
Prediction of microsegregation
Enhanced representation of the solidification
kinetics, fluid flow, and heat transfer
Thermomechanical
analysis
Fig. 4
Initial design
Material
properties
(metal, mold)
Quick analysis
(solidification time,
modulus, etc.)
Rules (empirical
charts, etc.)
Fig. 5
Special boundary
conditions (interface,
heat-transfer
coefficients, etc.)
Rigging design
Solidification
simulation (temperature, solid fraction,
velocity, etc.)
Stress analysis
(shrinkage
stresses
distortion)
Microstructural
evolution (grain
size, dendrite
arm spacing, etc.)
Defect prediction
(macro- and
microporosity,
misrun, etc.)
Mushy zone
fluid flow
(macrosegregation)
T
T
T
kx
ky
t
x
x
y
y
(Eq 1)
q12
Ni Ti(t)
i1
KT CT F
Ni Nj
Ni Nj
Ky
x x
y y
e X
dX
(Eq 5)
(Eq 2)
(Eq 3)
(Eq 4)
Kij
fer by radiation and by free convection. The variation of density and specific heat with temperature is handled as discussed by Comini et al. (Ref
41), and any phase change that occurs is treated
by the method discussed by Morgan et al. (Ref
42). The thermal conductivities of the ingot and
mold are also allowed to vary with temperature.
The temperature fields in the ingot and the mold
are computed simultaneously using a finiteelement formulation. The region of interest is divided into a number of eight-noded isoparametric elements Xe, with boundary Ce with
quadratic shape functions Ni associated with
each node i. In the isoparametric elements, the
shape functions are used to transform the coordinates (Ref 34), and this enables better representation of any curved boundaries that may be
present in the problem. The unknown temperature T is approximated in the solution domain at
any time by:
e C hNi Nj dC
e
Cij
e X
Fi
e C
qcNi Nj dX
Ni hTdC
(Eq 6)
(Eq 7)
(Eq 8)
DTi
dei DTi
0
(Eq 9)
(Eq 10)
(Eq 11)
e Bd
(Eq 12)
BTrdX
(Eq 19)
BTD(e e vp e i)dX 0
(Eq 20)
BTDeidX
BTDevpdX
(Eq 23)
(Eq 18)
As the constitutive relation for viscoplastic problems has been specified in time rate form in (Eq
11), it is convenient to rewrite Eq 18 as
Examples
BTrdX 0
BTDBddX
0
(Eq 21)
That is,
(Eq 13)
Ksd R 0
(Eq 17)
F (r, evp) 0
e vp w(F)
(Eq 22)
Because of the complexities and practical difficulties of experiments on ingot castings, only
a limited number of experimental investigations
are reported in sufficient detail in the literature
to make possible a comparison with the results
of a mathematical model. Oeters et al. (Ref 40)
have reported extensive results of the investigation on a 6 ton ingot casting, and this is the example chosen for the present investigation.
At the midheight of the 6 ton ingot, the cross
section is in the form of a square with rounded
corners and a side length of 600 mm (23.6 in.).
Along two opposite sides of the square the surrounding mold has a thickness of 150 mm (6 in.),
while this thickness becomes 166 mm (6.5 in.)
along the other sides. The variation of the properties with temperature is assumed to take the
form reported by Williams et al. (Ref 11). The
finite-element mesh used in the analysis consists
of 52 elements (illustrated in Fig. 6) and 185
nodes. The nodes are located at the element corners and at the midpoints of the element sides.
The time of air-gap formation at various locations on the ingot perimeter follows roughly a
parabolic law proceeding from the corner to the
middle of the face (Fig. 7). Initially, the model
(Eq 14)
8
16
24
32
46
52
23
31
45
51
21
30
40
29
28 36
44
50
43
49
42
48
41
47
Mold
0 if F 0
w(F) if F 0
Q
e i
r
Air
gap
6
4
15
14
12
22
13
27
3
(Eq 15)
11
(Eq 16)
35
39
26
2
10
18
17
34
38
25
Ni di NTd
i1
19
Ingot
20
Fig. 6
33
37
600
Corner
400
Experimental
Present results
200
20
10
30
40
Fig. 9
80
90
60
70
80
90
Experimental
Present results
Temperature, C
Time, min
70
1200
1100
20
60
40
30
50
Time, min
1000
150
800
300
20
10
30
40
Fig. 7
Fig. 10
3.0
Center of face
2.4
1.8
1.2
Quarter of face
18
30
0.6
74
80
0
20
40
60
80
Time, min
Fig. 8
F
Fo
(Eq 24)
52
Corner
0
50
Time, min
Fig. 11
Fig. 14
Tension
Compression
Fig. 12
Tension
Compression
Fig. 13
(Eq 25)
Table 1
Property
Value
0.0548 kcal/msC
0.0548 kcal/msC
0.2526 kcal/kgC
0.2526 kcal/kgC
94.44 kcal/kg
2650 kg/m3
660 C (1220 F)
660 C (1220 F)
Source: Ref 46
Table 2
num
Stress, MPa
Stress, MPa
0.01
2
0
0
Fig. 15
6
Time, s
0.01
r, m
Radial stress
Axial stress
Hoop stress
r = 0.017714 m
z = 0.0021133 m
0.02
10
Fig. 17
Residual stress distribution in the radial direction at t 8.32 s using a plane-strain assump-
tion
Fig. 18
660
640
Radial stress
Axial stress
Hoop stress
r = 0.002918 m
r = 0.002918 m
r = 0.002918 m
Stress, MPa
620
600
580
6
Time, s
2
1
r = 0.017324 m
r = 0.018000 m
r = 0.014731 m
r = 0.009685 m
r = 0.006980 m
560
r = 0.017324 m
1
8
10
r = 0.017324 m
2
0
10
Time, s
680
Temperature, C
Radial stress
Axial stress
Hoop stress
z = 0.0021133 m
0.02
Fig. 16
Fig. 19
0.01
0.02
Z, m
0.03
0.04
Residual stress variation in the axial direction at time t 8.3202 s with a traction-free top surface
Stress, MPa
1
Radial stress
Axial stress
Hoop stress
r = 0.0177145 m
z = 0.0010566 m
2
3
0
10
Time, s
Fig. 20
0.02
0
Displacement, mm
0.02
0.04
0.06
Radial displacement z = 0.00 m
Radial displacement z = 0.20 m
0.08
0.12
0
10
Time, s
Fig. 21
Radial and axial displacements at the surface r R with plane-strain assumption and large melt pressures
0.0011
Tension
Compression
1.5 MPa
z, m
0.0010
0.009
0
0
0.009
r, m
Fig. 22
Principal stresses in the r-z plane at time t 7.3294 s for the solidification problem
0.018
Special Considerations
The deformation of a solidifying material is
very different from that of a standard fixed body.
A solidifying body develops residual (initial)
stresses immediately after solidification and is
never in a state of zero stresses (stress free).
Thermal stress problems carry with them difficulties not normally found in the analysis of either thermal or stress problems. The coupling between the temperature and stress fields works in
both directions. It is possible to imagine cases
where the basic boundary conditions for the thermal analysis are affected by the deformations, as
in the formation of the air gap that controls the
heat flow to the mold from the cooling ingot.
Fully coupled analyses are slightly more complicated because they require deciding when to
update the effect of one process to the other. Decultieux et al. (Ref 53) apply a three-dimensional
finite-element coupled thermomechanical model
to the solidification of the hollow cylinder. An
experiment has been developed to measure heattransfer coefficients and air-gap width in permanent mold casting of aluminum-silicon alloys.
Comparison between experimental and calculated temperature and air-gap width shows the
validity of the coupled approach.
The thermal strain fields computed from the
temperature fields introduce complications. The
incompressible nature of plastic deformation
creates a constraint at each gauss point in an element. When the number of constraints arising
from incompressibility exceeds the numbers of
degrees of freedom, locking is said to occur, as
there are no possible solutions for this case. The
solution to this may be the reduced order of the
integration for the hydraulic components of the
stress, which may lead to, most notably, a failure
to satisfy the patch test (Ref 54). A related effect
comes from the order of the thermal strain fields
within the element. If nodal temperatures are interpolated to give gauss point values, and these
are used to determine thermal strains, then the
thermal strain field has the same order as the
displacement field in the element. The total
strains, which are computed from the partial derivatives of the displacements, are one order
lower. This incompatibility can also lead to locking problems. The need to avoid incompatible
strain fields has been known for some time (Ref
55) and extremely large errors can result if it is
not observed (Ref 56). Using linear elements in
the thermal analysis and quadratic elements in
the stress analysis is the most common strategy
(Ref 49).
Plane-strain conditions are most commonly
used in the stress analysis. This condition implies that the longitudinal heat flow and longitudinal displacement are zero. Longitudinal interactions in the stress may not always be
satisfied even though longitudinal heat flow is
probably never very large. To compensate for
this problem, extension to a generalized plane
strain has been used (Ref 54) where plane sections must remain plane but may rotate or trans-
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
DETERMINATION
OF
RESIDUAL
STRESS in manufacturing processes incorporating solidification, such as casting, welding, and
so on, is important for evaluating the mechanical
properties and strength of materials and to optimize manufacturing conditions (Ref 14). However, residual-stress formation depends not only
on the thermomechanical behavior and processing effect due to the variation of microstructure
and macrostructure during manufacturing of materials, but also on the interaction of heat conduction, change of phase transformation due to
solidification, and stress/strain. A unified constitutive model (Ref 5, 6) that describes variation
of the mechanical behavior from viscous fluid to
solid and the mixture domain in the material due
to solidification is necessary. This article presents some developments in thermomechanical
theory and numerical analysis method incorporating solidification of material to simulate the
residual-stress formation during casting. A unified inelastic constitutive relationship capable of
describing both elastic-viscoplastic solids and
viscous fluids to simulate the casting process is
proposed and verified by experimental and numerical results. A proposal based on the finiteelement method to combine temperature and
stress fields as well as deformation during solidification is also presented. The mechanism of
residual-stress formation during continuous and
centrifugal casting can be represented using
simulation. The thermomechanical modeling
was also verified by comparison with the experimental data, such as the measured residual
stress and variation of casting temperature.
Experimental Procedure
Axial load and displacement (or strain) must
be controlled in tension and creep tests, and the
controlled value should be changeable independently of the time interval. A SUS 304 steel with
melting point of 1399 C was tested. The chemical compositions of material and the mechanical
properties at room temperature are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The specimen was
shaped into a solid cylinder with two lugs as
shown in Fig. 1.
Four temperature levels, that is750, 900,
1000, and 1200 Cwere chosen for the experiments since the authors were interested in the
material behavior at high-temperature condi-
tions. The material behaviors at lower temperatures were also examined to cover a wide range
of temperatures. The temperature variation along
the gage length was controlled within 2 C.
The heating rate of the specimen was nearly 8
C/min, and the test was started after the temperature was held for 60 min. The tension tests
were made under strain-controlled condition
with the strain rates of 1.0, 0.1, 0.01, and
0.001%/s. In the creep tests, several stress levels
below the yield stress were employed.
Table 1
Element
Composition, wt%
Carbon
Silicon
Manganese
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Nickel
Chromium
0.08
0.59
1.00
0.032
0.005
8.26
18.30
Value
274.4
607.6
62.0
10
M20X2.5
GL 50
33
104
33
170
Fig. 1
e Iij Kw(F)
200
750 C
150
900 C
100
1000 C
50
1200 C
0
104
T = 1200 C
150
103
102
0.1
Strain rate (), %/s
10
(a)
T = 1000 C
= 1.0%/s
50
0.01%/s
0.001%/s
900 C
10
1000 C
0
104
103
102
0.1
Strain rate (), %/s
100
0.01%/s
7.5 MPa
900 C
750 C
3
40.0 MPa
100.0 MPa
80.0 MPa
25.0 MPa
0
0
Time (t ), h
Fig. 5
0.001%/s
T = 750 C
= 1.0%/s
150
0.001%/s
100
0.01%/s
0.001%/s
0.01
1.0
250
200
150
100
0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Strain (), %
Stress-strain curves at several temperature levels
900 C
n = 5.20
103
104
105
0
0.5
1200 C
n = 2.50
1000 C
n = 3.00
750 C
n = 6.25
50
50
0
0.0
50
102
300
0.2 % proof stress (0.2), MPa
= 1.0%/s
150
Fig. 2
12.5 MPa
10
Fig. 3
T = 900 C
200
3.0 MPa
(b)
0
200
50.0 MPa
1200 C
100
5.0 MPa
150
1200 C
1000 C
25.0 MPa
50
(Eq 1)
750 C
15
F
rij
where K denotes a viscosity constant of the material. w(F) is a function of the static yield func-
= 1.0%/s
0.01%/s
0.001%/s
100
200
Stress (), MPa
d/d, MPa/%
200
Fig. 4
250
500
750
1000
Temperature (T ), C
1250
10
50 100
500
Fig. 6
e vp
ij
1/2
2 s s
3
kl kl
ry
sij
(3J2)1/2
(Eq 2)
e I k(|r| ry)
(Eq 4)
The superposition model has various possibilities, but only two forms are employed here.
First, a simple superposition model (model A)
is considered. The plastic strain and creep strain
are simply added to represent the inelastic response of the material. The plastic strain rate
epij is given as:
skl skl
sij
(4/9)ry2dry/d e p
(Eq 5)
1200
ry r0{1 l exp(bep)}
(Eq 6)
800
400
300
600
900
1200
Temperature (T ), C
Fig. 7
200
(Eq 3)
e Iij
Experiment
Superposition
Bodner
150
= 1.0%/s
100
rr
2
r2ydry/d e p
mA1/m(ec)(m1)/mrn/m
50
0
200
Experiment
Perzyna
Perzyna + creep
= 1.0%/s
0.01%/s
100
(Eq 8)
0.01%/s
150
(Eq 7)
0.001%/s
r
|r|
e I c(|r| ry)
r
Ar n
|r|
(Eq 9)
2 3J J
e ijI D0 exp
1 Z2
sij
1/2
2
(Eq 10)
50
0.001%/s
0
Fig. 8
2
3
Strain (), %
e I
|r|
2
1 Z2
D0 exp
3
2 r2
(Eq 11)
Governing Equation of
Thermomechanical Fields
From the continuum thermomechanics viewpoint, solidification is a complicated phenomenon characterized by the interaction between
temperature and stresses as well as phase transformation from liquid to solid, and the state in
solidifying material termed the mushy zone,
which is a mixture of solid and liquid phases. In
the case of some kinds of casting processes discussed later in this article, molten metal is
poured directly into a mold in addition to the
existing material. Figure 10 shows boundary
movement with increasing volume as well as interface movement during solidification. Here, an
initial domain V 0 at time t including liquid and
solid is considered, and C0 is an initial boundary
for the body. DV and DC denote the increments
of volume and boundary during time period Dt.
Hereafter any material parameter v is assumed
to be expressed by the mixture law using the
parameters of solid vs and liquid vl such that:
v vsns vlnl
qu dV
i
d
qui dV
dt
V
d
dt
q2 u u
1
i i
V 0 rij nj dC
e dV
hi)ni dC
qlsn s qf
DV qbi dV
(Eq 14)
T
ni h(T Tw)
xi
(Eq 19)
T
ni g(T 4 T 4w)
xi
(Eq 20)
(rij uj
q(c bi ui)dV
qu rij ,j qbi
qe qc
(Eq 15)
hi
rij e ij
xi
ns 1 1(1k0) and n1 1 ns
(Eq 17)
100
900 C
= 0.001%/s
0.5
1.0
100
1.0
(b)
Hysteresis loop of stress at (a) and (b) 900 C and (c) 1100 C
1100 C
= 0.01%/s
Experiment
Perzyna
Perzyna + creep
Bodner
Superposition
50
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
100
1.0
Strain (), %
Strain (), %
(Eq 22)
50
50
0.0
(T Ts)/ms
(T Ts)/ms (T1 T )/m1
50
0.5
(Eq 21)
(Eq 16)
50
(Eq 18)
(Eq 13)
100
(a)
d d
i dV
DV q u
50
Fig. 9
T
qcT
k
rij eijvp
xi
xi
900 C
= 0.01%/s
100
1.0
0 0
i dV
V0 q u
100
(Eq 12)
0.5
0.0
Strain (), %
(c)
0.5
1.0
(Eq 25)
w
(T1 T)/m1
(T Ts)/ms (T1 T)/m1
(Eq 23)
qcVi
with the elastic stress-strain matrix [D ]. By substituting the stress increment in the form of Eq
25 into Eq 26, the elastic-viscoplastic stressstrain matrix [Dvp] leads to:
(Eq 24)
T
T
k
rij evp
ij
xi
xi
xi
qlsVi
ns
0
xi
(Eq 30)
(Eq 27)
T [N]{T}e
Using the variational principle, the finiteelement equation for stress analysis finally can
be obtained as:
[K]{Du} {DFf} {DFvp}
{DFm} {DFT}
(Eq 29)
(Eq 26)
e
w
w
vi
t
xi
(Eq 31)
(Eq 28)
[N]T qcVi
T
ns
rij evp
dV
ij qlsVi
xi
xi
k[G] [G]{T}dV
T
T
C[N] qdC
(Eq 32)
where
[G] []T[N]
(Eq 33)
V i = Vi+ V i
Vi
i
[P]
Vi+
Vi+
i +
Fig. 10
(Eq 34)
i
i+
(Eq 35)
{Qs}
e V qls i ns
x
[N]{m}dV
(Eq 36)
(Eq 37)
with the strain-displacement matrix [B] dependent on coordinates, the system of stiffness equation in incremental form is derived from Eq 37
by applying the principle of virtual work as:
[K]{u} {L b} {L T}
{L m} {L v}
(Eq 38)
e V [B]T[De][B]dV
(Eq 39)
{L b}
T [b]
e V [N]
xi [N]{m}dV
(Eq 40)
{L T}
e V [B]T([ ]grad[N]){m}dV
(Eq 41)
{L m}
(Eq 42)
(Eq 43)
[b] [b]
[De]1{r}
ns
(Eq 44)
[]
[]
x
1
ry
1
2l
(3J2)1/2
(Eq 45)
senting latent heat generation in the first approximation. By use of the lever rule, the volume
fraction of solid ns is identified, and the term
{Qs} is evaluated. The same iteration procedure
was repeated to obtain the converged distributions of temperature and phase. The obtained result is applied to determine the displacement rate
vector {u} in Eq 37, and displacement ui, strain
eij, and stress rij can be evaluated by integrating
the rate e ij , and r ij . Moreover, Eq 24 and 38
derived in the previous section are nonlinear
with respect to the temperature {T} and displacement rate {u}, respectively, and special attention is necessary in solving the equations.
Equation 34 has only one term for latent heat
generation determined by volume fraction of
solid ns, thus, it employs the simple method of
iteration.
As for stress analysis, on the other hand, the
nodal forces on the right-hand side of Eq 38 are
the nonlinear functions of temperature T and
structural change ns being dependent on the rate
{u}. Furthermore, in the region of molten state,
a large strain rate is produced in spite of a small
variation of nodal forces. A modified NewtonRaphson scheme, or initial method, was adopted
to solve the nonlinear equation.
Molten metal
Refractory
Results of Simulation
Figure 15 indicates a birds-eye view and an
isothermal representation of calculated temperature distribution. The lines denoted by Tl and Ts
in the figure are the liquidus and solidus tem-
Mold
Water flow
Billet
Cooling
water
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
Bottom
block
Withdrawal
Fig. 11
Refractory
Mold
Fig. 13
40
80
120
1.6
Wl = 145 l/min
115
85
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
100
200
300 1000
Fig. 14
Table 3
Fig. 12
Temperature (T ), C
TI
Ts
1000
600
800
400
600
200
40
s (r
diu
Ra
200
120
om
e fr
anc
Dist
80
), m
m
Fig. 15
),
s (z
400
mm
cu
enis
800
Experimental
Calculated
r = 120 mm
1.0
Volume fraction of solid, s
Temperature (T ), C
600
400
Center
200
Surface
0.8
0.6
0.4
r = 0 mm
r = 380 mm
r = 76 mm
r = 120 mm
0.2
0
0
0
100
200
300
80
400
Displacement (Ur), mm
Fig. 16
100
120
140
Fig. 17
1000
0.2
800
0.0
600
0.2
400
Ra
40
diu
200
80
s (r
120
), m
Fig. 18
160
nce
a
Dist
from
r (z
te
cen
), m
1000
800
100
600
50
400
0.0
40
80
200
Stress ( ), MPa
), m
mm
e fro
anc
Dist
0.0
1000
800
100
0.0
100
0
40
80
600
400
us (
200
e fro
anc
Dist
0.0
isc
men
z ),
mm
Stress (z ), MPa
1000
800
100
0.0
100
0
40
80
600
400
cus
200
e fro
anc
Dist
0.0
Fig. 19
s (z
cu
enis
is
men
(z ),
mm
Contour of radial (rr), tangential (rh), and axial (rz) axial stress distributions. V 80 mm/min
1000
24
48
72
96 120
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 20
24
96 120
24
48
MPa
10
.2
MPa
MPa
54.2
Pa
72
Radius (r ), mm
40.5
Pa
43.1 M
Pa
0M
7
5.
2.76 MPa
48
12
6.0
M
167.2
800
23.7 MPa
MPa
32.1 MPa
98.7 M
1.02 MPa
600
49.5 MPa
70.1 MPa
400
Pa
13.6 MPa
200
72
96 120
Radius (r ), mm
Isostress contours. Radial (rr), tangential (rh), and axial (rz) axial stress distributions. V 80 mm/min
0
6M
Pa
1000
6
7.
5M
Pa
Pa
1
6
Pa
124 M
MPa
12
.8
27.8 MPa
v = 80
mm/min
640 C
1
1
MPa
52
.5
MPa
76.2
164 M
Pa
600
79.5 M
Pa
400
800
24
48
72
96 120
24
48
72
v = 95
mm/min
640 C
640 C
250
82
0
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 21
v = 70
mm/min
Mold refractory
20 MPa
200
Distance from meniscus (z), mm
28.1 MPa
0.0
85
96 120
110
Radius (r ), mm
500
Calculated stresses (rh) by (a) elastic-viscoplastic and (b) elastic-plastic models. V 60 mm/min
120 0
120 0
120
Radius (r ), mm
Isothermal lines for different casting speeds
v = 70
mm/min
0.0
v = 60
mm/min
200
100
0.0
100
200
100
0.0
100
24
48
72
98
120
200
24
Radius (r ), mm
100
0.0
640
640
110
110
72
98
500
120
150 0
250 0
300
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 24
100
0.0
r
z
100
24
48
72
98
120
200
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 22
660 C
200
100
(c)
48
(b)
200
660 C
400
Radius (r ), mm
(a)
200
640
110
200
660 C
v = 35
mm/min
Mold refractory
Fig. 23
rz
0
24
48
72
98
120
38
v = 80 mm/min
36
34
32
30
80
Radius (r ), mm
100
120
140
150
(d)
Stress distribution in several sections of ingot. (a) z 121 mm. (b) z 400 mm. (c) z 850 mm. (d) z
1000 mm
Fig. 25
water
v = 60 mm/min
1000
24
72
Fig. 26
v = 80 mm/min
24
48
2.76 MPa
23.7 MPa
7
5.0
12
MP
6.0
a
MP
a
98.7 M
Pa
MP
83
.2
72
Pa
32.1 MPa
Pa
.0 M
167.2 M
12
6
31.6 MPa
169.1 M
96 120
Radius (r ), mm
3.51 MPa
MPa
Pa
MPa
99.5
5
48
12
8
800
27.6 MPa
164 M
Pa
600
2.5
76.2 M
Pa
MPa
400
23.4 MPa
200
Distance from meniscus (z), mm
v = 75 mm/min
30.1 MPa
96 120
w l = 112 L/min
48
72
96 120
Radius (r ), mm
w l = 142 L/min
45
w l = 245 L/min
11.0 MPa
10.9 MPa
9.9 MPa
2
55.
.7
57
500
35
z
30
25
55
85
70
Casting speed (v), mm/min
100
40
20
0
70
500
r = 120 mm
w l = 115 mm
40
Fig. 28
50
60
24
Radius (r ), mm
the pouring molten metal is 3 s. Mechanical parameters of the alloy as shown previously also
are employed.
