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When war broke out in August 1914, it was expected that the war
would be over by Christmas.
The reality of encirclement from the Entente powers forced Germanys
military planners to develop the Schlieffen plan.
Under The Schlieffen Plan, Germany would seek to knockout France in
a massive, lighting attack while just holding off the Russians in the
east, and then, with France defeated, would deal with the Russians in
what was likely to be a longer campaign.
In 1911, the new German army commander, Moltke, decided to modify
the plan. He decided that the German troops would not move through
the Netherlands as German interests would be better served by
keeping the Dutch neutral Trade can continue during wartime. Also
Moltke weakened the hammer-swing to strengthen the hinge. This
would prove disastrous as for the plan to have any chance of success;
the swing through Belgium had to be massive and rapid.
Quote: Moltkes substantial modificationprobably doomed the
German campaign in the west before it was ever launched. (L.C.F
Turner).
The Nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with
experiences of Allied and German soldiers:
rotting sandbags, mud and body odour made life in the trenches
almost unbearable.
Mud was a constant bane for soldiers in trenches due to the heavy rain
that fell on France and Belgium. Combined with the clay of the
trenches and the constant artillery bombardment, the battleground on
the western Front turned into muddy quagmires.
Sickness and disease plagued the soldiers. They suffered from Trench
foot a painful swelling of the feet caused by constant immersion in
water. This would later lead to gangrene. They also suffered from
diarrhea and dysentery due to poor hygiene.
Lice and rats were constant pests; wasnt a single soldier in the trench
who didnt have lice. Bites left red marks on skin and could cause the
disease trench fever. Rats thrived on decomposing flesh and
numbered in the millions. Were known as trench rats or corpse rats
and were carriers of Weils disease.
There were also psychological effects: shell shock; a psychological or
emotional condition caused by prolonged experience of artillery
barrages. Given little sympathy, affected many.
The many new weapons brought into the war also made an impact on
life in the trenches. Men would fear standing up over the trenches
because of snipers, artillery would tear apart a man, and gas was also
introduced later in the war.
Whilst these soldiers were fighting the battles, the commanders of the
armies stayed long behind their lines in their Chateaus directing their
armies into massive battles that gained little.
Trench warfare on the Western Front was a war of attrition, costing the
lives of millions of soldiers.
The Trench:
At least 3 lines of trenches (Front line, support, reserve).
These were linked to the rear by communications trenches enabling
soldiers + supplies to move to and from front line out of enemy sight.
Barbed wire placed in front of trenches to slow enemy down.
Parapret are a low protective wall along side the trenches heightened
with sandbags.
Parados the back of the trench was also heightened to protect soldiers
from enemy fire and prevent troops being silhouetted.
Reinforcements consisted of sandbags, timber and corrugated iron.
Duckboards a board that is laid over the sump to prevent the soldiers
walking in the mud and water.
British and French did not design their trenches for long-term
occupation.
German trenches were remarkably more comfortable, stable, and longterm. Up to 12m underground, running water, electricity, bunk beds.
Quote: A single square mile of British trench system contained 900
miles of barbed wire, 6 miles of sandbags, 1 million cubic feet of timber
and 360,000 square feet of corrugated iron (D Winter; The First of the
Few: Fighter Pilots of the First World War, Viking Press, New York, 1982).
Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key
battles: Verdun, The Somme, Passchendaele:
New Tactics:
Over The Top tactics were largely used by the Allies. They resulted in
vast loss of life and very little gain. They followed a predictable
pattern:
Both sides launched offensives to try and break the stalemate on the
western front.
Verdun: February-July 1916
In 1916 German commander Falkenhayn decided to attack the
historical French fortress of Verdun, as its guns were moved elsewhere.
He knew the French would defend it to the death because of its
strategic position and its historical status as a great French fortress. So
his strategy was to bleed the French white.
General Petain refused to give up despite French losses.
Quote; They shall not pass (General Petain).
Almost the whole French army served at Verdun.
Outcome;
Town of Verdun was destroyed.
German losses: 330,000 French losses: 350,000.
Verdun had been held by the French, the Germans did not break the
French resistance.
Changing attitudes of Allied and German Soldiers to the War over time:
In 1914 there was tremendous enthusiasm for the war. This was the
result of romantic notions of glory and adventure, patriotism, peer
pressure, a desire to impress women, the chance for regular
employment, government propaganda and ignorance about the nature
of modern warfare. It was believed the war would be over by Christmas
1914.
As the war progressed and the true nature of modern warfare began to
be revealed, many of the troops attitudes changed due to the massive
casualties, the futility of attrition warfare, and the conditions of the
trenches and the callousness of the generals.
For the British, the carnage at the Somme significantly impacted upon
the troops morale. Recruitment figures dropped seriously low and in
1916, the government was forced to introduce conscription to maintain
troop numbers.
were persecuted and treated badly people who refuse to enlist in the
army on moral grounds.
British propaganda stated with the blaming of Germany for the war
and encouraged men to enlist. Later, propaganda had more of an
emphasis on the need to maintain national sacrifice and unity on the
home front.
Propaganda used stereotypes, calling Germans barbarians and telling
stories about them. The title Hun or the Boche were used to call
Germans. Propaganda also censored some information, talking up the
victories, remaining silent about the defeats etc. Lies were often
associated in propaganda.
Cartoons in newspapers were an effective way to spread propaganda.
The Church also supported the war and backed the governments.
As the war dragged on and as the casualty lists continued to mount, it
became important to limit the amount of information available to the
civilian population (censorship).
Censorship was intended to boost morale as it excluded the bad battle
details, only providing positive aspects.
Germany had less trouble getting men to fight. Although there were
many volunteers early in the war, conscription was an accepted thing
in German society. Germany had already had a huge army before the
war.
German propaganda differed from British mainly for this reason.
Where Britain tried to get men to fight, Germany didnt need to. They
concentrated more on anti-British propaganda in its posters and
society. Also, German propaganda tried to justify the actions of the
German Government. The line it followed was to argue that Germanys
invasion of Belgium and France, according to the Schlieffen Plan, was a
defensive response to the aggression it was facing from Britain, France
and Russia. This was defensive propaganda. German soldiers were
portrayed as heroes, defending the fatherland etc.
Quote; The defense of the Fatherland, forced on us by the enemy
challenge, will demand sacrifice of blood and treasure (Kaiser Wilhelm
ll).
German censorship was very effective during the war. The German
government withheld many of its information from the public,
including German losses, peace movements etc.
Censorship was used to maintain morale, governments censored
unsavory battle details.
Both the Allied and Germans believed that their country had been
infiltrated by spies and this belief provided another justification for
censorship.
The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in
Britain and Germany:
When the war started, it was met with overwhelming enthusiasm and
even relief in Britain. This was mainly due to the propaganda used by
the British government. There was little resistance, in the form of a few
socialists and pacifists.
Larger opposition started in 1916 when the huge numbers of casualties
began to show in Britain. People at home were becoming sick of the
war, war-weariness set in as more demands were made on the
workforce. Shortages of supplies and enemy raids on cities further
increased resistance.
There wasnt much opposition to the war in Britain. There were only a
small number of groups that opposed the war; most of them were the
conscientious objectors, who the government dealt with.
There were some strikes in Britain; Lloyd George knew that they
werent protesting against the war but the pressures that it put on
them. He fixed the problem by starting relations with the workers
unions, and by raising wages and promising women the vote; he dealt
with the problem with kid gloves.
So Britain experienced little war dissent due to less economic strain
than Russia or Germany, Lloyd George knew how to deal with dissent,
and propaganda helped get the peoples support. Although there was
little dissent, there was a change in attitude from the British people
from enthusiasm to apathy during the war.
Germanys initial reaction to the war was much like Britains, one of
enthusiasm. The little opposition to the war by peace-groups was
silenced by the tight lid the German government had due to the
authoritarian government Germany had at the time.
As the war wore on, the German people suffered more severely due to
the blockade and failing economy. There were shortages in almost
everything and what they had was very poor in quality. Unlike Britain,
German authorities paid little attention to workers welfare; they lacked
a Lloyed George figure.
On the 1st of May 1916, there was a massive anti-war protest. There
were thousands of strikes across Germany, in January 1918; over 1
million workers went on strike.
In 1917, the political union of Germany began to crack. The Social
Democratic Party was challenged when the Independent Social
Democratic Party (USPD) was formed, breaking away. The split was
mainly due to differing attitudes towards the war, the USPD opposed
the war.
By October 1918, Germany was on the fringe of revolution. The
abdication of the Kaiser seemed inevitable.
(WRENS) and the Womens Royal Air Force (WRAP) were the main
organizations set up.
On the home front, millions of women went to work in the munitions
factories. Conditions here were tough and they were called
munitionettes or canaries for the yellowed skin they had due to the
chemicals.
Other women took on other jobs as men went off to fight. They became
farmers, blacksmiths, grave-diggers, managers and ambulance drivers.
But still some areas were off-limits to women. Women rarely worked in
shipbuilding, accounting or architecture.
The existence of lower female pay made women more attractive to
employers seeking to reduce costs. However, it was feared that if
unskilled women entered the factories, the status of skilled workers
would be permanently damaged.