The same thermal radiation coefficient g
7.028 107 cal/(mm2 s K4) is used for two
models, and the radiation condition is situated
on the inner surface of pipe. In model I, heat
insulation condition is assumed on both sides of
the model, while it is also imposed on the outer
surface of the mold in model II.
110
130
90
Discharge of cooling water (wt), t/min
Fig. 29
500
Ladle
Molten pool
35.4
150
Radius (r ), mm
129.0
Metal mold
35.7
82.5
46.7
1000
Fig. 27
113.0
126.0
80.7
10
4.0
10
1.7
.5
86
1000
1000
0
250
Radius (r ), mm
150
20
300
Bearing
Radius (r ), mm
Stress distributions (rz) dependent on effect of ingot diameter and cooling water rate. V 80 mm/min
Fig. 30
The procedure developed above is now applied to the simulation of the thin-slab casting
process under some operating conditions. The
results are summarized as follows. Figure 43
represents the finite-element discretization of the
whole region of the strip and roll. The approximate velocity field based on the incompressibility condition and boundary conditions of velocity due to rotation of roll is shown in Fig. 44.
The roll surface as well as the boundary in contact with the roll and strip is assumed to belong
to heat-transfer boundary and the surface of the
strip to the heat-radiation boundary.
In order to verify the numerical analysis
method proposed in the section on numerical
analysis, two kinds of casting material are taken
into consideration: one kind of material (material
A) is a low-melting-point alloy (tin-bismuth alloy), and the other (material B) is SUS 304 steel
mentioned in the section Inelastic Behavior and
Unified Constitutive Theory of Metallic Material
in Solidification. The casting speed is set at Vc
77.2, 64.5, and 51.1 mm/s. The thickness of
the slab is 3 mm. The initial temperature of the
molten metal is T0 190.0 and 185.0 C, respectively. The material coefficients of tinbismuth alloy are used for the temperature calculation and stress analysis. The initial
temperature of rolls is chosen as Tm 10 C.
The liquidus temperature and solidus temperature of tin-bismuth alloy are Tl 150 C and Ts
138 C.
When the casting process of SUS 304 is considered, the thickness of the slab is 1 mm, and
two casting speeds are set: Vc 400 and 600
mm/s. The properties of material can be found
Simulated results of steady temperature distribution in both the strip and roll are shown in
Fig. 45(a) for the casting speed of 77.2 mm/s
with T0 190 C on the meniscus, and Fig.
45(b) depicts the volume fraction of solid phase,
in which the line indicated by ns 1.0 shows
the solid front. Measured temperature distribu-
1200
Temperature (T ), C
Measured
Uncoupled method
Coupled method
800
400
1000
Fig. 32
2000
3000
Time(t ), s
4000
2010
1050
103
Density, (), g/mm3
ing from both ends. Figure 40 shows the development of equivalent stress in the growing domain under the solidification process. Residual
stresses at the end of cooling are shown in Fig.
41.
480
8.0
7.5
t = 210 s
7.0
500
550
600
635
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 33
500
2010
850 mm
r = 635
Additional
element
r = 108
114 mm
1050
Additional
element
Fig. 31
Metal
mold
(a)
5.0
(b)
Finite-element division. (a) Model I. (b) Model II
510
1.0
t = 210 s
0
500
550
600
635
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 34
in some casting processes, which include semicontinuous casting, centrifugal casting, and continuous casting by twin-roll method. A method
to simulate solidification and temperature as well
as stress distribution in casting is formulated,
and the implementation by finite-element cal-
100
Mold
0
50
r
e
z
100
150
200
500
Concluding Remarks
600
550
650 700
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 36
Temperature ( ), C
Casted
region
50
Stress, (r, , z), MPa
700
400
0
100
t = 0.5 s
200
Di
t = 450 s
Solid
front
r
e
z
t = 300 s
Liquid
end
Temperature ( ), C
st
a
300
pl nce
an fr
e om
(
400
), ce
m nt
m ra
l
700
108
112
Radius (r ), mm
400
t = 2.0 s
0
100
200
l
ra
nt
ce
m m
fro ), m
ce (z
an e
st lan
Di p
t = 210 s
300
400
20
Liquid
front
112
104
400
0
100
t = 4.0 s
200
20
500
Casted
region
700
300
400
Mold
600
l
ra
nt
ce
m m
fro ), m
ce (z
an e
st plan
t = 30 s
800
112
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 35
108
Radius (r ), mm
700
Di
t = 90 s
Temperature ( ), C
t = 120 s
108
104
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 37
200
st
an 300
of ce
m fro
ol m
d, b 400
m ott
m om
108
112
Radius (r ), mm
2.8
2.6
t = 2.0 s
2.4
100
200
Di
st
400
Di
112
108
1.0
104
Radius (r ), mm
0
400
st
an
pl ce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt
m ra
200
0.1
0
100
Di
104
108
Radius (r ), mm 112
400
t = 1.0 s
300
1.0
200
0.5
100
104
108
Radius (r ), mm 112
t = 2.5 s
300
Di
st
a
200
pl nce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt 100
m ra
l
108
112
104
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 39
0.3
0.2
t = 2.0 s
300
st
a
pl nce 200
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt 100
m ra
l
104
112
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 38
108
Radius (r ), mm
an
300
of ce
m fro
ol m
d, b 400
m ott
m om
Di
112
300
t = 1.0 s
2.4
100
1.0
400
t = 0.5 s
an
pl ce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt
m ra
2.6
t = 1.0 s
st
200
a
pl nce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt 100
m ra
l
Di
st
112
Radius (r ), mm
2.8
300
Di
400
300
t = 1.5 s
10.0
an
pl ce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt
m ra
l
108
400
200
5.0
100
104
Di
st
Di 200
st
an
300
of ce
m fro
ol m
d, b
400
m ott
m om
t = 0.5 s
2.4
100
1.0
2.6
2.8
REFERENCES
1. J.R. Williams, R.W. Lewis, and K. Morgan,
An Elastic-Viscoplastic Thermal Stress
Model with Applications to the Continuous
Casting of Metals, Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng.,
Vol 14, 1979, p 19
2. T. Inoue, Metallo-Thermo-Mechanical CouplingAnalysis of Quenching, Welding
and Continuous Casting Processes, Berg.
Hutten. Monatsh., Vol 132, 1987, p 6375
3. T. Inoue and D.Y. Ju, Thermo-Mechanical
Simulation of Some Types of Steady Continuous Casting Processes, Advances in
Continuum Mechanics, O. Bruller, V.
Mannl, and J. Najar, Ed., Springer-Verlag,
1991, p 389406
108
Radius (r ), mm 112
Fig. 40
102
Free boundary
300
st
an
pl ce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt
m ra
1.0
200
1.0
ym
r
Cooling water
Di
108
Radius (r ), mm 112
100
104
400
102
Roll
300
bo
200
0
2.0
100
108
Vo
Free boundary
Cast strip
Di
104
Radius (r ), mm 112
(a)
Fig. 42
(b)
400
102
300
l
2.0
st
an
pl ce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt
m ra
200
0
2.0
100
Di
104
108
Radius (r ), mm
Fig. 41
112
20
2.0
st
an
pl ce
an fr
e om
(
), ce
m nt
m ra
Strip
20
40
Detail of region A
60
80
100
50
Fig. 43
40
30
10
20
Distance from center (x), mm
Fig. 44
20
1.1
14
18
21
25
28
40
60
142
111
95
80
190 C
179
170
167
100
50
25
178
169
162
140
20
13
17
20
25
40
60
108
50
0
80
Fig. 46
0.15
60
1.0
25
40
80
100
80
20
0.15
40
0.83
60
1.0
25
80
50
25
Distribution of temperature (a) and volume fraction of solid (b) (material A). To 190 C
200
Calculation
150
Experiment
V = 77.2 mm/s
100
0.0
20
8
12
40
4 MPa
60
4
80
20
30
4 MPa
40
60
40
50
80
5
V = 51.1 mm/s
0.0
20
18
50
0
20
40
60
80
100
100
Fig. 47
25
20
15
10
100
Fig. 48
100
100
50
Temperature (T ), C
60
V = 51.1 mm/s
20
20
0.83
20
40
V = 51.1 mm/s
100
92
50
V = 77.2 mm/s
150
30
V = 77.2 mm/s
20
Distance from meniscus (y), mm
190 C
0
100
Fig. 45
200
V = 51.1 mm/s
20
Temperature (T ), C
V = 77.2 mm/s
20
25
20
15
10
15.
16.
17.
20
10
Stress, MPa
20
40
20
0
18.
20
40
19.
20
40
Plastic and Viscoplastic Constitutive Equations (Part 2), J. Pressure Vessel Technol.,
Trans. ASME, Vol 105, 1983, p 158164
P. Ackermann, W. Kurtz, and W. Heinemann, In Situ Tensile Testing of Solidifying
Aluminium and Al-Mg Shells, Mater. Sci.
Eng., Vol 75, 1985, p 7986
T. Suzuki, K.H. Tacke, and K. Schwerdtfeger, Influence of Solidification Structure
on Creep at High Temperatures, Metall.
Trans. A, Vol 19A, 1998, p 28572859
T. Inoue et al., Benchmark Project on the
Application of Inelastic Constitutive Relations in Plasticity-Creep Interaction Condition to Structural Analysis and the Prediction of Fatigue-Creep Life, Part I, Proc. of
Subcom. Inel. Anal. High Temp. Mater.,
JSMS, Vol 1, 1991, p 15
P.J. Wray and M.F. Holmes, Plastic Deformation of Austenitic Iron at Intermediate
Strain Rates, Metall. Trans. A, Vol 6A,
1975, p 11891196
P.J. Wray, Onset of Recrystallization Dur-
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
0
20
200
40
Roll boundary
60
20
0
x
y
z
20
40
20
0
80
20
10
25.
150
100
26.
Experiment
Calculation
100
50
20
Fig. 49
60
100
27.
Fig. 50
28.
100
100
29.
400
300
1200 C
200
1240 C
C
1280
100
1470 C
1400
1000
360 C
420
400
500
600
1.5
600
400
(a)
100
200
300
1470 C
1400
1000
300 C
360
420
400
A
600
0
300
SELECTED REFERENCES
400
500
200
100
600
400
Fig. 51
1240 C
1280 C
1200 C
200
200
300
200
100
Distribution of temperature (material B). (a) Vc 400 mm/s. (b) Vc 600 mm/s
100
100
Equivalent stress (), MPa
200
0
100
s = 0.1
s = 1.0
200
300
400
0
100
s = 0.1
s = 1.0
200
Perzyna (n = 1)
Perzynna
Perzyna + creep
50
0
1.5
300
0.5
1.0
0.0
400
500
600
400
300
200
100
600
400
300
200
100
(a)
Fig. 52
Distribution of solid fraction (material B). (a) Vc 400 mm/s. (b) Vc 600 mm/s
100
500
Perzyna (n = 1)
Perzynna
Perzyna + creep
50
0
1.5
0.5
1.0
0.0
1500
Fig. 55
Center of slab
Surface of slab
1100
100
100
900
700
300
400
500
(a)
1500
Center of slab
Temperature (T ), C
1300
x = 1 MPa
600
Surface of slab
1100
x = 1 MPa
200
5
10
300
400
200
Stress (x ), MPa
100
0
1.5
900
1.0
0.5
300
400
0
1.5
500
5
10
200
Stress (x ), MPa
Temperature (T ), C
1300
500
1.0
0.5
700
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
600
160
(b)
Fig. 53
600 mm/s
120
80
40
600
160
Fig. 54
120
80
40
Distribution of stress rx (material B). (a) Vc 400 mm/s. (b) Vc 600 mm/s
Temperature
Time t 0 = 0 s
Time t 1 > t 0
HAZ
Cold
Seam
Hot
HAZ
Cold
Fig. 1
Shrinkage and impeded shrinkage as a consequence of inhomogeneous temperature distribution. HAZ, heataffected zone. Source: Ref 6
Residual Stresses Due to Shrinking Processes. A very important origin of welding residual stresses is impeded shrinkage processes,
which occur when heated and cooled regions are
neighbored. The basic principle is that heated
volumes shrink during the cooling-down process
according to their coefficient of thermal expansion and the existing temperature difference. It
is assumed that melted volumes do not exert
forces on surrounding volumes. Consequently,
weld seams and surrounding volumes that have
not been melted during the welding process exhibit different thermal and, thus, residual stresses
(Fig. 1) (Ref 6). If shrinking is not impeded, thermal stresses relax completely and no residual
stresses remain after cooling down to room tem-
Distributions of longitudinal and transverse residual stresses parallel and perpendicular to a two-pass welded
aluminum plate. TIG, tungsten inert gas; ry and rl, stresses parallel to the weld toe; rx and rt, stresses transverse
to the weld toe. Source: Ref 7
Fig. 2
Time = t 1
Temperature
Transformation
t1 < t2
Temperature
Time = t 2
Tra
S
n
Im sfor hrin
mi ma ka
g
Tra nent tion e
a
ns
t
for rans ffec
te
m
f
Sh atio orm d
a ti
rin n
o
ka aff
ge ec n
ted
Fig. 3
Shrinkage and expansion in example of phase transformation of sufficient highly treated areas. Source: Ref 6
E, GPa
,106K1
ZrO2
Si3N4
Ag
CK 45
210
280
73
188
0.3
0.27
0.3
0.3
10.6
2.5
20.0
14.0
Interaction of impeded shrinkage and transformation for different cooling velocities. Example
1, low velocity; Examples 2 and 3, high velocity. Re, yield
strength; r, stresses; , coefficient of thermal expansion; E,
Youngs modulus; DT, temperature differences; S, stiffness.
Source: Ref 6
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Influence of heat input on transformation temperature, Tt, and resulting consequences on shrinkage tensile or
transformation compressive residual stresses. RS, residual stress. Source: Ref 8
RS
1
RS
y
x
RS
Weld toe
HAZ
ea
ti
np
ut
RS
Fig. 6
Ref 9
Brazing temperature
Room temperature
Quenching effects
Phase transformations
Fig. 7
Distortion and residual stresses shown schematically in a brazed two-layer compound. Source: Ref 12
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
ZrO2
hc Si3N4
1.5
steel
hs steel
2.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
hb
hc/hs
Fig. 8
In modern structures, components are very often required to possess complex properties such
as sufficient ductility together with resistance
against abrasive wear and high temperatures.
These requirements cannot be satisfied by monolithic materials alone. In these cases, brazed
compounds have been demonstrated to be very
useful because materials of different properties
can be joined by this method. Very important
examples include cemented carbide tools and
brazed ceramic-metal compounds combining
hardness and chemical resistance with strength
and ductility of appropriate metallic partners. In
the case of brazing, joining of two partners is
achieved by a melted hard solder, while the materials joined remain well below their solidus
temperature. Special active solder materials have
been developed to meet the needs of economical
industrial applications. During the cool down
from joining temperature, brazed compounds develop a complex residual stress state. The most
important influencing parameters are:
Influence of the thickness ratio hc /hs of the ceramic and the steel on brazing residual stresses in the outer surfaces
of the compound. hc, thickness of ceramic; hs, thickness of steel; hb, thickness of solder. Source: Ref 12
ners
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Depth distribution of residual stresses rxRS in the center of an SAE 1045/WC- Co compound determined by
neutron diffraction. Source: Ref 13
Neutron diffraction
FE calculation
a
RS
X
RS
(MPa)
Y
RS
(MPa)
X
Neutron diffraction
FE calculation
a
y
RS
Y
Cemented carbide
x
z
a
Distance a, mm
Neutron diffraction
FE calculation
RS
(MPa)
Y
RS
(MPa)
X
RS
X
Distance a, mm
Fig. 11
Steel
a
RS
Y
y
x
x
z
2a
a = 12.7 mm
b = 5 mm
c = 2/3 a
Neutron diffraction
FE calculation
Distance a, mm
Distance a, mm
RS
Calculated and measured residual stress distributions in a model tool geometry made of steel SAE 4140 and cemented carbide. Left, rRS
x component; right, ry component;
above, residual stresses in steel; below, residual stresses in cemented carbide. Source: Ref 15
chanical as well as diffraction techniques for residual stress analysis are available. Analytical
and FE-methods to predict brazing residual
stress distributions and to assess the importance
of individual process parameters are also well
developed.
REFERENCES
1. E. Macherauch and H. Wohlfahrt, Origin of
Welding Residual Stresses, Materialprufung, Vol 19, 1977, p 272280 (in German)
2. H. Christian and F.-X. Elfinger, Residual
Stresses in Weld Seams, Der Maschinenschaden, Vol 51 (No. 3), 1978, p 124130
(in German)
3. H. Wohlfahrt, Welding Residual Stresses,
Origin, Calculation, Assessment, Eigenspannungen, E. Macherauch and V. Hauk,
Ed., DGM-Verlag, Oberursel, 1983, p 85
116 (in German)
4. E. Macherauch and K.-H. Kloos, Origin,
Measurement and Evaluation of Residual
Stresses, Proc. Int. Conf. Residual Stresses
in Science and Technology, Vol 1, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, DGM-Verlag, Oberursel, 1986, p 326
5. V. Hauk, Structural and Residual Stress
Analysis by Nondestructive Methods, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1997
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
POWDER METALLURGY (P/M) is concerned with producing metal and alloy powders
and converting them to semifinished or finished
parts for several consumer and industrial products, including simple household appliances,
computer disk drives, surgical implements, and
sophisticated components of satellites. Products
of P/M include porous materials, self-lubricating
bearings, filters, a variety of ferrous and nonferrous structural parts, electrical contacts, tool
steels, cemented carbides, diamond tools, friction materials, refractory-reactive and high-tem-
Warm compaction
Hot
Die pressing
Isostatic pressing
Rolling
Spraying
Pressureless sintering
Cold
Die pressing
Isostatic pressing
Rolling
Slip casting
Injection molding
Sintering
(Atmosphere, vacuum, high temperature)
Fig. 1
Solid phases
Activated
Liquid phase
Infiltration
Rolling
Finishing:
Repressing
Extrusion
Machining
Resintering
Wire drawing
Heat treatment
Sizing
Forging
Rapid prototyping
formance parts that require advanced P/M processing techniques, and those components in
which the P/M approach will lead to enhanced
mechanical properties and improved performance characteristics. Thus, in addition to the
widely used press-sinter method a variety of processing techniques such as hot pressing, isostatic
compaction, powder rolling, powder extrusion,
powder preform forging, high-temperature sintering, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), injection
molding, warm compaction, rapid prototyping,
and so forth, have been developed, and their use
is increasing in P/M processing. Powder metallurgy has emerged as an advanced manufacturing technology for the mass production of precision net-shape high-performance components
for the automotive, general engineering, electrical, electronic, and aerospace industries. According to the information released by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,
the U.S. metal powder market in 1996 was of the
order of $1.9 billion and included iron, aluminum, copper, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium,
tantalum, superalloys, precious metal, and other
nonferrous metal powders, paste, and flakes. The
North American P/M parts business is estimated
to be of the order of $2 billion, and is the largest
P/M market in the world, twice the size of Europe and Japan, each of which account for about
$1 billion in sales of conventional P/M parts.
During the 1998 Powder Metallurgy World Congress and Exhibition in Granada, Spain, it was
reported that the metal powder shipments increased almost 12% in 1997 to 440,843 metric
tons. North American iron powder markets have
invested heavily in new capacity and new products with iron powder production capacity exceeding 590,000 metric tons (Ref 1). Powder
metallurgy is reported to be a high-growth industry and a 21st century technology. It has a
significant impact on design viability and economics in key industries. In the aircraft industry,
the cost of a design using P/M components is
37% lower than a machined component. This has
resulted in a market growth from a 0% share in
1986 to nearly 50% in 1997. It has been reported
Powder-Metallurgy (P/M)
Processing
Ferrous P/M Parts
The use of high-performance sintered ferrous
materials has been increasing steadily in recent
years in the automotive sector because of the
cost-effective manufacturing capability of P/M
to produce products with improved structural
and functional performance along with reliability. The commercial use of sintered iron bearings
as a less expensive substitute to the expensive
bronze bearings initiated by General Motors,
USA, during early 1930s. Germany developed
sintered iron driving bands as a substitute to copper during the mid-1930s. During World War II,
both Germany and the United States produced
limited quantities of large sintered iron bearings
for machine components and war vehicles,
thereby demonstrating the economic viability of
sintered ferrous products as a substitute for cast
and machined steel components. A major consumer of P/M parts is the automotive market,
accounting for about 70 to 80% of total produc-
Mixing
Compacting
Sintering
Infiltration
Repressing
Sizing
Resintering
Finished part
Fig. 2
Finished part
Finished part
Powder Characteristics
The basic raw material for P/M processing is
the metal powder, and successful processing will
depend on the characteristics of the powders. A
knowledge of the characterization of powders is
fundamentally important in many critical stages
of the processes such as mixing, compaction,
sintering, and postsintering operations that will
govern the final structure and properties of the
products. However, the characterization of powders presents many challenges because of the
complexity of properties and the large number
of variables involved (Ref 5, 6). Even for a single
particle, one can distinguish between the characteristics of the material and the characteristics
introduced by the manufacturing method. The
material characteristics include chemical composition, theoretical density, melting point, and
structure. The characteristics introduced by the
manufacturing method include particle size,
shape, microstructure, density, reactivity, and
surface conditions. Since the powders generally
consist of a large number of particles with varying characteristics, it is essential to distinguish
the characteristics of a mass of powder, including size and shape distribution, surface area, apparent density, tap density; flow and friction conditions of the powders; size, shape, and
distribution of porosity and microstructure
within the powders; and internal stresses and
compressibility. Thus, there are large number of
variables and properties, and the general characteristics of the powders depend on the manufacturing method and treatment of the powders.
Powder Production. Important methods for
the production of powders can be classified into
(1) atomization of molten metal, (2) chemical
reactions, (3) electrochemical methods, and (4)
mechanical processing of solid materials. Several techniques are available in each category;
for example, the atomization of molten metal can
be achieved by liquids such as water, oil, different gases, vacuum, ultrasonic, and centrifugal
methods. Chemical methods are reduction of
metal oxides and other compounds with carbon
or other gases, decomposition of metal hydrides
and carbonyls, condensation of metal vapors,
and precipitation of metals from salt solutions.
Electrolytic deposition can be from aqueous solutions or fused salts. Various types of milling
and machining methods are used in the mechanical processes. In addition, a variety of techniques are used to produce ultrafine and nanopowders with special characteristics. The
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
(a)
(b)
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
(c)
Fig. 3
(d)
Schematic distribution of alloying elements in different alloying methods. (a) Admixed. (b) Partially alloyed. (c)
Binder bonded. (d) Prealloyed
103
Casting
100
Gas atomization
Water atomization
10
Ultrasonic/centrifugal
atomization
Gun splat
0.1
0.01
103
101
10
103
105
107
109
1011
Fig. 4
Cooling rates and secondary dendrite arm spacing of metal powders/substrates for different atomization techniques
Upper punch
Powder
from
hopper
Die
Lower
punch
Core
rod
Cycle start
Charging-powder
die filling
Compaction begins
Green
compact
Compaction
completed
Fig. 5
Ejection
of part
Recharging die
Isostatic Compaction
Some of the constraints of rigid-die compaction such as long thin-wall cylinders and parts
with undercuts, and so forth, can be overcome
by isostatic compaction. In cold isostatic pressing, water or oil is used as the pressure medium.
The powder is contained in a flexible mold such
as polyurethane and is compacted with the same
pressure in all directions through the fluid pressurizing medium (Ref 30). Pressure ranging
from 200 to 400 MPa or more of the order of
800 MPa can be used. When the elastomeric
mold along with the powder can be removed
from the pressure vessel, the technique is known
as wet bag tooling, while the technique in which
the elastomeric mold is fixed to the pressure vessel is known as dry bag tooling. Since the pressure is applied isostatically over the entire surface of the part, more uniform density is
achieved through the entire part than in the case
of rigid die pressing. Isostatic pressing is used
in the manufacture of 30 cm cylinder liners (Ref
31), P/M tool steels, stainless steels, and alloy
steels. Other compaction processes include triaxial compression by simultaneous isostatic and
uniaxial compression, high-energy-rate compaction, explosive forming, slip casting, and vibration compaction (Ref 32, 33). Compaction in
rigid dies at very high pressures of the order of
3 GPa have also been carried out using T15 highspeed steel dies and punches. These steels are
manufactured by HIP of inert-gas-atomized
powders with a composition weight percentage
of 12 W, 5 V, 5 Cr, 5 Co, and 1.6 C. The process
known as cold sintering (Ref 34) or high-pressure consolidation at ambient temperature has
been used for processing T15 high-speed steel
and 410L stainless steel with improved properties. Full-density fine iron nickel powder composites with 80 vol% VC and Cr3C2 have been
successfully consolidated by cold sintering.