The war certainly improved the position of women in society. They had
gained greater self-respect, took them out of the confines of
domesticity, made higher pay possible and finally the government was
convinced to give them the vote. Women became recognized as an
essential part of the nations economy and were perceived to be
moving along the path towards gender equality.
Even though the working rights of women took a giant leap towards
equality, there was still a huge gap between them and men in terms of
right and wages.
Before the war, women in Britain were lobbying for the right to vote.
But in December 1917, the British government passed a bill that
allowed women suffrage. Women over 30 who were householders or
the wives of householders could vote. This meant that women who
were able to vote were middle-class, married and not young. Yet the
majority of female workers were working-class, single and young. Thus
the vote was hardly a reward for female war service.
Quote; Of all the changes wrought by the war, none has been greater
than the change in the status and position of women (Mary Macarthur
1918).
After the war, women were encouraged to return to the home or to
traditional female jobs. The Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act
actually tried to take jobs from working-class women.
Quote: On the face of it, no one could have been less equipped for
the job than these gently nurtured girls who walked straight out of
Edwardian drawing-rooms into the horrors of the First World War (L.
Macdonald, The Roses of No Mans Land).
Turning Points
Impacts of the entry of the USA and of Russian Withdrawal:
The entry of the USA into WWI meant that the Allied would be
refreshed with more supplies and men. The USA were to send 100 000
soldiers to Europe with 250 000 more coming each month after.
The reasons for Americas entry were:
1) The German foreign minister, Zimmermann, sent a secret note to the
German Minister in Mexico suggesting joint German Mexican action
against the United States.
2) Germanys unrestricted submarine warfare campaign which was
German policy of attacking all shipping heading towards Britain.
Attacks on the ships led to the deaths of many Americans. The
Lusitania incident which killed 124 Americans greatly angered the
United States.
Finally on the 6th of April, the United states decaled war on Germany.
This also meant that if Germany wanted to achieve victory, they
wouldve had to act quickly, before the United States arrived.
The Russian Withdrawal from WWI made this move possible (Two
revolutions in 1917 led to Russias formal withdrawal from the war in
1918 as the regime of Tsar Nicholas collapsed). It freed up 52
German divisions to be transferred to the Western Front.
troops. With the Germans out-manned, they were forced back almost
to their border where the armistice was signed.
Allied Victory
Events leading to the Armistice, 1918:
The British by the time of the Armistice had a far better equipped army
than ever before. British factories were producing large numbers of
better tanks, machine-guns, trench mortars and shells.
Each British battalion, although lower in the number of men than
before the war, were very well armed, more so than the Germans. In
addition to the armament of the infantry, they were supported by tanks
and aero planes.
When the Allies began pushing the initial success of the Germans
during the Spring Offensive back, the Armys morale collapsed. The
65km advance in 7 days had exhausted the men, with their supply
wagons far behind, traveling in the cratered and difficult terrain.
To make matters worse, the Germans found out that the British were
far better supplied than their propaganda told them. This led to mass
desertions.
The Army was also now made up of replacement units, mostly boys.
They did not have the same patriotic thinking as their predecessors.
Also there was an influenza epidemic spreading through the army and
their eastern reinforcements talked of socialism and peace. The
German Army was in tatters by August 1918.
The Allies had pushed through the Hindenburg line and Luderndorff
admitted to the Kaiser that they could not win the war.
Luderndorff recommends that Germany adopt a democratic form of
government in hopes of a lesser punishment.
The Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918.
Reasons for the Allied Victory and German collapse:
The main reason for Allied Victory was that they simply outlasted the
Germans.
By 1918, the British naval blockade had severely damaged Germany.
No blockade can be 100% effective, but the Allied blockade caused
enormous hardship for the German economy. The lack of key imports
put severe limits on the ability of the German economy to supply its
armies and placed enormous strains on the home front.
Britain on the other hand, had little shortages and their army was well
supplied. By 1918, they army was far better equipped than the
Germans.
The entry of the USA spelt the doom for the Germans. The American
impact on the war was enormous. Allied morale lifted while German
morale fell. If the Germans wanted to win, they wouldve had to fight
fresh and well-equipped troops, something that they could not do due
to the state of their army.
The German army had suffered immense casualties so by the end of
the war, they had no reserves and were resorting to conscripting young
boys and old men. Lloyd Georges work in the munitions Ministry was
coming to fruition with Allied forces now bountifully supplied, whereas
German industry was nearing a state of collapse. The German army
was literally exhausted.
German had no allies in Europe after Austria-Hungary pulled out of the
war.
By the end of the war, the German war-machine had simply run out of
steam whilst the Allies were bolstered by the Americans and were
better supplied.
Reasons for Germanys defeat were:
Germany was forced to fight a two front war.
Germany could never match the combined economic and military
might of the Allies.