Sintering
Green ferrous parts produced by compaction
are sintered at elevated temperatures in a con-
Slow cooling
zone
Loading
green parts
Fig. 6
Preheat, lubricant
burn-off zone
Sintering zone
Hanging
curtains
Cooling
zone
Hanging
curtains
Final cooling
zone
Unloading
sintered parts
425625 C
625
1040 C
1040
1120 C
Preheating
zone
Loading green
compacts
Atmosphere
functions
Atmosphere
composition
Fig. 7
Delubrication
zone
1120815 C
815 C
to ambient
Slow cooling
zone
Water cooling
zone
Hot zone
Convey heat
quickly and
uniformly
Reduce
surface
oxides
Copper
melting
coating, or
infiltrating
Carbon
control
Cooling
Burn and
sweep out
lubricants to
front exit
Carbon
diffusion
Bonding
Cooling
rate
control
Prevent oxidation
or controlled
light oxidation
Lightly
oxidizing
Highly
reducing
Reducing
Reducing
Slightly reducing
or neutral or
slightly oxidizing
Neutral
to carbon
Neutral to
carbon
preferred
Neutral to
carbon
preferred
Carbon
control
Unloading
sintered
products
Table 1
Atmosphere
AGA
class
Air-tonatural
gas ratio
Dewpoint
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Water
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Lean exothermic
Rich exothermic
Endothermic
Associated methanol
Associated ammonia
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
101
102
302
601
9.0
6.0
2.5
20(a)
20(a)
5
15.5
50
60
60
68(b)
68(b)
40
60
60
80
80
84.7
69.8
38.2
25.0
100
1.2
12.2
40.4
65.6
75.0
100
2.5
2.5
0.8
1.7
0.004
0.001
0.001
1.4
10.2
19.8
32.4
10.2
4.9
0.3
0.4
Methane
Hydrogen
to water
Carbon
monoxide to
carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
to carbon
monoxide
0.4
0.5
0.5
4.9
51
39
19,000
100,000
0.1
2.1
66
81
0.9
1.2
2.0
2.0
Note: For nitrogen-base atmospheres, composition, dewpoint, and key ratios can be synthesized over a broad range, depending on which of the above generated atmospheres is blended with the high-purity nitrogen gas. (a)
Control carburization or decarburization, oxidation or reduction, or combination of these. (b) Dewpoint is 6 C (10 F) above temperature of cooling water; dewpoint may be reduced to 5 C (40 F) by refrigeration or to 45
C (50 F) by absorbent tower dehydration. Hydrogen-to-water changes accordingly. Source: Ref 35
Table 2
Furnace zones, sintering phases, and atmosphere requirements to sinter an iron, 2% copper, 1% graphite, and 1% lubricant part
Atmosphere composition (a), %
Temperature
Furnace
zone
Time,
min
Sintering
phase
1 delube
425650
8001200
1030
2 preheat
6501070
12001960
515
3 high
temperature
10701150
19602100
1030
Particle
bonding
4 slow cool
1150815
21001500
515
Carbon
restoring
5 cool down
81550
1500120
3090
Cooling
down,
optionally
oxidizing
Delubing
Elimination
of particle
surface
oxides
Sintering
subphases
Atmosphere
requirement
Hydrogen
(b)
Methane
00.1
Water
0.51.5
Flow
Circulation
Lubricant vaporizing,
vapor burning,
flushing vapors to
entrance
Oxide reducing,
graphite diffusing,
copper melting, and
coating particle
surfaces
Copper diffusing, neck
(bond) growing,
pore rounding
Carbon transferring,
homogenizing
27
Highly reducing to
surface oxides, neutral
to carbon fast, uniform
heat transfer
515
0.10.3
Neutral to carbon
reducing
38
0.20.5
27
0.31.0
Slightly reducing or
neutral (optionally
oxidizing) to iron,
uniform fast cooling
02
00.1
0.010.02 Medium
toward
entrance
0.010.02 Medium
toward
entrance
0.010.02 Low to
medium
partially
toward
exit
Desirable
Highly
desirable
Highly
desirable
(a) Balance is essentially nitrogen with or without small amounts of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. (b) Hydrogen can be derived from hydrogen storage vessel, dissociated ammonia, endothermic gas, or dissociated
methanol. (c) If slightly oxidizing atmosphere is required, water is relatively higher or a small amount of air is introduced along with nitrogen in water-cooled section at a selected location. Source: Ref 35
Fig. 8
Corrosion resistance of various P/M stainless steels. Hours of immersion by open beaker method in 5% NaCl
solution until 1% of surface is covered by rust or stain. Source: Ref 39
Fig. 9
Table 3
Composition, wt%
Tradename(s)
AISI
UNS
JIS
Werk. No.
Mo
M3
M4
T11323
T11304
SKH53
SKH54
1.3344
1.3
1.4
6.25
5.75
5
5
SKH 55
1.3243
1
1.5
1.3
6
5.75
6.25
SKH10
1.3202
1.3241
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.6
2.3
2.1
2.2
12
10
8
11
6.5
14
12
1.3
1.8
6.25
12.5
CPM Rex 54
Isomatrix S390
DEX 80
HAP 70
M62
M61
T11362
T11361
Co
Weq
Hardness, HRC
3
4
16.25
15.75
6567
6567
5
5
5
2
4
3
5
5
8
16
15.75
16.25
6567
6668
6668
5.25
6
2
7
6
9
5
3
4
5
6.5
5.5
5
5
8.5
8
8
10.5
12
12
12
20.5
20
15
20.5
26
30
6668
6769
6769
6668
6769
6870
6971
27.25
25.5
6668
6769
10.5
6.5
2
5
Note: All of the P/M high-speed steels contain about 4% Cr for hardenability in large sections. Silicon, manganese, and sulfur contents are typically 0.50%, 0.30%, and 0.03% maximum, respectively. For select applications
requiring improved machinability, sulfur contents are increased to 0.10 or 0.22% with corresponding increases in the manganese contents. Source: Ref 41
Table 4
Description
Copper-infiltrated steels
Low-alloy steels
Influence of surface effect on the ability to carburize on FC-0202 (0.2C, 2Cu) material. Top
to bottom open surface, closed surface, core. Closed surfaces allow for more uniform absorption and diffusion of
carbon. Etchant: 2% nital
Fig. 10
Ni
Cu
Fe
Mo
F-0000
F-0005
F-0008
F-0200
F-0205
F-0208
FN-0200
FN-0205
FN-0208
FN-0405
FN-0408
FX-1005
FX-1008
FX-2005
FX-2008
FL-4205
FL-4405
FL-4005
FLN-4205
00.3
0.30.6
0.60.9
00.3
0.30.6
0.60.9
00.3
0.30.6
0.60.9
0.30.6
0.60.9
0.30.6
0.60.9
0.30.6
0.60.9
0.40.7
0.40.7
0.40.7
0.40.7
1.03.0
1.03.0
1.03.0
3.05.5
3.05.5
0.350.55
1.702.00
1.352.50(c)
1.53.9
1.53.9
1.53.9
02.5
02.5
02.5
02.0
02.0
8014.9
8014.9
15.025.0
15.025.0
93.898.5
93.598.2
93.297.9
92.298.0
91.998.7
91.698.4
89.996.7
89.694.4
82.591.7
82.291.4
72.484.7
72.184.4
95.90.85
96.398.9
94.597.5
93.9597.75
0.500.85
0.701.00
0.400.80
0.500.85
(a) Metal Powder Industries Federation. (b) Other elements total by difference equals 2.0% max, which may include other minor elements added for
specific purposes. (c) At least 1% of the nickel is admixed as elemental powder.
1120 C followed by tempering at 177 C. During accelerated cooling from the sintering furnace, these parts transform to martensite. Although the sinter-hardening process may not
produce complete transformation to martensite,
the resultant microstructure/property relationship provides considerable flexibility to the P/M
fabricator. The incomplete transformation provides a tensile strength of the order of 70 to 80%
of tempered martensite, and the remaining microstructure consists of porosity, bainite, and
pearlite. The economic advantage of the process
includes the elimination of a separate heat treatment step such as quenching and tempering,
thereby providing a cleaner process with better
dimensional uniformity and yield. Depending on
the variations of belt speed and cooling system,
the percentage of martensite can be altered from
28 to 84% with corresponding hardness values
of 16 to 36 HRC (Ref 52).
It is essential to heat treat P/M tool steels to
develop their properties. Powder metallurgy tool
steels use the same heat treatments as those used
for conventional tool steels, but the former respond more rapidly because of the uniform microstructure and finer carbide size. The heat
treatments include preheating, austenitizing,
quenching, and tempering; the optimal heat
treating temperatures depend on the composition, and the recommendations by the manufacturers should be followed (Ref 53). Powder metallurgy grade tool steels are segregation-free,
and hence the variations in dimensional changes
after heat treatment are smaller than those in conventional tool steels. Cooling rates have a profound influence on the properties of P/M austenitic stainless steels. With very slow cooling,
precipitation occurs preferentially at grain
boundaries, resulting in an increase in strength
and loss in ductility. The carbide precipitation is
detrimental for machinability. When the cooling
Combination atmosphere and vacuum continuous heat treating system. Typical ferrous P/M applications
include hardening, carburizing, carbonitriding, and tempering of automotive transmission and drive-train
components, hydraulic valves, cams, and actuators
Fig. 11
Hot Pressing
The majority of sintered parts are made by
cold compaction in rigid dies followed by sintering. Since metals are softer at elevated temperatures, it is possible to achieve higher densities using hot pressing or pressure sintering. The
powder or green compact is subjected to heat and
pressure. Resistance sintering under pressure,
electrically activated pressure sintering, and
spark sintering are the variations of hot pressing.
The die material in hot pressing may be alumina,
silicon carbide, superalloys, refractory metals
and their alloys, or graphite, and the latter can
be heated by direct resistance or by external resistance or induction heating. Depending on the
die materials, temperatures as high as 2200 C
and pressures of the order of 160 MPa can be
used. The atmosphere may be reducing, inert, or
vacuum.
Investigation on the hot pressing of iron powders between 100 and 1000 C indicates that the
compaction rate is larger during -c transformation than at temperatures just below or above
the transformation. Furthermore, the compaction
rate is much larger below the Curie point than
above (Ref 54). High-carbon steel powder containing 1.89% C produced by nitrogen gas atomization has been vacuum hot pressed at 700
C to more than 99% of theoretical density at 0.9
ks at 160 MPa and for 7.2 ks at 100 MPa (Ref
55). The analysis of densification showed the superplastic flow of each powder plays an important role in the densification process.
Hot Isostatic Compaction. Some of the limitations of hot pressing such as problems in producing higher length-to-diameter ratios, complex shapes, and larger components can be
overcome by HIP. The temperature of HIP varies
from 400 to 3000 C and pressures of the order
of 20 to 300 MPa, depending on the material.
Heating elements such as graphite, tungsten, tantalum, platinum, molybdenum, kanthal, and nichrome are used, and the pressurizing medium
can be inert gas such as nitrogen, argon, helium,
or vacuum. A typical HIP unit consists of a pressure vessel, gas storage, handling system, power
supply, controls, and instrumentation (Ref 56).
Schematic representation of the section of a HIP
pressure vessel with furnace is shown in Fig. 12.
Since the equipment must be able to withstand
high isostatic pressures at elevated temperatures,
a cold pressure vessel with an internal furnace is
preferred. The powder to be consolidated is
packed in a gastight sealed preshaped container
or cold isostatically pressed. The container materials may be glass, ceramic, or a metal or alloy
and should not react with the powder materials,
but should be able to transmit the load to the
powder at elevated temperature. The heat is supplied by the furnace, which is kept inside the
End closure
Wire-wound vessel
W
o
r
k
l
o
a
d
Temperaturecontrolled
hot zone
W
o
r
k
Furnace insulation
mantle
Furnace heater
l
o
a
d
Support and bottom
insulation
Thermocouple
feedthrough
Power feedthrough
Fig. 12
Roll Compaction
Direct rolling of powders into a compacted
green strip with sufficient strength for handling
is achieved in roll compaction. In this process,
the powder from the hopper is carried toward the
roll gap under the roll nip with its apparent density, depending on the powder characteristics in
the static condition forming the incoherent powder zone. Under dynamic conditions when the
rolls are rotating, the friction between rolls and
powder and interparticle friction along with
gravity will carry the powder into the roll gap,
and it will be compacted into a green strip when
using a horizontal mill (Ref 61). The incoherent
powder zone extends over an angular distance
and on the entry side of the rolls with diameter
R and is continuous with the compacted strip on
the exit side of the rolls (Fig. 13). Powder rolling
is used initially for single-layer strip with different porosity. Tooling has been added to guide
powders into the roll compaction zone, and control blades have been designed to regulate the
flow rate of the powder into the mill. Other modifications include a system of side entrants at the
ends of the rolls to prevent the powder from
spilling out of the compaction zone and a system
for continuously dressing the surface of the rolls
to maintain a steady-state friction condition between the rolls and powder. Multilayer strip is
also being produced by simultaneously feeding
separate streams of powders with different layers
into the roll gap. By modifying the powder feeding system, a vertical mill can also be used for
roll compaction. Considering the principle of
metal powder compaction in general, it may be
noted that in the case of compaction, in rigid dies
friction inhibits the compaction process, while
in roll compaction friction assists the compaction.
In addition to direct roll compaction of steel
powders, efforts have also been made to produce
a porous billet by sintering followed by different
Powder Forging
Powder forging is a hot densification process
in which an unsintered, presintered, or sintered
preform made out of powders is forged to higher
densities. It has the advantage of powder metallurgy such as dimensional accuracy and minimum materials waste, along with the high
strength of forging. Plastic deformation and volume change of the sintered powder materials is
different from those of the conventional cast materials because of the porosity in the former case.
In powder preform forging, the preform design
has a significant effect on the metal flow, structure, distribution of the stresses in the material,
and properties of the final product. The mode of
densification during powder forging will depend
on the repressing or upsetting conditions. During
repressing, the extensive flow of the materials in
the lateral direction is prevented by die-wall constraints as the outside diameter of the preform is
close to the outside diameter of the forged part,
and with the approach of full density a hydrostatic condition prevails. A spherical pore becomes ellipsoidal on collapse, with the long axis
close to that of the original pore diameter. The
limited lateral flow of the repressed part restricts
anisotropic properties, while in upsetting forging
considerable lateral flow of the materials takes
place. The stress state around a pore is a combination of normal stress and shear stress, and
the spherical pore becomes flattened and elongated in the direction of lateral flow. This can
result in some amount of anisotropy in upset
forging that is much less than that in wrought
material.
Powder
Hopper
Compaction
rolls
Compacted strip
Hot rolling
Cold rolling
Sintering
Coiler
Fig. 13
Element
Ni (max)
Mo (max)
Ma
Cu
Cr (max)
S (max)
Si (max)
P (max)
C
O
Fe
P/F-10xx
P/F-10Cxx
P/F-11xx
P/F-11Cxx
P/F-42xx
P/F-46xx
P/F-44xx
P/F-49xx
0.10
0.05
0.100.25
0.30 max
0.10
0.025
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
0.10
0.05
0.10.025
1.82.2
0.10
0.025
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
0.10
0.05
0.300.60(a)
0.30 max
0.10
0.23(a)
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
0.10
0.05
0.300.60(a)
1.82.2
0.10
0.23(a)
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
0.400.50
0.550.65
0.200.35
0.15
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
1.752.00
0.500.60
0.100.25
0.15
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
0.10 max
0.800.95
0.080.18
0.15
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
0.10 max
1.41.6
0.080.18
0.15
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.03
(b)
(c)
bal
(a) Covers manganese sulfide additions of from 0.3 to 0.5 wt%. The manganese content in solution is similar to P/F-10xx or P/F-10Cxx, i.e., 0.100.25 wt%. (b) Carbon content specified by the purchaser. (c) When required,
maximum oxygen content shall conform to the amount specified by the purchaser. Source: Ref 69
Automatic
handling
100%
weighing
Sintering
Compacting
Buffer
Shot-peening
Fig. 14
Automatic
handling
Protective
atmosphere
Signing
Forging
Powder
filling
Ejecting
Compacting
Preform
inserting
Forged
connnecting rod
Ejecting
Forging
Fig. 15
Steel
powder
these ferrous powders include soft magnetic materials, low-alloy steels, stainless steels, and tool
steels. The prominent binder categories are thermoplastic, thermosetting, water-based, inorganic, and gelatin systems. The binder systems
consist of a binder, a plasticizer to reduce the
viscosity of the binder, and surfactants to lower
the surface energy for mixing. Wax polypropylene system is a typical binder system for MIM.
The ratio of metal powder to binder or the solids
loading determines the viscosity, debinding rate,
dimensional control, and shrinkage. The mixing
should result in a homogeneous powder/binder
mixture free from segregation, and the binder
constituents should fill all the interstitial spaces
between particles, at the same time forming a
thin layer around each particle. The mix is granulated into solid pellet feedstock that can be
stored or fed into the injection molding machine.
The rheological properties of the feedstock are
important; the viscosity at the molding temperature should allow the feedstock to flow smoothly
into the die cavity without segregation, and the
mix should become rigid on cooling. The feedstock is extruded into the die cavity and is heated
with careful control of the nozzle and die temperature of the injection molding machine.
Molds with multiple cavities can produce several
parts during each injection, thereby reducing the
unit cost of the parts.
The parts are subjected to debinding by heating the green compact, and this will lead to the
melting, decomposing, and/or evaporation of the
binder. This process will take several hours, depending on the section thickness of the product.
Catalytic debinding could reduce the debinding
Binder
Premixing
Granulation
Hot mixing
Granules
Debinding
Mold
Hot plunger
Molding
Sintering
Fig. 16
Sintered parts
Spray Forming
This is a potential manufacturing process for
producing semifinished and finished engineering
components economically. In this process, molten metal or alloys are atomized in an inert gas
atmosphere at high pressure to give a spray of
liquid particles that is directed onto a substrate,
where they impinge, flatten into thin disks or
splats, coalesce, and solidify to produce a coherent deposit. The process gives a short route
from a melt to a product with fine grain size,
freedom from segregation, and enhanced mechanical properties. The product can be a strip
that can be subsequently hot and cold rolled, a
shape that can be forged, or a billet that can be
extruded or deposited on a cool substrate that can
be withdrawn as a continuous tube. The process
offers a reduced number of operations and increased material yields, resulting in significant
economic benefits (Ref 73). Many metallurgical
benefits are possible through rapid solidification
such as fine grain size, no segregation, and low
oxygen content for high-alloy materials. Spray
deposition is also attractive for new alloy composition, special products such as laminates, and
metal-matrix composites.
Spray forming in the Osprey mode has become a viable technology for the production of
near-net-shape preforms. Scientific knowledge
has been utilized in process control and optimization of spray forming. The process is being
developed commercially for the cost-effective
fabrication of tubular and billet-shaped products
from stainless steels, cast iron, and tool steels.
The alloys fabricated by spray forming frequently exhibit improved mechanical properties
over ingot metallurgy products (Ref 74).
High-quality seamless stainless steel tubes,
high-speed steels, and other high-alloy materials
Warm Compaction
Powder metallurgy end users are demanding
densities higher than the traditional values of less
than 7.1 g/cm3 and improved mechanical properties for ferrous P/M parts. Traditionally,
higher-density cores are obtained by copper infiltration, double pressing and double sintering,
high-temperature sintering, or by powder forging. However, these techniques involve secondary processing and a significant increase in the
cost of production. Relative costs of P/M processes versus part density is shown in Fig. 17
(Ref 76). Warm compaction is a technique by
which higher densities and improved mechanical
properties are achieved by single compaction,
using heated powders and tooling in the range of
75 to 150 C, in a standard compacting press.
When the powder is heated, the compressive
yield strength of the powder is reduced substantially, depending on the temperature, resulting in
higher densities at lower compaction pressures.
Since the powder and tooling are heated to 130
to 150 C, special lubricants have to be developed to perform at these temperatures. However,
the enhanced lubricity of the lubricant at elevated temperatures results in a lower amount of
lubricants of the order 0.6% instead of the traditional 0.75% in conventional compaction, resulting in the attainment of higher green and sintered densities (Ref 77). Among the advantages
of warm compaction, mention may be made of
Fig. 17
Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping (RP) processes allow for
the production of prototypes directly out of
three-dimensional
computer-aided
design
(CAD) data. Complex shaped parts, including
those with undercuts or hollow inserts, can be
manufactured without the use of molds or tools
within hours. The three-dimensional description
of the object can be CAD design, computer tomograph, finite-element analysis, or from the
digitization of a master pattern. The development of stereolithography (SLA) has enabled use
of the digital information to create a part directly
from the CAD solid model. The file of the part
is sectioned by a software program into thin horizontal slices. With the introduction of appropriate process parameters, the part is manufactured
by the RP machine. Subsequent to the introduction of SLA process, other RP processes were
developed that convert powders into objects by
using machine movements determined by algorithms that systematically section a computer
rendering of a part. The commercial RP processes produce parts in layers using free-forming
material. Among the established RP processes,
mention may be made of laser sintering, selective laser sintering (SLS), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), laser cladding three-dimensional
printing, and multiphase jet solidification (MJS)
(Ref 79). Most MIM powder materials can be
processed by MJS. Excellent properties for 316
stainless steel, where yield strengths double that
of wrought annealed bar with no sacrifice in ductility are routinely achieved by laser-based direct-fabrication processing. A chromium/molybdenum hot-work die steel, H13, was directly
deposited for three-dimensional components, as
the material is commonly used for the die-casting tooling industry (Ref 80). This process can
reduce the time for die production by about 40%.
The advantages of RP include reducing the product cost and development time for a new product.
Powder Production
Residual stress can originate during the production of metal and alloy powders by different
Dimensional stability
Decreasing
Medium
Increasing
Pressing
stresses and reduce the apparent and tap densities, thereby creating problems during compaction, uncontrolled dimensional change during
sintering, and hot consolidation, and may give
rise to residual micropores in the final product,
resulting in inferior fatigue and fracture properties of the product.
Many commercial methods of production of
ferrous powders by electrolytic and chemical
methods require some amount of size reduction
by milling. In addition, high-energy milling
operations are used to produce alloy and composite powders by nonequilibrium process such
as mechanical alloying. Mechanical alloying is
carried out in the solid state to synthesize alloy
powders of very different melting temperatures,
nanocrystalline and amorphous materials, and a
variety of metal and nonmetal composite powders. The process is carried out using elemental
or alloy powders with other constituents in highenergy mills such as large-diameter horizontal
ball mill, planetary mill, SPEX shaker mill, or
attritor. During the process, the collision of milling balls with powder particles and the container
and impeller results in the fracturing and welding
of the particles. The repetitive deformation, fracturing, and welding of the particles during mechanical alloying produce an equilibrium composite powder structure in which the oxide or
other added dispersoid and/or naturally occurring oxide films is about the same as the welded
interlamellas. The laminated structure is further
refined as fracture takes place and the thickness
of the lamella is decreased. Schematic of variation of properties with processing time during
mechanical alloying is shown in Fig. 19. As the
processing time increases, initially welding predominates in ductile materials with an increase
in the particle size, followed by size reduction
and a decrease in particle size. The lamellar
spacing decreases, while the hardness of the
powder particle increases due to strain hardening
and improved distribution of dispersoids. The
mean strain at fracture of the particle initially
decreases rapidly as the larger particles initially
Sintering
Welding
predominates
Heat
treatment
Resintering
Sizing
Particle size
Lamellar spacing
Heat
treatment
Fig. 18
Hardness
Variations in properties
Heat
treatment
Grinding predominates
Sizing
Processing time
Fig. 19
Schematic representation of variation of properties with processing time during mechanical alloying
of pores. However, this shrinkage can be influenced by other factors such as entrapped gases,
which may expand resulting in an increase of
volume. Other factors influencing the expansion
include hydrogen reduction of surface oxides,
and oxidation as a result of poor atmosphere control. Shape changes can also occur due to variations in green densities of a component.
Finer powder generally provides higher
shrinkage than coarser material during sintering,
but the apparent powder density and green density of the former are lower than the latter powders. However, the atomic process in the fine
powders takes place more rapidly during sintering because of larger surfaces, grain boundaries,
and lattice distortions during compaction. The
initial stages of sintering at constant temperature
for a compacted nanometric iron powder of
mean particle size of 30 nm, giving a self-diffusion coefficient of D 6.1 1024 m2 /s at
325 C, provided an activation energy of 59 kJ/
mol, which is four times smaller than the one
traditionally used for sintering microscopic powders, that is, 239 kJ/mole (Ref 95). Thus, even
if surface diffusion is important and shrinkage
experiments cannot take this process into account, mass flux between grain boundary and
neck surface is an important process in the initial-stage sintering of ultrafine powders.
For a better understanding of the process, sintering may be subdivided into three stages. The
first stage consists of solid-state sintering when
interparticle necks are formed by surface and
grain-boundary diffusion. In the second stage,
the particles are still connected by isolated contacts with open pore space, and the diffusion
field of the necks now overlap. With further densification, the three dimensionally interlinked
pore channels close at the narrow sections with
a transition to the third stage, which is characterized by closed and isolated pores. The densification in the third stage is accompanied by
grain coarsening.
During compaction, the powder particles are
subjected to strain hardening and the extent of
strain hardening increases with increasing compaction pressure. In the initial stages of sintering
at lower temperatures, the particles will relieve
the strain hardening through recrystallization as
a result of annealing. However, the high shrinkage rates of real compacts in the initial stage of
solid-state sintering cannot be explained with
diffusion as the elementary materials transport
mechanism. This stage is characterized by the
existence and formation of high densities of various types of defects as well as high rates of densification. The quantitative defect analysis made
on the basis of positron lifetime measurements
demonstrates the existence of vacancy clusters
and dislocations as well as their time-related
density change and interaction (Ref 96). There
is a drastic decrease of the mean defect density
and considerable shrinkage as well as a high rate
of shrinkage. The excess vacancies originating
in the course of restructuring the mechanical
contact into a high-angle boundary agglomerate
into clusters in the contact region. They interact
pare different powders, alloys, and manufacturing processes to find the most efficient alternative to achieve the best dimensional precision of
P/M parts.
Microstructures of high-speed tool steel. (a) CPM T15. (b) Conventional T15. Carbide segregation and its
detrimental effects are eliminated with the CPM process, regardless of the size of the products. Source: Crucible
Material Corporation
of retained austenite. In plain carbon and lowalloy steel that must be tempered at low temperature to achieve the required hardness, single
or repeated low temperature treatment below
martensite finish (Mf) temperature can cause
most of the retained austenite to transform to
martensite. The low-temperature treatment is
carried out in a commercial refrigeration unit at
about 70 to 90 C, either before or after the
first temper. If the tool materials tend to crack
because of the additional stress induced by dimensional expansion during low-temperature
treatment, it is preferable to carry out the treatment after the first tempering of the tool. When
the low-temperature treatment is applied after
the first temper, the amount of retained austenite
that transforms the treatment may be considerably less than that desired because some of the
austenite might have been stabilized by tempering prior to low-temperature treatment, and in
such cases the tools must be retempered after
return to room temperature following low-temperature treatment so as to reduce the internal
stresses and to increase the toughness of the
newly formed martensite. It is desirable in some
tools to retain a small percentage of retained austenite for improving toughness and providing a
favorable internal stress pattern that will help the
tool withstand the service stresses, and in such
cases it is necessary to avoid the full stabilizing
treatment.
Distortion of the tool steel can also occur due
to a higher austenitizing temperature or due to
surface chemical reactions. Higher-temperature
austenitizing of tool steel will lead to grain
growth and more stabilized austenite. These conditions, along with larger thermal gradients during heating and quenching, will result in irregular dimensional changes of the products.
Surface reactions such as carburization and decarburization can change the surface temperature
and subsurface transformation, causing compressive or tensile stresses leading to cracking or
distortion. Residual stresses can also originate
from mechanical or thermal treatments such as
forming, grinding, and machining, or during
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Conclusions
The P/M process has emerged as an advanced
manufacturing technology for the mass production of precision parts for general engineering,
automotive, electrical, electronic, and aerospace
industries. The process has become competitive
with other metalforming technologies, and there
is a continuous growth in the areas of steels,
stainless steels, tool steels, and metal-matrix
composites, which are difficult or impossible to
produce by conventional methods. The growing
powder-processing technologies include warm
compaction, liquid-phase sintering, high-temperature sintering, hot isostatic pressing, powder
forging, metal injection molding, and rapid prototyping.
Studies of residual stresses during the various
stages of powder metal processing are very fascinating and important from the view point of
producing quality products. These include the
production of metal powders by atomizing, nonequilibrium processing such as rapid solidification and mechanical alloying, compaction of
metal powders, sintering, hot pressing and hot
isostatic pressing, heat treatment and working
such as powder forging, and other P/M processes. However, only very limited investigations have been carried out in P/M processing,
and the major reported areas include heat treatment, microstructural evolution, and increasing
the fatigue life of sintered and powder-forged
components. In these cases, the residual-stress
measurements have been carried out using hardness and x-ray techniques, and more powerful
techniques such as neutron diffraction are yet to
be investigated. There is a need to develop prediction methods and measurement techniques for
residual stress measurements in P/M products,
and a better understanding of optimized residual
stresses can offer benefits such as enhanced service behavior and reliability to the components.
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Composite Powders, P. Ramakrishnan,
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S.I. Hulten, Evaluation of Iron Powders for
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F. Miami, A. Zambon, and E. Ramous,
Diffusion Bonding of Nickel Metal Powder on Iron Powders: A Microstructural
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Congress (Granada, Spain), Vol 1, European Powder Metallurgy Association,
1998, p 245
G. Zapf and K. Dalal, Introduction of Oxygen Affinity Elements Manganese, Chromium and Vanadium in the Powder Metallurgy
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Parts,
Modern
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Y. Trudel, M. Gangne, and F. Racicot, Design Criteria for the Manufacturing of Low
Alloy Steel Powders, Advances in Powder
Metallurgy, Vol 5, Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1991, p 45
R.J. Causton and T. Cimino, High Density
Processing of Cr-Mn P/M Steels, Advances in Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials, Vol 5, Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1992. p 89
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S.A. Miller and R.S. Miller, Real Time Visualization of Close-Coupled Gas Atomization, Advances in Powder Metallurgy
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46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
Metal
composition
Fig. 1
Hot rolling
profile with an initially spatially constant temperature distribution results in a strong inhomogeneous temperature field and a thermal
stress state. If the rail is free from external constraint, of course, neither a resultant moment nor
a resultant force can appear due to pure cooling.
Although the understanding of such a temperature field is of a certain technical interest and
has been a topic of research for many years, little
literature exists on the residual stress state due
to cooling. We use the word certain, because
some experts argue that only the stress state after
the roller straightening process, which follows
the cooling process, is of any relevance. However, if one wants to understand why the rail is
curved after cooling and if there are ways to reduce the curvature as much as possible, one has
to study the cooling process very carefully. Evidently, the curved size after cooling is the input
information for the straightening process. The
residual stress state due to cooling, however, is
fully eliminated during the straightening process.
One of the first papers dealing with residual
stresses in rails after cooling was published by
Mayer in the 1930s (Ref 1). Mainly experimental
work is reported. The method of cutting the rail
profile into small square columns (the sectioning method) was used, which obviously is too
inaccurate to give a really clear picture. A paper
later published by Asbeck et al. (Ref 2) also discusses experimental results.
One of the reasons for the near-absence of numerical and analytical work on residual stresses
in rails is the difficult geometry. Therefore, the
first real progress toward a better understanding
of the history of the residual stress state and the
deformation of the rail could be achieved by applying the finite element method (FEM), as in
one of the first works in this field by Marcelin et
al. (Ref 3). This paper could not provide a clear
picture about the development of the residual
Cooling
Straightening
Mounting
and welding
Fig. 2
(1)
(3)
(2)
Fig. 3
( kgkJ K (
1.0
Tref
(H)dH/(T Tref)
(Eq 1)
ri,j ui,j ei ej r Ai(T i4 T j4)
Q
where (H) is the instantaneous linear coefficient of thermal expansion at temperature H including both the temperature-induced and the
transformation-induced volume changes. Tref is
chosen to be 900 C.
As mentioned, the austenite-pearlite transformation takes place in the temperature range between 690 and 610 C. The latent heat q in W/
m3 set free during this phase transformation can
be represented either as a heat source on the right
side of the heat conduction equation or, approximately, by an artificial increase qDcp of the specific heat capacity qcp according to the relation
with the time t:
q(cp Dcp)
qDcp
T
T
div(k grad T) q qcp
t
t
div(k grad T)
T
qDcp
q
(Eq 2)
t
DT
q
Dt
qDcp
q Dt
DT
(Eq 3)
( mW K (
k(K 1)
25.016
50
and
ui, j 12(sin 1 sin 2)
Cp
20.016
40
2 3
6.1
0.6
15.106
30
6
= 15
2 = 83
0.4
10.106
20
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1100
Temperature, C
15 14 13
Fig. 4
Dependence of the heat capacity, cp; conductivity, k, and the mean coefficient of the thermal expansion, m,
on temperature. Source: Ref 4
(Eq 5)
0.8
(Eq 4)
Fig. 5
10
12 11
(Eq 6)
DT
h 1.42
L
(Eq 7)
L
DT
h 1.32
(Eq 8)
2o
3o
6o
4u
2u
Fig. 7
7
5u
3u
6u
Approximated cross section for convection.
Source: Ref 4
96
57
25
89
5o
4o
100
100
93
h 1.61
DT
(Eq 9)
87
87
800
780
760
103
103
740
740
720
97
97
680
680
112
107
720
660
640
Fig. 8
Fig. 6
Heat flux into the surroundings in percent of the total heat flux. Source: Ref 4
Ref 4
680
740
720
680
660
h
pl
TP
eij eel
ij eij eij eij
(Eq 10)
where eel
ij is the elastic part of the strain tensor;
ehij the thermal part being m(T Tref)dij; dij denotes the unity tensor, epl
ij the plastic part and, as
mentioned, eTP
ij the TRIP part. The TRIP part
(see Fischer et al., 1996) is derived as:
e TP
ij
490
3
dw
K
f sij
2
df
5
1
d
6 ry*
(Eq 11)
520
580
610
670
640
670
640
640
Fig. 9
100
100
50
150
100
50
Fig. 11
Longitudinal stresses in MPa along the axis of symmetry after 20 min cooling time. Source: Ref 4
Fig. 12
Longitudinal stresses in MPa along the axis of symmetry at the end of cooling. Source: Ref 4
75
"Mixture"
rule
50
Trip
25
0
600
650
700
Temperature, C
750
Fig. 10
100
50
50
100
E T(z,t)z dA
A
(Eq 12)
(Eq 13)
xi
w
| xi 0
(Eq 14)
(Eq 15)
(Eq 16)
2M
Q
tx
t
(Eq 17)
mh
x
t
(Eq 18)
(Eq 19)
and, therefore:
Q
x
p(x)|M 0
(Eq 20)
Equation 20 allows the conclusion that the middle section M is not affected by any friction
force during cooling:
M(x,t)|M mh
Q(x,t)|M 0
p(x,t)|M 0
(Eq 21)
L 30 m
f, cm
f
50
0
3
9.103
t, s
50
100
150
Fig. 13
100
50
50
100
150
200
Longitudinal stresses in MPa of a head-hardened rail along the axis of symmetry at the end of cooling. Source:
Ref 4
Fig. 14
xN
p(x)dx 0
p(x)(xN x)dx mh
xi
l*
l* (mh(t)/lq)1/2
(Eq 22)
n 2 2.387,
n 3 2.802,
n 4 2.948,
n 5 3.003,
n 6 3.024,
z
W(x, t )
z
T(z, t )
z
x
x0
m (t )
22
q
+ q
11
x2(t )
x3(t )
x i (t )
xN(t )
End portion
L( t )
Straight
middle
part
Width, cm
x1(t )
6
11
22
w
t
33
0.0
4
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
Length, m
Displacement of a 100 m rail depending on the
cooling time. 1, 400 s; 2, 660 s; 3, 920 s; 4,
1200 s; 5, 3600 s; 6, 6000 s; 7, 36,000 s. Source: Ref 4
Fig. 16
Fig. 15
100
3
, N/mm2
50
0
2
1
2
50
3
100
1
150
0
10
20
30
50
40
Length, m
Fig. 17
Longitudinal stresses of a rail lifted off the cooling bed. Source: Ref 6
100
2
, N/mm2
50
0
2
3
1
50
3
100
Roller Straightening
Roller deflection
Fig. 21
Roller-straightening process
150
0
10
20
30
50
40
Length, m
Fig. 18
Longitudinal stresses of a rail lifted off the cooling bed. Source: Ref 6
100
3
3
50
, N/mm2
1
0
2
2
50
100
1
150
0
10
20
30
40
50
Length, m
Fig. 19
Longitudinal stresses of a rail lifted off the cooling bed. Source: Ref 6
150
Fig. 20
100
50
0
N/mm2
50
100
150
Scatterband of longitudinal residual stresses of unstraightened rails from literature. Source: Ref 4
Strain
gage
1m
20 mm
Saw cut
Fig. 22
100
200
300 MPa
Head
Web
Foot
Fig. 23
300
200
Stress, MPa
100
0
100
200
300
Fig. 24
100
50
Rail height, mm
150
length should not be exceeded. In steel, for example, the maximum path length is only a few
centimeters. Webster (Ref 31), therefore, chose
a longitudinal and a normal plate of the rail for
the analysis. The gage volume was 2 2 2
mm3, which is typical for neutron diffraction.
Hence, the results are averaged values inside this
volume. In qualitative terms, his results are well
in accordance with the ORE Report (Fig. 23 and
24). Just near the head surface a certain stress
reversal was observed. The longitudinal tensile
stresses dropped from a maximum beneath the
surface to a lower value at the surface. Already
the ERRI report mentioned that results near the
specimen surface must be interpreted with caution due to the extrapolation of the data. An additional problem near the surface is parasitic
peak shifts if the neutron gage is not entirely
immersed in the specimen. Hauk and Kockelmann (Ref 32) also reported a steep stress gradient near the surface with compressive stresses
at the surface. The stresses were measured by xray diffraction. But in their paper the longitudinal residual stresses changed from compressive
to tensile stresses within 0.1 mm beneath the surface. Thus, the general stress pattern seems to be
clear, although near the surface there are still uncertainties (Fig. 24).
Behavior of Rail Steel under Plastic Deformation. There are different types of rail steel:
the plain carbon, the alloy, and the heat treated
qualities. The different qualities should maximize the lifetime of the rails under different operating conditions. In this case the focus is on
describing the behavior of these steels under cyclic plastic deformation. Plastic deformation
causes the material to undergo a certain change
in shape and remains after the removal of the
outer forces. In the case of straightening of rails
and rails in service, the loading occurs repeatedly
and with changing signs. Therefore, the emphasis is on the cyclic plastic deformation.
Plastic deformation is based mainly on the
gliding of lattice planes in the crystalline structure of metals; this gliding requires dislocations
in the lattice. Although a certain amount of dislocations are always present in a metal, they are
also generated by the plastic deformation itself.
On the other hand, the piling up of dislocations
decreases the mobility of the dislocation again,
and the material shows hardening. If loading is
reversed, it has often been observed that the elastic limit increases in one loading direction while
it decreases in the opposite loading direction.
This is called the Bauschinger effect and has to
be considered in the case of cyclic loading (Fig.
25).
Polycrystalline materials in the virgin state are
isotropic. von Mises assumed that only the second invariant of the stress tensor accounts for the
elastic limit. The material shows elastic behavior
as long as the stress state stays within the von
Mises yield surface. Thus, his theory is also
called J2-flow theory, which is a good approximation of real metal behavior.
After plastic deformation the material is no
longer isotropic, and additional internal state
2
J2(Sij ij) 12(Sij ij)(Sij ij) 13rY
(Eq 24)
(Eq 25)
400
nij
0
0.005 0.000
200
0.005
0.010
400
600
800
/Pa
800
Stress, MPa
600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0.005
0.005
0.010
0.005 0.000
200
0.005
0.010
400
200
600
400
800
600
Fig. 25
/Pa
800
600
p
ij
400
200
Sij
Sij ij
0.010
0.005 0.000
200
0.005
0.010
400
ij
600
Fig. 26
800
Fig. 27
von Mises yield surface and its shift due to kinematic hardening in the principal stress space
(Eq 27)
2 n p
p
c e ij c nnije eqv
3
(Eq 28)
200
Then a modified von Mises yield surface for kinematic hardening is necessary, where rY is the
common elastic yield value in a simple tensile
test:
0.010
nij
n1
600
(Eq 23)
Strain
0.010
(Eq 26)
/Pa
800
0.010
rij rdev
rhyd
Sij dij 13tr(rij)
ij
ij
c n and c n are the kinematic hardening parameters, which are different for each backstress component.
The kinematic hardening equations take into
account the transient hardening effects in each
stress-strain loop. The merit of Chaboches
model is its easy mathematical structure, which
allows a simple way to determine model parameters. The parameters can be determined from a
simple cyclic uniaxial tension-compression test.
Chaboches model allows an almost exact representation of the hysteresis curve under cyclic
loading if the material shows no out-of-phase
hardening. This out-of-phase hardening or additional hardening may occur if the strain paths
change from longitudinal to shear paths and vice
versa during the loading. Such nonproportional
paths occur during the roller contacts. A comprehensive study about the latest developments
in material models can be found in the thesis of
Jiang (Ref 33) and in Chaboche (Ref 34) (Fig.
27).
Because rail steel shows no out-of-phase
hardening, a good representation of the plastic
response of the material can be obtained with
Chaboches multiple component plasticity
model. The use of a simpler material model requires caution because it can strongly influence
the calculated results on residual stresses.
Simulation of the Roller Straightening. Different attempts were made to simulate the roller
straightening. Brunig (Ref 35) used beam elements of different widths accounting for the special cross section of the rail. He already used an
enhanced two-surface plasticity model. Because
elements covering the whole width do not allow
a variation of stresses along the width, his results
are, at best, average values. He also stated that
the contact pressure at the rollers had only a minor influence on the residual stresses. Naumann
(Ref 36) investigated a full three-dimensional
FEM model with an explicit integration method,
a coarse mesh, and linear kinematic hardening.
However, he did not publish residual stress results from his calculations. In contrast to Brunig,
Naumann stated that the pressing of the rollers
into the rail head and foot is in fact responsible
for the residual stress pattern. Weiser (Ref 37)
applied straightening mechanics on a slice of
The results of this simulation showed a Cshaped residual stress pattern. The submodeling
technique was also tested with two-dimensional
models and was found to be correct. Thus, new
evidence was found with this model that the general idea of the residual stress pattern is true.
Already Wineman (Ref 29) and others stated that
a shortening of the material in the rail head and
foot due to the rolling contact leads to tensile
residual stresses. In Fig. 30 the total strains of a
subsurface element in the middle of the rail head
during the straightening process are shown. The
dominant mechanism is that a small element in
the head or base near the roll becomes shorter in
length (e33), shorter in height (e22), and wider
(e11). This leads to a mismatch in length between
200
200
150
150
50
/MPa
100
50
100
0
50
50
50
150
100
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Foot
0.8
1.0
Mesh of the submodel of a UIC60 rail and longitudinal residual stresses in MPa along the symmetry line after
the straightening and as a contour plot
Fig. 29
20
16
11
12
8
3
4
0
33
4
8
22
16
Submodel
+
Fig. 28
+
+
0
200
Head
12
50
Strain, 10
Roller 2
Roller 3
Roller 4
Roller 5
Roller 6
Roller 7
Roller 8
Time
Fig. 30
Total strains in the subsurface layer in the middle of the head during roller straightening. e11 is the vertical
strain (width), e22 is the horizontal strain (height), and e33 is the longitudinal strain.
Rails in Service
Temperature Influence. The influence of
ambient temperature on the residual stresses
should be mentioned. Like all other materials,
steel has a certain thermal expansion coefficient.
Therefore, rails expand or shrink due to temperature changes. With an expansion coefficient
of 12 106 the longitudinal stresses shift
by 25 MPa (4 ksi) with a temperature change of
10 C. Under hot conditions rails can buckle,
while under cold conditions again tensile
stresses increase the possibility of rail fracture.
Therefore, railway administrations try to mount
the rails at average temperatures.
Residual Stresses due to Welding. Railway
rails are produced in lengths up to about 100 m.
In the past bolting was the common method of
joining rails on the track, but at these joints repeated impacts occur, increasing the possibility
of rail failure. Also, a different residual stress
pattern at the rail endsthe longitudinal stresses
in the head and in the base change to vertical
tensile stresses in the websupport web cracks.
And finally, passenger comfort is decreased by
the bumps and additional side forces in curves.
Currently rails are joined by welding. As a
result, the rail is continuous, and no bumps or
0
3
2
3
1
, MPa
200
200
1
400
y/a
Fig. 31
y/a
400
2
2
300
New
Used
200
3
100
0
4
100
Foot
200
Fig. 32
Web
Head
50
100
Rail height, mm
150
1
2
3
4
3
Free rolling
q = 0.3
q = 0.75
q = 1.0
4
0.085 0.17
res
x/po
(a)
1
2
3
Free rolling
q = 0.3
q = 0.7
0.085
res
x/po
(b)
Longitudinal residual stresses rx due to free rolling, q 0, (a) acceleration q 0 and (b) braking q 0. y is
the depth, a is the contact half length, p0 is the maximum of the Hertz contact pressure distribution, and q is
the ratio of normal and tangential force. Source: Ref 46
Fig. 33
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
REFERENCES
1. H. Mayer, Residual Stresses in Railroad
Rails, Organ f.d. Fortschritt des Eisenbahnwesens, Vol 91, 1936, p 320329 (in German)
2. H.O. Asbeck and M. Heyder, Residual
Stresses in Unused Rails after Cooling and
Straightening, Eisenbahntechnische Rundschau, Vol 26, 1977, p 217222 (in German)
3. J.L. Marcelin, M. Abouat, and J.L. Chenot,
Analysis of Residual Stresses in Hot-Rolled
Complex Beams, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech.
& Eng., Vol 56, 1986, p 116
4. E. Hinteregger, Residual Stresses and Distortion of Rails after Rolling before
Straightening, Ph.D. thesis, Montanuniversitat Leoben, 1990 (in German)
5. F.D. Fischer, E. Hinteregger, and F.G. Rammerstorfer, The Influence of Different Geometrical and Thermal Boundary Conditions
and the Phase Transformation on the Residual Stress State in Railroad Rails after HeatTreatment, International Conference on Residual Stresses, ICRS 2, G. Beck, S. Denis,
and A. Simon, Ed., Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York, 1989, p 467
471
6. E. Hinteregger, F.D. Fischer, F.G. Rammerstorfer, and A. Joller, Calculation of the
Longitudinal Residual Stresses of Long
Rails during Cooling, Berg- und Huttenmannische Monatshefte (BHM), Vol 135,
1990, p 437441 (in German)
7. ABAQUS Finite Element Analysis Products, Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorensen Inc.,
www.hks.com
8. J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill-Kogakusha Ltd., Tokyo et al.,
1976
9. A. Moser, P. Pointer, and G. Prskawetz,
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
peak of residual stress vary, depending on distribution of carbon, quench condition, and properties of the steel used. Various investigations on
the residual stress state of case-hardened steels
have been done, and many simulation models are
being developed to estimate the distribution of
residual stress in relation to various controlling
factors as follows (Ref 17):
Distribution of longitudinal, tangential, and
pseudocarburized steel
gradient
condition
bility
ments of the core. When the carbon concentration becomes higher than 0.75 or 0.8% C, retained austenite is observed in relation to alloy
elements and results in a decrease of surface
hardness as retained austenite volume increases.