The German economy could not keep its army supplied.
The entry of the United States in April 1917 meant that Germany had
to face the strength and wealth of the greatest power on earth.
The Allied naval blockade ensured that the longer the war went on, the
more difficulty Germany had supplying its army and feeding its people.
Germanys allies were liabilities.
Strains on the German home front lowered morale.
The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson
in creating the Treaty of Versailles:
The treaty of Versailles included delegates from almost a hundred
countries, but the big decisions were made by President Wilson of the
USA, Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France. The
location of the conference was badly chosen because as the host,
Clemenceau dominated the conference.
President Wilson:
Had little understanding of the nature of European politics.
Wilson saw himself as an idealist and wanted a fair peace settlement.
He proposed the idea of the League of Nations to guarantee world
peace and supported democracy in all nations.
He also disapproved of Frances hard stand against Germany and
wanted to limit the reparations on Germany.
He also wrote the fourteen points, vague terms for peace that he
proposed.
Wilsons Fourteen Points:
1) There should be no secret treaties.
2) There should be freedom of the seas in peacetime or wartime.
3) There should be free trade between countries.
4) There should be international disarmament.
5) Colonies should have a say in their own future.
6) German troops leave Russia.
7) There should be independence for Belgium.
8) France should regain Alsace-Lorraine.
9) The frontier between Italy and Austria to be adjusted.
10) There should be self-determination for the peoples of Eastern
Europe.
11) Serbia should have access to the sea.
12) There should be self-determination for the peoples of Turkish
Empire.
13) Poland should become an independent state with access to the sea.
14) A League of Nations should be established.
Wilsons objectives:
Wilsons Fourteen Points were intended to preserving the peace and
status quo in Europe.
He thought that Germany should keep most of its pre-war territory,
with the exception of Alsace-Lorraine which would be ceded to France.
Reparations Germany should pay little or no reparations. All the
belligerents carried some degree of responsibility for the outbreak of
war.
League of Nations Europe should form a League of Nations, to
preserve the peace. Wilson thought that Germany should eventually be
allowed into the League.
Lloyd George:
Lloyd George is seen as a councilor between Wilson and Clemenceau.
He also wanted to protect British interests so he had to do a balancing
act.
He wanted the German economy to be repaired as Britains economy
was closely linked with the International economy and Germany had
been the powerhouse before the war.
Had promised the British electorate revenge.
He also saw the dangers in the territory provisions, seeing that a new
war could be fought over them. He tried to moderate them with limited
success.
Wanted a balance of power in Western Europe so neither Germany nor
France could dominate.
Lloyd Georges objectives:
a)
b)
c)
Keeping faith with the British public which wanted to see Germany
punished.
The desire to soften harsh French demands.
Re-establishment of European trade disrupted by the war.
Destruction of German fleet.
Prevention of any country, including France, from dominating Europe.
Georges Clemenceau:
France had suffered the most in WWI at the hands of the Germans and
so wanted extreme reparations from them. Clemenceaus aim was to
do this.
Because of this idea, he clashed with Wilson many times during the
conference. He also wanted security by breaking the German army,
limiting the number of troops they had.
Determined to make Germany pay for destruction of the war.
Severely Hated Germany
Saw Germany invade France twice in his lifetime.
He was a tough and ill-tempered man and fought hard to get what he
wanted.
Known as the tiger because of his determination.
Clemenceaus objectives:
As president of the conference proceedings Clemenceau was in a
position to pursue his objectives:
The disarmament of Germany.
Guarantees for French security.
The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine
Reparations
The creation of a separate buffer state to the west of Rhine to protect
its border free of German control.
Paris Peace Conference of 1919:
January 1919.
32 countries sent representatives.
Dominated by Big Three
Woodrow Wilson USA
Lloyd George Britain
Clemenceau France.
5 peace treaties signed that dealt with each enemy power (Germany,
Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkish Empire).
Germany and Russia not allowed to attend.
The Treaty of Versailles:
Germany was not allowed to participate in the Paris negotiations at any
time.
Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of face invasion.
Germany was forced to sing the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of
Mirrors at the palace of Versailles on 28th June 1919.
Ruth Henig said that Quote: The Treaty of Versailles was not
exceedingly harsh on Germany, either territorially or economically...It
was the acknowledgement of defeat, as much as the treaty terms
themselves, which they found so hard to accept.
Harold Nicolson said that Quote: We were very stupid menwe
arrived determined that peace should be negotiated; and left the
conference conscious that the treaties imposed upon our enemies were
neither just nor wise.
Outcome of the War:
More than 10 Million had died on the battlefields, while civilian losses
were estimated at 8 Million.
Spanish influenza took another 6 million in Europe alone.