Generally, 20 to 30% of residual austenite is observed when surface carbon percentage is around
0.85 to 0.9%. The amount of retained austenite
increases by increasing carbon concentration at
the surface layer.
Distribution of Residual Stress in
Carburized-and-Hardened Steels. The surface
layer of carburized-and-hardened steels has compressive residual stresses as shown in Fig. 1, and
the compressive residual stresses counteract applied tensile stresses and improve bending fatigue strength. The typical profile of residual
stress produced in carburized-and-hardened steel
depth
800
700
A
0.8
600
500
0.6
Hardness, HV
0.4
B
0.2
Residual stress, kg/mm2
0
10
C
20
30
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
Depth from surface, mm
1.6
Carbon gradient, hardness, and longitudinal residual stress produced in carburized-andhardened steel. Carburized 5 h at 925 C, quenched at 860
C. A: SCM 22, 9 mm diam; B: S15CK, 25 mm diam; C:
SCM 420, 9 mm diam. Source: Ref 6
Fig. 1
Tensile
stress
Case
Core
Radial
0
Compressive
stress
Longitudinal
Tangential
tg
ax*
20
tg*
40
ax
60
80
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.8
1.0
20
tg*
40
tg
60
ax*
80
ax
100
120
0.2
0.4
0.6
Depth
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Preamp A
Preamp B
Delay line
Diffracted
x-rays
C
0
Cathode
10
E
10
20
20
X-ray tube
Incidence
x-rays
20
40
Crystal grain
0
0.08
0.04
Depth from surface, in.
TA = D, TB = D(L )
0.12
TA TB = D(L 2)
d
Fig. 4
Principle of detector used in x-ray stress measurement by PSPC system. Delay time per unit: Dns /mm; time to
produce output at A: TA; at B: TB; TB TA position v. h, x-ray angle; v, distance from edge of counter end;
g, reflection angle of x-ray; L, length of counter; D, delay time (n s/mm); d, lattice space of the crystal grain. Source: Ref
10
Fig. 5
itself are measured on limited samples. Measurement of residual stresses of gears takes a
long time, and a lot of laboratory work is necessary; therefore, quality control of gear strength
needs precise process control of key factors.
Bending fatigue strength of gear teeth depends
on hardness, case depth, and magnitude of compressive residual stresses at the tooth root portion. Measurement of residual stress at this point
is not easy because of limited space and round
root shape, and the measured value is not as accurate as measured stresses on flat testpieces or
other open faces. Surface residual stress of production gears varies more than that of simple
shape test samples heat treated in precisely controlled conditions.
Residual Stress Variation at Tooth Root
Surface of Induction-Hardened and Carburized Gears. Table 2 shows the variation in residual stress measured at the foot of gear teeth
of induction-hardened gears and carburized-andhardened gears. Compressive residual stresses
produced in induction-hardened gears are higher
than that of carburized gears, and their variation
is smaller than that of carburized gears. This dif-
quenching is controlled to about 0.9% C and directly quenched in hot oil of 130 C. The residual
stress level was 24.8 4.25 kg/mm2 in compression, which is quite an agreeable result compared with that of other testpieces carburized and
quenched in same furnace.
Axial Stress Distribution Estimated in Carburized Gear during Quenching (Ref 11).
Figure 8 shows the details of generation of axial
stress distribution estimated by calculation of a
carburized gear during quenching. In the early
stages, the contour areas of equal stress were almost unaffected by the surface profile. Later, a
zone of high compressive stress distribution occurred in the central subsurface portion of the
teeth. Such high stress has a large influence on
transformation plasticity and determines distortion, sometimes resulting in cracking.
During cooling, stress distribution changes are
caused by shrinkage and expansion by transformation to martensite. The state of stress distribution is estimated by a simulation model, as
shown in Fig. 8. However, in actual quenching,
the cooling speeds at the tooth tip and tooth foot
differ extensively, and vapor generation accel-
20
SCM 420
600
50 HRC (513 HV)
500
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10
20
S
O
H
30
40
300
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
S15CK
(a)
TCD
20
10
10
Residual stress, kg/mm2
400
Carbon content, %
ECD
Hardness, HV (5)
700
10
800
20
SCM 420
30
0
10
20
40
40
S
O
H
30
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
20
Fig. 6
(b)
Distribution of residual stress produced in carburized plate and cylinder rod. Steel: JIS SCM
420 (Jominy hardenability 12 in. 26.5 HRC), Test piece
size: (a) 20 by 10 by 200 mm, (b) 14 mm diam by 200 mm.
Carburizing process: 920 C for 5 h, quenched from 880
C in JIS 2-1 hot oil (135 C). S, still hot oil; O, mild agitation; H, fast agitation.
Fig. 7
Table 1 Surface residual stress and total area in compressive stress introduced in carburized
plate and rod
JIS SCM 420, Jominy hardenability (12 in.) 26.5 HRC, carburized at 920 C, in continuous carburizing furnace and
quenched in hot oil (135 C)
Agitation
Stress/area
Still oil
Slow agitation
Fast agitation
Plate
Surface residual stress, kg/mm2
Compressive area, %
32, 33
100
21, 32
113.6
36, 45
133.6
Cylinder rod
Surface residual stress, kg/mm2
Compressive area, %
32, 28
100
24, 17
102.4
28, 22
106.8
Table 2
JIS SCr 420, carburized in continuous gas-carburizing furnace and tempered at 160 C for 2 h
Residual stress of sample, kg/mm2
Heat treatment
A-1
A-2
A-3
B-1
B-2
B-3
33.8
2.8
42.7
2.4
31.3
1.6
40.0
5.6
32.7
8.8
32.8
4.4
15.4
2.3
12.4
1.4
0.2
5.0
19.5
17.2
27.1
5.4
Induction hardened
Average
Deviation
Measured at three positions of the foot of one gear. Average stress value r (in kg/mm2). A and B, heat treated in different lots. 13 show different
portions.
900
z = 200 MPa
100
0
100
0
0
0
600
300
300
300
0
300
600
300
300
900
600
600
0
0
900
300
0
300
300
600
900
t=3s
Fig. 8
30 s
60 s
600
Estimated axial stress distribution in carburized gear (SNC815) during quenching. Source: Ref 12
hardness pattern resulting in fluctuation of residual stress profile and distortion. Generally, the
higher the hardenability of steel, the larger the
distortion. On the other hand, the surface residual stress and residual stress profiles produced
by carburizing-and-hardening processes are
complicated, and there seems to be no simple
proportional relation between hardenability and
residual stresses.
Residual stress distribution of two different
grade steels with same alloying elements are
compared in Fig. 9 (Ref 2), which shows a
higher-carbon smaller-diameter AISI 8620 sample with higher surface residual stresses compared with the other two larger AISI 8617 samples. This result indicates the influence of core
hardness or strength. Surface residual stresses of
surface carbon content of 0.95 % C are lowest
compared with the other two samples. In particular, the surface residual stress of deepest case
depth is the lowest compared with thinner case
depth, which seems to be caused by a larger volume percentage of retained austenite.
Areas in compressive stress increase as case
depth increases; however, the residual stress profile of 12.7 mm diam 8620 specimen is a little
different from that of the other two 19.05 mm
diam 8617 samples, where the area in compressive stress increases with increasing case depth.
The differences of three residual distributions indicates the influence of core hardness, case
depth, and specimen size.
Figure 10 shows the influence of steel grade
on residual stress (Ref 3). When surface compressive stress of higher hardenability AISI 8640
is lower than that of AISI 8620, the depth in
compressive residual stresses is deeper than that
of 8620. Similar to Fig. 9 the difference of residual stress distribution in Fig. 10 suggests the
influence of steel hardenability on residual
stress.
The impact strength of carburized-andhardened steels simply decreases as the case
depth and core hardness increase. However, fatigue strength of carburized-and-hardened steels
is influenced by hardenability of steel in relation
with the hardness profile and microstructure produced during the carburizing-and-hardening
operation. Influence of steel hardenability on residual stress distribution is partly shown in Fig.
9 and 10.
10
A
Residual stress, kg/mm2
Lot
A
B
C
D
E
Si
Mn
Cr
Mo
0.13
0.17
0.21
0.23
0.23
0.26
0.28
0.20
0.33
0.35
0.80
0.75
0.80
0.79
0.82
0.013
0.014
0.016
0.014
0.013
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.009
0.014
1.03
1.04
1.11
1.06
1.11
0.21
0.20
0.19
0.19
0.28
20.0
25.7
29.1
34.8
40.1
30
20
30
30
40
60
0
0.04 0.08
10
Fig. 9
30
10
20
30
30
40
60
0
0.12
0.04 0.08
3
10
0.12
10
20
30
30
40
60
0
3.0
10
Residual stress, kg/mm2
2.0
1.0
Fig. 10
10
30
20
40
Source: Ref 6
10
30
Jominy
hardenability
Composition, %
0.04 0.08
JIS SCM 420 chromium-molybdenum casehardening steel grade of different melting lot is
shown in Table 3. Case depth and core hardness
of higher-hardenability steel increase even when
they are carburized and hardened in the same
conditions, as shown in Fig. 11. However, the
surface hardness is not influenced by hardenability of steel produced under a controlled carburizing atmosphere (Ref 6).
Influence of Steel Hardenability on Fatigue Limit and Residual Stresses. Generally,
the residual stress at the surface layer of
carburized-and-hardened steel is compressive
due to the larger expansion caused by transformation to martensite at the near-surface highercarbon layer that balances out the already transformed subsurface lower-carbon concentration
region. Even though the amount of expansion by
transformation is reduced to some extent due to
transformation plasticity, still the carburized
case introduces compressive stresses at the surface layer and tensile stresses at the inner side of
the high-carbon hard case.
The compressive residual stresses introduced
in the outer carburized layer are caused by the
timing of transformation at the last part of
quenching balancing to strength of core. The
core strength is related to the steel hardenability,
and the timing of transformation to low-carbon
martensite proceeds earlier than that of highcarbon case. This preliminary transformation of
0.12
Influence of steel grade and case depth on residual stress profile. (a) 12.7 mm ( 2 in.) diam; AISI 8620; surface 0.80% C; ECD 0.76, 1.27, 2.54 mm. (b) 19.05 mm (34 in.)
diam; AISI 8617; surface 0.95% C; ECD 0.76, 1.40, 2.29 mm. (c) 19.05 mm (34 in.) diam; AISI 8617; surface 0.70% C; ECD 0.76, 1.52, 2.54 mm. Source: Ref 2
1
70
Carburizing time, h
2.5
5.0
8.0
20.0
150
200
60
100
800
Fig. 12 Relation between core hardness and endurance limit of 9 mm diam rotating beam fatigue
test. JIS SCM 420, carburized in muffled gas-carburizing
furnace at 920 C for selected duration and quenched directly in JIS 1-1-1 cold oil (4560 C), and tempered at 160
C for 2 h. Source: Ref 9
700
500
20
Residual stress, kpsi
80
10
0
10
20
20
40
30
60
40
50
80
60
1.2
70
400
2.0
1.0
20
25
30
35
40
1.0
60
Carbon ccontent, %
A cycle
B cycle
C cycle
300
Case depth, mm
Core hardness, HV
Surface hardness, HV
40
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
20
50
100
150
200
0.2
50
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
40
D = 0.3 mm
80
60
40
20
Sectional area, mm2
40
40
D = 0.3 mm
80
60
40
20
40
D = 0.3 mm
40
80
80
40
80
40
80
60
40
Sectional area, mm2
20
40
D = 0.3 mm
80
80
60
40
20
Residual stress distribution produced in AISI 1020 (JIS S10C) and AISI 5120 (JIS SCr 420) test specimen.
Specimen: 11.3 mm diam, 80 mm long. Pack-carburized (surface carbon: 1.0% C) and furnace cooled.
Reheated up to 880 C and quenched in 10% saltwater (20 C), water (20 C), and 40 C oil. Case depth D is distance
from surface to the point of 0.6% C. Source: Ref 14
Fig. 15
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
30
20
10
20
20
30
D
40
10
C
10
Compression
Tension
10
10
30
50
40
60
70
0
0.010
0.030
0.050
0.070
0.090
0.110
0.130
Fig. 16
Carbon content, %
800
800
700
A SCM 420, 9 mm
600
600
500
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
700
Hardness, HV(5)
400
B
A
S15CK,
25 mm
300
0
C
0
Residual stress, kg/mm2
Hardness, HV(5)
10
20
Carbon potential
0.9% C
0.7% C
30
40
1.0
2.0
3.0
10
20
SCM 420, 9 mm
30
B
40
0.4
4.0
0.8
1.0
1.4
1.8
Fig. 18
Surface residual stress of test specimen in relation to effective case depth. Material: JIS SCM
420. 0.9 mm diam rotating beam fatigue testpieces. Carburizing condition in three different carbon potential histories: A, 1.20.9% C/6 h; B, 0.9% C/constant 8 h; C, 0.6
0.9% C/13 h. Source: Ref 17
Fig. 19
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
30
3.0
10
10
Tension
20
20
30
40
30
B
50
40
60
70
0
0.010
0.030
0.050
0.070
0.090
0.110
0.130
10
10
10
Compression
20
A
0
10
20
30
0.8 mm
1.3 mm
2.0 mm
40
50
Fig. 17
1.0
2.0
3.0
Fig. 20
tury, and various conclusions were drawn. However, Fig. 21 shows a clear relationship between
ECD and endurance limit investigated by 9.00
mm diam rotating beam bending fatigue tests.
The approximate value of the optimal ECD for
the 9 mm diam specimen is 1 to 1.2 mm. Endurance limits of shallow ECD and low core
hardness specimen are low due to subsurface
fracture and by increasing case depth or core
hardness fatigue strength. Even though the carburized case is strengthened, the core to case
boundary often originates a fracture, which propagates outward leading to a breakage called fisheye fracture. By increasing case depth, the distribution of materials strength inside the
specimen increases, and all fracture starts from
the surface. The strength of the surface becomes
the key factor, and damage such as grainboundary oxidation, nonmartensite phases at the
surface, and retained austenite reduce the endurance limit. By increasing case depth or core
hardness, fatigue strength can be increased.
However, the peak ECD becomes deeper as the
core hardness increases, and there seems to be a
possibility of obtaining higher endurance limit
JIS SCM 420, Jominy hardenability (12 in.) 25.0. Plate 13 by 35 by 80 mm long and rod 20 mm diam by 80 mm long.
Gas-carburizing temperature: 920 C with carburizing atmosphere of 0.9% C potential for 2.5, 5, 8, and 20 h, quenched
from 860 C in JIS-1-1 cold oil held at 3550 C with agitation and tempered at 160 C for 2h
Residual compressive stress, kg/mm2
Average
Effective case depth, mm
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
Average
Plate
Rod
As carburized
Tempered
As carburized
Tempered
As carburized
Tempered
30.3
28.9
34.7
29.8
30.9
27.0
30.9
30.3
30.0
29.6
30.832.0
27.829.5
34.537.5
30.033.3
32.0
23.929.5
27.033.5
31.034.3
29.533.5
30.2
26.532.8
27.833.0
32.335.5
20.833.0
29.8
26.329.0
29.033.0
28.232.3
27.331.8
29.1
80
10
20
B
C
30
D
40
F
50
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Fig. 21
Relation between effective case depth and surface residual stresses produced in carburizedand-hardened steel. A: 10 by 10 mm, Jominy hardenability
1
1
( 2 in.) (J- 2) 14 HRC; B: 10 by 10 mm, J-12 22 HRC;
C: 20 mm diam, J-12 25 HRC; D: 10 by 35 mm, J-12
25 HRC; E: 10 by 10 mm, J-12 20 HRC; F: 10 by 10 mm,
J-12 35 HRC. Source: Ref 6
Fig. 22
Influence of Microstructure on
Residual Stress and Fatigue Strength
Influence of Retained Austenite on
Residual Stress and Strength of
Carburized Steels
70
Carbon content
(estimated)
10
25
Residual
stress
10
20
Retained
austenite
15
20
10
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
0
10
20
10
Residual stress, kpsi
30
30
0
60
20
SAE 1118
10
Residual
stress
40
10
30
Carbon content
20
10
20
30
10
Retained
austenite
20
10
50
10
20
30
40
50
40
60
30
Fig. 23
0.010
0.020
0.030
0.040
0.050
Direct quench
Single reheat
Double reheat
35
30
Retained austenite, %
SAE 8620
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.0
1.25
Fig. 24
Retained austenite, %
40
Untempered
30
Tempered
20
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Quenchant temperature, C
300
(a)
Retained austenite, %
bon potential control during the carburizing process is very important to get quality products.
Alloy elements added to case-hardening steels
such as nickel, chromium, and manganese increase retained austenite; therefore, surface carbon content should be carefully controlled in carburizing alloyed steels containing nickel,
manganese, and chromium.
Compared with pack carburizing and salt-bath
carburizing, the recent technology in gascarburizing processes are much more stable, and
carbon potential control is easy via the use of
various sensors. However, periodic maintenance
of the oxygen sensor is very important to prevent
excess or shortage of carbon potential due to the
deterioration of any controlling sensors. Therefore, the recent trend toward the use of multi-
40
Untempered
30
Tempered
20
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Quenchant temperature, C
300
(b)
Influence of quench oil temperature and tempering on residual stresses. Variation in surface
retained austenite content of untempered and tempered
carburized (a) AISI 4130 steel, and (b) AISI 1526 steel for
various quenchant temperatures. Source: Ref 18
Fig. 25
JIS SCM 420, gas carburized at 920 C, quenched from 850 C in cold oil of 3550 C, tempered at 160 C for 2h
Retained austenite (a), vol%
Treatment
At carburized surface
At 10 lm, etched
At 30 lm, etched
14.7
16.5
10.6
6.7
21.8
18.5
18.6
11.0
9.15
10.7
11.3
6.7
Carburized-and-hardened surface
Tempered
Subzero, 25 C, treated
Subzero, 75 C, treated
(a) Reliability range: vol% 10%
40
30
Shot blasted
20
Shot peened
(45 HRC, 55 m/s)
Hard shot peened
(53 HRC, 90 m/s)
10
0
0
100
50
150
Fig. 26
120
Hard shot peened
(53 HRC, 90 m/s)
(57
Hard shot peened
(53 HRC, 90 m/s)
100
60
Shot
Shotblasted
blast
40
Carburizing time, (t ), h
10
20
30
Relation between volume of change of retained austenite and maximum residual stress
produced by shot peening of carbonitrided steel. Retained
austenite before shot peening was 32 vol% at the point of
measurement 25 lm from surface. Shot hardness and shot
speed are as indicated. Hardness of shot is indicated by
HRC values. Source: Ref 21
Fig. 27
30
Depth of anomaly, m
As quenched
16
25
20
10
SCM 420
cold oil
No etching
10% nital
SCr 420
cold oil
No etching
10% nital
SCr 420
hot oil
No etching
10% nital
0
0
t
Relation between carburizing time and depth
of grain-boundary oxidation. Material: JIS SCM
420, SCr 420 steels, gas carburized at 920 C in 0.9% C
atmosphere for various times. Quenched from 860 C in
hot and cold oil. Grain-boundary oxidation measured aspolished and etched with nital 10%. Source: Ref 26
Fig. 28
Aging effects proceed gradually and reduce residual stresses as shown in Fig. 33; the change
of residual stress distribution due to aging is different depending on steel grade. As observed in
Fig. 33(a), straight carbon steel loses residual
stress more easily than does nickel and chromium alloy steel (Fig. 33b).
Tempering. Similar to aging phenomena,
tempering also reduces residual stress as observed in Fig. 34 and 35. The reduction of residual stress resulting from tempering differs depending on factors such as steel grade and state
of carbon gradient in relation to microstructures
and tempering condition, as observed in Fig. 34
(Ref 3). The decrease in compressive stress influences distribution, and the stress peak disappears at tempering at temperatures higher than
200 C.
A
B
C
D
90
100
110
120
Fig. 30
(c)
(a)
(b)
Microstructures of grain-boundary anomalies. (a) AISI 8620 steel, gas carburized at 955 C. Specimen shows grain-boundary anomaly to a depth of approximately 0.02
mm. 1% nital. 750. (b) AISI 4118 steel, gas carburized at 955 C. Grain-boundary anomaly to a depth of approximately 0.02 mm. As polished. 750. (c) AISI 8822 steel,
gas carburized 15 h at 925 C, reheated to 840 C, and held 40 min, oil quenched, and tempered 2 h at 150 C. Bainite-pearlite mixture near the surface is visible because of the lighter
etching. 2% picral. 500. Source: Ref 27
Fig. 29
(a)
(b)
(+1.4%)
(c)
(+10%)
(d)
(+12%)
(+25%)
(+47%)
(e)
50
100
Fig. 31
Fig. 32
2
1
0
30
40
20
Axial residual stresses, kg/mm2
10
10
20
1 day
3 days
1 week
15 days
23 days
1 month
after quenching
30
40
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Fig. 33
20
1 day
1 week
15 days
23 days
1 month
after quenching
30
40
0.8
10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
10
0
0
10
20
40
0
Decrease of residual stress distribution due to aging. (a) AISI 1015 (S15CK) carbon steel. (b) AISI 8620 (JISSNC21) nickel-chromium steel. Source: Ref 31
1.0
2.0
3.0
As quench
150 C for 1 h
190 C for 1 h
30
Fig. 34
Testpiece
No.
Nominal stress,
kg/mm2
Average of 3
1
2
3
Stress
cycles, N
Area in
compression, %
100
4.8
15.1
21.2
Source: Ref 5
40
Surface residual stress, kg/mm2
77.7
78.8
30
68.7
20
73.3
86.3
x
10
0
105
106
Number of cycles, N
107
Changes in surface residual stresses during fatigue. Gas carburized at 920 C for 5 h (18 ks)
in 0.8% C atmosphere, quenched from 860 C in cold oil
of 35 C , and tempered at 160 C for 2 h (7200 s). x,
fracture point. Source: Ref 5
Fig. 36
10
0
40
Residual stress, kg/mm2
20
0
D = 0.3 mm
As quenched
20
Residual stress, kg/mm2
40
Axial stress
Tangential stress
Radical stress
80
40
20
0
20
60
40
D = 0.3 mm
250 C
C tempered
tempered
60
80
60
40
Sectional area, mm
20
As quenched
After 2.15 104 cycles
After 9.27 104 cycles
After 6.05 105 cycles
After 2.82 106 cycles
After 1.15 107 cycles
30
0
20
D = 0.3 mm
300 C
C tempered
tempered
60
20
80
100
80
60
40
40
20
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Sectional area, mm
Change of residual stress distribution by tempering. Pack carburized, oil quenched from 880 C, and tempered
at each temperature for 2 h. Surface carbon 1.0% C, retained austenite 916.5%, case depth (0.6% C) 0.3
mm, TCD 0.9 mm. JIS SCr 420 steel, 11.3 mm diam by 80 mm. Source: Ref 32
Fig. 35
20
40
40
80
100
D = 0.3 mm
180 C
C tempered
tempered
40
10
Fig. 37
From surface:
0.01 mm
0.1 mm
0.2 mm
0.3 mm
30
20
10
106
rW 0.931rR 0.275
700
700
600
600
10
500
400
300
0.4
800
Carbon content, %
800
Micro hardness,
HV (500 g)
0.6
0.2
0
After 107
After 4.6 106
20
30
Initial
40
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
Fig. 39
800
As carburized, hardened,
and tempered
700
600
500
400
(Eq 1)
107
Number of cycles
0.8
900
Carburizing time, h
0
50
30
10
20
10
200
0
Carburized,
As carburized,
hardened,
hardened,
tempered,
and
andshotblasted
tempered
10
20
30
40
sCarburized,
carburized,hardened,
hardened,
tempered,
and
and tempered
shotblasted
50
60
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Fig. 41
70
2.0
105
60
105
300
2.82 1046
9.27 104
0
104
1.15 1047
The conclusive result proved by a linear relationship between maximum compressive residual stress and bending fatigue strength of gear
tooth leads to Eq 1 (Ref 35). This result fits well
with that of Fig. 42 concluded from various materials and heat treatment.
6.05 1045
Grain-boundary oxidation, m
2.15 104
40
Hardness, HV
5 105
50
40
Endurance limit
30
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Effective case depth, mm
1.8
1.6
1.4
Calculated
Fatigue test
2.5
1.2
1.0
Fig. 42
Ref 35
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Peak compressive stresses, GPa
2.0
Types of Distortion
Distortion can be classified into several categories, such as geometrical change as warpage,
twisting, bending, waving, expansion or shrinkage, and nonsymmetrical dimensional change.
Shape and small size changes such as gear tooth
profiles and changes in lead angles also quite
common phenomena that always raise problems.
Distortion related to gears are classified into
three basic categories:
Body distortion in the form of warpage
Twisting introduced in body shape itself
Body shape distorted out of concentricity
Spec. limit
(a)
S M L
Quench
oil
C B A
Carburizing
cycle
Fastener hole
Pitch error
(b)
Influence of steel hardenability, quench oil
flow, and case depth on distortion of hypoid
ring gears. Gas carburized at 920 C and press quenched
with cold oil. (a) Maximum pitch error and change of pitch
error in relation to steel hardenability (Jominy, 12 in.)
quench oil flow volume, and effective case depth. (b) Radial distribution of pitch error in relation to fastener hole
placement. Press quench oil flow is adjusted from minimum (S), regular (M), and about 1.5 volume (L) compared with regular flow volume. Approximate effective
case depth is A, 1.1 mm; B, 0.9 mm; C, 0.7 mm. Source:
Ref 39
Fig. 43
100
80
110 mm
60
40
20
0
0
24
26
28
30
32
Fig. 44
80
54
OBD error, m
Input shaft
60
356
40
20
A jig
C jig
A jig
B jig
C jig
As fine boring
0
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Shaved thickness, m
Fig. 45
0.5
= 12.06 mm
0.3
0.2
120
0.1
0
Lead error, m
A
60
50
Drive face
40
Coaster face
Out-of-roundness
spec = 0.01 mm
30
Upper limit
20
0.01
10
0
A
Pitch error, m
0.01
80
60
0.02
Lower limit
0.03
40
0.04
20
0
0
Fig. 46
0.05
Fig. 47
Influence of holding jig design on ratchet gear distortion. Hot-rolled plate gas carbonitrided at 900 C and
quenched in cold oil. Source: Ref 41
450
Core hardness, HV
400
TP
350
300
Flatness, m
100
Ring
gear
80
60
40
120
1.0
250
15
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
20
0
0
2
3
4
5
6
Jig usage, months
8 Stacking
jig base
10
0.06
0.08
15
0.12
0.14
0.1
10
0.4
Agitator pump
pressure, kg/mm2
Relation between H value of quenching oil and ECD, core hardness, and distortion, respectively. Gas carburized at 920 C and quenched from 850 C in cold oil JIS SCr 420 shaft. Warpage is measured at center of
shaft. TP, test piece; R, range of variation; x, average value. Source: Ref 41
Fig. 50
5
Top
Middle
Lower
(a)
200
Nonagitation
Agitation
150
1 atom 130 C
900
Top
800
Middle
700
Lower
Top part
cooled fast
600
500
100
50
0
Sample 2
(80 C)
Sample 4
(210 C)
Salt
(210 C)
(b)
Fig. 51
Temperature, C
Salt
(210 C)
20 40 60 80
Cooling rate, C/s
100
Top
Middle
Lower
900
800
Lower
700
Top
Middle
600
Uniform vapor
blanket
500
0
20 40 60 80 100
Cooling rate, C/s
10
Lead error, m
Sample 4
(210 C)
Temperature, C
Pressure angle, m
Cylindrical distortion, m
Nonagitation
Agitation
20
Sample 2
(80 C)
Elliptical distortion, m
0.1
H value,cm2
25
500
10
760
600
400
Pressure, torr
200
0
15
30
760
600
400
Pressure, torr
200
Depending on component shape and size, design and materials such as shafts, flanged gears,
sector shaft, weld products, and pressed sheet,
quenching or cooling methods are selected to reduce distortion. Also, the cooling process should
not only be simple, but various cooling stages
should be designed for distortion reduction.
Such cooling methods as quick-slow-quick
quenching, immersion time quench, delayed
quench, and many other methods can be used for
reduction of distortion. In the future, technology
to reduce distortion should be established with
the computer-simulation technology to understand the cooling and transformation processes
that may open better routes to minimizing distortion.
Figure 53 shows the difference of ring distortion (outer diameter, 75 mm; inner diameter, 25
mm; and thickness, 10 mm) comparing calculated results with and without transformation
plasticity. Simulation results of distortion estimated for carburized-and-hardened ring showed
large differences in diameter change and distortion of ring body. The simulated results show
that outer and inner diameter without transformation plasticity expand, and the final shape of
the cut section becomes like a hand drum. On
the other hand, simulated results with transformation plasticity shrink both the inner and outer
diameter, and shape of cut section expands and
becomes drum shape. The simulation results of
the same specimen for estimating quenching and
tempering are also shown in Fig. 53. The distortion in diameter change simulated with and without transformation plasticity is quite similar to
that of a carburized-and-hardened ring, while
that of changes in cut section does not differ as
much as that observed in carburized case. Simu-
Carburized quenching
Normal quenching
t = 10 s
t = 60 s
t = 2400 s
No. of works
500 torr
250 torr
Carburized quenching
Normal quenching
100 torr
20
10
0
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.05
Distortion, mm
Fig. 52
Ref 43
Distortion of SUJ 2 part quenched under different pressures. Hardness, 66 HRC. Source:
Influence of transformation plasticity on distortion. (a) Simulated distortion during quenching and measured
data after quenching. (b) Comparison of the simulated results depending on the effect of transformation plasticity. Dimension is enlarged 100, and central axis is on left. Source: Ref 46
Fig. 53
dards, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street,
Philadelphia, PA 19103
Metric Practice, ANSI/IEEE 2681982, American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018
of Standards and Technology. Order from Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 204029325
Metric Editorial Guide, 4th ed. (revised), 1985, American National
Metric Council, 1010 Vermont Avenue NW, Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20005-4960
ASME Orientation and Guide for Use of SI (Metric) Units, ASME
Guide SI 1, 9th ed., 1982, The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.asminternational.org
Index
A
ABAQUS computer program .. 21, 155, 202,
303, 425
ABAQUS/Explicit software program, to
model rail steel residual stresses ....... 433
ABAQUS/Standard software program, to
model rail steel residual stresses ....... 433
ABB ................................................11
Abels kernel ................................... 128
Abrasive-jet drilling .......................... 123
Abrasive jet machining (AJM) ............. 111
Ac3 ............................................... 189
Acoustic emission ...................... 13, 14(F)
crack growth in low-alloy steel .............75
evaluating residual stresses in P/M
products ................................. 413
measuring kinetics of stress-corrosion
cracking ...................................80
for studying delayed fracture in steels .....77
Activation enthalpy ................... 56, 57, 58
Activation enthalpy for residual stress
relaxation .......................... 56, 58(F)
Activation enthalpy of self-diffusion ........58
Active-part corrosion (APC)
main gas-pipe line steels .....................82
mechanism .....................................79
Additional light deformation
drawing ............................... 146(F)
Adhesion, effect of thermal treatment on
coatings .................................. 16(F)
Admixed powder .......................... 400(F)
Ae1, carbon and alloying element
effects ...................................... 200
Ae3, carbon and alloying element
effects ...................................... 200
Aging
and distortion ................................ 172
effect on residual stress of carburized
steels .......................... 449, 450(F)
Agitation .............. 258, 259(F), 274, 279(F)
effect of heat transfer ...... 271273, 274(F),
275(F), 276(F), 277(F)
effect on quench oils ............. 264, 268(F)
effect on residual stress and
distortion .......... 275277(F), 283(F),
284(F), 285(F, T)
Agitation rate .............. 262, 266(F), 267(F)
of aqueous polymer quenchants ......... 264,
269(F)
Aggregates of impurities .................... 260
Aluminum
alloying effect on hydrogen embrittlement
of steel ....................................83
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
as alloying element to help obtain fine grain
at heating ............................... 325
density .................................... 367(T)
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
first-order residual stress parameters 335(T)
heat capacity in liquid .................. 367(T)
heat capacity in solid ................... 367(T)
initial temperature ....................... 367(T)
latent heat ................................ 367(T)
mechanical properties .................. 367(T)
melting temperature ..................... 367(T)
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
Poissons ratio ........................... 367(T)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
thermal conductivity in liquid ......... 367(T)
thermal conductivity in solid .......... 367(T)
thermal expansion coefficients ........ 367(T)
thermal properties ....................... 367(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
work of propagation of a ductile
crack ..................................76(T)
Youngs modulus ....................... 367(T)
Aluminum alloys
modulus of elasticity .....................96(T)
Poissons ratio .............................96(T)
residual stresses in castings with
solidification time ................. 362(F)
shear modulus .............................96(T)
Aluminum alloys, specific types
2014-T6
residual stress of soft metallic
material .......................... 346(F)
7010-T76
material library screen printout .... 352(F)
7075
casting speed .......................... 378(T)
density ................................. 378(T)
dilation due to solidification ........ 378(T)
gradient of liquidus time ............ 378(T)
gradient of solidus line .............. 378(T)
hardening coefficient ................ 378(T)
heat conductivity ..................... 378(T)
initial yield stress .................... 378(T)
latent heat due to solidification .... 378(T)
liquidus temperature ................. 378(T)
pipe and mold of centrifugal
casting ..................380, 382383,
384(F), 385(F), 386(F)
www.asminternational.org
466 / Index
B
Back stress ........................... 299, 300(F)
Backstress tensor, of rail steel .............. 432
www.asminternational.org
Index / 467
Blind hole drilling ................. 99, 110111
Blisters ....................................... 72, 83
Blowpipe positioning, in induction
hardening .................................. 220
Blue tempering ..................................91
Bodner inelastic constitutive equations .. 372
Bodners model ...................... 373, 374(F)
Body-centered cubic (bcc) materials, residual
stresses ..................................... 333
Boiling film ..................................... 314
Bolt, distortion of .......................... 181(F)
Boost-and-diffuse carburizing method .. 189,
190(F), 440, 444
Boreholes, for quenching after induction
hardening .................................. 232
Boriding, deformation tendency ......... 170(T)
Boring, mechanical, thermal, or structural
origins of residual stress ..............13(T)
Boron
alloying effect on grain-boundary
oxidation ................................ 449
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
content effect on shrinkage and sintered
density .................................. 404
Boronizing, deformation tendency ...... 170(T)
Bosch, Robert ....................................11
Boundary-value problems for twodimensional elasticity theory ........ 127,
128, 129
Bowing ............................................91
Bragg angles ............................... 112(F)
Bragg reflection ............................... 120
indices of ..................................... 120
Braggs Law ............................. 113, 333
Brass
first-order residual stress parameters 335(T)
third-order residual stresses ...... 334335(F)
Brass 46,
first-order
residual stress ......................... 335(T)
Brass 73,
first-order
residual stress parameters ........... 335(T)
Brazing ...................... 393(T), 394396(F)
finite element analysis for modeling residual
stresses .................. 394, 395, 396(F)
mechanical, thermal, or structural origins of
residual stress ........................13(T)
metal-ceramic compounds ....... 394395(F)
parameters influencing complex residual
stress state ........................394395
P/M parts ...............................405406
shrinkage of joints ................ 394(F), 395
tensile residual stresses and
thickness ratio ............394(F), 395(F)
thermal expansion coefficients and their
differences .................394(F), 395(F)
thickness ratio
influence for
ceramic and steel .........394(F), 395(F)
tungsten carbide-carbon cemented carbide
with steel ..................... 395396(F)
tungsten carbide-cobalt with steel ....... 394,
395(F)
Brine, as quenchant ...........264265, 270(F)
Brine quenching, ..............264265, 270(F)
British Aerospace ...............................11
www.asminternational.org
468 / Index
C
CAD. See Computer-aided design.
Calcium
alloying effect on hydrogen embrittlement of
steel .......................................83
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
Calcium chloride, as quenchant ............ 326
Calibration coefficients ........................12
Cam springs, shot peening effect on fatigue
life ........................................20(T)
Canning ......................................... 404
Cantilever beam bending test ........ 102, 119
Carbide coagulation, and nitriding ......... 209
Carbide precipitation
and nitriding ................................. 209
of P/M tool steels ........................... 408
Carbide segregation .................... 168, 260
Carbon
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
composition requirements for powder forged
parts ................................. 411(T)
content effect in nitrided compound
layer ..................................... 213
content effect on cracking propensity ... 254,
256(T)
content effect on cylinder distortion .... 159,
163(F)
content effect on quench cracking ....... 279,
286(F)
content effect on residual stresses and
distortion ..................... 249, 250(F)
content effect on shrinkage and sintered
density .................................. 404
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
work of propagation of a ductile
crack ..................................76(T)
Carbonate-bicarbonate earth solutions, pH
media for gas pipe line steels ............82
Carbonate solutions, and stress-corrosion
cracking ......................................79
Carbon atoms, effect on micro residual
stresses in hardened steels ................63
Carbon diffusion model ........... 199, 202(F)
Carbon distribution in steel, and stresscorrosion cracking .........................80
Carbon fibre composite (CFC), not used with
oxygen-containing atmospheres ........ 184
Carbon fiber/epoxy composites, incremental
hole-drilling method for residual stress
evaluation .......................... 12, 14(F)
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Index / 469
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) ...25, 118,
120
deformation tendency ................... 170(T)
mechanical, thermal, or structural origins of
residual stress ........................13(T)
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
coatings ................................ 11, 12
Chen method, for destructive residual-stress
measurement .......................... 102(T)
Chills, in L-shaped and T-shaped castings with
shrinkage defects ......................... 370
Chip formation, in milling .................. 150
Chip-removal methods .................. 109(F)
Chrome plating ..................................12
Chromic steels, floccules present .............73
Chromium
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
first-order residual stress parameters ....335(T)
increasing retained austenite in casehardening steels ....................... 447
for low-alloy P/M steel powders ......... 399
oxidation in carburizing atmosphere ..... 448
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
work of propagation of a ductile
crack ..................................76(T)
Chromium-alloyed steels, nitriding ........ 216
Chromium carbides ....................403404
in high-speed steels after cryogenic
cooling ..................340341(F), 343
Chromium-manganese steels
floccules present ...............................73
nitriding ....................................... 212
Chromium, (max), composition requirements
for powder forged parts ............. 411(T)
Chromium-molybdenum steels
hardenability effect on core hardness and
case depth .......... 441442(T), 443(F)
nitriding ....................................... 212
ring distortion, carburized-quenched,
computer simulation ........ 290, 292(F)
for ring, induction hardened and carburized
quenched .... 303(F), 304(F), 305307(F)
Chromium-molybdenum-nickel steels,
induction hardening .................. 244(F)
Chromium-molybdenum-vanadium steels,
nitriding ................................ 212(T)
Chromium nickel (cementation) steels,
induction hardening .................. 244(F)
Chromium-nickel steels, floccules
present .......................................73
Chromium-nickel-tungsten steels,
floccules present ............................73
Chromium nitrides .............. 209, 403404
Chromium nitride (CrN), influence on
residual stress ......................... 214(T)
Chromium nitride (Cr 2N), influence
on residual stress .................. 214(T)
Chromium-silicon spring wire, residual stress
distribution after shot peening .. 91, 94(F)
Chromium steels, cryogenic cooling ....... 340
Circular hole drilling method ........ 130, 133
Circumferential hoop stress ......... 94, 95(F)
Circumferential (hoop) stress in tube,
formula for calculating residual stress
.................................... 95(F), 96(T)
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470 / Index
Circumferential stress
for bearing ring .......................... 317(F)
from specimen heating ................. 313(F)
Circumferential stress in tube from net
opening displacement X, formula for
calculating residual stress .............96(T)
Cladding, crack-indicator method
for determining inhomogeneous
residual stress fields ........... 136137(F)
Clamping, and distortion ..................... 166
Clausius-Duhem inequality ................. 298
Clay-coating method .........278(F), 281282
quenching, and quench cracking ......... 278,
286(T)
Climb ..............................................58
Coagulation phenomenon ......... 342(F), 343
Coalescence ......................................15
Coatings
brittle .......................................... 110
compressive stress at elevated
temperature ............................. 118
compressive stresses ........................ 118
and quenching, effects on ........ 273, 278(F)
stress determination in ........ 118124(F,T)
tensile stress at elevated temperature ..... 118
Coating separation ........................... 118
Cobalt
alloying effect on hydrogen embrittlement of
steel .......................................83
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
work of propagation of a ductile
crack ..................................76(T)
Cobalt-chromium-aluminum-yttrium
coating ..................................... 118
Cobalt-free superhigh speed steels
composition .............................. 406(T)
designation ............................... 406(T)
hardness .................................. 406(T)
Weq ........................................ 406(T)
Coefficient K, of first-order residual stresses of
metallic materials .................... 335(T)
Coefficient of linear expansion, of bearing
ring being hardened .................. 318(F)
Coefficient of thermal expansion .......... 427
Coffin-Mason relation .........................30
Coherent-optical interference methods
..................................... 134136(F)
Cold cracks .......................................73
Cold die pressing, in P/M processing .....397(F)
Cold-die quenching ........................... 281
Cold forging .................................... 141
Cold forming (working)
definition ..................................... 141
steel ................................. 147148(F)
Cold injection molding, in powder metallurgy
processing ............................. 397(F)
Cold isostatic pressing ................. 402, 404
in powder metallurgy process ......... 397(F)
Cold oil quenching ................. 449, 453(F)
Cold-rolled steel ............................... 111
Cold-rolled steel sheet stampings, distortion
of ................................. 168169(F)
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Index / 471
Crystallites ..................................... 333
Crystal structure .................249(F), 250(F)
Cube, Kondratiev form factor, K ........ 323(T)
Cubic boron nitride (CBN) grinding
wheel ....................................... 150
Cups, deep drawing ....... 147(F), 148149(T)
Curie temperature ............................... 3
Curie transition temperature .... 203, 205(F)
Current surface stresses, vs. time ..... 315(F)
Cut-out indicator method .............132133
Cutting .......................................... 150
and distortion .......................... 155, 166
Cyclic bending tests, and residual stress
relaxation ........................... 66, 67(F)
Cyclic creep ............................ 6364, 66
Cyclic deformation .................... 2829(F)
for inducing residual stress relaxation ....54,
6368(F,T)
residual stresses influence ........... 3133(F)
residual stress relaxation ......... 6368(F,T)
Cyclic hardening ................................27
Cyclic hardening material ....................20
Cyclic loading ........................22(F), 23(F)
and fatigue life ...........................2021
Cyclic plasticity
in low-strength steels ................ 3940(F)
in medium-strength steels ....................41
Cyclic softening ................ 27, 31(F), 32(F)
Cyclic softening material ......................20
Cyclic stress-strain curve, of plain carbon
steels ................................ 2829(F)
Cyclic surface yield strength ........ 66, 68(T)
Cyclic work softening ............ 6364(F), 66
Cyclic yield strength, and fatigue
behavior ................................. 32(F)
Cylinders (cylindrical components)
of carbon steel, quenched, computer
simulation .......... 288289(F), 291(F)
computer simulation of metallothermo-mechanics during
quenching .............. 296, 302(F), 305
destructive residual-stress measurement
procedures .......................... 102(T)
eccentric hollow, distortion of .. 165, 166(F)
heat treatment distortion ...... 159, 162(F,T),
163(F), 164(T)
hollow distortion ..... 161165(F,T), 166(F),
167(F)
hollow with different cross sections,
distortion of .................. 165, 167(F)
quenching and heating computational and
experimental results ...... 321323(F,T)
residual stresses/distortion in scanning
induction hardening .................. 290,
293(F), 294(F)
solid, residual stress measurement ........ 108
D
DAM. See Discrete atom method.
Damage parameters ............................45
Dang Van criterion .................... 17(F), 19
Dang Van diagram ......................... 18(F)
DANTE (Deformation Control Technology,
Inc.), software program ..............9596
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472 / Index
E
Eddy currents, and induction
hardening ..................... 242243, 246
Edge dislocations ........................... 58, 71
Edge effect .........271, 273274, 276, 279(F),
280(F), 283(F)
EDM. See Electric discharge machining.
Effective case depth (ECD) ................. 437
and carburized steel residual
stresses .............................. 445(F)
and fatigue strength of carburized
steels ................................ 446(F)
of gear teeth, grain-boundary oxidation
effect .......................... 451, 452(F)
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Index / 473
of scanning induction hardened cylinder,
computer simulation ....... 290, 293(F),
294(F)
Effective diffusion coefficient .................71
Effective stress intensity range
(DKeff) .............................. 3536(F)
and crack propagation rates
with welding .................... 3536(F)
quantitative determination ...................36
Eight-noded quadratic isoparametric
elements, in casting thermal model ... 364
Elastic chuck, distortion of ........ 166, 168(F)
Elastic compression, regime in simple slab
casting ................................. 362(F)
Elastic constants ....................... 95, 96(T)
Elastic crack tip, as mechanical driving force
coefficient ................................ 6(T)
Elastic distortion .............................. 333
Elastic modulus .................................. 3
of bearing ring being hardened ....... 318(F)
effect on residual stress development
in steels ................................ 3(T)
Elastic-plastic time-independent model,
semicontinuous casting calculated
stress distribution ............... 378, 381(F)
Elastic recovery, after straightening ....... 151,
154(F)
Elastic residual strains (Ee) ...................54
Elastic strain ... 101, 111112, 113, 125, 285,
298299, 373
Elastic strain component .................... 217
Elastic strain rate ....................... 202, 312
Elastic stress-strain relation of the
mixture .................................... 298
Elastic tension, regime in simple slab
casting ................................. 362(F)
Elastic theory ....................................12
Elastic theory problem solution for regions
with the wedge cutouts ................ 130
Elastic-viscoplastic constitutive model ... 378
semicontinuous casting calculated stress
distribution ................... 378, 381(F)
Elastic-viscoplastic solids .................... 372
Elastic-viscoplastic stress-strain matrix .. 376
Elastoplastic behavior ....................... 363
Elasto-plastic rolling contact,
of rail steel ...................... 434435(F)
Elastoviscoplastic behavior ................. 363
Elastoviscoplastic constitutive equation .. 363
Elastoviscoplastic stress model ............. 364
finite-element analysis ...................... 365
Electrical conductance ............. 259, 262(F)
measurement ....................... 269, 273(F)
Electrical discharge machining ..............91
Electrically activated pressure
sintering ................................... 408
Electrical-resistance strain gages ... 101, 102,
103, 104
for strain measurement ............... 109, 110
Electric discharge machining (EDM) ..... 147
Electrochemical etching, rotate bending
fatigue strength ....................... 450(F)
Electrochemical metal corrosion ............82
Electrodischarge machining ................ 405
Electrodischarge milling (EDM) ........... 109
Electroless deposition ........................ 118
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474 / Index
F
Fabrication, residual stress introduction ...... 7
Face-centered cubic (fcc) materials, residual
stresses ..................................... 333
Facing, residual stresses on
stainless steels ........................ 109(F)
Failure modes, castings .................. 361(F)
Fatigue ..............................100, 150, 152
carburized gears and
shot peening effect .......... 353, 356(F)
crack initiation ........................ 3334(F)
crack propagation .................... 3436(F)
critical layer thickness approach
for steel ............................... 18(F)
cyclic deformation in steels ........ 2829(F)
cyclic plastic deformation ....................27
cyclic softening of plain
carbon steels ......................... 29(F)
determined by residual stress interaction
with cyclic loading stresses ............28
local fatigue strength ................ 4547(F)
macrocrack propagation
in steels ..................2829(F), 30(F)
mechanisms of residual stress formation ..27
microcrack initiation in steels ...... 28(F), 29
modeling residual stress
influence ......................... 4350(F)
nitrided steel .................... 214216(F,T)
phase-hardening mechanism .................29
quenched-and-tempered steels .......... 29(F)
residual stress alterations of behavior leading
to ...........................................27
residual stress on steel surface taken into
account ................................ 18(F)
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Index / 475
quenching of carbon steel disk
and cylinder ........ 288289(F), 290(F)
quenching simulation for
carburized bushing ......... 320321(F,T)
rail steel deformation by residual
stresses .............................. 424(F)
residual stress distribution modeling ... 14(F)
semicontinuous casting numerical calculation
for temperature ........................ 377
for simulating particulate, compaction .. 413,
416, 417, 419
for simulating thermomechanical problems
in casting .........................374375
software programs .......................... 202
solidification modeling ..................... 372
for straightening, Swedish steel industry
research project ........................ 156
stress/strain prediction in case-hardened
parts ........................... 199, 201(F)
for strip continuous casting by twin-roll
method model ........ 383385, 386(F),
387(F), 388(F), 389(F)
thermoplasticity of carburized bushing .. 320
through-thickness temperature variation of
plate ........................... 223224(F)
unsteady-state heat-conduction problem of
carburized bushing .................... 320
warpage prediction of steel shafts with
keyway ..................289290, 291(F)
Finite plate, dimensions of sizes: L1, L2, L3,
Kondratiev form factor, K ............. 323(T)
Fisheye fracture ......................... 442, 446
Fishtailing ............................... 89(F), 93
Fixture hardening ............................ 185
Fixtures
and distortion ...................... 172, 173(F)
for hardening of ring-shaped bodies .....186(F)
Flame cutting .................................. 109
Flame hardening .............................. 220
Flame heating-surface quenching,
deformation tendency ................ 170(F)
Flat rolling ..................................... 143
Flocculation .................................7273
prevention in steels ...........................73
Floccules ................................. 7273(F)
prevention of formation in steels ...........73
Flow rule for plastic strain rate .....299300
Flow speed, of quenching media and
carburizing ................................ 445
Flow stress ...................................... 299
Fluid-flow analysis, for solidification
modeling, benefits listed ............ 363(F)
Fluidity coefficient ............................ 366
Fluidized-bed quenching .......... 263, 267(F)
Foaming, of quenchants ...................... 259
Fog quenching ................................. 282
equipment .................................... 174
Foreman equation, crack propagation taking
mean stresses into account ................35
FORGE (software program) ............... 202
Forging ..... 99, 109, 141142, 148149(F,T),
399
advantages .................................... 142
mechanical, thermal, or structural origins of
residual stress ........................13(T)
in powder metallurgy processing ..... 397(F)
process conditions ....................... 148(T)
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476 / Index
Forging (continued)
workpiece geometry .................... 148(T)
Forging reduction ratio ...................... 254
Forgings
cylindrical steel neutron diffraction
methods ................................. 113
distortion ..................................... 168
steel rocket case, neutron diffraction
methods ................................. 113
Forming ............................ 141149(F,T)
bending ............. 142(F), 143(F), 144145
deep drawing ............ 141142(F), 147(F),
148149(T)
and distortion potential ..................... 183
drawing ... 141(F), 142, 143(F), 145146(F)
electric discharge machining .............. 147
extrusion ...... 141, 142(F), 143, 146147(F)
forging ...............141142, 148149(F,T)
press braking ....................... 147148(F)
pressing .................................141142
rolling ............ 141, 142, 143, 146148(F)
Forward solution ................................91
Fourier coefficients ........................... 334
Fourier law ............................... 199, 375
Fourier number ............................... 321
generalized ................................... 322
Fouriers heat conduction law ............. 298
Fredholm integral equation, method of the
first type ......................... 126128(F)
Fredholm integral equation (computation
experiment) residual stress
determination .................. 126, 127(F)
Free quenching ................................ 257
French specimens ...... 338(F), 339(F), 340(F)
French Technical Center for Mechanical
Industry (CETIM) .............. 15, 16, 17
Fretting corrosion ...................... 215, 216
Fretting fatigue, shot peening to promote
resistance .................................. 354
Friction ............................................16
Fringe effect .................................... 134
Function smoothness measure ............. 127
Furnace hardening, carbon content
limits ................................... 256(T)
Furnaces
atmosphere-hardening ...................... 257
austenitizing ............................155156
batch-type .................................... 402
belt ............................................ 257
combustion-heated, and distortion ........ 172
continuous, and distortion ................. 172
continuous gas-carburizing ................ 440
continuous mesh-belt sintering ........ 402(F)
design and operation to control heat treating
problems ................................ 257
direct-fired gas ............................... 255
distortion of bearing rings ...........155156
hardening ..................................... 257
heat irradiating areas in ratio to the size of
the batch ................................ 184
for hot isostatic compaction ........... 409(F)
insulation ..................................... 184
muffle-type continuous production ... 402(F)
passing-type, and distortion ............... 172
pit-type and distortion potential ........... 184
pusher ......................................... 402
roller hearth .................................. 402
shaker hearth ................................. 257
G
Galerkin method .............................. 364
Galerkin type formulation .................. 376
Galvanic corrosion, stainless steel P/M
parts ..................................403404
Galvanopairs, in stress-corrosion
cracking ......................................79
Gamma ferrite (austenitic), first-order
residual stress parameters ........... 335(T)
Gas atomization ............... 400(F), 412, 414
Gas blending ................................... 261
Gas carburizing ........ 189, 190, 194, 197(F),
443(F), 450(F), 451(F), 453(F)
carbon potential control .................... 444
diffusion ............................ 199, 202(F)
and retained austenite content ............. 447
Gas dissolution in metal melt .............. 400
Gaseous nitrocarburizing ............... 215(F)
Gas jet and fog jet cooling
equipment ...................... 172, 174(F)
Gas lances ...................................... 184
Gas-pipe lines steels, stress-corrosion
cracking ............................. 8182(F)
Gas quenching ...... 256(T), 257, 261, 265(F),
266(F), 271
distortion minimizing ....................... 185
equipment .......................... 172174(F)
high-pressure ....................... 172174(F)
Gas turbine components, shot peening and
distortion .................................. 156
Gauss (G) distribution ....................... 334
Gaussian method .............................. 122
Gausss theorem ........................ 375, 376
Gear box, shot peening effect on fatigue
life ........................................20(T)
Gears
automotive ............................... 453(F)
automotive, pressure-control
quenching .................... 455456(F)
carburized, and shot peening effect on
fatigue ......................... 353, 356(F)
carburized, axial stress distribution during
quenching .................... 440441(F)
carburized, shotblasting and
peening ....................... 451452(F)
carburized variation of residual
stresses ........................ 439, 440(F)
case hardening, transformations and stress
evolution model ... 202203(F), 204(F)
differential ring .......................... 453(F)
distortion ..... 253, 255, 256(F), 307(F), 309
distortion after carburizing and
quenching .................... 176(T), 179
dual-frequency induction hardening,
computer simulation ....... 296, 306(F),
307309(F)
gas-carburized and direct-quenched, residual
stress .................................... 440
Grain-boundary oxidation
in carburized-and-hardened steels ....... 438,
448449(F), 450(F)
of carburized steels ......................... 446
effect on fatigue strength of gear teeth
450451, 452(F)
Grain-boundary sliding .......................54
Grain growth, and sintering ................. 402
Grain refinement .............................. 189
Grain size, and stress-corrosion cracking
resistance ....................................81
Grain slips ........................................15
GRANTAS (Komatsu Company) computer
program ................................... 303
Gravity line method .......................... 122
Gray iron
residual stresses in castings with
solidification time ................. 362(F)
three-bar frame casting model ............. 362
Green density .................................. 401
Greenwood-Johnson transformation ..... 320
Grids, as distortion sources ............184185
Grinding 55, 57(F), 101, 109, 150(F), 151(F)
carburized steels ................... 198, 199(F)
costs dependent on overmeasures
knowledge .............................. 183
and distortion .......................... 152, 156
drifting ................... ................... 198
effect on local fatigue strength and crack
arrest, with shot peening ........... 48(F)
factors causing residual stresses .......... 150
and induction hardening ...220, 244246(F)
mechanical, thermal, or structural origins of
residual stress ........................13(T)
with milling and shot peening, S-N curves
and residual stress effect ...... 3738(F)
power ..................................... 150(F)
and quenching in a hardening press ...... 185
residual stresses in austenitic
stainless steels ..................... 109(F)
S-N curves and residual stress effect in highstrength steel .................... 3839(F)
S-N curves and residual
stresses effect ................37(F), 38(F)
wheels ......................................... 150
Grossman factor .......................... 176(T)
Grossman n number (H value) .. 257, 259(T),
262, 265
definition ..................................... 265
Grossman Quench Severity factor ........ 174
Gunnert method ........................ 102, 103
for destructive residual-stress
measurement ....................... 102(T)
Gun splat atomization ................... 400(F)
Gyaku-sori (reverse bending), of Japanese
sword ............................. 309310(F)
H
Habit plane ........................................ 5
of invariant-plane strain ....................... 5
Habit plane indices ....................... 5(T), 6
Haigh diagram, (fatigue strength) .........14,
17(F), 30(F), 4345(F), 4748, 52
Half-width values ........................... 61(F)
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Index / 477
of aluminum alloy ...................... 378(T)
differential equation of ..................... 312
Heat-flow analysis, for solidification
modeling, benefits listed ............ 363(F)
Heat flux ............267, 288, 376, 377, 378(F)
in rail steel ......................... 425426(F)
Heating factor ................................. 322
Heat-resistant and superhigh-speed steels
containing 512% Co and 26.5% V
composition .............................. 406(T)
designation ............................... 406(T)
hardness .................................. 406(T)
Weq ....................................... 406(T)
Heat transfer, boundary conditions on outer
surface ..................................... 285
Heat-transfer coefficient .. 264, 323, 375, 377,
378(F)
aluminum alloy pipe centrifugal casting
380382
in casting ........................... 365, 366(F)
definition ..................................... 265
determination of ...............................23
estimation techniques ..........267268, 269,
271(F), 274(F)
nickel-chromium alloy pipe centrifugal
casting ........ 380, 382, 383(F), 384(F)
of quenching media, and carburizing .... 445
quenching of carbon steel disk and cylinder
computer simulation .............. 289(F)
and quenching process modeling ......... 319
Heat-transfer-coefficient curve ...............23
Heat-transfer intensification ................ 312
Heat transfer rates ................. 257, 259(T)
Heat treatment ................................ 109
as cause of residual stress ....................12
distortion caused by procedure ..... 165166,
168(F), 169172(F,T), 173(F)
distortion of component shapes ................
159161(F,T), 162(F,T), 163(F), 164(F)
and distortion potential ..................... 183
effect on residual stress
distribution .. 194196, 197(F), 198(F),
199(F)
effect on residual stress of plasma-sprayed
coatings ............................... 16(F)
to eliminate residual stresses .............. 144
media influences on distortion ........ 171(T)
modeling of transformation and stress
evolution processes ................... 202
in powder metallurgy processing ..... 397(F)
of powder metallurgy steel
parts ........................... 417418(F)
of sintered P/M steel
components ............... 406408(F,T)
variant A ...... 331, 332(F), 337(F,T), 342(T)
variant B ...331, 332(F), 337(F,T), 338(F,T),
339, 342(F,T), 343(F), 351(T)
variant C ........331, 332(F), 337(T), 342(F),
343(F)
variant D ..... 331, 332(F), 337(F), 338(F,T),
339340, 341(F,T), 342(F,T), 343(F)
variant E ..... 331, 332(F), 341(T), 342(F,T),
343
variant F .........331, 332(F), 342(F), 343(F)
variant G ...331, 332(F), 338(F,T), 339340,
341,(F,T) 342(F,T), 343(F)
variant H .. 331, 332(F), 339, 340(F) 341(T),
342(T)
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478 / Index
I
I-DEAS computer program ................ 304
Immersion cooling ........ 258, 260(F), 261(F)
Immersion quenching, after induction
hardening .................................. 232
Immersion time quench ..................... 456
Impact bending fatigue test, fatigue limit and
life of carburized notched bar .......... 450
Impact strength, of carburized-and-hardened
gears .............................. 441, 442(F)
Impregnation resins .......................... 406
Inclusions, crack initiation in steels ..........29
Incremental hole-drilling method ..... 11, 12,
13(F), 18
Incremental isotropy ......................... 374
Incubation period
of crack growth in steels ........... 74, 75, 77
of hydrogen embrittlement .............. 74, 75
Indicator crack method .....128132(F), 134
Induction, mechanical, thermal, or structural
origins of residual stress ..............13(T)
Induction-hardened steels,
contact fatigue ............................ 198
Induction hardening .............. 220247(F),
407408
advantages over other procedures ....... 220,
221222
applications .................................. 220
to attain compressive residual stress ..... 437
austenization and residual stresses .... 245(F)
carbon content limits ................... 256(T)
of carburized steel cylinder
model ......... 203204, 205(F), 206(F)
case depths ................................... 220
case hardnesses .............................. 220
characteristics ...................... 221222(F)
compressive stresses .............. 232233(F)
contour hardening ........................... 241
current frequencies .......................... 223
dual-frequency ........... 226, 227(F), 228(F)
dual-frequency distortion ........ 238239(F)
dual-frequency gear tooth hardness
profiles .............................. 229(F)
dual-frequency gear wheel computer
simulation .... 296, 306(F), 307309(F)
dual-frequency martensite volume fractions
simulated ..................228(F), 229(F)
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Index / 479
temperature distributions during cooling
process ........................ 230231(F)
time/temperature dependence ... 222231(F)
time/temperature variations in scan
hardening at various speeds and HF
generation power .................. 241(F)
time variation of residual stresses in a
material .................... 232242(F,T)
time variation of stresses in
a material .................. 232242(F,T)
tooth-by-tooth ...................... 253, 256(F)
tooth gap hardening ......................... 241
volume changes after ....................... 222
volume changes and distortion,
gear teeth ........................... 242(F)
water jet quenching ............... 241, 242(F)
Induction heatingsurface quenching,
deformation tendency ................ 170(T)
Industrial heat treatment temperature,
cryogenic cooling influence
on steels ................................... 336
Inelastic strain rate ...............202, 302, 373
Infiltration ...................................... 405
in powder metallurgy processing ..... 397(F)
Infinite cylinder ........................... 323(T)
Infinite plate, thickness of 2R, Kondratiev
form factor, K ......................... 323(T)
Inhomogeneous diffusion equation ........ 217
Inhomogeneous microstresses,
in coatings ................................. 118
Inhomogeneous residual stress fields,
determination methods ........ 125137(F)
Initial incompatible strain .................. 125
Initial method .................................. 377
Initial strain .................................... 125
Initial yield stress, of aluminum
alloy .................................... 378(T)
Injection molding .......................400401
Inspection plan, for quality assurance ......13,
14(F)
Institute for Strength Problems/Engineering
Thermophysics Institute, National
Academy of Sciences of Ukraine,
software flow chart ................... 313(F)
Insulation, nonuniformity as cause of
distortion .................................. 184
Integral equation kernel ..................... 126
Intensive cooling .... 312, 316, 317, 319(F), 320
advantages .................................... 317
effect on distortion of quenched
parts ...............................323324
Intensive jet cooling .................... 327, 328
Intensive quenching .......................... 282
Interaction energies ........................ 8, 71
Interatomic bonds, stress-corrosion cracking
role ...........................................80
Interfacial wetting, kinematics .............. 258
Interference fringe .. 120, 135136(F), 137(F)
patterns ............................. 119120(F)
Interferencial-optical methods ............. 132
Interferometer ................................. 135
high sensitivity moire ........................12
Interferometry .....................110, 119, 120
Intergranular effects ......................... 260
Intergranular fatigue crack initiation .... 197
Intergranular fracture ....................... 196
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480 / Index
J
J2-flow theory of von Mises ................. 431
Jakibatsuchi (Japanese clay
mixture) ............... 307(F), 308(F), 309
K
Kakuno criterion ................................17
Kernel ........................................... 147
Kernels of integral operators ......... 126, 127
Keyslot, effect on hollow cylinder distortion
after quenching ................. 165, 166(F)
Kinematic hardening equations ........... 432
hypothesis .......................... 299300(F)
Kinetic diagrams of cracking ............ 74(F)
Kinetics of transformations .................... 3
Kirkendall effects ............................. 416
Koistinen-Marburger law, ............201202
Kolosov-Muskhelishvilis relations
(potentials) ............................... 132
Kondratiev form coefficient ................ 315
Kondratiev form factor ............ 322, 323(T)
analytical calculation of, functions
for ................................... 323(T)
Kondratiev number .....322, 323, 324(T) 328
L
Laboratory of Mechanical Systems
Engineering (LASMIS) ..................22
design tool on fatigue ................... 20, 21
k stress singularity ........................... 131
Lance method of shot peening ......... 348(F)
Lanthanum, alloying element effect on crack
growth .......................................80
Lapping ......................................... 278
Large-modulus gears, m 10 to 14 mm
advantages ................................ 327(T)
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Index / 481
quenching temperature effect on mold hole
distortion ........................... 171(T)
Low-cycle fatigue(LCF)
carburized steels ............................. 196
cyclic deformation behavior of shot peening
and deep rolling on plain carbon
steel .............................. 31(F), 32
effect on bending fatigue strength of
medium strength steel ..................41
of high-strength steels ........................46
Lower bainite ........................ 250(T), 257
Low-strength steel
macro residual stress effect ..................27
macro residual stress effect on fatigue
strength .......................... 5051(F)
S-N curves and residual stress
effect ................3637(F), 3940(F)
LS-DYNA 3D (software program) ........ 363
Lubrication, effect modeled for casting ... 364
Luders bands ....................................28
Lumped-heat-capacity method (computer
program) ........... 267, 268, 269, 271(F),
274(F), 279(F)
LUMP-PROB (computer program) ..... 268,
289(F)
M
Machine driving system, and distortion ... 172
Machine parts, induction-hardened stress
profiles in the loaded state .... 242243(F)
Machining ................................... 19, 99
and distortion ...................... 254, 256(F)
distortion caused by process ........ 165166,
168(F), 169(F)
and distortion potential ..................... 183
effect on distortion of gears ..... 453, 454(F)
P/M parts ............................... 405, 406
in powder metallurgy processing ..... 397(F)
Mackenzie and Bowles notation, for
deformation matrix describing shape
deformation .................................. 8
Macroresidual stress ...........................45
and annealing ......................... 5455(F)
relaxation in notch root .................. 33(F)
state .............................................27
vs. fatigue strength ........................ 50(F)
Macroscopic residual stress ..12, 331, 332(F)
Macrosegregation, reduced by rapid
solidification .............................. 400
Macrostresses (first-order residual stresses)
89, 143, 145, 215, 331, 332(F), 333334,
335(T)
calculation of ................................ 217
carburizing and carbonitriding ............ 189
in coatings .................................... 118
definition ..................................... 125
and hydrogen embrittlement .................72
residual or tensile, in carburized steels .. 197
Magees rule, modified ....................... 288
MAGNA (computer program) ... 306(F), 308
Magnetic Barkhausen noise, .. 112, 114115
Magnetic domain temperature ......... 225(F)
Magnetic-flux concentrator ................. 222
Magnetic measurement methods ............25
Magnetic methods ............... 13, 14(F), 109
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482 / Index
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Index / 483
Molybdenum carbides, in high-speed steels
after cryogenic cooling ..340341(F), 343
Molybdenum (max), composition
requirements for powder forged
parts .................................... 411(T)
Molybdenum nitrides ........................ 209
Moment of inertia .........................9192
symbol and units of .......................93(T)
Moore and Evans method .................. 105
for destructive residual-stress
measurement ....................... 102(T)
Mosaic blocks ............. 71, 342(F), 343, 344
Multiangle technique ......................... 112
Multimaterials ...................................11
inducing residual stress ......................24
Multiphase jet solidification (MJS) ....... 413
Multiple-motion die-set process ........... 401
Multiroll straightening .................. 146(F)
Mushy zone .................... 362, 375, 376(F)
centrifugal casting ........... 379, 382, 383(F)
cooling water discharge effect .. 379, 381(F)
Muskhelishvili equation of the elastic
theory ...................................... 132
N
NACTRAN software program ............. 127
Nanocrystalline materials ................... 400
National Center for Manufacturing Sciences
(NCMS) ................................... 202
Navy C-ring test ........................ 91, 94(F)
Near-net-shape components ................ 404
Neel temperature ................................ 3
Net opening (x) ..................................95
Net opening deflection method ..... 9596(F),
97(F)
Net opening displacement, simulation of
residual stress effects .........96(F), 97(F)
Net-shape powder compaction ............. 415
Net-shape products .............. 398399, 418
Neutron bombardment, for inducing residual
stress relaxation ............................54
Neutron diffraction (ND) .....11, 12, 109, 144
to evaluate brazed joint of steel and tungsten
carbide-carbon cemented
carbide ........................ 395396(F)
to evaluate residual stresses after
grinding ............................. 151(F)
to evaluate residual stresses in P/M
processing .............................. 413
to evaluate steel/tungsten carbide-cobalt
brazed compounds ................ 395(F)
to measure actual crystal
dimension ................. 111112, 113
to study rail steel residual stresses ........ 431
Neutron radiation method .................. 438
Neutron scattering method ................. 431
Neutron stress analysis, brazed metallic
components and ceramic-metal
joints ................................. 395, 396
Newtonian wetting .................. 259, 263(F)
Newton-Raphson method .......131, 288, 377
Newtons iteration method .................. 304
Newtons law of heat transfer .............. 200
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484 / Index
Nickel
alloying effect on grain-boundary
oxidation ................................ 449
alloying effect on hydrogen embrittlement of
steel .......................................83
alloying effect on P/M structural
steels ..........................406407(T)
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
first-order residual stress parameters 335(T)
increasing retained austenite in casehardening steels ....................... 447
for low-alloy P/M steel powders ......... 399
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
quenching, surface oxidation effect ..... 273,
277(F)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
work of propagation of a ductile
crack ..................................76(T)
Nickel-base superalloys, specific types
Inconel 600, as ISO probe for computer
simulation .......................... 289(F)
Inconel 600, as quench temperature
probe .................... 266, 267, 270(F)
Inconel 718, lasershot peening .. 355, 357(F)
Inconel 718, shot peening ....... 355, 357(F)
Inconel 718, shot-peened gas turbine
components and distortion ........... 156
Inconel 718, turning .............. 151, 153(F)
Nickel-chromium alloy
case-hardening ........................... 438(F)
centrifugal casting of pipe .......... 380, 382,
383(F), 384(F)
Nickel-chromium-aluminum yttrium
coating ..................................... 118
Nickel-chromium steel
aging effect on carburized steel .......... 449,
450(F)
repeated stressing effect in carburized
steel ........................... 450, 452(F)
for ring, induction hardened and carburized
quenched .... 303(F), 304(F), 305307(F)
Nickel-containing steels
tight scale formation .............. 255, 258(F)
Nickel (max), composition requirements for
powder forged parts .................. 411(T)
Nickel plating ....................................12
Nickel steels
composition .............................. 407(T)
Niobium
alloying effect in steels dispersion
hardening ............................... 325
alloying element effect on crack growth ..80
critical amount in steel for affecting
recrystallization and energy of
activation ............................... 325
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
work of propagation of a ductile crack
76(T)
Niobium nitride (NbN) ...................... 209
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
O
OBD. See Over ball diameter.
Octahedral shearing ............................17
Octahedral shearing plane ....................17
Oil cooling ...................................... 315
Oil impregnation ........................ 405, 406
Oil quenching ....... 263264, 267(F), 268(F),
269, 272273(F), 275, 277(F), 282(F),
316
of carburized testpieces and gears ....... 439,
440(F)
edge effect .......... 273274, 279(F), 280(F)
steering sector shaft ............... 454455(F)
P
Pack carburizing ..........189, 443(F), 444(F),
451(F)
carbon potential control .................... 444
and retained austenite content ............. 447
Parabola method .............................. 122
Parallelepiped, quenching and heating
computational and experimental
results ......................... 321323(F,T)
Paris equation ...............................29,30
describing crack propagation ...........3435
Partial damage, for inducing residual stress
relaxation ....................................54
Partially alloyed powder ................ 400(F)
Patch test ....................................... 369
Patel and Cohens method ..................... 8
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Index / 485
Photoelastic coatings ...........................91
thickness selection .......................... 134
Photoelasticity, to evaluate residual stresses in
P/M products ............................. 413
Photoelastic technique ....................... 110
Photographs, to measure surface wetting .... 269
Photometer parameter ....................... 334
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) .....25, 118,
119, 120, 121
coatings .................................... 11, 12
deformation tendency ................... 170(T)
mechanical, thermal, or structural origins of
residual stress ........................13(T)
Pickel method .................................. 106
Piecewise-homogeneous materials,
peculiarities in study of ....... 130(F), 131
Pinion shafts, distortion ............ 255, 257(F)
Pinned dislocations ........................6667
Pinning ............................................55
Pipe
weldment residual stresses ............. 100(T)
weldments .................................... 102
Pipe steels, stress-corrosion cracking .........81
Pisarenko-Lebedev criterion ...312, 317, 328
as failure criterion during hardening ..... 315
Piston ring, tempering and distortion ..177(F),
178
Pitch circle diameter (PCD) ..........308309
Pitch error .........................453(F), 454(F)
Pitting ........................................... 215
Plain carbon steels
crack initiation .................................34
cryogenic cooling ........................... 331
cyclic deformation behavior ....... 2829(F),
31(F), 32
modulus of elasticity .....................96(T)
nitriding ................................... 210(F)
Poissons ratio .............................96(T)
residual stress relaxation produced by
annealing ........................ 5455(F)
shear modulus .............................96(T)
Plain carbon tool steels, cryogenic
cooling ..................................... 340
Plane-strain fracture toughness .... 74(F), 80
Plane-strain stress analysis, with von Mises
yield criterion for casting ............... 366
Planing .......................................... 150
PLASMA (plasma-nitriding computer
program, simulation) .................. 216
Plasma carburizing ........................... 189
Plasma cutting ................................. 109
Plasma nitriding ... 210211(F), 215(F), 216,
407
stainless steels ............................... 211
Plasma-nitriding simulation program
(PLASMA) ............................... 216
Plasma nitrocarburizing ... 210211, 212(F),
215(F)
Plasma-sprayed coatings ................. 11, 25
Plasma spraying ............................. 16(F)
mechanical, thermal, or structural origins of
residual stress ........................13(T)
Plastic Ball Grid Array (PBGA)
package .....................................12
Plastic compression, regime in simple slab
casting ................................. 362(F)
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486 / Index
Q
Quality assurance, inspection plan .. 13, 14(F)
Quality control .............................1112
of gear strength .............................. 440
Quantimet 720 quantitative microscope, with
computer interface ....................... 341
Quantitative electronic microscopy, to
identify and count microcarbides ...... 339
Quasi-spall .......................................76
Quasi-static surface yield strength in
compression ....................... 66, 68(T)
Quebec metal powder process ............. 399
Quenchants. See also Quenching; Quench
severity; Quench
uniformity. ......... 260265(F,T), 266(F),
267(F), 268(F), 269(F), 270(F)
agitation rate influence ................. 176(T)
aqueous polymer ..257, 264, 268(F), 269(F),
272(F)
brine ...........................264265, 270(F)
caustic soda ..................264265, 270(F)
circulation uniformity effect ............... 176
cooling rate and distortion
compared ........................... 175(T)
and distortion ................... 174175(F,T)
effect on quenching performance ........ 259,
262(T)
factors influencing cooling intensity .... 174,
175(T)
after induction hardening .................. 232
influence on distortions of C-style
sample .............................. 175(T)
influence on distortion trend of cavity of
cold forging dies ............ 175, 176(T)
intensively cooling .......................... 314
oils ... 263264, 267(F), 268(F), 269, 272(F)
selection, and cooling characteristics ... 275,
281(F), 282(F)
selection, and distortion ..............279280
selection effect ..... 269270, 272(F), 274(F)
temperature effect .......176, 268(F), 269(F),
270271(F)
uniformity ...... 258259(F), 260(F), 261(F)
vaporizable liquid ........................... 258
viscosity ...................................... 270
water ................ 264, 269, 270(F), 272(F)
Quenchant solution circulation rate ...... 328
Quench cracking ... 253256(F,T), 257, 259
260, 263(F), 264(F), 285(F), 312
elimination by intensification of heat transfer
at phase transformations ............. 328
prevention .................................... 323
probability of ............................ 313(F)
and quench nonuniformity ................. 258
and surface roughness ......277278, 286(T)
techniques of steel quenching for prevention
of .............................. 325, 326(F)
Quench Cracking Working Group, Japan
Heat Treatment Society ..... 277, 285(F)
Quench distortion .......................259260
Quenched-and-tempered steel
bending fatigue tests in sea water ...... 34(F)
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Index / 487
kinetics of process .......................... 288
of low-alloy steels ...................... 337(T)
material effect on distortion ........ 252256,
257(F), 258(F,T)
material effects .............. 274, 280(F), 312
mathematical modeling of process ....... 319
media, 449
media, influence of distortion of
gears ........................... 454456(F)
media measurement and evaluation of
power ........ 265269, 270(F), 271(F),
272(F), 273(F)
methods .................................280282
methods, effect on carburized-and-hardened
steel residual stresses ....... 443444(F)
methods, Ukraine Patent (No. 4448, Bulletin
6-I), 1994 ............................... 328
model of stress/strain prediction in casehardened parts ............... 199, 201(F)
before nitriding .............................. 209
no phase transformation, mechanical,
thermal, or structural origins of residual
stress ..................................13(T)
one-step ....................................... 319
Polyakov rules ..................... 260, 264(F)
powder metallurgy processed parts ....... 407
quenchant and material properties
effects ......................... 259, 262(T)
quenchant choice and
distortion .................. 174175(F,T)
residual stress prediction ......... 284293(F)
simple shape bodies, computational and
experimental results ...... 321323(F,T)
simulation, inverse technique ...............23
steel chemical composition effect ........ 274
supercarburized high-speed steels .... 337(T)
surface conditions effect ........ 273, 277(F),
278(F), 279(F)
surface distortion comparison ......... 170(F)
tank for immersion ................ 172, 173(F)
temperature influence on distortion of mold
hole .................................. 171(T)
two-step ................. 312, 319(F), 320, 328
of carburized bushing .......... 320321(F,T)
workpiece size effects ..... 252, 255(F), 274,
275, 282(F)
Quench oils .......... 263264, 267(F), 268(F),
323324
accelerated ......................... 264, 267(F)
and carburized steel residual
stresses .............................. 445(F)
conventional ................................. 263
martempering ...................... 264, 268(F)
MS-20 ...................................320321
MZM-16 .................................. 318(F)
quench chamber pressure
control ........................ 455456(F)
quench severity index
(H value) ..................... 454455(F)
vapor blanket stage ............... 455456(F)
Quench press machines, and
distortion ..................... 181182(F,T)
Quench severity ........ 257, 259(T), 262, 265,
266(F), 269
of aqueous polymer quenchants .......... 264
definition ............................... 257, 265
and distortion ..........................279280
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488 / Index
R
Racking, and distortion ... 171(F), 172, 173(F)
Radial forging .................... 148149(F,T)
Radial stress ......................... 144(F), 145
from induction hardening ........ 234, 235(F)
residual stress distribution in radial direction
at t 8.32s rising a plane-strain
assumption ......................... 368(F)
residual stress variation in the axial direction
at time t 8.3202 s with a tractionfree top surface .................... 368(F)
semicontinuous casting distribution ..... 378,
380(F)
from specimen heating ................. 313(F)
thermal stress history with a plane-strain
assumption ......................... 368(F)
thermal stress history with a traction-free top
surface .............................. 369(F)
Radiation, monochromatic, wavelength
of ........................................... 113
Radiation thermometer, to measure
temperature of centrifugal castings .... 382
Radius of curvature of beam on displaced
section, symbol and units of .........93(T)
Radius of round bar cross section, symbol
and units of .............................93(T)
Rail end problem ............................. 424
Railroad wheels, ultrasonic velocity
measurement technique ................. 114
Rail steel
cooling process .................... 424430(F)
cyclic plastic deformation ........ 431432(F)
distortion and residual stress
formation ..................... 424435(F)
head-hardened ............................... 426
heat flux and cooling process ......... 425(F)
moving/sliding on cooling bed ........... 429
production steps ......................... 424(F)
rail end problem ............................. 428
roller straightening process ........ 424, 430
434(F)
in service ........................... 434435(F)
temperature influence ....................... 434
welding as cause of residual
stresses .............................. 434(F)
Rail steel stress tensor, decomposition into
hydrostatic and deviatoric parts ........ 432
Railway tank cars, for transporting ammonia,
shot peening effect on residual
stress ............................. 354, 356(F)
Ram force ...................................... 409
Rapid induction heating/intensive
cooling ............................... 327, 328
Rapid omnidirectional compaction ....... 409
Rapid prototyping ...................... 399, 413
S
Sachs method ................................. 148
Safety factor
distribution of ..................................22
on fatigue ................................... 21(F)
field of .............................. 313(F), 316
Sag, of rail steel section .................. 428(F)
Salt bath carburizing .............. 189, 443(F)
carbon potential control .................... 444
and retained austenite content ............. 447
Salt bath nitrocarburizing ....... 210, 211(F),
215(F)
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Index / 489
Salt bath quenching ......... 261263, 264(F),
266(T), 271, 275, 449, 454
with austempering ........................... 281
Sandblasting, as predecessor of shot
peening .................................... 345
Sand casting ................................... 167
Sandwich-hologram method ................ 135
Saw curf width .............................9495
Saw cutting .......................................91
Sawing ..................................... 101, 109
Scale formation. See Oxide scale.
Scanning induction hardening, of cylinder,
computer simulation of residual stresses/
distortion .............. 290, 293(F), 294(F)
Scatter band ................................. 36(F)
Scheil equation, to determine volume fraction
of solid phase ............................. 375
Screw, distortion after quenching ....161, 164(T)
Screw dislocations ..............................58
Sea water, quenched-and-tempered steel and
crack initiation .......................... 34(F)
Secondary ion mass-spectrometry, hydrogen
ion behavior .................................78
Secondary porosity .............................72
Sectioning method ...................... 109, 424
to study rail steel residual stresses .... 431(F)
Segregation effect, distribution coefficient
representing .........................375376
Selective laser sintering (SLS) ............. 413
Selective quenching .....................281282
Self-agitation effect ........................... 271
Self-regulated thermal process ............. 328
Self-tempering ................................. 328
Semiconductor gages ......................... 110
Semicontinuous casting
cooling water discharge and stress
distributions .................. 379, 382(F)
displacement mode ................ 378, 379(F)
ingot radii, effect on stress
distributions .................. 379, 382(F)
ingot radii, isothermal lines for .... 379, 381(F)
residual stress formation ........ 377379(F),
380(F), 381(F), 382(F)
speed of casting, and stress
distributions .................. 379, 382(F)
speed of casting, effect on stress
distributions .................. 379, 382(F)
speed of casting, isothermal lines for ... 379,
381(F)
Semicontinuous direct-chill casting ....... 377
residual stress formation ........ 377379(F),
380(F), 381(F), 382(F)
Semiferritic steels, floccules not observed ..73
Sensors, for carbon potential control in gas
carburizing ................................ 447
Service life, effect of quenching method ... 316
Servohydraulic test systems, computerized
28
Shafts
shot peening effect on fatigue life ......20(T)
warpage, computer simulation ..... 289290,
291(F)
Shape, influence on carburized steel residual
stresses ........................... 438, 439(F)
Shape-memory alloys ........................... 6
Shear component ......................... 6(F), 7
Shearography .................................. 110
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490 / Index
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Index / 491
S34700, P/M processing .............399400
S35500 (AM-355), PVD titanium nitride
coating .................................. 121
S41000, P/M processing .............399400
S41003 (410L), P/M processing .......... 402
S44004 (440C), P/M processing ...399400
S44600, P/M processing .............399400
188, tight scale formation ...... 255, 258(F)
SS-100, corrosion resistance of
P/M parts ........................... 405(F)
22CR-5Ni-3Mo-0.015N-0.003C, balance Fe,
hot extrusion ........................... 410
Fe-24Cr-8Ni, phase decomposition behavior
of P/M powder ........................ 419
STAMP Process ............................... 409
Static loading, plasticity degree decrease ....75
Statistical process control (SPC), of powder
forging ..................................... 411
Steady-state continuous casting, finiteelement method formulation ......376377
Steam treatment, of P/M parts ...... 405, 406,
407
Steel ring, distortion prediction, carburizedquenching ....................... 290, 292(F)
Steels
cold forming ....................... 147148(F)
crack growth ...................................75
crack initiation .................................75
cryogenic cooling influence on dimensional
stability ....... 331, 332, 336339(F,T),
340(F)
cryogenic cooling influence on residual
stresses .................................. 336
cyclic behavior ............................ 22(F)
cylindrical forgings, neutron diffraction
methods ................................. 113
fatigue behavior ...................... 2831(F)
fatigue, Dang Van diagram .............. 18(F)
grade, effect on residual stress ........ 438(F)
grade, influence on gear
stresses ............ 441442(FT), 443(F)
hydrogen states in ........................7172
martensitic transformation of carburized
surface ..................................... 5
nitriding .......................... 214216(F,T)
physical properties affecting residual stress
development .......................... 3(T)
plate, plastically deformed, neutron
diffraction method .................... 113
P/M processed, heat
treatment of .................. 417418(F)
production and distortion potential ....... 183
residual stress magnitudes and
distributions ....................99(F), 100
rocket case forgings, neutron diffraction
methods ................................. 113
shot-peened, fatigue life .................. 18(F)
weldments, neutron diffraction methods
for ....................................... 113
Steel shafts, warpage prediction, computer
simulation .................289290, 291(F)
Steels, series and classes
0.18C-0.25Si-0.8Mn-0.5Cr-0.22Mo-0.62Ni,
carburized cylinder tangential stresses
during quenching, model ... 202, 203(F)
0.75Cr-3.05Ni (SNC815)
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492 / Index
shot peened and normalized, ratio of halfwidth values .................. 62, 63(T)
shot peened and quenched and tempered
at 450 C, macro residual
stresses ........................ 61, 62(F)
shot peened and quenched and tempered
at 650 C, macro residual
stress .......................... 61, 62(F)
shot peened and quenched and tempered,
material properties of Avrami
approach ...........................60(T)
shot peened and quenched and tempered,
ratio of half-width values .. 62, 63(T)
shot-peened condition, quasi-static surface
yield strength in compression .....66,
68(T)
S-N curves, shot peened vs. ground
condition ...................... 66, 67(F)
strain aging effects on cyclic deformation
and macro residual stresses ... 6566,
67(F)
thermal relaxation of macro residual
stresses, quenched, tempered, and
shot peened .............. 5657, 59(F)
total deformation and macro residual
stress ............................... 61(F)
unpeened and normalized, yield strength
ratio ........................... 62, 63(T)
unpeened and normalized, yield
strengths ...................... 62, 63(T)
unpeened and quenched and tempered,
yield strength ratio .......... 62, 63(T)
unpeened and quenched and tempered,
yield strengths ............... 62, 63(T)
volume diffusion-controlled dislocation
creep in residual stress field ........57
warm-peened condition, cyclic surface
yield strength ................ 66, 68(T)
warm-peened condition, quasi-static
surface yield strength in
compression .................. 66, 68(T)
4142
induction hardening .................. 240(F)
straightening of bars, distortion, and
residual stresses ................ 156(T)
4150, quench cracking ..................... 254
4320
reheat quenched and shot-peened
carburized gears .......... 443, 445(F)
shot peening effect on carburized steel
198199, 200(F), 201(F)
4337, crack propagation of autofrettaged
tube .................................... 35(F)
5100, grinding ............................... 150
5115
crack arrest and bending fatigue
limit ................................ 50(F)
shot peening effect on S-N curves .. 38(F),
39(F)
5120 (JIS SCr 420)
carburized and quenched ...... 443, 444(F)
carburized gears, residual stresses at tooth
foot surface ................ 440, 441(T)
grain-boundary oxidation ........... 448(F)
grain-boundary oxidation effect on gear
tooth fatigue strength .......... 452(F)
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Index / 493
hard shot peening effect on gear fatigue
strength .............................. 452
hollow cylinder distortion .............. 163
steel hardenability effect on distortion of
carburized steels ................ 453(F)
tempering effect on carburized steel 449,
451(F)
5132, pressure rolling .................. 153(F)
5135
crack arrest .............................. 49(F)
deep rolling effect on S-N curves and
bending fatigue strength ........ 38(F)
quench-crack formation ............. 313(F)
5140
C-ring test specimen distortions ... 175(F)
hollow cylinder distortion ....... 161162,
165(F)
52100 (100 Cr6, ShKh15)
austenitizing temperature .........171172
ball screw distortion of ........ 166, 168(F)
bearing ring, prediction of deformation
during hardening ...... 317320(F,T)
for bearing rings, distortion .. 152, 154(F),
155(F)
bearing rings, quenching and residual
stress distribution ................... 321
die service life after intense quenching
327(F)
distortion of axle components ......... 160,
164(F)
hollow cylinder distortion ....... 161, 162,
164(F)
inner bearing ring 7515/02, hardened and
water cooled ........... 315317(F,T)
quenching in a hardening press of bearing
rings .............................. 185(F)
residual stress relaxation produced by
annealing .......................... 55(F)
tempering effect ................ 251, 254(F)
thermal straightening .................... 170
6150, crack initiation .........................34
8610, carburized-and-hardened, residual
stresses .............................. 439(F)
8617
carbon potential effect in carburized and
quenched gears ........... 444, 445(F)
steel grade and case depth in carburized
gears ........................ 441, 442(F)
tempering effect on gas-carburized steel
449, 450(F)
8620 (JIS-SNC 21)
aging effect on carburized steel ....... 449,
450(F)
carbonitriding ......................... 191(F)
carburizing and quenching variation
effects ............................ 443(F)
case-depth influence on carburized steels
445(F)
grain-boundary anomaly, carburized steel
448, 449(F)
repeated stressing of carburized steel
..................... 450, 451(F), 452(F)
residual stress distribution in carburizedand-hardened steels ............ 447(F)
retained austenite in carburized-andhardened steels ................. 447(F)
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494 / Index
T
Tamahagane (Japanese steel) ............... 309
Tangential internal residual stresses, from
induction hardening ..235(F), 236, 238(F),
239(F)
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Index / 495
Tangential stress .............. 144(F), 145, 146
semicontinuous casting distribution ..... 378,
380(F)
Tank chain, shot peening effect on fatigue
life ........................................20(T)
Tatara system .................................. 309
Taylors expansion, for viscoplastic strain
increment of element at Kth time
step ......................................... 376
Taylor/von Mises criterion .................... 6
Temperature
carburizing heat-transfer model .....199200
cooling process changes .......... 313314(F)
effect on chemical and mechanical driving
forces ................................... 6(F)
effect on distortion in welds .............. 7(T)
effect on rail steel residual stresses ....... 434
effect on specific heat capacity of pure
iron .................................. 34(F)
induction hardening of carburized steel
cylinder ....................... 203, 205(F)
interaction with deformation and
microstructure ........................ 3(F)
quenchant ....... 268(F), 269(F), 270271(F)
and residual stress level in nitriding ...... 214
rough-condition .............................. 325
semicontinuous casting profile .. 378, 379(F)
Temperature-dependent yield function .. 286
Temperature factor, for third-order residual
stresses ..................................... 235
Temperature field, nonsmoothness or
unevenness ................ 322, 323, 324(T)
Tempered martensite .................. 195, 336
after sinter hardening of P/M parts ...... 408
Temper embrittlement .........................76
Tempering ................282284, 287(F), 336
carburized-and-hardened steels ..445446(T)
and carburizing procedures ...... 190, 191(F)
dimensional variation and retained austenite
content ........................ 251, 254(F)
and distortion .. 154, 177178(F), 283284,
287(F)
effect on crack toughness ........... 8081(F)
effect on residual stress distribution ..... 195,
198(F)
effect on residual stress of carburized steels
449, 450(F), 451(F)
for inducing residual stress relaxation .....54
of low-alloy steels ...................... 337(T)
of marquenched steels ............ 280, 287(F)
microstructural variation effect on volume
changes ....................... 251, 253(F)
niobium alloying effect .................... 325
before nitriding .............................. 209
P/M parts ........................... 407, 408(F)
P/M steel parts ........................417418
and retained austenite content in carburized
steels ................................ 447(F)
stages .......................... 251, 253(F), 283
stress relief ......................... 284, 287(F)
supercarburized high-speed steels .... 337(T)
transformation process prediction ........ 202
volume changes .............283284, 287(F)
Tensile applied stress ....................... 6(F)
Tensile residual stresses ..... 193, 196(F), 211
and brazing ......................394(F), 395(F)
from welding .......... 392(F), 393(F), 394(F)
Tensile strength .................................16
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496 / Index
U
U-bend stress corrosion test, specimen
making and using ........................ 110
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Index / 497
UIC54E rail steel profile .........424, 428,429
Ultimate strength, of bearing ring being
hardened ............................... 318(F)
Ultrahigh temperature oil quenching, of ball
bearing race ..................... 454, 455(F)
Ultramicroscopic stresses (third-order
residual stresses) ..331, 332(F), 335336
Ultrasonic gas atomization, ....... 400(F), 414
Ultrasonic inspection, to evaluate residual
stresses in P/M products ................ 413
Ultrasonic instrumentation ................. 100
Ultrasonic methods ........................... 109
Ultrasonic shot peening ........................25
Ultrasonic velocity ............... 112, 113114
Ultrasound, ..........................13, 14(F), 25
Unalloyed steels, nitriding ................... 209
Undeformed material, interplanar spacings
and residual stresses ..................... 333
Undercooling, of austenite .............331332
Uniaxial compression, as mechanical driving
force coefficient ......................... 6(T)
Uniaxial deformation .............. 6063(F,T)
for inducing residual stress relaxation ....54,
6063(F,T)
Uniaxial loading, resistance to residual stress
relaxation ........................... 6162(F)
Uniaxial stress .................................... 6
Uniaxial tension, as mechanical driving force
coefficient ................................ 6(T)
Unidirectional compaction .............. 401(F)
Unified constitutive theory .................. 372
Uniform casting, .............................. 377
Universal joint shaft, shot peening effect on
fatigue life ...............................20(T)
Unsteady-state centrifugal casting
finite-element method formulation ....... 376
and residual stress formation ... 379383(F),
384(F), 385(F), 386(F)
Upcut milling ................................ 39(F)
producing residual stresses .............. 32(F)
residual stresses generated ............... 36(F)
Upper bainite .................. 250(T), 257, 448
Upsetting forging ............................. 410
V
Vacuum atmosphere ......................... 403
Vacuum carburizing ......................... 189
carbon potential control .................... 444
furnace ........................................ 453
rotate bending fatigue strength ........ 450(F)
Vacuum extraction ........................... 412
Vacuum quenching ........................... 172
Valve, shot peening effect on fatigue
life ........................................20(T)
Vanadium
alloying element effect on crack
growth ............................... 80, 81
effect on transition temperature .........76(T)
plasticity loss after hydrogenation ......76(T)
resistance to hydrogen embrittlement ..76(T)
time up to fracture ........................76(T)
work of propagation of a ductile
crack ..................................76(T)
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498 / Index
W
Warm compaction .................. 399, 413(F)
residual stresses ............................. 419
Warm compaction and sinter, cost,
relative ................................. 413(F)
X
X-ray diffraction (XRD) ......99101(F), 104,
124, 144, 146, 339, 438439(F)
brazed metal-ceramic compounds .... 395(F)
for calculating longitudinal residual stresses
in Japanese sword ........309(F), 310(F)
combined with electropolishing ........... 109
for determining residual stress variations
after induction hardening ............ 233
for evaluating brazed joint of steel and
cemented carbide ...................... 395
for evaluating residual stresses after
grinding ............................. 151(F)
for evaluating residual stresses after
straightening ........................... 156
for evaluating residual stresses in P/M
products .....................413, 415, 418
of high-alloy tool steels .................... 342
for measuring actual crystal
dimension ........................111113
for measuring axial residual
stresses ........................ 236(T), 238
for measuring compressive stresses in rail
steel ..................................... 431
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Index / 499
of first-order residual stresses of metallic
materials ............................ 335(T)
symbol and units of .......................93(T)
Yttrium oxide/partially stabilized zirconia
coating ..................................... 118
Yuriev formulas ............................... 313
Z
Y
Yield function ..................299300(F), 301
of casting process ........................... 365
Yield point ...................................... 317
Yield strength
of austenite after welding ........ 393394(F)
of bearing ring being hardened ....... 318(F)
effect on residual stress development in
steels ................................... 3(T)
temperature effect ................. 251, 254(F)
Yield stress
of casting process ........................... 365
in cold forming .............................. 148
Youngs modulus ................... 142(F), 145
of aluminum alloy ...................... 378(T)
Product code
06700G
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